JMEPEG (1992) 1:35-44 9 ASM International

Low-TemperatureSolid-State Bondingof Copper

R.A. Nichting, D.L. Olson, and G.R. Edwards

Mechanisms associated with low-temperature solid-state bonding of copper were investigated. The low-
temperature bonding phenomena was observed to be time/temperature dependent and related to a defor-
mation process. An analytical technique for predicting bond strength and bonding behavior is presented.

1 Introduction creases, the relative ease of deformation of the bonding surface

asperities effectively increases the area of metal-to-metal con-
JOINING processes thermally alter any assembly, causing unde- tact. The bond strength has also been reported to increase with
sirable phase transformations, distortion, and residual stresses. increasing processing time.f21,2324] As the contact area increases
For solid-state bonding to effectively overcome these concerns, with time under load, the effective stress causing deformation at
bonding at lower temperatures must be attained. the points of contact is reduced: 1s,251 Several mechanistic mod-
Comprehensive descriptions of high temperature bonding els that involve highly localized plastic deformation of asperi-
mechanisms have been reviewed by numerous investigators. [1-9] ties as the main process in increasing surface contact area have
The initial stage has been described as bringing two surfaces to- been introduced. [13,15,2~176 As the contact surface increases
gether, applying a load sufficient to achieve some degree of inti- with time under load, the effective stress causing deformation at
mate contact, and thereby deforming the asperities at the bond the points 0 f contact is reduced.1151
interface.J1 o, 111Heating the assembly will cause these contact ar-
eas to increase. Several diffusion-controlled processes may
shrink the resulting voids. In the latter stages, bulk diffusion can 2 Experimental Design and Procedures
eliminate the remaining voids, and the interfacial boundary may
migrate out of the plane of the original interface to a lower en- 2,1 Preliminary Investigation
ergy configuration.
Long-range diffusion is not an important consideration dur- Experiments were designed to determine the time/tempera-
ing the low-temperature bonding process. It is only within a few ture-dependent mechanisms for bonding at a temperature below
atom layers of the bonding interface that diffusional processes the classically accepted range for volume and surface diffusion.
can effectively improve the joint strength when bonding is com- A preliminary sequence of bonding tests was performed in the
pleted in a few minutes: 121Surface diffusion can be beneficial in first phase of work to prove the existence of well-behaved time
the early stages of low-temperature bonding. [131 Surface diffu- and temperature dependence for low-temperature solid-state
sion, driven by the chemical potential dependence on curvature, joining.
can produce a short-range decrease in surface roughness. [141 Copper (99.9 wt.%) was selected for this investigation, be-
Changes in surface roughness have been reported to obey spe- cause it represents a noble metal that has been used in numerous
cific growth laws: 151 fundamental experiments. Physical and mechanical properties
Metallic surfaces have been found to bond at low tempera- and other useful data for copper are readily available and are
tures immediately on contact.t~6-19] The increase in bonding ef- needed for fundamental calculations in evaluating the bonding
ficiency with rising temperature has been reported to be due to models. Also, noble metals are commonly used as an interlayer
the thermal relaxation of the yield strength and the correspond- material for low-temperature solid-state bonding.
ing increase in ductility,ll,2~ As ductility of the material in- In the preliminary study, 13-ram-diameter copper rod was
screw-machined into the form of half-tensile specimens. The
specimen interfaces were then analyzed for roughness and wavi-
ness in an attempt to hold surface roughness constant. The speci-
R.A. Nichting, AMAX Research and Development Center, Golden,
Colorado; D.L. Olson, and G.R. Edwards, Center for Welding and mens were ultrasonically cleaned--first in acetone, then in an
Joining Research, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado. aqueous detergent, and finally in distilled water.

Table 1 Preliminary Test Parameters and Bonding Conditions

Temperature,
~ Time,sec
300 .................................................................. 300 600 1200 2400 4800 7200
325 .................................................................. 300 500 1200 2400 4800 N/A
375 .................................................................. 300 600 1200 2400 N/A N/A
400 .................................................................. 300 600 1200 N/A N/A N/A

Note: Bonding parameters, pressure = 68.9 MPa (10 ksi) held constant during all tests; sample roughness, 10 to 15 gin. (screw machined). N/A ---not
applicable due to bulk deformation occurring during bonding.

