Border Pedagogy:

A Study of
Preservice Teacher
Transformation
by Jaime J. Romo and
Claudia Chavez

Abstract
In our increasingly interconnected global society, learning to think
about ourselves in a border context, making crossings and connections, re-
flecting on our position and power, and articulating a vision of social justice
are necessary civic skills. Developing educational border crossers who have
moved beyond stereotyping and the tourist’s gaze to have a sensibility for
social justice can enrich public life and stimulate the deepest forms of civic
engagement. This study examines a teacher education program’s nascent ef-
forts to develop multicultural competencies, specifically border pedagogy, in
future teachers.

The geopolitical border between Mexico and the United States represents the
beginnings, endings, and blending of languages, cultures, communities, and coun-
tries. It also reflects the complexity, juxtaposition, and intersection of identities,
economies, and social and educational issues. K–12 students, particularly in border
regions, represent families that are voluntary immigrants as well as involuntary
minorities (Ogbu and Gibson 1991; Trueba 1993). According to Huntington (2004,
1), there is a distinctly strong sentiment against those who cross the Mexican-U.S.
border.

The persistent inflow of Hispanic immigrants threatens to divide the United States
into two peoples, two cultures, and two languages. Unlike past immigrant groups,
Mexicans and other Latinos have not assimilated into mainstream U.S. culture, forming
instead their own political and linguistic enclaves—from Los Angeles to Miami—and
rejecting the Anglo-Protestant values that built the American dream. The United States
ignores this challenge at its peril.

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Such sentiment does not develop in a vacuum. Scholars, textbooks, and media
from advertisements to television news promote a national chauvinism and paro-
chialism that divides rather than joins border communities (Giroux and McLaren
1994). Though the authors believe that Huntington’s (2004) view misrepresents the
integration and complexity around the Mexican-U.S. border, even in border com-
munities such as San Diego, which is located minutes away from Tijuana, Mexico,
the curriculum and language used are focused on European-American students
from middle-class families, promoting conformity to dominant cultural codes and
practices (Giroux and McLaren 1994; Romo and Roseman 2004). Subsequently, is-
sues of racial identity, development, language acquisition, socioeconomic status, and
cultural competency often collide when increasingly diverse K–12 student bodies
meet with predominantly monocultural teachers, curriculum, and pedagogy.

A positive pedagogical approach to border pedagogy has not been defined in

educational policy or teacher preparation programs. However, theorists in cultural
studies and composition have used negotiation for describing how people might
work, live, learn, and teach within a socioculturally complex region, such as a border
region. In other words, knowledge and culture are not static, pure, or congealed.
In fact, the fluidity of the border region challenges educators to rethink linguistic,
social, theoretical, and geopolitical boundaries (Hernandez 1997).

Most discussions of border pedagogy have been confined to higher education

and theoretical paradigms. These discussions have criticized traditional teaching
and learning approaches and offered positive alternatives, such as the politics of
difference literature (comparing male/female, white/black, west/east), as a way to
understand sociocultural domination (Cook 2000). Consequently, educational criti-
cism has been isolated in classrooms and journals so that it has had little impact on
culture or organization.

As Giroux (1991, 28) noted, border pedagogy works to “further create borderlands
in which the diverse cultural resources allow for the fashioning of new identities
within existing configurations of power.” Border pedagogy also embodies integration
and cultural generation. At a K–12 level, border pedagogy teaches the skills of criti-
cal thinking, debating power, meaning, and identity. Border pedagogy encourages
tolerance, ethical sophistication, and openness. In short, border pedagogy works
to decolonize and revitalize learning and teaching to promote liberty and justice
for all. Border pedagogy particularly engages K–12 students in multiple references
that constitute different cultural codes, experiences, and languages to help them
construct their own narratives and histories, and revise democracy through socio-
cultural negotiation.

This article examines an education program’s efforts to develop multicultural

competencies, specifically border pedagogy, in future teachers. The authors’ study
examined two questions: How are future teacher candidates, who are monocultural,
effectively prepared to teach in a border context, and what are the important char-
acteristics of border pedagogy teachers?

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Discussion of Cultural Democracy Quadrants and Border Pedagogy

Cultural democracy is the process and product of implementing democracy in a
multicultural society (Romo and Roseman 2004). A framework for cultural democracy
practices (see Figure 1) examines institutional or group cultures, such as K–12 schools
and classrooms. The framework is contextualized by a continuum that goes from exclu-
sively monocultural to inclusively multicultural, and from individual to systemic. The
framework reads in a clockwise direction from exclusively monocultural (quadrant I) to
inclusively multicultural (quadrant IV).

