LECTURE NOTES

ON
WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS
M.Tech (R18) I Semester
Prepared by
Dr Chukka Santhaiah
Professor

Computer Science and Engineering

INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
(Autonomous)
Dundigal- 500 043, Hyderabad.
 UNIT I

Introduction to Wireless Sensor Networks

A wireless sensor network (WSN) consists of spatially distributed autonomous

sensors to monitor physical or environmental conditions, such as temperature, sound,
pressure, etc. and to cooperatively pass their data through the network to a main location. The
more modern networks are bi-directional, also enabling controlof sensor activity. The
development of wireless sensor networks was motivated by military applications such as
battlefield surveillance; today such networks are used in many industrial and consumer
applications, such as industrial process monitoring and control, machine health monitoring,
and so on.
The WSN is built of "nodes" –from a few to several hundreds or even thousands,
where each node is connected to one (or sometimes several) sensors. Each such sensor
network node has typically several parts: a radiotransceiverwith an internal antennaor
connection to an external antenna, a microcontroller, an electronic circuit for interfacing with
the sensors and an energy source, usually a batteryor an embedded form of energy harvesting.

A sensor nodemight vary in size from that of a shoebox down to the size of a grain of
dust. The cost of sensor nodes is similarly variable, ranging from a few to hundreds of
dollars, depending on the complexity of the individual sensor nodes. Size and cost constraints
on sensor nodes result in corresponding constraints on resources such as energy, memory,
computational speed and communications bandwidth. The topology of the WSNs can vary
from a simple star networkto anadvanced multi-hopwireless mesh network. The propagation
technique between the hops of the network can be routing or flooding.
 Overview of wireless sensor network

Motivations

Sensors link the physical with the digital world by capturing and revealing real-world
phenomena and converting these into a form that can be processed, stored, and acted upon.
Integrated into numerous devices, machines, and environments, sensors provide a tremendous
societal benefit. They can help to avoid catastrophic infrastructure failures, conserve precious
natural resources, increase productivity, enhance security, and enable new applications such
as context-aware systems and smart home technologies. The phenomenal advances in
technologies such as very large scale integration (VLSI), micro electromechanical systems
(MEMS), and wirless communications further contribute to the widespread use of distributed
sensor systems. For example, the impressive developments in semiconductor technologies
continue to produce microprocessors with increasing processing capacities, while at the same
time shrinking in size. The miniaturization of computing and sensing technologies enables
the development of tiny, low-power, and inexpensive sensors, actuators, and controllers.
Further, embedded computing systems (i.e., systems that typically
interact closely with the physical world and are designed to perform only a limited number of
dedicated functions) continue to find application in an increasing number of areas. While
defence and aerospace systems still dominate the market, there is an increasing focus on
systems to monitor and protect civil infrastructure (such as bridges and tunnels), the national
power grid, and pipeline infrastructure. Networks of hundreds of sensor nodes are already
being used to monitor large geographic areas for modeling and forecasting environmental
pollution and flooding, collecting structural health information on bridges using vibration
sensors, and controlling usage of water, fertilizers, and pesticides to improve crop health and
quantity.

Definitions and Background

Sensing and Sensors
Sensing is a technique used to gather information about a physical object or process,
including the occurrence of events (i.e., changes in state such as a drop in temperature or
pressure). An object performing such a sensing task is called a sensor. For example, the
human body is equipped with sensors that are able to capture optical information from the
environment (eyes), acoustic information such as sounds (ears), and smells (nose). These are
examples of remote sensors, that is, they do not need to touch the monitored object to gather
information. From a technical perspective, a sensor is a device that translates parameters or
events in the physical world into signals that can be measured and analyzed. Another
commonly used term is transducer, which is often used to describe a device that converts
energy from one form into another. A sensor, then, is a type of transducer that converts
energy in the physical world into electrical energy that can be passed to a computing system
or controller. An example of the steps performed in a sensing (or data acquisition) task is
shown in Figure 1.1. Phenomena in the physical world (often referred to as process, system,
or plant) are observed by a sensor device. The resulting electrical signals are often
not ready for immediate processing, therefore they pass through a signal conditioning stage.
Here, a variety of operations can be applied to the sensor signal to prepare it for further use.
For example, signals often require amplification (or attenuation) to change the signal
magnitude to better match the range of the following analog-to-digital conversion. Further,
signal conditioning often applies filters to the signal to remove unwanted noise within certain
frequency ranges (e.g., highpass filters can be used to remove 50 or 60 Hz noise picked up by
surrounding power lines). After conditioning, the analog signal is transformed into a digital
signal using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The signal is now available in a digital
form and ready for further processing, storing, or visualization.

Many wireless sensor networks also include actuators which allow them to directly
control the physical world. For example, an actuator can be a valve controlling the flow of
hot water, a motor that opens or closes a door or window, or a pump that controls the amount
of fuel injected into an engine. Such a wireless sensor and actuator network (WSAN) takes
commands from the processing device (controller) and transforms these commands into input
signals for the actuator, which then interacts with a physical process, thereby forming a
closed control loop (also shown in Figure 1.1).