Joumat of Materials Engineering and Performance Vol 1(I) February 1992--35

 In preparation for bonding, the tensile specimens were temperatures and times. A summary of the bonding conditions
placed under vacuum (below 2 x 10-6 torr), back-filled with and combinations is given in Table 1.
high-purity argon (99.998%) at a pressure of 1 • 10-2 torr and The bonding coupons were inductively heated to a specified
cleaned with a glow discharge plasma.[31,32] A potential of 2000 temperature. The temperature of each specimen was measured
V and a current of 20 mA were required to sputter off adsorbed and controlled by a chromel-alumel thermocouple percussively
gases and surface contaminants from the bonding interface. This welded to the specimen near the bond interface. Bonding pres-
process was performed for 3 min. Preliminary work indicated sure was held at 68.9 MPa, which is below the bulk yield stress
that glow discharge sputtering for periods of time in excess of 4 of the material for most bonding temperatures and times. The
rain could produce surface etching and pitting, thereby changing microdeformation that occurred was restricted to the asperities.
the desired surface morphology. Gross deformation associated with bulging or barreling of the
Once the bonding surfaces of the tensile specimens were specimen was not observed, unless bonding times in excess of
sputter cleaned, the chamber was evacuated (below 2 x 10-6 2400 sec or temperatures in excess of 375 ~ were used.
torr). The halves of the two tensile specimens were then brought The specimens were held at constant temperature and pres-
together under a load of 68.9 MPa (10 ksi) at various bonding sure for the specified times during bonding and then cooled to

Table 2 Isothermal Heat Treatment P a r a m e t e r s

Temperature,
*C Time, sec
2 0 0 .................................................................. 0 300 600 1200 2400 4800
225 .................................................................. 0 300 600 1200 2400 4800
250 .................................................................. 0 300 600 1200 2400 4800
275 .................................................................. 0 300 600 1200 2400 4800
300 .................................................................. 0 300 600 1200 2400 4800
325 .................................................................. 0 300 600 1200 2400 4800
350 .................................................................. 0 300 600 1200 2400 4800

Note: Bondingparameters, pressure = 68.9 MPa (10 ksi) held constant during all tests; surface roughness,40 p.in. (mill cut). An isothermaltime of zero
seconds representsthe heatingcycle of the isothermalheat treatment.

IOO ! ! I I | | I I I | I I | I I I | I I | | | | | | | I

-r" 5 T=400*C
I- I:1 / J - . . " E T ~ T = 375 eC
2 ~~_.0._______----~ -T=35o'c
Z
LI.I
I---
(/) I0

5
03 4 (3 T= 400"C
O T= 375 ~
e T:350"C
A T=~00 eC

l i l I I 9 I | i I i | I | i J i l i i i i I I * i I

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2 3 4 5 6 789100

TIME (sec)

Fig. 1 Preliminary data given as a log-log plot of bond strength as a function of time for various isothermal heat treatments.

36---Volume 1(1) February 1992 Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