Figure 1: Framework for Cultural Democracy Practices

Monocultural

I: Colonizing Pedagogy II: Neocolonial Pedagogy

Institutional Individual
IV: Systemic Border Pedagogy III: Individual Border Pedagogy

Multicultural

Quadrant I descriptors include hostility toward those perceived as outsiders; explicit

exclusion; and monoculturally embedded traits that are reinforced at individual, group,
and institutional levels. In K–12 teaching practices, an example would be educators who
are teaching to control and students who are learning to survive. In Quadrant I, teaching
is talking, and learning is listening. Students’ voices are squashed in this setting, devoid
of social justice rhetoric. Teachers are rooted in perpetuating, either consciously or un-
consciously, the status quo (Romo and Roseman 2004).

Quadrant II descriptors are less overtly hostile than those in Quadrant I, but include
exclusion via second-generation discrimination; individual representatives of minority
groups reporting pioneer experiences; and monocultural values reflected implicitly via
individual and group reinforcement, industrial paradigm, and status quo. In this quad-
rant, in a K–12 educational setting, neocolonial pedagogy is used: Teachers teach to the
test and students learn to fit in.

Quadrants III and IV most closely relate to border pedagogy as discussed in this ar-
ticle. Descriptors for Quadrant III include welcoming on the surface; diversity practiced
primarily as contributions; symbolic differences; and cultural responsiveness demonstrated
as awareness and sensitivity, yielding incremental reform and symbolic inclusion of those
perceived as different from the dominant group.

Quadrant III practices are related to culturally responsive teaching or multicultural

educational goals, such as the theory of cultural pluralism; ideals of social justice and the
end of racism, sexism, and other forms of prejudice and discrimination; affirmations of
culture in the teaching and learning process; and visions of educational equity and high

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levels of academic learning for all youth (Bennet 2001). These practices are related to criti-
cal pedagogy, which begins with an understanding that knowledge is contextual. Critical
pedagogy (Darder 2002, 25) encourages teachers to unveil “class bound values inherent
in education materials, classroom practices, and public policy, through dialogue and
study.” Such practices resist sociocultural conservatives’ insistence on a common culture
that promotes deep structural inequalities and forms of domination that characterize
relationships between privileged and subordinate groups (Giroux 1991).

Quadrant IV descriptors include local cultural democracy as a result of transforma-

tional organizational change at individual, group, and institutional levels; culture reflec-
tive of post-industrial values—partnership versus power-over; and schools embodying
transformational, social action-oriented curriculum and instruction. Quadrant IV teaching
and learning are most congruent with border pedagogy and offer insights into its process
and outcomes.

Methodology
Traditional research related to teacher preparation or professional development has
not adequately addressed teachers as agents of social justice (Blea 1995; Darder 1994).
Though quantitative methodology tends to be better at prediction, control, description,
confirmation, and hypothesis testing (Metz 2000), qualitative methodology is preferred
for generating understanding, description, discovery, and hypotheses. A qualitative re-
search methodology was used in this study to investigate the experiences of preservice
educators as they examined and reconstructed their personal and professional identities
in border communities. In other words, this study focused on better understanding what
transformative teachers experienced and the contexts surrounding their experiences, rather
than simply reporting what they did (Metz 2000).

The study participants were 48 undergraduate and graduate students, who were
predominantly European-American, female preservice teachers. The data were gathered
from integrative essays that participants wrote at the end of the course “Philosophical
and Multicultural Foundations of Education.” Each essay incorporated reflections about
personal multicultural competency. The pedagogy that the students experienced in
class was eclectic, favoring experiential learning such as simulations, experience-based
learning activities that clarified their own and others’ lack of privilege, and videos that
introduced taboo racial and equity-related topics. These evoked visceral responses in the
students, who were guided to reflect on their own developmental process with the aid
of theoretical frameworks. This method is congruent with Quadrant III and IV practices
(Romo and Roseman 2004).