Sensor Classifications
Which sensors should be chosen for an application depends on the physical property
to be
monitored, for example, such properties include temperature, pressure, light, or humidity.
Besides physical properties, the classification of sensors can be based on a variety of other
methods, for example, whether they require an external power supply. If the sensors require
external power, they are referred to as active sensors. That is, they must emit some kind of
energy (e.g., microwaves, light, sound) to trigger a response or to detect a change in the
energy of the transmitted signal. On the other hand, passive sensors detect energy in the
environment and derive their power from this energy input – for example, passive infrared
(PIR) sensors measure infrared light radiating from objects in the proximity.
 The classification of sensors can also be based on the methods they apply and the
electrical
phenomena they utilize to convert physical properties into electrical signals. Resistive sensors
rely on changes to a conductor’s electrical resistivity, P, based on physical properties such as
temperature. The resistance, R, of a conductor can be determined as:

where l is the length of the conductor and A is the area of the cross-section.

Applications:

Wireless sensor networks have inspired many applications.

Area monitoring
Area monitoring is a common application of WSNs. In area monitoring, the WSN is
deployed over a region where some phenomenon is to be monitored. A military example is
the use of sensors to detect enemy intrusion; a civilian example is the geo-fencing of gas or
oil pipelines.
Environmental/Earth monitoring
The term Environmental SensorNetworks has evolved to cover many applications of
WSNs to earth science research. This includes sensing volcanoes, oceans, glaciers, forests,
etc. Some of the major areas are listed below.
Air quality monitoring-The degree of pollution in the air has tobe measured frequently in
order to safeguard people and the environment from any kind of damages due to air pollution.
In dangerous surroundings, real time monitoring of harmful gases is a concerning process
because the weather can change with severe consequences in an immediate manner.
Fortunately, wireless sensor networks have been launched to produce specific solutions for
people.
Interior monitoring

Observing the gas levels at vulnerable areas needs the usage of high-end,
sophisticated equipment, capable to satisfy industrial regulations. Wireless internal
monitoring solutions facilitate keep tabs on large areas as well as ensure the precise gas
concentration degree.

Exterior monitoring

External air quality monitoring needs the use of precise wireless sensors, rain & wind
resistant solutions as well as energy reaping methods to assure extensive liberty to machine
that will likely have tough access.
Air pollution monitoring
Wireless sensor networks have been deployed in several cities to monitor the
concentration of dangerous gases for citizens. These can take advantage of the ad-hoc
wireless links rather than wired installations, which also make them more mobile for testing
readings in different areas. There are various architectures that can be used forsuch
applications as well as different kinds of data analysis and data mining that can be conducted.
Forest fire detection
A network of Sensor Nodes can be installed in a forest to detect when a fire has
started. The nodes can be equipped with sensors to measure temperature, humidity and gases
which are produced by fire in the trees or vegetation. The early detection is crucial for a
successful action of the firefighters; thanks to Wireless Sensor Networks, the fire brigade will
be able to know when a fireis started and how it is spreading.
Landslide detection
A landslide detection system makes use of a wireless sensor network to detect the
slight movements of soil and changes in various parameters that may occur before or during a
landslide. Through the data gathered it may be possible to know the occurrence of landslides
long before it actually happens.
Water quality monitoring
Water quality monitoring involves analyzing water properties in dams, rivers, lakes &
oceans, as well as underground water reserves. The use of many wireless distributed sensors
enables the creation of a more accurate map of the water status, and allows the permanent
deployment of monitoring stations in locations of difficult access, without the need of manual
data retrieval.
Natural disaster prevention
Wireless sensor networks can effectively act to prevent the consequences of natural
disasters, like floods. Wireless nodes have successfully been deployed in rivers where
changes of the water levels have to be monitored in real time.
Industrial monitoring
Machine health monitoring
Wireless sensor networks have been developed for machinery condition-based
maintenance (CBM) as they offer significant cost savings and enable new functionality. In
wired systems, the installation of enough sensors is often limited by the cost of wiring.
Previously inaccessible locations, rotating machinery, hazardous or restricted areas, and
mobile assets can now be reached with wireless sensors.
Data logging
Wireless sensor networks are also used for the collection of data for monitoring of
environmental information, this can be as simple as the monitoring of the temperature in a
fridge to the level of water in overflow tanks in nuclear power plants. The statistical
information can then be used to show how systems have been working. The advantage of
WSNs over conventional loggers is the "live" data feed that is possible.
Water/Waste water monitoring
Monitoring the quality and level of water includes many activities such as checking the
quality of underground or surface water and ensuring a country’s water infrastructure for the
benefit of both human and animal. The area of water quality monitoring utilizes wireless
sensor networks and many manufacturers have launched fresh and advanced applications for
the purpose.