ambient temperature while maintaining bonding pressure. This A systematic test matrix for a given surface preparation, in-
was done to ensure that thermal stresses coupled with elastic volving the process parameters of bonding temperature, time,
stresses did not rupture the bonds created at the interface during and pressure, was designed and followed (Fable 2). The range of
rapid cooling. the test matrix was designed based on observations from hard-
Bond strengths were obtained by testing the bonded speci- ness-temperature data and preliminary test data that indicated
mens of uniaxial tension to failure. Fractured specimens were two mechanistic low-temperature bonding regimes.
analyzed using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). Actual
surface contact areas were measured and used in calculating po-
tential bond strengths for comparison with bulk copper proper- 3 Results and Discussion
ties.
The bond strengths obtained from the preliminary investiga- The preliminary bonding experiments revealed the existence
tion were approximately equal to the yield strength of copper for of a mechanistic change in bond formation for the temperature
the various annealing temperatures, but overall ductility of range studied. The results of the preliminary bonding tests are
bonded specimens was low. Observations from these results in- presented in Fig. 1. These data suggest a thermally activated
dicated that surface morphology and interface cleanliness af- bonding process where the bond strength, B, is given by:
fected both the maximum attainable bond strength and ductility. B = [Kt] n [1]
To more clearly distinguish differences in bonding behavior,
sample machining and cleaning procedures were changed. where t is the bonding time, n is the empirically derived expo-
nent, and Kis the rate constant, which is given by:
2.2 Primary Investigation
K = K o exp [-Q/RT] [2]
In the primary investigation, surface preparation was care- The exponent n was determined for the data of the prelimi-
fully controlled. At the lower bonding temperatures, surface nary investigation and found to be 0.2 for the temperature range
preparation becomes one of the most important factors deter- 250 to 300 ~ and 0.5 for the temperature range 375 to 400 ~
mining the repeatability and consistency in bond strengths. Ma- The exponent values suggest at least two mechanistic bonding
chining details such as cutting speeds were carefully controlled regimes. Numerous other studies have noted dramatic decreases
with special attention to the cleanliness and sharpness of the ma- in the hardness of cold worked copper after short times at tem-
chining cuts. [33] peratures near 300 to 350 ~ These microstructural

30000 ' ! ' I , ! i I ' I ' ! ' I i I ' I ' i ' I i

O 200 deg.C
Q 225 deg.C o
9 250 deg.C
25000 9 275 aeg.C
300 aeg.C
A
O 325 deg.C
9 350 deg.C v o
' 20000
o
A &
c 15000 o
A
U
L II

O 99 9 n
o t0000
C
O n O
9 I:]
n
n i3 U
O
5000 0

0 ' i
0
I

500
~ I I

t000
I

t500
I I i I o

2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000

, I , I , i j I I

Isothermal Annealing Time (sec)

Fig. 2 Fraction of bond strength established during the isothermal annealing time, shown as a function of annealing time, for temperatures
from 473 to 623 K (200 to 350 ~

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance Vol 1(1) February 1992--37

changes are believed to also be important in explaining the two B = B o + (Kt) n [3]
bonding regimes found in this study.
where B is the maximum bond strength, t is the isothermal bond-
3.1 Timeand Temperature Dependence ing time, and K is the thermally activated rate coefficient. By ap-
plying the logarithmic expansion of Eq 3, the value for n of the
The bond strengths measured for samples of the primary low-
bonding process for a given temperature was determined. Re-
temperature bonding study are shown in Fig. 2 and 3. Figure 2
suits of the data plotted in this form are shown in Fig. 7. Careful
gives only values of bond strength that can be attributed to the
observation of Fig. 7 reveals that bond strengths established at
isothermal annealing time. Depending on temperature, signifi-
300 ~C were anomalously high. Numerous researchers [384~
cant bond strength was found to develop during the specimen
have observed marked softening of cold worked copper when
heating time. The bond strength that developed during the
the material was heated through the temperature range 300 to
nonisothermal heating time will be referred to as the initial bond
350 ~ Depending on exact composition and amount of defor-
strength, Bo. T h e bond strength obtained for the entire time in
mation, recovery or complete recrystallization can occur at these
which heat was applied to the bond interface will be designated
temperatures. During bonding of these copper specimens at
as the maximum bond strength (B).
300 ~ material softening increased the interracial contact area,
A complete set of curves depicting maximum bond strength
and greater initial bond strengths resulted. Consequently, the in-
(B) as a function of total heating time is presented in Fig. 3 for
itial bond strength Bo for bonds made at 300 ~ and above con-
easy comparisons among various bonding temperature sets.
stituted the major fraction of total bond strength.
Before analysis of the isothermal bonding mechanism can be
Statistical analysis of the seven different isothermal heat
achieved, results from the initial bond strength (Bo) obtained
treatments resulted in determining a common value for n of 0.25.
prior to thermal equilibration (Fig. 4) must be subtracted from
Figure 8 is the summary for the replotted isothermal bond
the maximum bond strength, B.
strength data as a function of t~ Evaluation of Fig. 8 (when
A comparison of the results is presented in Fig. 5 and 6 for
slope equals 0.25) indicates that the rate constant K gradually in-
both the maximum bond strength and that achieved during iso-
creases with temperature.
thermal conditions. These data are presented for lower (200 ~
The values for K (see Eq 3) were determined from least-
and upper (350 ~ temperature regimes. Clearly, at 350 ~ the
squares analyses of the data shown in Fig. 7 and 8 and plotted as
bond strength established prior to thermal equilibrium can be as
a function of reciprocal temperature in Fig. 9. Figure 9 suggests
much as half the total bond strength. These data can be inter-
an apparent activation energy of 11 kcal/mol for low-tempera-
preted by using the following equation:
ture bonding of copper. In this type of bonding process, and with

