La Contaminación Y La Salud de Los Niños: Pollution and Children Health
La Contaminación Y La Salud de Los Niños: Pollution and Children Health
La Contaminación Y La Salud de Los Niños: Pollution and Children Health
TRANSLATED BY
abstract
Findings: The Lancet Commission on Pollution and Health found that pollution – air,
water, soil, and chemical pollution - was responsible in 2016 for 940,000 deaths in
children worldwide, two-thirds of them in children under the age of 5. Pollution is
inequitably distributed, and the overwhelming majority of pollution-related deaths in
children occurred in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Most were due to
respiratory and gastrointestinal diseases caused by polluted air and water.
Pollution is the world's largest environmental cause of disease and premature death. It is
responsible for an estimated 9 million deaths per year—16% of all deaths worldwide—
three times more deaths than AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria combined (Landrigan et
al., 2017). In the most severely affected countries, pollution is responsible for more than
one death in four. Children are exquisitely sensitive to pollution (Suk et al., 2016).
Despite the great magnitude of the problem, pollution has been neglected in the
international development and global health agendas.
To end this neglect, raise awareness of pollution's impacts, and mobilize the resources,
political leadership and civic will needed to control pollution and prevent pollution-related
disease, the Lancet Commission on Pollution and Health was formed in 2015. This
Commission undertook a comprehensive analysis of pollution and its effects on human
health and the global economy and disseminated its findings in October 2017 (Landrigan
et al., 2017). This review is based on the Lancet Commission report and highlights
pollution's impacts on the health of children.
Using data from the Global Burden of Disease study (Forouzanfar et al., 2015a and
2015b), the Lancet Commission found that air pollution is the largest cause of pollution-
related disease. Air pollution is responsible for an estimated 6.4 million deaths per year -
4.2 million from ambient air pollution (HEI/IHME, n.d.) and 2.8 million from household air
pollution (Smith et al., 2014; Yadama, 2013). Water pollution is responsible for an
estimated 1.8 million deaths annually. Occupational pollutants – dusts and carcinogens
kill an estimated 800,000 people. Lead is responsible for approximately 500,000 deaths
each year and additionally causes widespread, but inadequately quantified impairment
of cognitive function and behavior.
The Lancet Commission found that in many places and especially in the growing cities of
rapidly developing low- and middle-income countries, pollution – especially, ambient air
pollution and chemical pollution - is getting worse. The numbers of deaths due to
pollution-related disease are projected to rise still further in coming decades unless
aggressive interventions are undertaken (Lelieveld et al., 2015). Key drivers of these
increases are the uncontrolled growth of cities; rising demands for energy; mining;
smelting; deforestation; the global spread of toxic chemicals; increasingly heavy
applications of toxic insecticides and herbicides; and the growing global use of
petroleum-powered cars, trucks, and buses.
The Lancet Commission found that pollution is deeply intertwined with poverty and
injustice and stated that pollution threatens fundamental human rights - the right to life,
the right to health, the right to well-being, and the rights of the child (United Nations,
1948). Ninetytwo per cent of pollution-related deaths occur in low- and middle income
countries - environmental injustice on a global scale, and in countries at every income
level, pollution and pollution-related disease are disproportionately concentrated in
poor, minority and marginalized communities (Bullard, 1990).
Pollution is not only a consequence of poverty. It can also can cause and deepen
poverty by producing disease, dysfunction, premature death that results in diminished
economic productivity, lost income and increased health-care costs for already
impoverished families (Furie and Balbus, 2012). In children, early-life exposures to
neurotoxic pollutants can permanently impair cognitive function thus contributing to
school failure and reduced lifetime earnings.
P.J. Landrigan et al. / Science of the Total Environment 650 (2019) 2389–2394 2391
Pollution is linked to global climate change (McMichael, 2017; Perera, 2017). Fuel
combustion—fossil fuel combustion in high-income and middle-income countries, and
biomass burning in low-income countries—accounts for 85% of airborne particulate
pollution and for almost all pollution by sulfur and nitrogen oxides (Scovronick et al.,
2015). Fuel combustion is also the major source of the greenhouse gases and short-
lived climate pollutants that are the main drivers of global climate change.
The global growth of pollution can be directly attributed to the linear, take-make-use-
dispose economic paradigm—termed by Pope Francis “the throwaway culture” (Francis,
2015) — a materialistic way of life in which natural resources and human capital are
viewed as abundant and inexhaustible, and the consequences of their reckless
exploitation are given little heed. This paradigm focuses single-mindedly on short-term
economic gain as measured by growth in Gross Domestic Product (GDP). It is unethical
and ultimately unsustainable (Raworth, 2017).
Fetuses, infants and young children are exquisitely sensitive to environmental pollution,
especially during windows of vulnerability in early development (Suk et al., 2016; Vrijheid
et al., 2016). Pollution exposures in infancy and early childhood and can result in lasting
injury to cells and tissues that increases risk of disease in childhood and can also
reverberate across the life span (Barker, 2004). A great danger of pollution exposure in
early life can is that it can undermine efforts to enhance children's development though
improved nutrition, early learning and better health care.