Observation of water quality

The whole process includes examining water properties in rivers, dams, oceans, lakes
and also in underground water resources. Wireless distributed sensors let users to make a
precise map of the water condition as well as making permanent distribution of observing
stations in areas of difficult access with no manual data recovery.
Water distribution network management
Manufacturers of water distribution network sensors concentrate on observing the
water management structuressuch as valve and pipes and also making remote access to water
meter readings.
 Preventing natural disaster
The consequences of natural perils like floods can be effectively prevented with
wireless sensor networks. Wireless nodes are distributed in rivers so that changes of the water
level can be effectively monitored.
Agriculture
Using wireless sensor networks within the agricultural industry is increasingly
common; using a wireless network frees the farmer from the maintenance of wiring in a
difficult environment. Gravity feed water systems can be monitored using pressure
transmitters to monitor water tank levels, pumps can be controlled using wireless I/O devices
and water use can be measured and wirelessly transmitted back to a central control center
forbilling. Irrigation automation enables more efficient water use and reduces waste.
Accurate agriculture

Wireless sensor networks let users to make precise monitoring of the crop at the time
of its growth. Hence, farmers can immediately know the state of the item at all its stages
which will ease the decision process regarding the time of harvest.
Irrigation management

When real time data is delivered, farmers are able to achieve intelligent irrigation.
Data regarding the fields such as temperature level and soil moisture are delivered to farmers
through wireless sensor networks. When each plant is joined with a personal irrigation
system, farmers can pour the precise amount of water each plant needs and hence, reduce the
cost and improve the quality of the end product. The networks can be employed to manage
various actuators in the systems using no wired infrastructure.
Greenhouses

Wireless sensor networks are also used to control the temperature and humidity levels
inside commercial greenhouses. When the temperature and humidity drops below specific
levels, the greenhouse manager must be notified via e-mail or cell phone text message, or
host systems can trigger misting systems, open vents, turn on fans, or control a wide variety
of system responses.
Passive localization and tracking
The application of WSN to the passive localization and tracking of non-cooperative
targets (i.e., people not wearing any tag) has been proposed by exploiting the pervasive and
low-cost nature of such technology and the properties of the wireless links which are
established in a meshed WSN infrastructure.
Smart home monitoring
Monitoring the activities performed in a smart home is achieved using wireless
sensors embedded within everyday objects forming a WSN. A state change to objects based
on human manipulation is captured by the wireless sensors network enabling activity-support
services. While most of these applications are, in some form or another, possible even with
today’s technologies and without wireless sensor networks, all current solutions are “sensor
starved”.
Performance metrics

WSN with performance control

A WSN with performance control uses specific performance metrics to assess its
performance, which should be provided by a well-defined taxonomy that classifies all its
performance requirements. After having metrics defined and indicative values for them, the
network can be deployed. After deployment it is necessary to guarantee that the network
continues to provide the necessary performance to its applications. To assess it the network
must be monitored and eventually modified to continue to provide the performance needed.

History of Wireless Sensor Networks

As with many other technologies, the military has been a driving force behind the
development of wireless sensor networks. For example, in 1978, the Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency (DARPA) organized the Distributed Sensor Nets Workshop (DAR
1978), focusing on sensor network research challenges such as networking technologies,
signal processing techniques, and distributed algorithms. DARPA also operated the
Distributed Sensor Networks (DSN) program in the early 1980s, which was then followed by
the Sensor Information Technology (SensIT) program.
In collaboration with the Rockwell Science Center, the University of California at Los
Angeles proposed the concept of Wireless Integrated Network Sensors or WINS (Pottie
2001). One outcome of the WINS project was the Low PowerWireless Integrated
Microsensor (LWIM), produced in 1996 (Bult et al. 1996). This smart sensing system was
based on a CMOS chip, integrating multiple sensors, interface circuits, digital signal
processing circuits, wireless radio, and microcontroller onto a single chip. The Smart Dust
project (Kahn et al. 1999) at the University of California at Berkeley focused on the design of
extremely small sensor nodes called motes. The goal of this project was to demonstrate that a
complete sensor system can be integrated into tiny devices, possibly the size of a grain of
sand or even a dust particle. The PicoRadio project (Rabaey et al. 2000) by the Berkeley
Wireless Research Center (BWRC) focuses on the development of low-power sensor devices,
whose power consumption is so small that they can power themselves from energy sources of
the operating environment, such as solar or vibrational energy. The MIT μAMPS (micro-
Adaptive Multidomain Power-aware Sensors) project also focuses on low-power hardware
and software components for sensor nodes, including the use of microcontrollers capable of
dynamic voltage scaling and techniques to restructure data processing algorithms to reduce
power requirements at the software level (Calhoun et al. 2005).
While these previous efforts are mostly driven by academic institutions, over the last
decade a number of commercial efforts have also appeared (many based on some of the
academic efforts described above), including companies such as Crossbow
(www.xbow.com), Sensoria www.sensoria.com), Worldsens (http://worldsens.citi.insa-
lyon.fr),DustNetworks (http://www.dustnetworks.com), and Ember Corporation
(http://www.ember.com). These companies provide the opportunity to purchase sensor
devices ready for deployment in a variety of application scenarios along with various
management tools for programming,maintenance, and sensor data visualization.
WSN Design factors

Network Architecture

WSN Architecture
Most common architecture for WSN follows the OSI Model. Basically in sensor network we
need five layers: application layer, transport layer, network layer, data link layer and physical
layer. Added to the five layers are the three cross layers planes.