35000 . .. ! . !
' I ' ! 9 l '
I
l ' I ' I ' I ' I ' I 'f

0 200 deg.C
O 225 aeg.C
30000 9 250 cleg.C
9 275 (Jeg.C O
A 300 Oeg.C
0 325 Oeg.C
25000 9 3,50 Oeg,C V 0
m
20000 O O

c & A 9

L 15000

O
c 9 9 9 rl
o 10000
9 n n O

El O
n
5000 & O
O

i O l i L l l l l
t i I I I I I t I I I = 1 J 1

0 500 t 0 0 0 1500 2000 2 5 0 0 3 0 0 0 3500 4000 4 5 0 0 5000

Total Heating Time (sec)

Fig. 3 Maximum bond strength plotted as a function of total heating time for temperatures from 473 to 623 K (200 to 350 ~

38---Volume 1(1) February 1992 Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

 1 6 0 0 0 , , , , , , , , , , ,

14000

12000

m
10000

c 6000

L
m 6000
C
O
m 4000

C
H 2000

0 i I ~ I i I i I i I

200 250 300 350 400

Temperature (deg.C)

Fig. 4 Bond strengths established during the time required to reach thermal equilibrium, shown as a function of final bonding temperature.

35000 i I ' I ' ! ' ! ' I ' I ' I ' I ' I ' I ' I i

9 Bond Strength(B),200 deg.C

O ( B - B = ) , 200 deg.C
30000
oH

25000

c
m 20000
L

c 15000
o
m
E
10000
E

X
m 8 8
x 5000
8 S
' lid ~ I i 1 i I I , i , I . i , I I I I I J
0
0 500 t 0 0 0 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000

Time (sec)

Fig. 5 Comparison of maximum bond strength and the bond strength attributed to the isothermal annealing time, at 473 K (200 ~ shown
as a function of isothermal annealing time.

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance VoI 1(1) February 1992--39

 35000 u I l I ' I ' I I I ' I ' I u I ' I g 1 u I =

9 Bond S t r e n g t h ( B ) , 3 5 0 deg.C 9
0 B-Bo, 350 deg.C
30000

o
25000

c
m 20000 0
L

oc t5000
o 9 0

E 0
0
10000
E
0
X
x 5000

, i * l l l I * l t l l l l l J . l J l , l l *

0 500 t 0 0 0 t 5 0 0 2000 2 5 0 0 3 0 0 0 3 5 0 0 4000 4500 5 0 0 0

Time (sec}

Fig, 6 Comparison of maximum bond strength and the bond strength attributed to the isothermal annealing time, at 623 K (350 ~ shown
as a function of isothermal annealing time.

= = ! ! ' I I | ! I | i ! 9 =! 'i u = I r | ' J | I I | I = I I

9 200 C
0 225 C
4.25 9 25O C
0 275 C 9 i 9
rt 9 300 C 9 9
4.00 A 325 C 9 i
m 9 350 c dl = ~=
! 9 o o
m 0
9--, 3.75
t~ o
o
I-!