A 1993 report by the US National Academy of Sciences (NAS, 1993) explored the origins
of children's sensitivity to environmental pollutants and identified four key differences
between children and adults:
1. Children breathe more air, drink more water, and eat more food than adults
each day on a per-kilogram body-weight basis and therefore have proportionately
greater exposures to environmental pollutants.
2. Children's metabolic pathways are immature and therefore children are unable to rapidly
detoxify and excrete many toxic pollutants.
3. Children's exquisitely delicate developmental processes are easily disrupted. There exist
windows of vulnerability in early human development that have no counterpart in adult
life. Exposure to even very low doses of toxic chemicals or other environmental hazards
during these sensitive periods can increase risk of disease in childhood and across the
life span.
4. Children have more future years than adults to develop diseases of long latency that
may be triggered by harmful exposures in early life.
Young children and pregnant women are exposed daily to manufactured chemicals in air,
water, soil, consumer products and food (Landrigan and Goldman, 2011). Routine
monitoring surveys detect several hundred chemical pollutants in the bodies of all
persons (CDC, n.d.). Some widely used chemicals are known to be toxic to children's
development. Hundreds more have never been tested for safety or toxicity and their
possible dangers to children's health and development are not known (Landrigan and
Goldman, 2011).
Toxic manufactured chemicals have been responsible for multiple episodes of disease
and death in both children and adults. Historical examples include asbestos (multiple
cancers) (Selikoff et al., 1968) ; tetraethyl lead (adult and pediatric lead poisoning)
(Needleman et al., 1979); benzene (leukemia and lymphoma) (Rinsky et al., 2002) ;
benzidine-based dyes (bladder cancer) (Rehn, 1895); the rubber chemical, 1, 3
butadiene (leukemia and lymphoma) (Landrigan, 1990); and the organophosphate
pesticides (developmental neurotoxicity) (Rauh et al., 2011).
Newer synthetic chemicals that have entered markets in the past 2–3 decades threaten
to repeat this unfortunate history. They include developmental neurotoxicants such as
phthalates and brominated flame retardants (Engel et al., 2010; Herbstman and Mall,
2014; Grandjean and Landrigan, 2014); endocrine disruptors (Gore et al., 2015); the
herbicide glyphosate, recently found by the International Agency for Research on Cancer
(IARC) to be a probable human carcinogen (Guyton et al., 2015); the neonicotinoid
insecticides (Cimino et al., 2016); pharmaceutical wastes (Kümmerer, 2009); and
manufactured nanomaterials. Early warnings that new chemicals and other
environmental hazards might pose hazards to children's health have frequently been
ignored (Jarosinska and Gee, 2007). As a result, efforts to control exposures and to
prevent disease have often been delayed, sometimes for decades. (Landrigan and
Goldman, 2011).
Two fundamental problems that underlie these recurrent episodes of disease and death
caused by manufactured chemicals are failure of the chemical manufacturing industries
to take responsibility for the materials they produce coupled with absence in most
countries of chemical safety policies requiring that new chemicals be tested for safety or
toxicity before they are allowed to enter commercial markets (Landrigan and Goldman,
2011). Fewer than half of the most widely used chemicals have ever been tested for
safety or toxicity, and fewer than 20% have been assessed for potential to disrupt early
human development. Premarket evaluation of new chemicals has become mandatory in
only the past decade and in only a few high-income countries.
A major unanswered question is whether there are additional chemical pollutants in wide
use today that have not yet been recognized to endanger the health of children. Fig. 1
illustrates this concept in relation to developmental neurotoxicants. Commenting on the
hazards inherent in children's widespread exposure to untested chemicals, the late
David
Rall, PhD, MD, former director of the US National Institute of Environmental Health
Sciences, observed that:
“If thalidomide had caused a ten-point loss of IQ instead of obvious birth defects of the
limbs, it would probably still be on the market.”
[(Weiss, 1982)]
The World Health Organization estimates that physical, chemical, and biological
hazards in the environment are responsible for 26% of all deaths in children under the
age of five years – nearly 1.5 million deaths worldwide (WHO, 2018). The WHO
definition of environmental risks is broad and includes road accidents, ultraviolet and
ionizing radiation, noise, electromagnetic fields, occupational psychosocial risks, built
environments, agricultural methods, and man-made climate and ecosystem change as
well as pollution.
The Lancet Commission on Pollution and Health found that pollution – defined
specifically as air, water, soil, and toxic chemical pollution was responsible in 2016 for
940,000 deaths in children, two-thirds of them in children under the age of 5 years
(Landrigan et al., 2017) (Fig. 2). The overwhelming majority of these pollution-related
deaths occurred in low- and middle-income countries. (Fig. 3 and Fig. 4) Most were
due to respiratory and gastrointestinal diseases caused by polluted air and water. (Fig.