Cross-layer designs
The three cross planes or layers are; power management plane, mobility management plane
and task
management plane. These layers are used to manage the network and make the sensors work
together in
order to increase the overall efficiency of the network.
• Mobility management plane: detect sensor nodes movement. Node can keep track of
neighbours
and power levels (for power balancing).
• Task management plane: schedule the sensing tasks to a given area. Determine which nodes
are
off and which ones are on.

WSN OSI layers

Transport layer: The function of this layer is to provide reliability and congestion avoidance
where a lot of protocols designed to provide this function are either applied on the upstream
(user to sink, ex: ESRT, STCP and DSTN), or downstream (sink to user, ex: PSFQ and
GARUDA). These protocols use different mechanisms for loss detection ((ACK, NACK, and
Sequence number)) and loss recovery ((End to End or Hop by Hop)) [4, 5]. This layer is
specifically needed when a system is organised to access other networks.
Providing a reliable hop by hop is more energy efficient than end to end and that is
one of the reason why TCP is not suitable for WSN. Usually the link from sink to node is
considered as downstream link for multicast transmission and UDP traffic because of the
limited memory and overhead avoiding. On the other hand from User to sink is considered as
upstream link for mono-cast transmission and TCP or UDP traffic.
In general, Transport protocols can be divided into:
a) Packet driven: ‘all packets sent by source must reach destination’.
b) Event driven: ‘the event must be detected, but it is enough that one notification message
reaches the
sink’
The following are some popular protocols in this layer with brief description:
STCP (Sensor Transmission Control Protocol): upstream protocol;
providesreliability, congestion detection and congestion avoidance. STCP function is applied
on the base station. The node sends a session initiation packet to the sink which contains
information about transmission rate, required reliability, data flow. Then the sensor node
waits for ACK before starting to send data. The base station estimates the arrival time of each
packet, when there is a failure in packet delivery the base station checks wither the current
reliability meets the required criteria. If current reliability is less than the required criteria
then sink sends NACK for retransmission, otherwise do nothing. The current reliability is
computed by the packet fractions that are successfully received.
 PORT (Price-Oriented Reliable Transport Protocol): downstream protocol; assure
that the sink receives enough information from the physical phenomena. Port adapts a bias
packet routing rate to increase sink information from specific region by two methods:
a) First method: Node price is the total number of transmissions before the first packet arrives
at the sink
and this is used to define the cost of communication. Each packet is sent encapsulated with
source price
then the sink adjusts the reporting rate according to node price.
b) Second method: Use end-end communication cost to reduce congestion. When congestion
occurs the
communication cost is increased. The sink reduces the reporting rate for sources and
increases the rate
of other sources that have lower communication cost.
PSFQ (pump slow fetch quick): downstream protocol; reliable, scalable and robust.
Three functions in this protocol are; pump, fetch and report.
a) Pump uses two timers Tmin and Tmax, where the node waits Tmin before transmission, to
recover missing
packets and remove redundant broadcast. Node waits for Tmax if there are any packets or
multiple
packets lost.
b) Fetch operation requests a retransmission for the missing packets from neighbour.
c) Finally report the operation to provide a feedback to the user.

Network layer: The major function of this layer is routing. This layer has a lot of challenges
depending on the application but apparently, the major challenges are in the power saving,
limited memory and buffers, sensor does not have a global ID and have to be self organized.
This is unlike computer networks with IP address and central device for controlling . The
basic idea of the routing protocol is to define a reliable path and redundant paths according to
a certain scale called metric, which differs from protocol to protocol. There is a lot of routing
protocols available for this layer, they can be divide into; flat routing (for example, direct
diffusion) and hierarchal routing (for example, LEACH) or can be divided into time driven,
query driven and event driven. In continuous time driven protocol, the data is sent
periodically and time driven for applications that need a periodic monitoring. In event driven
and query driven protocols, the sensor responds according to action or user query.
Data link layer : Responsible for multiplexing data streams, data frame detection, MAC, and
error control, ensure reliability of point–point or point– multipoint. Errors or unreliability
comes from:
• Co- channel interference at the MAC layer and this problem is solved by MAC protocols.
• Multipath fading and shadowing at the physical layer and this problem is solved by forward
error
correction (FEC) and automatic repeat request (ARQ).
ARQ: not popular in WSN because of additional re-transmission cost and overhead. ARQ is
not efficient
to frame error detection so all the frame To retransmitted if there is a single bit error .
FEC: decreases the number of retransmission by adding redundant data on each message so
the receiver
can detect and correct errors. By that we can avoid re-transmission and wait for ACK.
MAC layer: Responsible for Channel access policies, scheduling, buffer management and
error control. In
WSN we need a MAC protocol to consider energy efficiency, reliability, low
access delay
and high throughput as a major priorities . The MAC layer is discussed in a
separate paper.
Physical Layer : Can provide an interface to transmit a stream of bits over physical medium.
Responsible
for frequency selection, carrier frequency generation, signal detection,Modulation and
data encryption.
IEEE 802.15.4: proposed as standard for low rate personal area and WSN with low:
cost,complexity,
power consumption, range of communication to maximize battery life. Use CSMA/CA,
support star
and peer to peer topology. There are many versions of IEEE 802.15.4.
Application layer: Responsible for traffic management and provide software for different
applications
that translate the data in an understandable form or send queries to obtain certain
information. Sensor
 networks deployed in various applications in different fields, for example; military,
medical,
environment, agriculture fields .