The data highlighted the significance of university classroom border pedagogy prac-
tices, such as readings that helped them to explicitly examine their own class and racial
privilege; simulations that raised issues of responding to change, such as culture shock;
and videos that introduced issues related to the politics of education that previously
were not considered by the students. Classroom learning was amplified in Community
Service Learning (CSL) placements, where preservice teachers interacted with students
and families whose culture and life experiences were different from their own.

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During the semester, preservice teachers were required to serve ten hours in a
university-supported CSL program to gain exposure to alternative educational resources
and programs. The placement sites were a family shelter, a school for homeless youth,
a Sudanese community resource center, and a bilingual (Spanish-English) charter
school. These sites exposed preservice teachers to clientele from various races, ethnici-
ties, nationalities, and experiences from which they had been sheltered in their prior
education. The placement sites were
within a few miles of the university,
which underscored the relevance of
One way to gain border pedagogy in a broader border
region, not just in communities at the
understanding is to examine geopolitical border.

the school performance of The narrative process was chosen

students who do not have so that researchers could gain a greater
cultural and professional understand-
access to the power or privilege ing of teachers’ everyday experiences.
of the U.S. dominant culture. The open-ended questions allowed
participants to tell their own stories
about experiences in cultural, social,
and institutional contexts. To form the
analysis, the authors reviewed the narratives separately and then discussed, coded, and
interpreted the analysis.

Presentation of Data
The data showed that students were underprepared to deal with the complexities of
border regions and to function as effective teachers in those diverse areas. For many preser-
vice teachers, this was their first exposure to multicultural professional development. The
ongoing juxtaposition of classroom discussion and theory with the experiential learning
in the CSL sites helped participants reconstruct and embrace their renewed professional
identities and work effectively in diverse settings, particularly in the sociopolitical San
Diego-Tijuana border region. The data suggested that teachers must be fluent in the hid-
den dynamics that affect schools: immigration, poverty, race, culture, and language.

Immigration
Over the past several decades, immigration patterns have changed dramatically. The
wave of immigrants from Europe has diminished, and increasing numbers are coming
to the United States from Korea, Vietnam, China, India, the Philippines, Somalia, Laos,
Mexico, and Central America—areas in which the dominant culture is more collective. That
is, family and community are placed before the individual, people are more cooperative
than competitive, and there is a more hierarchical social structure (National Center for
Education Statistics 2004). By the turn of the century, according to the 2000 United States
Census, an estimated 40 percent of all school children will be considered limited-English
proficient (LEP) and will be living in non-English language homes. The United States
has approximately 30 million Latinos, making it the fifth largest Hispanic country in the
world (Pew Hispanic Center 2005).

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Teachers, the majority of whom have ancestral roots in Europe, often are surprised
when they hear of discrimination and exclusionary issues facing recent immigrants
(Nieto 1999). Unfortunately, immigrant issues are virtually invisible to them, and
Huntington’s proposal that immigrants just should become Americans appears to
guide legislation. A growing number of states are passing legislation that impacts im-
migrants (Lacey 2004; Crawford 2000). In 1994, California voters passed Proposition
187, denying illegal immigrants access to education. Subsequently, the federal district
courts decreed that the proposition violated the 1982 U.S. Supreme Court decision in
Plyler vs. Doe, 457 U.S. 202—a case which allowed undocumented, illegal residents of
the United States the right to receive free public K–12 education. Though legislative
changes are forthcoming, immigrant students are generally overlooked and under-
served (Ruiz-de-Velasco, Fix, and Clewell 2000) at the classroom and institutional
levels in pre-K–12 schools (Romo, Bradfield, and Serrano 2004).

The following data illustrate preservice students’ feelings of transformation by

learning about and forming relationships with immigrant students. One student
described how he moved from ignorance about the community to having his eyes
opened and becoming allies with immigrant students and families.

In everyday life, it is so easy for me to become friends with people who are similar to
me because I see them at social functions, they look like me . . . we are similar. At first, I
felt ashamed by how little I knew about the country of Sudan and the Sudanese people.
I didn’t know about the oppression and war that has occurred and continues. I didn’t
realize the lifestyle changes that people have to make to live in the United States.

In an attempt to become a multicultural competent advocate for all children,

all members of the education program, including myself, have embarked on a chal-
lenging journey. This journey, or process, has and continues to feature community
service learning, practicum experience, and multicultural study. Thus far, it has
been an incredible challenge and has already redefined my concept of advocacy in
education.