3.50
1-
4-)
01
cQ ) 3 25
s
4~
(Jr)
3.00
E
0
m
' 2.75
o
r-t

I I l 1 9 i i . i ! i i I I i * | 9 I 1 I I t i 9 9

2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75

log-Time (log-sec}

Fig. 7 Isothermal annealing bond strength (B-Bo), shown as a function of isothermal annealing time. Scales are in common logarithm form.
Temperatures range from 473 to 623 K (200 to 350 ~

40---Volume 1(1) February 1992 Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

 20000 I ' I i

0 200 geg.C 0
9 225 geg.C
0 250 deg.C
9 275 deg.C
0 300 aeg.C
15000 9 325 aeg.C
13
9 350 Oeg.C 0 0
Q.

<> 0 13
!

iO000
t"
4J 13
t~ t I . o
r-
Q)
L 13
9 o
U)
5000
"13

o
0 i i ~ , I i i , i i I i I i I i I
4.5 5.0 5.5 5.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 fl.O
0.25 0.25
( Time ) (sec)

Fig. 8 Isothermal annealing bond strength, plotted as a function of isothermal annealing time taken to n = 0.25. Temperatures range from
473 to 623 K (200 to 350 ~

others, it is difficult to achieve a mechanistic understanding of terms in the two equations are the constants that contain infor-
the rate-controlling process. Difficulty in the mechanistic inter- mation about the discontinuity relationship and the instantane-
pretation results from the continuous change in microstructural ous bond strength value for the specified temperature range.
details controlling the bonding process (a decrease in real stress If Eq 4 is set equal to zero, then the temperature at which the
at the bonding interface occurs, even though the bonding load is initial bond strength Bo becomes greater than zero can be deter-
constant). To achieve a physical interpretation of the apparent mined. By performing the calculation for this boundary condi-
activation energy, an experiment that maintained constant stress tion, a temperature of 184 ~ can be determined. The 184 ~
and constant material conditions at the bonding interface would temperature value represents the temperature for the initial
be required. measurable bond strength under this particular set of bonding
conditions. It is anticipated that with an increasing applied load
3.2 Interpretation of Results used during bonding, the minimal bonding temperature can be
lowered further.
The initial bond strengths established during the time re-
Comparing these bonding results to copper annealing
quired to reach thermal equilibrium were shown in Fig. 4 to
data, [38-40]several similarities can be observed. Clarebrough et
abruptly increase as the target bonding temperature was in-
al.[40] reported the importance of deformation in influencing the
creased through the 300 to 325 ~ temperature range. Although
recrystallization temperature of copper. The recrystallization
a distinct step or discontinuous increase in the bond strength was
temperature range observed by Clarebrough eta/. [4~ (325 to
observed, the slope or rate at which the initial bond strength, B o,
350 ~ was similar to the temperature range observed in this in-
increased with temperature appeared relatively constant in both
vestigation for a finite change in bonding mechanism. Bonding
the high- and low-temperature regimes, as shown in Fig. 4.
mechanism changes were observed at -325 ~ for both the pre-
The initial bond strength for these temperature regimes can
liminary tests (see Fig. 1) and for the more extensive primary
be empirically represented by the following equations:
bonding studies that followed (see Fig. 4). This comparison be-
Bo=31T-14,151 for T < 573 K [4] tween the present investigation and the work of Clarebrough et
al.[38-4~ suggests that low-temperature bond strength in copper
Bo=31T-7351 for T > 573 K [5] can be greatly influenced by dynamic recrystallization.
Understanding the processes that occur along the bonding in-
where T is the absolute temperature, and B o is given in units of terface prior to and during heating is important to further im-
pounds per square inch (psi). The temperature coefficient for the provements in low-temperature solid-state bonding. In general,
initial bond strength is identical in both equations. The second the morphology of the bond interface may be used to promote an

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance Vol 1(1) February 1992--41

 i0 15 , !
' I ' I ' I '

9 slope - 0/2.38 - -2385 cal/mole

tO 14

I/3
GI

r-I iO t 3
113

I
9 "e-l--__ .-
Q= II K c o l/mo l/ - -,.