WSN MOTES
In the following paragraphs, different wireless motes are analyzed depending on its
application usage, technicalspecifications etc. For improving readability and to provide a
better picture, the survey is organized with specifications of the motes in an ascending
fashion, starting from older to recently arrived motes in the market.

1) Mica2/MicaZ Motes
Figure 1 pictorially represents the Mica2 Mote. These motes are the second and third
generation mote technologies from CrossBow Technology. Mica2 and MicaZ use an
Atmega128L controller along with a CC1000/ CC2420 RF Module respectively.
Mica2/MicaZ are equipped with humidity, temperature and light sensors, with interface
support for connecting sensors that connect directly to the mote. These motes are capable of
measuring barometric pressure, acceleration/seismic activity etc. Possible uses of Mica motes
lie in pressure monitoring, structural health monitoring etc. The motes are powered from an
external 2 AA batteries with an operating range of 2.1 to 3.6 V DC.

Figure 1. Pictorial representation of a Mica2 Mote.

2) TelosB Motes

Figure 2 pictorially represents the TelosB Mote. TelosB mote was initially developed
by University of California, Berkeley. The TelosB mote embeds an 802.15.4 compatible
CC2420 radio chip from Texas Instruments. It provides onboard humidity, and temperature
IC type sensors (SHT2x from Sensirion). The relative humidity reading is provided by the
humidity sensor with an accuracy of 3% and temperature sensor connected through SPI has
accuracy of 0.4˚C. The motes are powered from an external 2 AA batteries with an operating
range of 2.1 to 3.6 V DC. Apart from the TelosB, the XM1000 wireless motesare based on
the TelosB specifications but with an upgraded program and data memory. In-built light
sensors are also introduced in this product.

Figure 2. Pictorial representation of a TelosB Mote.

3) Indriya-Zigbee Based WSN Development Platform
The Indriya is a hardware development environment for building ambient intelligence
based WSN applications. It features a low power MSP430 core with an IEEE 802.15.4 based
CC2520 from Texas instruments. On-board sensors include an accelerometer and light
sensors with a lot of optional add-ons. Possible applications include
a) Indoor air quality management for which humidity and/or a CO2 sensor can be added.
b) Range measurement, direction finding and tracking, for which an ultrasonic or a
magnetometer can be
interfaced.
c) Image sensors can be integrated for security and surveillance.
d) Occupancy detection and human occupancy based controls with the help of a PIR
interface. The RF module
offers an achievable data rates of 250 Kbps. The indoor and outdoor range of this mote
varies between 20 - 30
meters and 75 - 100 meters respectively .

4) IRIS
Figure 3 pictorially represents the IRIS Mote. One of the available wireless node
platforms which offer
higher communication range (Near to 500 Meters in LoS), is the IRIS. It uses a 2.4 GHz
IEEE 802.15.4 wireless
module. The mote works on an open source TinyOS operating system on an ATmega1281
based low-power
Micro-Controller. The IRIS mote gives developers the support of integrating sensor support
boards through a
standard 51-pin expansion connector. The most interesting part is the current consumption
where TX current varies from 10 - 17 mA and the RX current reaches to 16 mA. The
communication range varies is >300 and >50
meters for outdoor and indoor ranges (with LoS). Due to its higher communication range, the
motes can be deployed underground for agriculture and soil monitoring. Though, it is an
obvious fact that soil provides higher interference to RF communication, it is possible to
implement a network of underground motes within a mote-mote communication range of ~30
meters underground. Moreover IRIS motes can also be integrated with a MIB600 TCP/IP
Ethernet network which can act asa base station.

Figure 3. Pictorial representation of an IRIS Mote

5) iSense Core Wireless Module

Figure 4 pictorially represents the iSense Module. The iSense core module combines
the controller and an RF Transceiver in a single housing. One of the main advantages of this
module is that the software resource
spent on an external interface with the controller and RF module is nullified. The controller
runs on a powerful
32-bit RISC core with a shared 128 Kbyte program and data memory. Higher data rates of up
to 667 kBits/Sec
can be achieved. The RF module provides a receiver sensitivity of −95 dBm and a transmit
power of +2.5 dBm.
It also support addition of an extra power module through which the receiver sensitivity is
increased to −98 dBm
and a transmit power level of +10 dBm .

Figure 4. Pictorial representation of an iSense Mote.

\
6) Preon32-Wireless Module
Figure 5 pictorially represents the Preon32 Sensor node. The module Preon32 is a
universally usable sensor and actuator platform for realization of sophisticated applications
for short-range wireless networks. With a high performance Cortex-M3 controller, it has an
IEEE 802.15.4 compliant RF module. More interestingly, this module allows developers to
program the wireless module with an object-oriented language like Java. It features external
interfaces like the CAN, USB, and SPI, etc. Applications involve
a) Home Automation.
b) Agricultural and Habitat Monitoring.
c) Monitoring of Road Traffic.