The preservice teachers’ experiences in the CSL settings also impacted the ways
these students analyzed curriculum and instructional strategies. One preservice
teacher, who was enrolled concurrently in a methods course that required 50 hours
of practicum at a school where Sudanese students sat through culturally irrelevant
lessons, shared:

Here, first- and second-generation Americans, the majority of whom are Sudanese
refugees, come together in the collective aspiration to succeed in a new environment. An
example I noticed was an assignment focusing on the southern colonies. The emphasis
rested on geographical attributes that each region held, and the impact of these attributes
on production. The student I was helping could not even come close to visualizing the
varying environments. It is the teacher’s job to make these far-off realities attainable
for the student by relating them to existing dynamics that are more accessible to the
cultural groups present in the classroom.

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As these preservice teachers integrated classroom theory and discussions with their
CSL experience, they realized that they previously did not care about situations that had
little to do with their own world. However, after they built relationships with people that
were directly affected by anti-immigrant sentiment and who might be struggling in the
U.S. educational system, they learned about the importance of meeting individual needs
in a classroom. This transformation led these preservice teachers to aspire to become
advocates.

Poverty
Across the nation, a growing number of children are born into poverty. They enter
kindergarten with hopes and dreams of opportunity and progress. Unfortunately, by
the time most of these children leave school, many of their hopes have withered. Edu-
cation in the United States is about social class. According to McLaren (1994, 180), the
social class of the poor, or the underclass, consists of “black, Hispanic, and Asian class
factions, together with the white aged, the unemployed and underemployed, a large
section of women, the handicapped, and other marginalized economic groups.” In the
United States, the underclass continues to increase, while access to the privileges held
by the middle- and upper-class diminishes. Despite the myth of meritocracy, which
maintains that a solid work ethic is all one needs to pull oneself up by the bootstraps,
the U.S. middle class is diminishing, the upper class remains relatively static, and
the underclass is growing. About 25 percent of U.S. children live in poverty, and that
percentage continues to increase (Children’s Defense Fund 2005; Romo, Bradfield, and
Serrano 2004).

Through CSL, students became aware of other experiences, not by going to another
country, but by engaging in their immediate surroundings—a close and nearby world.
As a result, preservice teachers examined their privilege and transformed their previ-
ously unexamined understanding of curriculum. One preservice teacher, a middle-class,
European-American woman, described her sense of guilt after working with 13-year-old
students.

We finished the homework, and then I left. The second I got into the car, I began to cry.
It was very evident that all the kids did not have a lot of money. I felt really bad, and there
was that huge layer of guilt hanging over me. So I decided, from that point on, I would
always bring something with me, even if it were just something small. I love to see the kids
look so excited, and they seem to really appreciate everything I do for them. Over the past
eight or nine weeks, I have become really attached to these kids.

A preservice teacher who had more experience with poverty focused on K–12
students’ academic needs rather than on her feelings of guilt.

Many students cannot afford special classes like the ones offered in Sylvan Learning
Centers or Kaplan, so I brought them the program. The next two times that I attend the
community service learning site, I am going to give a presentation on the importance of
studying abroad during college. Also, I am going to have them write a letter to out-of-state
universities so they can get exposure to educational opportunities outside of their world.

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For some preservice teachers, this was the first time they realized what it felt like to
be a minority. This experience helped them to realize that they were raised with many
economic advantages compared to the students with whom they were engaging. Their
narratives illustrated profound learning about future teachers’ responsibilities to exam-
ine systemic educational implications of poverty and to go beyond teaching a particular
content or prescribed curriculum.

Race and Culture

Those with power are frequently least aware of—or least willing to acknowledge—its
existence. Those with less power are often most aware of its existence (Delpit 1995, 26).

Power and privilege are unequivocally intertwined with race in U.S. society. Power,
inequitably distributed, is represented by time, territory, and task. Who gets the time and
attention? Who sets the schedule, and whose schedule counts? Who dominates our lives in
positions and organizations? Who’s an insider? Who determines what’s important for us to
do, value, or compare to as a measure of our worth? Power and privilege intersect race and
gender, the balance of which falls into the hands of European-American males. Teachers
must understand this intersection to provide a more equitable education for students outside
the circle of power. One way to gain understanding is to examine the school performance of
students who do not have access to the power or privilege of the U.S. dominant culture.