2 and Table 1).
Fig. 4. Number of deaths per 100,000 children, 0–19 years of age, attributable to
all forms of pollution, by country, 2016.
3. Conclusion
A key message of the Lancet Commission on Pollution and Health is that with
leadership, resources and clearly articulated, data-driven strategies, pollution can be
controlled and pollution-related disease prevented (Landrigan et al., 2017). The
experience of the many cities and countries that have developed, field-tested and
successfully implemented pollution control policies provides strong support for this
proposition. Implementation of pollution control strategies can provide multiple benefits,
both short-term and long-term, for human health, the economy and the environment for
societies at every level of income (Grosse et al., 2002; Samet et al., 2017).
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LA CONTAMINACIÓN Y LA SALUD DE LOS NIÑOS
Thomas C. Chiles, Stephan Bose- O¨Reilly
Resumen
Para poner fin a esta negligencia, aumentar la conciencia sobre los impactos de
la contaminación y movilizar los recursos, el liderazgo político y la voluntad cívica
necesaria para controlar la contaminación y prevenir enfermedades relacionadas
con la contaminación, la Comisión Lancet sobre Contaminación y Salud se formó
en 2015. Esta Comisión realizó un análisis exhaustivo. de la contaminación y sus
efectos en la salud humana y la economía mundial y difundió sus hallazgos en
octubre de 2017 (Landrigan et al., 2017). Esta revisión se basa en el informe de
la Comisión Lancet y destaca los impactos de la contaminación en la salud de
los niños.
P.J. Landrigan et al. / La ciencia del medio ambiente total 650 (2019) 2389–2394
2391
1. Los niños respiran más aire, beben más agua y comen más alimentos que
los adultos cada día por kilogramo de peso corporal y, por lo tanto, tienen una
exposición proporcionalmente mayor a los contaminantes ambientales.
2. Las vías metabólicas de los niños son inmaduras y, por lo tanto, los niños
no pueden desintoxicarse y excretar rápidamente muchos contaminantes
tóxicos.
3. Los procesos de desarrollo exquisitamente delicados de los niños se
interrumpen fácilmente. Existen ventanas de vulnerabilidad en el desarrollo
humano temprano que no tienen contrapartida en la vida adulta. La
exposición a dosis muy bajas de productos químicos tóxicos u otros peligros
ambientales durante estos períodos sensibles puede aumentar el riesgo de
enfermedad en la niñez y durante toda la vida.
4. Los niños tienen más años futuros que los adultos para desarrollar
enfermedades de larga latencia que pueden ser provocadas por exposiciones
dañinas en la vida temprana.
Los productos químicos sintéticos más nuevos que han ingresado a los
mercados en las últimas dos o tres décadas amenazan con repetir esta historia
desafortunada. Incluyen neurotóxicos del desarrollo, como los ftalatos y los
retardantes de llama brominados (Engel et al., 2010; Herbstman and Mall, 2014;
Grandjean y Landrigan, 2014); disruptores endocrinos (Gore et al., 2015); el
herbicida glifosato, recientemente descubierto por la Agencia Internacional para
la Investigación del Cáncer (IARC), es un probable carcinógeno humano (Guyton
et al., 2015); los insecticidas neonicotinoides (Cimino et al., 2016); residuos
farmacéuticos (Kümmerer, 2009); y fabricamos nanomateriales. Las advertencias
tempranas de que los nuevos productos químicos y otros peligros ambientales
podrían representar un peligro para la salud de los niños con frecuencia se han
ignorado (Jarosinska y Gee, 2007). Como resultado, los esfuerzos para controlar
las exposiciones y prevenir enfermedades a menudo se han retrasado, a veces
durante décadas. (Landrigan y Goldman, 2011).
Contaminación total
Contaminación del
aire
Agua
Rall, PhD, MD, ex director del Instituto Nacional de Ciencias de la Salud Ambiental de
EE. UU., Observó que:
"Si la talidomida hubiera causado una pérdida de diez puntos del coeficiente intelectual
en lugar de defectos de nacimiento obvios de las extremidades, probablemente
todavía estaría en el mercado".
[(Weiss, 1982)]
Bajo
Medio bajo
Medio alto
Alto
3. Conclusión
Un mensaje clave de la Comisión Lancet sobre Contaminación y Salud es que
con el liderazgo, los recursos y las estrategias claramente articuladas e
impulsadas por los datos, se puede controlar la contaminación y prevenir las
enfermedades relacionadas con la contaminación (Landrigan et al., 2017). La
experiencia de las muchas ciudades y países que han desarrollado, pruebas de
campo y políticas de control de contaminación exitosamente implementados
proporciona un fuerte apoyo para esta propuesta. La implementación de
estrategias de control de la contaminación puede proporcionar múltiples
beneficios, tanto a corto como a largo plazo, para la salud humana, la economía
y el medio ambiente para las sociedades en todos los niveles de ingresos
(Grosse et al., 2002; Samet et al., 2017) .
Tabla 1
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