Figure 5. Pictorial representation of Preon32-wireless module

7) Wasp Mote
Figure 6 pictorially represents the Wasp Mote. Wireless Sensing has become a
needed entity to attain a
“Smart Environment”. One of the prevalent examples for this is the “Smart Water Sensor”,
Utilizing Wasp
Mote, introduced by Libelium. Smart Water wireless sensing platform is used to simplify the
monitoring process for water quality. The module is equipped with sensors to measure certain
water quality parameters like pH, Conductivity, dissolved ion content and Oxygen level. The
nodes can be connected to a cloud network for
real-time monitoring and control. This platform uses an ultra-low-power sensor node for use
in rugged environments. It is possible to connect the sensor network through long range
802.15.4/ZigBee (868/900 MHz). Most importantly, this “Smart Water” sensor can
accommodate solar panels for maintaining autonomy over the power supply.

Figure 6. Pictorial representation of a Wasp Mote.

8) WiSense Mote
Figure 7 pictorially represents the WiSense Mote. An interesting platform for WSN
and Internet-of-Things (IoT) implementation is the WiSense platform. Apart from providing
hardware modules for developers, Wi- Sense provides a framework through which
researchers and developers can build their own mesh networks
through a GUI. The software makes use of an easy-to-use Eclipse platform with an IEEE
802.15.4 protocol
stack implementation. This type of interface in terms of both the hardware and software
provides an extended
support to the developer. The hardware platform involves a MSP430 low-power controller
from Texas instruments.
The mote runs on an 8/16 MHz Clock along with a CC1101 RF module. With the
usage of CC1101, possible applications of this mote extends to Home automation, automated
food ordering system in restaurants, campus network, industrial automation, green cities etc.
The data and program memory are fixed at 4 KB and 56
KB respectively.

Figure 7. Pictorial representation of a WiSense Mote

9) panStamp NRG Mote

Figure 8 pictorially represents the panStamp Mote. Recently introduced in the
market, the panStamp NRG relies on a CC430F5137 processor and an in-built CC11xx RF
module. The main advantage of this module is that, it has a very lesser footprint compared to
the other available motes. It offers a programmable speed of 8 to 24 MHz with flash and
RAM capability of 32 KB and 4 KB respectively. With the inclusion of a 3-axs accelerate
meter and support for AES security encryption, this mote out-performs the standard available
motes in the market.
Options are provided for including a dual temperature-humidity sensor at the bottom
layer. Since the bottom layer is used for the inclusion of optional sensors, it makes the
sensing more efficient by reducing the effect of dust and other environmental parameters on
the sensed values. Most importantly, panStamp provides the developers to integrate the mote
with Raspberry Pi as a shield, making it the most supportive mote available.
 Figure 8. Pictorial representation of a panStamp Mote.

Hardware parameters

The sensor nodes are the fundamental components of a WSN. To enable WSN-based SHM
applications, the sensor nodes have to provide the following basic functionality.
• signal conditioning and data acquisition fordifferent sensors;
• temporary storage of the acquired data;
• processing of the data;
• analysis of the processed data for diagnosis and, potentially, alert generation;
• self monitoring (e.g., supply voltage);
• scheduling and execution of the measurement tasks;
• management of the sensor node configuration (e.g., changing the sampling rate and
reprogramming of data processing algorithms);
• reception, transmission, and forwarding of data packets;
• coordination and management of communication and networking.

To provide the functionality described above, a sensor node is composed of one or

more sensors, a signal conditioning unit, an analog-to-digital conversion module (ADC), a
processing unit with memory, a radio transceiver, and a power supply . If the sensor nodes
are actually deployed in the field, especially in harsh environments like construction sites,
they have to be protected against chemical and mechanical impacts. Therefore, an adequate
packaging of the hardware is required (see Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS)).
 UNIT II
INTRODUCTION TO NS-3
 UNIT-III
MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL PROTOCOL DESIGN

WSN protocols
WSN protocols: synchronized

Synchronization in wireless sensor networks is vital aspect of successful

and efficient network operations in any business settings, particularly, in military and medical
applications, as the latter rely on the data accuracy to make rapid and sound decisions.
Overall, the proposed technique in sensor networks requires that all sensor nodes have a
common time scale so that the central unit can coordinate and collaborate between sensors to
accomplish their tasks.
The synchronization mechanism is a phenomenon subject to many constraints, which
must meet several requirements. These limitations sometimes can be incompatible, such as
minimizing energy consumption, reducing the associated costs, and maximizing the quality
and accuracy of services provided. The problems of time synchronization have been studied
thoroughly in the Internet and local networks. Several technologies such as Global position
System (GPS) have been used to provide synchronization in large networks. Other protocols
such as Network Time Protocol (NTP) [24] have been developed to keep the clocks ticking
on the Internet. However, the time synchronization requirements differ significantly in the
context of use of sensor networks. In general, these networks are dense, composed of a large
number of sensor nodes. This property makes a lot of difficulties to keep the central
synchronization. Energy efficiency is another major problem in synchronization problem due
to limited battery capacity of nodes.
Criteria of Time Synchronization
In this section will detail the various synchronization problems and network
caracterstiques of wireless sensors during operation. The usefulness of the sensor network
presence is needed to meet the needs of the users queries by merging the data from each
sensor to give a single result. To accomplish this task it becomes necessary for these sensors
to agree on a concept such as time. All active sensors (participants) can be wrapped in a
common time scale either by synchronizing local clocks in each sensor to the transfer of
timestamp (timestamp) has a sensor that arrive with time to its local clock. Assuming various
criteria, time synchronization protocols can be identified into different classes.