The dropout rates across the nation for Hispanics/Latinos, African Americans, and
American Indians are particularly high (Romo, Bradfield, and Serrano 2004) when compared
to European-American students. In the United States, dropout rates for Latinos and American
Indians hover between 40 and 50 percent, almost double that for African Americans and triple
that for European Americans (Children’s Defense Fund 2005; Pew Hispanic Center 2005).

The problem becomes even more dramatic when the racial mix of teachers to students
is examined. Though the teaching force is approximately 93 percent European American,
people of color comprise more than 50 percent of the population in states such as Arizona,
Florida, California, and Texas (United States Census Bureau 2000). Unfortunately, most
teachers are likely to ask more complex questions of, provide more praise, use a wider
variety of strategies, provide more opportunities to learn, and positively evaluate students
whose culture and first language are most like their own. In short, monocultural teachers
have the most success with students who are most like themselves (Stanton-Salazar 1997;
Romo, Bradfield, and Serrano 2004).

The CSL placements prompted these preservice teachers to develop understanding

about racial and ethnic identity. One preservice teacher described her discovery that race
is a dynamic which impacts effectiveness in the classroom.

I noticed, on the first day that I began my volunteer service at this school, how many
of the children were intimidated by me. It took me a little while (and a short conversation
with a few of the teachers) to realize that they feared, as well as looked up to me, because
I am ‘white.’

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A key factor in these preservice teachers’ professional development was their ability
to correlate field experiences, university experiential learning, and personal development
with theoretical frameworks. One preservice teacher reflected on developing relationships
with K–12 students from various ethnic and racial backgrounds.

I still can remember the real sense of fear that I had toward these students as I entered
the third-grade classroom for the first time. It took me by surprise that I was actually
frightened of the small children. I thought about this sense of fear and paralleled it directly
to the insights of Tatum’s article ‘Talking about Race’ (1992). I remember the direct sense
of fear I had while reading the article, which helped me to overcome my own sense of selfish
pride. It allowed me to know that we all have racism and preconceived judgments; yet, by
confronting them, we can learn to overcome ignorant stereotypes.

One preservice teacher explained how she moved beyond initial cultural incompetence
to reconstruct her own identities and become more culturally relevant.

By learning about the different stages of Helms’s (Tatum 1992) model of White Racial
Identity Development, I have come to understand that my earlier neglect of obvious racism
in the U.S. was normal. But through experiences like service learning, I am slowly moving
through the stages to become a more multicultural competent human being.

Another preservice teacher described her personal growth.

Though I had grown up being open to different cultures, there were just three cultures
that I was surrounded with from day one. Now, I had to prepare myself to learn and accept
about ten new cultures that I knew nothing about. I don’t think I would have been able to
do it on my own. But through my experiences with the South Sudan center, being a teach-
ing assistant in numerous different classroom settings, and through class lectures, videos,
and conversations, I found a way to start.

Language
By the end of 2003, 25 percent of the students in California public schools were liv-
ing in non-English speaking homes (California Department of Education 2005). Despite
research demonstrating that students learn a second language best when they build aca-
demically upon their first language, California bilingual education programs and teacher
training were undermined in 1998 by Proposition 227 (Katz and Kohl 2002). This type of
legislation means that new teachers will not be equipped to understand the majority of
their students linguistically, culturally, or academically.

Wittingly or unwittingly, schools act as transmitters and preservers of the dominant culture,
even in schools where the majority of students are not European American. Schools are places
that require conformity rather than places of opportunity and access. Not surprisingly, the
data from this study showed that monolingual preservice teachers experienced frustration in
classrooms with second-language learners because they did not have the linguistic ability to
understand the students. Of particular interest, however, were two bilingual preservice teachers
who carried the knowledge, dispositions, and skills of linguistic colonialism. One wrote:

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When I went over to help student B, I noticed that she was writing in Spanish. This
alarmed me. I told her in English, ‘I think you need to write this in English.’ Her classmate
then intruded and said, ‘Mrs. _______ lets us write in Spanish if we want. Student B
doesn’t speak English well, so she can.’ I was amazed that the instructor allowed the use of
another language in the writing journal, yet shocked that the other students did not take
up the offer and, instead, continued to write in English.