iO i 2

lO l i i i i I i I i i i I ~ I i
.0016 .00i7 .0018 .0019 .002 .002~

Inverse Temperature {I/deg.K)

Fig. 9 Logarithmic rate constant K (see Eq 3) as a function of reciprocal absolute temperature, revealing the apparent activation energy for
the bonding of copper.

increase in contact area through the process of strain and defor- Bo=8.06t+5092 T>573K [7]
mation. The area of true interfacial contact is very small initially,
and the concentrated stress at the contacting asperities is greater A comparison of the calculated results for the initial bond
than the yield stress. These asperities plastically deform on con- strength to the experimental data is shown in Fig. 10, where the
tact, and the contact area increases until the local stresses de- empirical expressions represent the data quite well.
crease to a value below that of the yield strength. Substitution of Eq 6 and 7 into Eq 3 will quantify the bond
To understand the limits of the low-temperature bonding strength for each temperature regime. However, the appropriate
process and to assist in bond strength predictions, it is desirable time intervals to be used must be considered carefully. The time
to develop an empirical expression. This expression must allow in Eq 6 and 7 begins at the moment when the two specimen
for the prediction of bond strength through the complete bond- halves are brought together and the heating cycle begins. The
ing thermal cycle, encompassing both heating and isothermal end of the heating time occurs when the isothermal temperature
segments. In considering the functional relationship of the initial is reached, or when the value dT/dt becomes zero. The time in Eq
bond strength, Bo, it is assumed that the minimum temperature at 3 begins when the heating cycle ends and continues at constant
which bonding has been determined to occur is 457 K (184 ~ temperatures until cooling is initiated. Thus, the total time (tt) of
The initial bond strengths are given by Eq 4 and 5 for the two the bonding cycle is the sum of the heating segment (th) and the
distinct isothermal bonding temperature ranges. By incorporat- isothermal segment (tt). The final form of the bond strength
ing the heating rate into these equations, a time-dependent equa- equation can be written for two temperature ranges:
tion for the bonding process can be expressed.
The expression for the determination of the initial bond B = (8.06 t h - 1708) + [Kt/] ~ T < 573 K [8]
strength in the temperature range 457 to 573 K for this specific
heating rate (0.26 K/sec where T > 573 K) becomes: B = (8.06 t h + 5092) + [Ktz]~ T > 573 K [9]
B o = 8.06 t - 1708 T < 573 K [6]
where K is an exponential expression (see Eq 2) with the appar-
Similarly, the initial bond strength for the upper temperature ent activation energy of 11 kcal/mol. Equations 8 and 9 are plot-
range 573 to 673 K can be determined by considering the dis- ted in Fig. 11 for bonding temperatures of 475 and 623 K, re-
crete increase in bond strength, ABo, that occurs over the tem- spectively. The model represents the data reasonably well. The
perature range of 573 to 623 K. This high-temperature initial experimental bond strength data for seven temperatures be-
bond strength equation becomes: tween 473 and 623 K are also shown in Fig. 11.

42--Volume 1(1) February 1992 Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

 Heating Equilibration Time (sec)

265 465 665 865 1065

16000 I ' I ' I ' i ' I

14000

12000 , . . 9 ,.-" 9

"-'~ t 0 0 0 0

c BOO0
L
6000
C
o
m 4000
0

H 2000

0 I, "~'I i I I I i i i I i
200 250 300 350 400

Temperature (deg.C)

Fig. 10 Initial bond strength data of tough pitch copper for temperatures and equilibration time indicated. Solid lines are the empirical equa-
tions given in the text (Eq 6 and 7).