Master-slave versus peer-to-peer synchronisation

Master-Slave: A master-slave protocol assigns one node as master and the other
nodes as slaves. These plans reading of the master local clock as a time reference and attempt
to synchronize with the master as the case with the algorithm TPSN or FTSP. In general the
master node needs CPU resources in proportion of the number of slaves. Nodes with
powerful CPUs are assigned to the master node.
Peer-to-Peer: Most of the proposed protocols such as RBS and time diffusion
protocol (TDP) are based on the structure of peer-to-peer any node can communicate directly
with all other nodes in the network. This eliminates the risk of failure of a master node that
would prevent synchronization of different configuration Peer-To- Peer offer more flexibility
but also more difficult to control.
Probabilistic/Deterministic synchronization
Probabilistic synchronization: In probabilistic time synchronization the offset value
is measured probabilistically. The probabilistic approach is used because that a deterministic
approach usually forces the synchronization protocol to perform more message transfers and
simulate extra processing. It is very expensive in wireless environment where energy is
scarce.
Deterministic synchronization: It defines deterministic algorithms that guarantee an
upper bound on the clock offset with certainty.

Clock Correction/untethered clocks

Clock Correction: The clock function in memory is modified after each run of the
time synchronization process, TPSN protocol uses this approach.
 Untethered clocks: Each clock live freely, but each node stores the data necessary to
convert local time into the time base of each other.
Internal synchronization versus external synchronization
Internal synchronization: The objective is to minimize the maximum difference
between the readings of the clocks of the sensors. Can be performed in master slave or peer to
peer.
External Synchronization: A source of standard time such as Universal Time (UTC)
is provided here. We do not need a global time base since we have an atomic clock that
provides real-time in the real world usually called the reference time to be synchronized.
Cannot be done with Peer to Peer
Sender-to-receiver Versus receiver-to-receiver synchronisation
Sender-to-receiver: Most existing methods are transmitter to a receiver by
transmitting the values of the clocks, Therefore these methods are faced with variances of the
delay message. The transmitting node periodically sends a message with its local time as a
timestamp to the receiver and then the receiver synchronizes with the sender using the
timestamp receiver from the sender.
1. The transmitting node sends periodically a message with its local time as a
timestamp by the receiver.
2. The receiver then synchronizes with the sender using the timestamp received from
the sender.
3. The delay message between sender and receiver is calculated by measuring the total
time to and from the moment the receiver requests Timestamp juice-only time he
receives an actual response.

WSN protocols: duty-cycled- Schedule-Based Protocols

To reduce energy consumption, Bluetooth specifies four operational modes: active,
sniff, hold, and park. In the active mode, the slave listens for packet transmission from the
master. On receiving a packet, it checks the address and packet length field of the packet
header. If the packet does not contain its own address, the slave sleeps for the duration of the
remaining packet transmission. The intended slave, however, remains active and receives the
packet payload in the following reserved slot. The sniff mode is intended to reduce the duty
cycle of a slave’s listen activity. In this mode, the master transmits to the slave only in
specified periodic time slots within a predefined sniff time interval. A slave in sniff mode
listens for the master transmissions only during the specified time slots for any possible
transmission to it. In the hold mode, a slave goes into the sleep mode for a specified
amount of time, referred to as the hold time. When the hold time expires, the slave returns to
the active mode. In the park mode, the slave stays in the sleep state for an unspecified amount
of time. The master has to awake the slave explicitly and bring it into the active mode at a
future time.
Bluetooth specifies four types of communication between nodes within and across
piconets: intra piconet unicast, for slave-to-slave communication within a piconet;intra
piconet broadcast, to support broadcasting by a slave to all participants within its piconet;
inter piconet unicast, for piconet-to-piconet communications;and inter piconet broadcast, for
piconet-to-all scatternet node communications. For intra piconet unicast communication, the
source slave writes its own MAC
address in the corresponding field of the data packet and sets the forward field to 1 and the
destination address of the packet to the targeted destination node. Upon receiving the
message, the master checks the forward field. If it is set, the master replaces the MAC
address field with its MAC address and sends the message to the intended slave device
indicated by the destination address of the original packet. For intra piconet broadcast
communication, the source slave writes its own MAC
address and sets the forward field to 1 and the destination address to 000. Upon receiving the
message, the master notices that the forward field is set. In response, the master replaces the
MAC address with its own address and sends the message to all nodes in its piconet.

Introduction to Markov Chain

Two-state discrete-time Markov chain (DTMC) model for the next-hop nodes, where
the next-hop nodes represent the neighboring nodes relative to the node in mind. The two
states defined for the next-hop node are wait (W) and forwarding (F). State W means that all
the next-hop nodes are in either the S or N state and unable to receive data from the node in
mind. F represents that there is at least one next-hop node in state R and it can receive the
data from the node in mind. The transition probabilities from W to F and vice versa are
assumed to be f and w.

Based on the description above, a Markov chain model for the sensor node model is created
by and shown in Figure, where the subscript represents the number of packets in the buffer.
Using this model, the stationary distribution of a node’s state ðpÞ can be calculated given the
successful transmission probability of data ðbÞ and the probability that data are received in a
time slot ðaÞ. Other metrics can be calculated based on p: for example, the average number
of data generated in a time slot, the sensor throughput or average number of data forwarded
by the sensor in a time slot, and the average buffer occupancy in sensor node.

1. Construct a DTMC sensor node model, represented by the leftmost box for each sensor
node i to get the stationary distribution pi and the probability that data are received in a
time slot ðaiÞ in node i.
2. Solve the network model using queuing network analysis to calculate the average data
transmission rate between any pair of sensor nodes n and m in the network ðln;mÞ as well
as the average throughput for each sensor node.
3. Given ln;m as input to the interference model, compute the value of the probability that
data are transmitted successfully in a time slot in node iðbiÞ.
4. bi is used as input to the sensor node model, iterating through steps 1 to 3. The worst
relative error for two successive estimates of the sensor throughput is used as the stopping
criterion.

PROPERTIES
Packet transfer from source to destination via intermediateforwarders can be treated
as a state diagram of discreteparameter Markov chain with absorbing state. An absorbing
state is a state from which there is zero probability of exiting. An absorbing Markov system is
a Markov system that contains at least one absorbing state, and is such that it is possible to
get from each non absorbing state to some absorbing state in one or more
time steps. Consider p be the probability of successful transmission of a packet to an
intermediate relay node
inside the coverage range. Therefore 1-p will be the probability of unsuccessful transmission
of packet.
 For each; node n, the probability to correctly deliver a packet to a node that is Rt links
distant is equal to p. So the probability that the packet is not correctly received by this node
(1 – p), while it is correctly received from theimmediately previous node with a probability p;
so with a probability (1 – p) p the packet will be forwarded by the previous node. If also this
node has not correctly received the packet send by node n, event that occur with a probability
(1- p)2, with a probability (1 –p )2 p the packet will be forwarded by the node previous to
previous. If none of the node in the coverage area of the transmitter receives a correct packet
it is necessary to ask the retransmission of the packet by the source node. It is possible to
describe the process concerning one data packet forwarding from the source node n = 1 to the
destination n = N with a discrete time Markov chain with absorbing state. Packet transmitted
by a node will be further forwarded by a node in the coverage range of the transmitter which
is furthest node from the source and has correctly received the packet.

Markov Chain classification

Intrusion detection is a surveillance problem of practical import that is well suited to

wireless sensor networks. In this paper, we study the application of sensor networks to the
intrusion detection problem and the related problems of classifying and tracking targets. Our
approach is based on a dense, distributed, wireless network of multi-modal resource-poor
sensors combined into loosely coherent sensor arrays that perform in situ detection,
estimation, compression, and exfiltration. We ground our study in the context of a security
scenario called “A Line in the Sand” and accordingly define the target, system, environment,
and fault models. Based on the performance requirements of the scenario and the sensing,
communication, energy, and computation ability of the sensor network, we explore the design
space of sensors, signal processing algorithms, communications, networking, and middleware
services. We introduce the influence field, which can be estimated from a network of binary
sensors, as the basis for a novel classifier. A contribution of our work is that we do not
assume a reliable network; on the contrary, we quantitatively analyze the effects of network
unreliability on application performance. Our work includes multiple experimental
deployments of over 90 sensor nodes at MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa, FL, as well as
other field experiments of comparable scale. Based on these experiences, we identify a set of
key lessons and articulate a few of the challenges facing extreme scaling to tens or hundreds
of thousands of sensor nodes.
 As we have seen in earlier chapters, routing protocols in WSNs are for setting up one
or more path(s) from sensor nodes to the sink. Since sensor nodes have limited resources,
routing protocols should have a small overhead, which may result from control message
interchange and caching. Therefore, the traditional address-centric routing protocols for
Internet (e.g., the routing information protocol, open shortest path first, border gateway
protocol) do not meet the requirements of WSNs. Data-centric routing is more suitable for
WSNs because it can be deployed easily, and due to data aggregation, it saves energy. Traffic
models and system characteristics can be utilized to design efficient routing protocols. To
conserve energy, most routing protocols for WSNs employ certain technique to minimize
energy consumption (e.g., data aggregation and in-network processing, clustering, node role
assignment),classify routing protocols in several categories shown in Figure.
Data-centric routing scheme with three phases in its operation:

1. A sink broadcasts its interest across the network in query messages with a special query
Semantic at a low rate.
2. All the nodes cache the interest. When a node senses that an event matches the interest, it
Sends the data relevant to the event to all the interested nodes. Sink will also get the initial
data and ‘‘reinforce’’ one of source nodes by resending the interest at a higher rate.
3. After the reinforcement propagation, the source nodes send data directly on the reinforced
path.
The performance of a routing protocol can be expressed through such measures as
computational overhead, communications overhead, path reliability, path length, convergence
rate, and stability.