As a substitute teacher, I have mistakenly imposed my biased values and beliefs onto
students. I have even said to the students, ‘I do not want to hear anyone talking in Spanish
in this class, because I want you to learn English. If I hear anyone not trying, and talking
to me in Spanish, you will write a disciplinary essay.’ It became clear that imposing my
prejudices upon the students is not the correct thing to do. Yet, it can be easy to do if one
is not exposed to multicultural-oriented activities that provide the educator with cultural
awareness and sensitivity to differences.

Discussion
The data suggested that a process and a product of border pedagogy are needed to respond
to the study question: How are future teacher candidates, who are monocultural, effectively
prepared to teach in a border context? Preservice teachers need cognitive preparation and
external motivation to engage in unfamiliar settings. At the beginning of the study, many
preservice teachers were motivated by their required participation in unfamiliar neighborhood
educational settings. Many were afraid of what they did not know. Over time, the preservice
teachers demonstrated a transformation of their knowledge base, dispositions, and skills
to function as multiculturally competent advocates for all students. This shift began with
university classroom supports to help these preservice teachers see and contextualize their
educational experiences. Experiential learn-
ing activities reinforced class content and

Most teachers are likely to

helped them gain a better understanding
of themselves, their students, and teaching
in a border region.
ask more complex questions
The data also provided insights into of, provide more praise, use
the study question: What are some impor-
tant characteristics of border pedagogy a wider variety of strategies,
teachers? When preservice teachers had
gained a border pedagogy knowledge
provide more opportunities to
base, they began to consider curriculum in learn, and positively evaluate
sociopolitical terms and to see complexities
of identity—such as class, national origin,
students whose culture and
language, race, and culture—in a border first language are most like
region. These border pedagogy teachers
began to see racism, sexism, classism, and
their own.
discrimination in relation to their own class,
background, and biased epistemology. They
began to understand their own and students’ racial and cultural identity frameworks and
cognitive background. They also began to recognize the sociopolitical influences on immigra-

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tion, mono- and multicultural curriculum and learning environments, and class and privilege
issues in teaching and learning.

When border pedagogy educators reflect on their experiences and knowledge

base, they appear to develop dispositions that support a strong sense of personal
identity as teachers, learners, family members, and community members. They value
communications, take students’ success personally, stress student-centered curricu-
lum and student voice, and hold an attitude of advocacy. They realize their own
identities as members of a team or learning community. They value learning about
their students’ families. They espouse open-mindedness and acceptance, the value
of personal transformation, an appreciation of multicultural education, a willingness
to challenge their own beliefs, a belief that all students can succeed, and the value
of self-reflection.

Border pedagogy educators demonstrate and develop their knowledge and dis-
positions by helping students solve problems, expanding cultural backgrounds, and
showing caring and trust. They adapt curriculum to students, bring nonstandard
resources to teaching and learning, and apply life experiences to learning. They under-
stand individual and group motivations and behaviors, and they use this knowledge
to create a learning environment that encourages positive social interaction, active
engagement in learning, and self-motivation.

Conclusions
Some pundits see international borders as geopolitical walls to keep people and
institutions separate. The real-
ity, however, is that sociopolitical
zones around geopolitical borders

When border pedagogy are fluid and connecting. The

method of teaching and learning
educators reflect on their described here (mixing theory and
practice) endeavored to teach the
experiences and knowledge skills of critical thinking by debat-
base, they appear to develop ing power, meaning, and identity.
Border pedagogy encourages tol-
dispositions that support a erance, ethical sophistication, and
strong sense of personal identity openness, and works to decolonize
and revitalize learning and teach-
as teachers, learners, family ing to promote liberty and justice
members, and community for all. Border pedagogy is a prac-
tice that enables classroom teachers
members. and students to view education
as a political, social, and cultural
enterprise (Giroux 1988).

This study has implications for educators in general. Students and teachers must
be skilled in negotiation, language, immigration, race, culture, and class issues. The

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study also suggests that common diversity issues may be significant to how students
and teachers work with individuals from other sides of social or geopolitical borders
with which they deal. Future studies should involve exchanges between educators
from both sides of international borders to explore their respective practices and their
congruence with border pedagogy.

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Jaime J. Romo is a leader in the study and development of border pedagogy, an emerging field
in multicultural education. His research interests include lives of teachers, transformational
teaching, and psychodynamic organizations in the Tijuana-San Diego region.

Claudia Chavez is a doctoral candidate in the Educational Leadership program at the University
of San Diego. Her research interests include language, culture, and literacy.

The Educational Forum • Volume 70 • Winter 2006 • 153