References
4 Conclusions 1. R,F. Tylecote, The Solid Phase Welding of Metals, St. Martins
Press, New York (1968).
Bond strengths of low-temperature copper bonds have been 2. D.R. Milner and G.W. Rowe, Metall. Rev., 7(28), 433-480
characterized in copper for the temperature regime of 473 to (1962).
3. N. Bay, Weld.J, 62(5), 137s-142s (1983).
623 K. Low-temperature solid-state bonding of copper is a
4. N. Bay, Brit. Weld. J. Met. Const., 18(6), 369-372 (1986).
time/temperature-dependent process that is primarily controlled
5. N. Bay, Brit. Weld. J. Met. Const., 18(8), 486-490 (1986).
by deformation. A time-dependent exponent of 0.25 and an ap- 6. C. Clemensen, O. Juelstorp, and N. Bay, Brit. Weld. J. Met.
parent activation energy of approximately 11 kcal/mol were de- Const., 18(10), 625-629 (1986).
termined. 7. C.H. Hamilton, Titanium Science and Technology, Proc. 2nd Int.
Separation of the various stages in the bonding cycle--initial Conf., R.I. Jaffee and H.M. Butte, Ed., Vol. 1, Plenum Press, New
contact, nonequilibrium heating, and the isothermal a n n e a l - - York, 625 (1973).
are essential in determining an understanding of the mechanistic 8. R.A. Nichting, G.R. Edwards, D.L. Olson, and B.B. Rath, "Theo-
nature of low-temperature solid-state bonding. An empirical ries of Low Temperature Solid State Bonding," Proc. Int. Conf.
on Trends in Welding Research, Gatlinburg, TN, May 19-22,733-
equation for predicting low-temperature solid-state bond
738, ASM, Metals Park (1986).
strength for copper as a function of bonding time and tempera-
9. D.L. Olson and A.L. Liby, Joining III: Diffusion Bonding, inBe-
ture was determined. ryllium Science and Technology, Vol. 2, Plenum Press, New
York, 275-296 (1979).
10. W.H. King and W.A. Owczarski, Weld. J., 47(10), 444s-450s
(1968).
Acknowledgments 11. J.M. Gerken and W.A. Owczarski, "A Review of Diffusion Weld-
ing," Welding Research Council, Bull. 109, Oct (1965).
12. V.D. Taran, SvarProizv, 11, 12-14 (1958).
The authors appreciate and acknowledge the support of the 13. B. Derby and E.R. Wallach, Met. Sci., 16(1), 49-56 (1982).
Office of Naval Research and the technical services of Jim Aris 14. E. Elliott, E.R. Wallach, and I.A. Bucklow, J. Mater. Sci., 15,
and Dr. T. Schiling of EG & G (Rocky Flats Plant). 2823 (1980).

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance Vol 1(1) February 1992---43

 30000 i i , l W l l l l l l l l l U l a l l l J l U l u
w
O 200 Oeg.C :a,
O 225 Oeg.C Eqn. 9 ...--'""""""'" v
9 250 0eg.C ,,,
25000 9 275 Oeg. C " " "V" L aS0"C
A 300 aeg. C ,,,. .-'""""
O :325 aeg. C ,.,- , , . - - ; A
9 350 Oe9.C 9 O
m 20000 Ov
0 nO BA 9

%,, 9
c 15000
L
Or 9
9 9 Q
oc t0000
o 9 9 o.,.
9 Q 0Q .......- "
o n, .... L - 200"C
5000 A o _ . . . - ~ "-" . . . . Eqn. 8

~
1 A I I I I I I I l I I I 1 1 l I i

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3 0 0 0 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500

Time (sac)

Fig. 11 Comparison among experimental data and the empirical equations given in the text (Eq 8 and 9).

15. D.J. Allen and A.A.L. White, Sintering Processes in Diffusion 26. A.A.L. White and D.J. Allen, Elimination of Voids and Oxide in
Bonding, in The Joining of Metals: Practice and Performance, Diffusion Bonding, in Advances in Welding Processes, Vol. 1,
96-103, The Institution of Metallurgists, London, (1980). Harrogate, England (1975).
16. A.C. Moore and D. Tabor, Brit. J. Appl. Phys., 3,299-301 (1952). 27. H.A. Mohamed and J. Washburn, Weld. J., 54(9), 302s-310s
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44---Volume 1(1) February 1992 Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance