REVIEW OF RELATED

LITERATURE
 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The review of related literature is instrumental in the selection of topic, formulation of

hypothesis and deductive reasoning leading to the problem. It helps to get a clear idea and
supports the findings with regard to the problem under study.

The objective of the study has been “Effects of National cadet corps training,
and Specific physical fitness training on selected physical, physiological and psychological
variables among college women students”. In order to facilitate such a study through text
books, magazines, journals, research quarterlies available in the libraries of Kongunadu arts
and science college, and Bharathiar University Coimbatore, and through internet of the
related works would held in finding in the direction of the study. A study of the relevant
literature is an essential step to get a full picture of what has been done with regard of the
problem under study such a review brings about a deep in clear perceptive of the overall
fields. The relevant studies found from various sources which the investigator has come
actors are enumerated below.

2.1 STUDIES ON MILITARY TRAINING

Rocha’s et.al (2010) had conducted a study on changes in individual glucose

threshold during military training. The objective of the present study was to assess any
improvement in the IGT (Individual Glucose Threshold) of soldiers during military physical
training (MPT). Nine healthy non-athlete recruits (mean weight: 66.3+/-7.9 kg; mean height:
1.77+/-0.05 cm; mean age: 18.4+/-0.5 year) were submitted to incremental ergo metric test
on a treadmill. The initial speed was 6.0 kamahi (-1) followed by increment of 1.0 kamahi (-
1) every 2 min until the subject became exhausted. Between running stages, a 15 s pause
allowed 5 mull of capillary blood sample to be collected from the earlobe for glucose
analysis. The IGT was determined by blood glucose concentration ([Gluck]) kinetics
considering the exercise intensity corresponding to the lower [Gluck] during the test. The
tests were conducted in four steps: before and after exactly 30, 60, and 90 days of training.

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The results showed that IGT was initially detected at 9.4+/-1.8 kamahi (-1) but shifted to
11.4+/-1.9, 11.2+/-2.1 and 11.9+/-1.4 at 30, 60, and 90 days of training, respectively. A
significant improvement after 30 and 90 days of training (p<0.05) compared to baseline. We
concluded that the IGT shifted to higher exercise intensities after MPT. Future studies
examining different training modalities are required to verify our results.

Williamson DA, et.al (2009) conducted a study on military services fitness database.
The Department of Defense (DOD) has mandated development of a system to collect and
manage data on the weight, percent body fat (%BF), and fitness of all military personnel.
This project aimed to (1) develop a computerized weight and fitness database to track
individuals and Army units over time allowing cross-sectional and longitudinal evaluations
and (2) test the computerized system for feasibility and integrity of data collection over
several years of usage. The computer application, the Military Services Fitness Database
(MSFD), was designed for (1) storage and tracking of data related to height, weight, %BF for
the Army Weight Control Program (AWCP) and Army Physical Fitness Test (APFT) scores
and (2) generation of reports using these data. A 2.5-year pilot test of the MSFD indicated
that it monitors population and individual trends of changing body weight, %BF, and fitness
in a military population.

Singh A et.al (2009) had conducted a study on oral health knowledge, attitude and
practice among NCC Navy Cadets and their correlation with oral hygiene in south India.
The objective of the present study was to determine oral health knowledge, attitude and
practice among National Cadet Corps (NCC) Navy Cadets and their correlation with oral
hygiene in South India. A questionnaire study was conducted among 412 high school
students who were voluntary participants of an NCC unit in South India. Knowledge,
attitude and practice scores were calculated, and then were correlated with Simplified
Oral Hygiene Index (OHI-S) values. Spearman's correlation test was used to measure the
correlation. The significance value was set at P < 0.05. Statistical analysis was performed
using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences software for Windows, version 13.NCC
Cadets' knowledge about gum diseases and the use of fluoride-containing dentifrice was
found to be low, dental visits were infrequent and the consumption of sweets was found
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to be high. There was no correlation between knowledge and attitude scores with that of
OHI-S, but a significant correlation was seen between practice and OHI-S scores. Most of
the cadets did not have knowledge about the causes and the prevention of dental diseases.
A significant number of participants sought further information, hence it can be said that
the cadets had a positive attitude towards oral health. There was no correlation seen
between knowledge and attitude scores with that of OHI-S measured, but a significant
correlation was noted between practice and OHI-S scores.

Vanderburgh PM (2008) conducted a study on occupational relevance and body

mass bias in military physical fitness tests. Recent evidence makes a compelling case that US
Army, Navy, and Air Force health-related physical fitness tests penalize larger, not just
fatter, service members. As a result, they tend to receive lower scores than their lighter
counterparts, the magnitude of which can be explained by biologic scaling laws. Larger
personnel, on the other hand, tend to be better performers of work-related fitness tasks such
as load carriage, heavy lifting, and materiel handling. This has been explained by empirical
evidence that lean body mass and lean body mass to dead mass ratio (dead mass = fat mass
and external load to be carried/lifted) are more potent determinants of performance of these
military tasks than the fitness test events such as push-ups, sit-ups, or 2-mile-distance run
time. Because promotions are based, in part, on fitness test performance, lighter personnel
have an advancement advantage, although they tend to be poorer performers on many tests of
work-related fitness. Several strategies have been proposed to rectify this incongruence
including balanced tests, scaled scores, and correction factors—yet most need large-scale
validation. Because nearly all subjects in such research have been men, future investigations
should focus on women and elucidate the feasibility of universal physical fitness tests for all
that include measures of health- and work-related fitness while imposing no systematic body
mass bias.

Eaton KM et.al (2008) had conducted a study on prevalence of mental health

problems, treatment need, and barriers to care among primary care-seeking spouses of
military service members involved in Iraq and Afghanistan deployments. Military spouses
must contend with unique issues such as a mobile lifestyle, rules and regulations of military
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life, and frequent family separations including peacekeeping and combat deployments. These
issues may have an adverse effect on the health of military spouses. This study examined the
mental health status, rates of care utilization, source of care, as well as barriers and stigma of
mental health care utilization among military spouses who were seeking care in military
primary care clinics. The data show spouses have similar rates of mental health problems
compared to soldiers. Spouses were more likely to seek care for their mental health problems
and were less concerned with the stigma of mental health care than were soldiers. Services
were most often received from primary care physicians, rather than specialty mental health
professionals, which may relate to the lack of availability of mental health services for
spouses on military installations.

Taylor MK, et.al (2008) conducted a study on physical fitness influences stress
reactions to extreme military training. BACKGROUND: Physical fitness and physical
conditioning have long been valued by the military for their roles in enhancing mission-
specific performance and reducing risk of injury in the war fighter. It is not known whether
physical fitness plays a causal role in attenuating acute military stress reactions or the
evolution of post-traumatic stress disorder. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to
determine whether physical fitness influences the impact of stressful events during military
survival training in 31 men. METHODS: Participants self-reported their most recent Physical
Readiness Test scores and completed a trait anxiety measure before survival training.
Participants also completed the Impact of Events Scale (IES) 24 hours after training.
RESULTS: Aerobic fitness was inversely associated with the total IES score (p < 0.01,
adjusted R2 = 0.19). When adjusted for trait anxiety, this relationship was substantially
attenuated and no longer significant (p = 0.11). Trait anxiety was inversely associated with
aerobic fitness (p < 0.05) and positively related to IES (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS:
Physical fitness may buffer stress symptoms secondary to extreme military stress and its
effects may be mediated via fitness-related attenuations in trait anxiety.

Israeli E, et.al (2008) conducted a study on iron deficiency and the role of nutrition
among female military recruits. The impact of iron deficiency is considerable when
enhanced physical fitness is required. Female military recruits represent a unique
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population faced with intense physical and cognitive demands. PURPOSE: To examine the
prevalence of iron deficiency and the impact of dietary habits among female recruits in the
Israel Defense Forces. METHODS: Three hundred and forty-eight recruits completed the
study (188 female combatants, 58 male combatants, and 92 noncombat females). Dietary
intake was assessed using a Food Frequency Questionnaire. Blood samples were collected
for complete blood cell count, iron indices, and vitamin B12. The common definitions for
anemia and iron store deficiency were used as follows: hemoglobin <12 g x dL for females
and <14 g x dL for males; serum ferrite <12 mg x dL. RESULTS: The prevalence of iron
deficiency and iron deficiency anemia was 29.8% and 12.8%, respectively, among female
combatants. Similar data were found among noncombat females (27.2% and 17.4%,
respectively) as compared with 5.2% and 0% among males. No significant difference in
iron or total calorie intake was detected between subjects with iron deficiency (with or
without anemia) when compared with subjects with normal iron status in the same study
group. Plant sources constituted 85% of dietary iron source for females, in comparison to
73% for males. The contribution of red meat to the daily iron intake was 2% for females
and 20% for males. CONCLUSIONS: A high prevalence of iron deficiency was found
among female recruits. Coupled with the iron loss during menstruation, inadequate iron
intake may have a permissive role for iron deficiency in female recruits and is an important
issue facing females in the military.

Mitchell SD, et.al (2008) conducted a study on body composition and physical
fitness in a cohort of US military medical students. Medical school requires that students
balance academic schedules with other lifestyle demands, including nutrition, physical
fitness, and wellness. We retrospectively reviewed trends in body composition and physical
fitness of a cohort of military medical students attending the Uniformed Services University.
Although students were able to maintain muscular endurance and body composition, cardio
respiratory endurance, as measured by a timed 1.5-mile run, declined significantly over a 2-
yr period.

Anuq N et.al (2007) had conducted a study on risk factors for traumatic dental
injuries in an adolescent male population in India. The aim of this study was to determine
34
the prevalence of traumatic injuries to the anterior teeth and evaluate the role of anatomic
risk factors in the occurrence of such injuries in a group with an assumed behavior
predisposing them to trauma. The study population consisted of 370 male enrollees of the
National Cadet Corps (NCC) in India. Risk factors such as the socioeconomic status (SES)
of parents, lip coverage, incisor over jet, and the cause and nature of trauma to anterior
teeth were recorded. The Chi-square test was used for testing the association between these
factors. Increasing over jet was further analyzed using chi-square for linear trends.
Variables found significant were subjected to logistic regression. A prevalence of 14.9% of
traumatic injuries to anterior teeth was found in the study population with sports activities
being the most common cause. Permanent maxillary central incisors were most commonly
injured with injuries involving enamel and dentin being the most frequently observed.
Increased over jet and inadequate lip coverage were significantly associated with the
occurrence of trauma. With an odds ratio of 7.2 inadequate lip coverage was identified,
using binary logistic regression, as the single most independent risk factor for the
occurrence of traumatic injury to the maxillary anterior teeth.

Reid BC et.al (2006) had conducted a study on the military oral health care system as
a model for eliminating disparities in oral health .Healthy People (HP) 2010 is a national
health promotion and disease prevention initiative of the U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services. The HP 2010 report highlighted a range of racial/ethnic disparities in dental
health. A substantial portion of these disparities appear to be explained by differences in
access to care. Members of the U.S. military have universal access to care that also has a
compulsory component. The authors conducted a study to investigate the extent to which
disparities in progress toward achievement of HP 2010 objectives were lower among the
military population and to compare the oral health of the military population with that of the
civilian population. The participants in this study were non-Hispanic white and non-Hispanic
black males aged 18 to 44 years. They were drawn from the Tri-Service Comprehensive Oral
Health Survey (10,869 including 899 recruits who participated in the TSCOHS Recruit
Study) and the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (4,779).We found
no disparities between black and white adults in untreated caries and recent dental visit rates

35
in the military population. Disparities in missing teeth were much lower among military
personnel than among civilians. A universal access-to-care system that incorporated an
aspect of compulsory treatment displayed little to no racial disparity in relevant oral health
outcomes. This demonstrates that it is possible for large, diverse populations to have much
lower levels of disparities in oral health even when universal access to care is not provided
until the patient is 18 or 19 years of age.

Hardoff D et.al (2006) had conducted a study on health perspectives regarding

adolescents in military service. Our purpose is to illuminate health perspectives of
adolescents in military service, who comprise the main bulk of military personnel. Two
views are emphasized: the soldier as a developing adolescent and the healthcare of
adolescent soldiers. The capacity for abstract thinking and future planning, characteristic of
late adolescence, opposes the military challenges of obedience, disengagement from the
family, and potential threats for physical injury and mental stress, in addition to the
requirement for responsibility beyond the individual's personal needs. On the other hand, at
discharge from military service, the mature young adult faces questions of a 17-year-old
adolescent. Health perspectives regarding adolescents in military service include physical
and mental health screening before draft; recruiting adolescents with chronic illnesses;
specific healthcare issues during service, including routine medical care, psychosocial
problems of young people in service and approach to suicide and to risk behaviors; health
aspects of adolescent women in military frameworks; and the dual commitment of physicians
as military officers. Professionals who care for the well-being of young people in their late
teens and early 20s in military service need to consider the service period as an additional
developmental stage within late adolescence that requires attention as part of the
comprehensive healthcare.

Hope CW et.al (2006) had conducted a study on mental health problems, use of
mental health services, and attrition from military service after returning from
deployment to Iraq or Afghanistan. The US military has conducted population-level
screening for mental health problems among all service members returning from
deployment to Afghanistan, Iraq, and other locations. To date, no systematic analysis of

36
this program has been conducted, and studies have not assessed the impact of these
deployments on mental health care utilization after deployment. To determine the
relationship between combat deployment and mental health care use during the first year
after return and to assess the lessons learned from the post deployment mental health
screening effort, particularly the correlation between the screening results, actual use of
mental health services, and attrition from military service. Population-based descriptive
study of all Army soldiers and Marines who completed the routine post deployment
health assessment between May 1, 2003, and April 30, 2004, on return from deployment
to Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan (n = 16,318), Operation Iraqi Freedom (n
= 222,620), and other locations (n = 64,967). Health care utilization and occupational
outcomes were measured for 1 year after deployment or until leaving the service if this
occurred sooner. Screening positive for posttraumatic stress disorder, major depression,
or other mental health problems; referral for a mental health reason; use of mental health
care services after returning from deployment; and attrition from military service, with
11.3% after returning from Afghanistan and 8.5% after returning from other locations
(P<.001). Mental health problems reported on the post deployment assessment were
significantly associated with combat experiences, mental health care referral and
utilization, and attrition from military service. Thirty-five percent of Iraq war veterans
accessed mental health services in the year after returning home; 12% per year were
diagnosed with a mental health problem. More than 50% of those referred for a mental
health reason were documented to receive follow-up care although less than 10% of all
service members who received mental health treatment were referred through the
screening program. Combat duty in Iraq was associated with high utilization of mental
health services and attrition from military service after deployment. The deployment
mental health screening program provided another indicator of the mental health impact
of deployment on a population level but had limited utility in predicting the level of
mental health services that were needed after deployment. The high rate of using mental
health services among Operation Iraqi Freedom veterans after deployment highlights
challenges in ensuring that there are adequate resources to meet the mental health needs
of returning veterans.

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 Sharp MA, et.al (2006) conducted a study on temporal changes in the physical
fitness of US Army recruits. This article defines physical fitness and then reviews the
literature on temporal trends in the physical fitness of new US Army recruits. Nineteen
papers were found that met the review criteria and had published recruit fitness data from
1975 to 2003. The limited data on recruit muscle strength suggested an increase from 1978
to 1998 (20-year period). Data on push-ups and sit-ups suggested no change in muscular
endurance between 1984 and 2003 (19-year period). Limited data suggested that maximal
oxygen uptake (V02max) [mL/kg/min] of male recruits did not change from 1975 to 1998
(23-year period), while there was some indication of a small increase in female recruit
V02max in the same period. On the other hand, slower times on 1-mile (1.6km) and 2-mile
(3.2km) runs indicate declines in aerobic performance from 1987 to 2003 (16-year period).
The apparent discrepancy between the V02max and endurance running data may indicate
that recruits are not as proficient at applying their aerobic capability to performance tasks,
such as timed runs, possibly because of factors such as increased bodyweight, reduced
experience with running, lower motivation and/or environmental factors. Recruit height,
weight and body mass index have progressively increased between 1978 and 2003 (25-year
period). Both the body fat and fat-free mass of male recruits increased from 1978 to 1998
(20-year period); however, body composition data on female recruits did not show a
consistent trend. In this same time period, the literature contained little data on youth
physical activity but there was some suggestion that caloric consumption increased. This
article indicates that temporal trends in recruit fitness differ depending on the fitness
component measured. The very limited comparable data on civilian populations showed
trends similar to the recruit data.

Dyrstad SM et.al (2006) had conducted a study on physical fitness and physical
training during Norwegian military service. Evaluate the physical fitness and training of
Norwegian infantry soldiers during 10 months of compulsory military service. Maximal
oxygen uptake (V02max) and maximal numbers of sit-ups, push-ups, and chin-ups and 3-km
running time were tested in 107 male infantry soldiers at the beginning and end of basic
training (BT), and again at demobilization. The amount of physical training was registered

38
throughout the military service. During BT, major improvements in sit-ups and push-ups
were found. V02max increased in soldiers with the lowest initial V02max, but decreased to
pre-BT level at demobilization. The amount of obligatory physical training was 8.5 hours x
week(-l) during BT and 35% lower after BT, and was usually performed in uniform at low
to moderate intensity. The amount of high-intensity endurance and strength training during
compulsory military service is to low to improve the soldiers' endurance and muscular
strength.

Thomas DQ, et.al (2004) conducted a study on physical fitness of army reserved
officers training corps. One role of Army Reserved Officer's Training Corps programs is to
physically prepare cadets for the demands of a military career. Cadets participate in physical
training 3 days per week as part of their military science curriculum. Limited research has
been conducted on the fitness level of ROTC cadets; therefore, the purpose of this study was
to profile the physical fitness status of a cadre of ROTC cadets. Forty-three cadets (30 men
and 13 women) performed Army Physical Fitness Test assessments (2-mile run, 2-minute
maximum push-ups and sit-ups) and clinical assessments of fitness (Bruce protocol
Vo(2)max, underwater weighing, and 1 repetition maximum [1RM] bench press tests). Mean
+/- standard deviations were calculated to provide the physical fitness profile for each
parameter. Male cadets (21 +/- 2.2 years; height 177.4 +/- 6.6 cm; mass 79.2 +/- 9.4 kg)
scored 49.6 +/- 6.1 ml.kg(-l).min(-l) for Vo(2)max, 14.8 +/- 4.2% fat, 86.5 +/- 24.9 kg 1RM
bench press, 2-mile run of 13.97 +/- 1.4 minutes, 70.5 +/- 12.8 sit-ups, and 60.2 +/- 13.2
push-ups. Female cadets (20 +/- 2.4 years; height 165.1 +/- 8.0 cm; mass 63.5 +/- 10.0 kg)
scored 40.8 +/- 3.9 ml.kg(-l).min(-l) for Vo(2) max, 23.9 +/- 3.8% fat, 35.3 +/- 8.2 kg 1RM
bench press, 2-mile run of 17.0 +/- 1.6 minutes, 65.0 +/- 12.9 sit-ups, and 33.3 +/- 11.2 push­
ups. The mean scores were above the 83rd percentile on all APFT items and average (percent
fat) to above average (Vo(2)max and men's bench press scores) when compared with peer­
age and sex-corrected norms. Only the women's bench press score was below average. With
the exception of the women's bench press, these ROTC cadets possessed average to above
average levels of fitness.

39
 Friedl KE, et.al (2002) conducted a study on body fat standards and individual
physical readiness in a randomized army. Body fat standards have been used by the military
services since the early 1980s to prevent obesity and motivate good fitness habits. The Army
Weight Control Program has continued to undergo evaluation and incorporate improvements
based on emerging scientific findings. Recently drafted revisions of Department of Defense­
wide procedures address issues of consistency and validity raised by external oversight
groups. This study evaluated the impact of three proposed refinements of the Army Weight
Control Program. Anthropometric measurements and fitness test performance were obtained
in a randomized sample of 1,038 male and 347 no pregnant female soldiers at three Army
posts. Of this sample, 11% of men and 17% of women were overweight and over fat; 6.3 and
9.8%, respectively, were currently on the Army Weight Control Program. Screening weight
tables that ensure women are not inappropriately striving to meet weights more stringent than
"healthy" weight (i.e., body mass index < 25 kg/m2) still correctly identified all women for
evaluation for the age-specific body fat standards. Body fat estimation using more valid
DOD body fat equations that include an abdominal circumference for women reduced the
number of female soldiers currently classified as exceeding fat standards, coincidentally
resulting in a comparable prevalence of male and female soldiers over the fat standards
(12%). A body fat allowance for young soldiers who scored very well on the physical fitness
test could have benefited one-fourth of the soldiers exceeding fat standards and
acknowledges biological variability in body fat thresholds. Whereas this linkage may
motivate fitness habits, it complicates enforcement of reasonably achievable body fat
standards. The proposed changes in fat screening and measurement methods are appropriate,
but the impact to health and physical readiness of the Force cannot be accurately predicted or
measured because of the absence of comprehensive baseline data and tracking mechanisms.

Szasz A et.al (2002) had conducted a study on an electromyographical evaluation of

the validity of the 2-minute sit-up section of the Army Physical Fitness Test in measuring
abdominal strength and endurance. The aim was to evaluate electromyographical the validity
of the sit-up section of the Army Physical Fitness Test as a way to assess abdominal
endurance. Twenty-eight Reserve Officer Training Corps students at the University of

40
Scranton (Scranton, PA) performed the test while eight electromyography surface electrodes
picked up the activity of the rectus abdominals and rectus femoris muscles. The researchers
analyzed three groups of five contractions from the beginning, middle, and the end of the
test. The percentage area of each group of five contractions for each channel and for each of
the 28 participants was averaged. Two paired sample t tests were used to analyze the change
in area for the left hip flexor and left abdominal muscle (t = 5.951 , P < 0 .001) and right hip
flexor and right abdominal muscle (t = 5.025, p < 0.001). Results for both right and left sides
indicate a statistically significant increase in the use of hip flexors as compared with
abdominal muscles.Hip flexors can compensate for fatigued abdominal muscles, causing sit-
ups to be performed unsafely, yet are still counted as correct according to Army Physical
Fitness Test standards.

Goh CL et.al (2001) had conducted a study on occupational skin diseases in national
servicemen and military personnel in Singapore; 1989-1999.This is a study of occupational
skin disease among military personnel and conscripts in Singapore. All military personnel
and conscripts diagnosed with occupational dermatomes in the National Skin Centre,
Singapore, between 1989-1999 were studied retrospectively. Conscripts and regulars
comprised 7.3% of all occupational skin disease patients seen. All were male, with a mean
age of 23 years. Irritant contact dermatitis was more common than allergic contact
dermatitis, by 4.4:1. The most common vocations associated with occupational skin diseases
are those involving vehicle repairs and maintenance (48%) and food handling (19%). The
most common irritants were oil/grease (66%), wet work (23%) and solvents (18%). The most
common allergens were food (40%) and chromates (20%). Military personnel and conscripts
make up a significant proportion of occupational skin disease patients seen in Singapore.

HarwoodGE, et.al(1999) conducted a study on Fitness, performance, and risk of

injury in British Army officer cadets. The objectives of this study were to investigate the
effectiveness of the Commissioning Course (CC) to develop and maintain standards of
fitness, to assess capability to perform military tasks, and to determine the relationship
between fitness and risk of injury in 106 British Army officer cadets (OCdts). Aerobic
fitness, muscular strength, endurance, and body composition were regularly assessed.
41
Performance on four representative military tasks was measured at the end of the CC. All
injuries in term 1 were documented. Over the CC, changes in fitness were generally modest
and equivocal. Aerobic fitness improved by approximately 10% (p < 0.01), strength by 5 to
9% (p < 0.05 to p < 0.01), and muscular endurance by 55% (p < 0.01). Reductions in fat (p
< 0.01) and gains in fat free mass (p < 0.05) averaged 3%. The females demonstrated
greater improvements than the males. The majority of OCdts passed the representative
military tasks, although females in some trades showed high failure rates. Forty-six percent
of OCdts sustained injuries in the first term, resulting in 5% of man-days lost. No gender
difference was found in injury rates. The least aerobically fit OCdts sustained more injuries
than their fitter counterparts. In conclusion, there is scope for optimizing the effectiveness
of the CC to enhance fitness and improve the focus of physical training on maximizing
military task performance.

Leqq SJ et.al (1996) had conducted a study on the effects of basic training on
aerobic fitness and muscular strength and endurance of British Army recruits. Sixty-two
Adult Artillery Recruits, 95 Junior Infantry Soldier Recruits and 104 Junior Infantry Leader
Recruits were studied before and after 3, 5 and 11 months, respectively, of British Army
basic training. Before basic training the mean maximal oxygen uptake predicted from cycle
aerometry (pred V02max) for Adult Artillery Recruits was 56.1 ml (kg min)-l. It was 58.3
ml (kg min)-l for the Junior Infantry Soldier Recruits and 58.0 ml (kg min)-l for the Junior
Infantry Leader Recruits. For Adult Artillery Recruits, after basic training there were
statistically significant increases in body weight (+2.1%) and pred V02max (+3.6%) but
mixed responses for muscular strength, endurance and fatigue. For Junior Infantry Soldier
Recruits, there was no significant change in body weight but a significant reduction in pred
V02max (-2.4%) and a trend towards increased isometric muscular strength. For Junior
Infantry Leader Recruits, there were significant increases in body weight (+4.9%), pred
V02max (+3.0%), and isometric muscular strength. These results suggest that the intensity
and nature of 3 months of basic training for Adult Artillery Recruits was sufficient to
improve their aerobic fitness but was not effective in materially improving muscular strength
and endurance. The intensity and nature of basic training for Junior Infantry Soldier Recruits

42
over 5 months was effective in increasing muscular strength but resulted in a decrease in
aerobic fitness possibly on account of their high initial fitness level. Basic training over 11
months for Junior Infantry Leader recruits was effective in increasing body weight, aerobic
fitness and muscular strength. This may have reflected a change in the intensity and nature of
training and in lifestyle after the initial 5 months of basic training, which was undertaken in
common with the Junior Infantry Soldier Recruits, or it may be related to normal ageing.

Brock JR et.al (1995) had conducted a study on the effects of 6 weeks training on the
physical fitness of female recruits to the British army. The purpose of this study was to
evaluate the influence of British army recruit training on the physical fitness and strength of
female recruits. A total of 73 females (aged 17-23 years) of a single intake of Women's Royal
Army Corps (WRAC) recruits were tested at the beginning and end of their 6-week recruit
training programme at the WRAC training centre, Guildford. The battery of tests comprised
the maximal cycle time for a standard NATO test as an indirect method of determination of
maximal oxygen intake (V02 max) using a cycle ergo meter; maximal isometric hand grip
strength (Max Grip); maximal isometric 38 cm upright pull strength (Max 38) and maximal
incremental dynamic lift to 152 cm (IDL 152). In addition, body-weight and the sum of biceps,
triceps, suprailiac and sub scapular skin fold thicknesses were measured in order to assess
alterations in fat-free mass and percentage of body fat (BF). The recruits responded to training
with significant increases in mean V02 max from 45.7 ml kg-1 min-1 (SD = 5.2) to 46.7 ml
kg-1 min-1 (SD = 4.4) or 2.2% (p < .05), mean Max Grip from 263.1 N (SD = 52.2) to 304.9 N
(SD = 54.0) or 15.9% (p < 0.001) and mean IDL 152 from 328.0 N (SD = 78.1) to 361.2 N
(SD = 74.6) or 10.1% (p < 0.001). There was a significant increase in the mean body-weight of
0.61 kg or 1% (p < 0.05), mean fat-free mass of 1.05 kg or 2.4% (p < 0.001), and a significant
reduction in the mean % BF by 3.3% (p < 0.001). It is concluded that female recruit training in
the British army is effective in terms of increasing aerobic fitness, physical strength and fat-
free mass and in reducing the percentage of body fat.

O'Connor JS, et.al (1990) conducted a study on 1988 active Army physical fitness
survey. The U.S. Army Physical Fitness School (USAPFS) at Ft. Benjamin Harrison, IN
was tasked with measuring the physical fitness of the active Army. Performance on the

43
Army Physical Fitness Test (APFT) was used to determine fitness levels. Data were
collected at 14 U.S. Army installations CONUS-wide between October 1 and November 30,
1988. Five thousand three hundred forty-six male and 676 female active Army soldiers (N =
6.022) between the ages of 17-52 and in 60 military occupational specialties (MOSs)
participated in the study. Generally, the results were favorable. Senior age groups
performed well overall, especially females. Improvement in muscular strength and
endurance conditioning since 1984 was also observed. However, concern was raised about
poor performance in the youngest age group (17-21), where 16.6% of the males failed the 2-
mile run event and 29.0% failed overall. Likewise, for females in the 17-21 year age group,
28.8% failed the 2-mile run and 36.0% failed overall. Several reasons are suggested for the
poor performance of the younger age groups, including inadequate leadership in fitness
training and low levels of self-motivation. This study suggest that many soldiers, especially
young soldiers, may not possess sufficient levels of physical fitness to meet the physical
demands of war.

Knapik J(1989) had conducted a study on the Army Physical Fitness Test
(APFT): a review of the literature. This paper examines the literature on the Army
Physical Fitness Test (APFT) as a measure of aerobic capacity and muscular
strength/endurance. The APFT consists of a two-mile run, push-ups, and sit-ups. The
two-mile run is a measure of aerobic fitness because this test is highly correlated with
maximal oxygen uptake (V02max). Muscular strength and absolute muscular endurance
are highly correlated, justifying the use of a single measurement for both. Studies using
factor analysis showed that push-ups and sit-ups have moderate to high factor loadings on
various muscular strength/endurance factors. However, there are methodological
problems in relating these studies to the APFT.

Gordon NF, et.al(1986) conducted a study on the south African defense force
physical training programme. The effect of the South African Defense Force (SADF)
military training on recruits' muscular strength, power, power-endurance, speed and
flexibility was investigated. In the entire study group, a significant enhancement by basic
training was observed for the isokinetic muscular strength of the right elbow extensors

44
alone (17% increase; P less than 0,05). Stratification of training responses on the basis of
initial fitness levels revealed significant improvements with basic training for all measures
of muscular strength, power, power-endurance and speed, but not flexibility, in the below-
average fitness recruit. For all variables the training effect was transient and values
documented on completion of 1 year's military training differed insignificantly from those
recorded before conscription. In contrast, with the exception of elbow extensor muscular
strength, fitness levels of the average and above-average recruits were not increased by
basic training. While further research to assess physical requirements of various military
work and emergency situations is needed to evaluate the desirability of this observed
selective enhancement of recruit fitness levels during basic training, it is evident that
greater emphasis should be placed on flexibility training and physical conditioning after
basic training.

De AK et.al (1981) had conducted a study on a comparison of ventilator pulmonary

functions between the National Cadet Corps (N.C.C.) of hilly and plain areas. National Cadet
Corps (N.C.C.) were tested for assessing their physical efficiency level with special reference
to respiratory performances. The height and weight of the cadets from hilly and plain areas
were noted to be similar indicating alike attainment of growth. The mean values of all
pulmonary function tests (FVC, IC, ERV+TV, FEV1, MEFR) except MVV were observed to
be similar in both the group of subjects. The mean value of MVV was significantly higher in
subjects from hilly area than that in those from plain area.

Voqel JA et.al (1978) had conducted a study on changes in aerobic fitness and body
fat during army recruit training. Aerobic fitness and related indices were evaluated in 254
soldiers at the beginning and near the end of initial army recruit training. Aerobic fitness in
terms of maximal aerobic power was predicted from the Astrand-Ryhming sub maximal
heart rate bicycle test. Estimated V02 max increased by 8%, 42.0—45.3 ml/kg . min.
Accompanying this increase in aerobic capacity was a decline in body fat content without a
change in body weight. It is concluded that army recruit training at the time of this study was
effective in terms of increasing aerobic work capacity and reducing excess body fat.

45
2.2 STUDIES ON PHYSICAL VARIABLES

Miller MG et.al (2010) had conducted a study on resistance training for adolescents.
The benefits and possible detriment of resistance training have been noted extensively in the
literature. Although the benefits of resistance training are well known, many professionals
fail to heed scientific advice or follow appropriate recommendations for resistance training in
adolescents. When developing a resistance training program for adolescents, be cognizant of
any pre-existing health conditions and experience level of the adolescent. For strength
training, the adolescent should begin with exercises that involve all major muscle groups
with relatively light weight, one to three sets of 6 to 15 repetitions, 2 to 3 non-consecutive
days per week. As the adolescent becomes more experienced, gradually increase loads and
add multipoint exercises. Each exercise session should be properly supervised for safety, and
to provide feedback on technique and form, regardless of the resistance training experience
of the adolescent. This article reviews the guidelines for resistance training for health-related
fitness for adolescents.

Naclerio FJ et.al (2009) had conducted a study on the influence of strength and
power on muscle endurance test performance the aim of this study was to determine the
importance of muscular strength and power on a muscular endurance performance test.
Fourteen firefighter recruits performed a progressive resistance test (PRT) followed by a
specific maximum repetition test (MRT40) on the bench press exercise with measurements
of power, strength, and muscular endurance. Comparisons were then made to examine
relationships between the 3 muscular fitness variables. The results, expressed in absolute
form and related to body weight, indicate that the performance in the MRT40 is significantly
related (p <or= 0.05) to body weight (r = 0.78), 1 repetition maximum (1RM) (r = 0.83),
maximal power (Pmax) during the PRT (r = 0.71), Pmax produced with 40 kg in the PRT (r
= 0.64), and the average power and force applied during all repetitions in the MRT40 (r =
0.78 and r = -0.64, respectively). The load that expressed the maximal average power during
the PRT was 47.6 +/- 9.0% of the 1RM and did not show any significant relationship with
1RM nor performance in MRT40. It was concluded that performance in this specific upper
body endurance test depends on several variables, among which maximum strength, body

46
weight, and maximum absolute power are the most important. As the ability to repeatedly
apply sub maximal force is a requirement of firefighters, and other occupations/sports, the
current research suggests that the initial goal of a training program to enhance muscular
endurance should be to increase maximum strength to a point that the specific load being
lifted during repeated actions is less than 40% of the individuals' 1RM. Subsequent training
should then focus on maintaining maximal strength levels and improving local muscular
endurance in the specific task.

Dorgo S et.al (2009) had conducted a study on the effects of manual resistance
training on improving muscular strength and endurance. The purpose of this study was to
investigate the effects of a manual resistance training (MRT) program on muscular strength
and endurance and to compare these effects with those of identically structured weight
resistance training (WRT) program. To do this, 84 healthy college students were randomly
assigned to either an MRT (n = 53, mean +/- SD: age 25.6 +/- 6.0 years, height 170.1 +/- 8.1
cm, body mass 73.9 +/- 16.0 kg, and body fat 24.6 +/- 8.7%) or WRT (n = 31, mean +/- SD:
age 25.5 +/- 5.2 years; height 169.6 +/- 10.1 cm, body mass 75.0 +/- 17.4 kg, and body fat
24.7 +/- 8.5%) group and engaged in a 14-week training program. Each participant's
performance was assessed before and immediately after the 14-week training period.
Muscular strength was assessed by the one-repetition maximum (1RM) bench press test and
the 1RM squat test. Muscular endurance was recorded as the maximum number of repetitions
performed with 70% of pertaining 1RM for the bench press and squat exercises. There were
no significant differences between the MRT and WRT groups at baseline for muscular
strength (p > 0.36) or muscular endurance (p > 0.46). Compared with baseline values, the 14-
week training programs produced significant (p < 0.001) improvements in muscular strength
and muscular endurance of the MRT and WRT groups. However, no significant difference
was observed between the MRT and WRT groups for muscular strength (p > 0.22) or for
muscular endurance (p > 0.09) after training. The improvements in muscular strength and
muscular endurance after a 14-week MRT program in the present study were similar to those
produced by a WRT program, and well-designed MRT exercises seem to be effective for
improving muscular fitness.

47
 De Salles et.al (2009) had conducted a study on rest interval between sets in strength
training. Strength training has become one of the most popular physical activities for
increasing characteristics such as absolute muscular strength, endurance, hypertrophy and
muscular power. For efficient, safe and effective training, it is of utmost importance to
understand the interaction among training variables, which might include the intensity,
number of sets, rest interval between sets, exercise modality and velocity of muscle action.
Research has indicated that the rest interval between sets is an important variable that affects
both acute responses and chronic adaptations to resistance exercise programmes. The
purpose of this review is to analyze and discuss the rest interval between sets for targeting
specific training outcomes (e.g. absolute muscular strength, endurance, hypertrophy and
muscular power). The Scielo, Science Citation Index, National Library of Medicine,
MEDLINE, Scopus, Sport Discus and CINAHL databases were used to locate previous
original scientific investigations. The 35 studies reviewed examined both acute responses and
chronic adaptations, with rest interval length as the experimental variable. In terms of acute
responses, a key finding was that when training with loads between 50% and 90% of one
repetition maximum, 3-5 minutes' rest between sets allowed for greater repetitions over
multiple sets. Furthermore, in terms of chronic adaptations, resting 3-5 minutes between sets
produced greater increases in absolute strength, due to higher intensities and volumes of
training. Similarly, higher levels of muscular power were demonstrated over multiple sets
with 3 or 5 minutes versus 1 minute of rest between sets. Conversely, some experiments have
demonstrated that when testing maximal strength, 1-minute rest intervals might be sufficient
between repeated attempts; however, from a psychological and physiological standpoint, the
inclusion of 3- to 5-minute rest intervals might be safer and more reliable. When the training
goal is muscular hypertrophy, the combination of moderate-intensity sets with short rest
intervals of 30-60 seconds might be most effective due to greater acute levels of growth
hormone during such workouts. Finally, the research on rest interval length in relation to
chronic muscular endurance adaptations is less clear. Training with short rest intervals (e.g.
20 seconds to 1 minute) resulted in higher repetition velocities during repeated sub maximal
muscle actions and also greater total torque during a high-intensity cycle test. Both of these
findings indirectly demonstrated the benefits of utilizing short rest intervals for gains in

48
muscular endurance. In summary, the rest interval between sets is an important variable that
should receive more attention in resistance exercise prescription. When prescribed
appropriately with other important prescriptive variables (i.e. volume and intensity), the
amount of rest between sets can influence the efficiency, safety and ultimate effectiveness of
a strength training programme.

Currie KD et.al (2009) had conducted a study on effects of short-term endurance

exercise training on vascular function in young males. We investigated effects of 6 days of
endurance exercise training [cycling at 65% of peak oxygen consumption (VO(2peak)) for 2
h a day on six consecutive days] on vascular function in young males. Measures of
VO(2peak), arterial stiffness, calf vascular conductance and heart rate variability were
obtained pre- and post-training. Indices of arterial stiffness were obtained by applications
goniometry to determine aortic augmentation index normalized to a heart rate of 75 bpm
(AI(x) at 75 bpm), and central and peripheral pulse wave velocity (CPWV, PPWV). Resting
and maximal calf vascular conductance’s were calculated from concurrent measures of blood
pressure and calf blood flow using venous occlusion strain-gauge plethysmography. Time
and frequency domain measures of heart rate variability were obtained from recording R-R
intervals during supine and standing conditions. Both CPWV (5.9 +/- 0.8 vs. 5.4 +/- 0.8 m/s)
and PPWV (9.7 +/- 0.8 vs. 8.9 +/- 1.3 m/s) were reduced following the training program. No
significant changes were observed in AI(x) at 75 bpm, vascular conductance, heart rate
variability or VO(2peak). These data indicate that changes in arterial stiffness independent of
changes in heart rate variability or vascular conductance can be achieved in healthy young
males following only 6 days of intense endurance exercise.

Ortega FB, et.al (2009) conducted a study on physical fitness in childhood and
adolescence. This review aims to summarize the latest developments with regard to physical
fitness and several health outcomes in young people. The literature reviewed suggests that
(1) cardio respiratory fitness levels are associated with total and abdominal adiposity; (2)
both cardio respiratory and muscular fitness are shown to be associated with established and
emerging cardiovascular disease risk factors; (3) improvements in muscular fitness and
speed/agility, rather than cardio respiratory fitness, seem to have a positive effect on skeletal

49
health; (4) both cardio respiratory and muscular fitness enhancements are recommended in
pediatric cancer patients/survivors in order to attenuate fatigue and improve their quality of
life; and (5) improvements in cardio respiratory fitness have positive effects on depression,
anxiety, mood status and self-esteem, and seem also to be associated with a higher academic
performance. In conclusion, health promotion policies and physical activity programs should
be designed to improve cardio respiratory fitness, but also two other physical fitness
components such us muscular fitness and speed/agility. Schools may play an important role
by identifying children with low physical fitness and by promoting positive health behaviors
such as encouraging children to be active, with special emphasis on the intensity of the
activity.

Sherk VD, et.al (2009) conducted a study on relationship between body composition,
muscular strength, and bone mineral density in estrogen deficiency postmenopausal women.
The purpose of this study was to examine relationships between muscular strength, body
composition, and bone mineral density (BMD) in untrained postmenopausal women who are
not on hormone replacement therapy (HRT). Fifty-five women (age: 63.3+/-0.6yr) completed
menstrual history, physical activity, and calcium intake questionnaires. Total and regional
body composition and total body, anteroposterior lumbar spine, no dominant forearm, and
right proximal femur BMD were measured using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA)
(GE Lunar Prodigy, Prodigy encore software version 10.50.086, Madison, WI). Participants
performed strength tests for 3 upper body and 5 lower body resistance exercises. Women
with a relative skeletal muscle mass index (RSMI) value less than 5.45kg/m(2) were defined
as a sarcopenic group (SAR). SAR had significantly (p<0.05) lower total body and forearm
BMD compared with those who were not sarcopenic. BMD sites were significantly
correlated with upper body strength (UBS) and lower body strength (LBS) (r=0,28-0.50,
p<0.01), with the strength of relationship being site specific. Strength and fat mass (FM)
significantly predicted total body BMD (R(2)=0.232-0.241, p<0.05), FM variables predicted
spine BMD (R(2)=0.109-0.140, p<0.05), and LBS and RSMI predicted hip BMD sites
(R(2)=0.073-0.237, p<0.05). Body composition variables failed to significantly predict LBS.
In conclusion, the contribution of body composition and strength variables to BMD varied by

50
site as FM was more important for total body, forearm and spine BMD, and LBS exerted
greater influence on the hip sites.

Powell KE, et.al (2009) conducted a study on low physical fitness among fifth and
seventh grade students, Georgia. BACKGROUND: The nationwide epidemic of obesity may
be due, in part, to declining levels of physical activity, raising the possibility that other
components of health-related physical fitness may also be in decline. Few data are available
to describe and monitor the physical fitness of children and youth. The Georgia Youth
Fitness Assessment was conducted to assess health-related fitness in Georgia's fifth- and
seventh-grade students, provide a baseline against which future progress could be measured,
and guide public and private leaders and decision makers. METHODS: A statewide
probability sample of fifth- and seventh-grade students designed to enable grade-specific
comparisons by gender, race/ethnicity, and urban/rural status was drawn. Measurements
included aerobic capacity; body composition; and muscular strength, endurance, and
flexibility. Physical activity during the most recent 3 days was assessed. The survey was
conducted in 2006; the data were analyzed in 2007-2008. RESULTS: Ninety-three schools
(86% response rate) and 5248 students (77% response rate) participated. Fifty-two percent of
students did not meet the standard for healthy aerobic fitness; 23% did not meet the standard
for muscular strength, endurance, and flexibility; 30% were outside the recommended range
for BMI. Twenty-two percent did not achieve the recommended 60 minutes of daily
moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. All subgroups (e.g., boys/girls, urban/rural) scored
poorly. CONCLUSIONS: Substantial numbers of Georgia's fifth- and seventh-grade students
exhibit unhealthy levels of physical fitness. These data are consistent with the suggestion that
physical inactivity has led to deficient levels of health-related fitness in more areas than just
body composition. Monitoring all components of health-related fitness would provide helpful
information about the health of children and youth.

Jones EJ,et.al (2008) conducted a study on cross sectional area and muscular
strength. A brief review is provided on the relationship of strength to muscle cross-sectional
area (CSA). It is commonly believed that maximal force and CSA are strongly related.
Studies examining varying levels of training status display discordant data suggesting
51
complex relationships between training status, CSA and peak force. It has been reported that
trained participants had a significantly larger force to CSA ratio (F/CSA) than untrained
males and females. Therefore, it is difficult to attribute all force changes due to training to
CSA changes. In general, studies of CSA and strength suggest that sex differences may exist.
For example, recreationally trained female weightlifters produced higher F/CSA than males
at lower velocities of contraction. Definitive conclusions regarding sex differences, force
production and CSA are difficult because of limited studies and equivocal results among
these studies. Some studies have also examined the impact of aging on F/CSA. These studies
seem to follow the same pattern as studies on sex differences and training status, with data
suggesting that F/CSA varies unpredictably across ages and that difference may be attributed
to factors other than age alone. In the papers reviewed, the relationship between force and
CSA is neither consistent nor simple. Although some of the discrepancies between studies
could be attributed to methodological variations, this does not seem likely to explain all
differences. The F/CSA relationship seems complex, and future studies are required to
elucidate the relationships among key factors in the expression of strength.

Chien MY, et.al (2008) conducted a study on physical activity, physical fitness, and
osteopenia in postmenopausal Taiwanese women. BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The
purpose of this cross-sectional study was to investigate whether physical activity level and
physical fitness parameters differ between postmenopausal Taiwanese women with normal
and subnormal bone mineral density (BMD). METHODS: Seventy-six postmenopausal
women aged from 42 to 65 years participated in this study. Women taking medication that
might influence BMD measurements were not included. The BMDs of the lumbar spine (L2-
4) and right femoral neck were measured using dual energy x-ray absorptiometry. Thirty-one
women with both BMD values within the normal ranges (1.055 +/- 0.092 g/cm2 for the spine
and 0.845 +/- 0.088 g/cm2 for the right femoral neck) of premenopausal Chinese women
served as the normal density group. Another 43 women with both BMD values more than
one standard deviation below the normal value (0.760 +/- 0.089 g/cm2 for the spine and
0.656 +/- 0.052 g/cm2 for the femoral neck) were recruited as the osteopenia group. Physical
activity level was assessed with a 7-day recall questionnaire. Physical fitness assessment

52
included tests of flexibility, muscular strength, endurance, body composition, and
cardiopulmonary fitness. A multiple linear regression model adjusted for age, body weight,
height, and years since menopause was used. RESULTS: The results revealed that energy
expenditure and maximal oxygen consumption were significantly lower in the osteopenia
group than in the non-osteopenia group (p < 0.05), while flexibility, body composition,
muscle strength and muscular endurance did not differ significantly between the two groups
(p > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that physical activity may play a major
role in BMD levels in postmenopausal women in Taiwan. Future studies should emphasize
the effect of physical exercise training on BMD in postmenopausal women.

Shen B,et.al (2008) conducted a study on Self-efficacy, body mass, and cardio
respiratory fitness on exercise motives in Chinese college students. BACKGROUND:
Researchers have studied exercise determinants primarily from cognitive and social
psychology perspectives, which typically give minimal attention to the body as a physical
and biological entity. With the belief that tapping into multidimensional variables would
potentially help us better understand motivation in exercise, we designed this study to
examine the influences of self-efficacy, body mass, and cardio respiratory fitness level on
Chinese college students' leisure-time exercise motives. METHODS: 208 college students
completed measures of self-efficacy and exercise motives during regular physical education
classes. Their body mass and cardio respiratory fitness level data were derived from the
latest annual physical training test. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to
investigate the effects of self-efficacy, body mass, and cardio respiratory fitness on exercise
motives. RESULTS: Cardio respiratory fitness level and self-efficacy in exercise
significantly contributed to both psychological and interpersonal motives. Body mass was
the only significant predictor for body-related motives. However, analyses of health and
fitness motives did not result in any significant predictors. CONCLUSION: Physical and
psychological variables have both independent and specialized functions on exercise
motives. Future motivational studies in exercise should pay greater attention to ecological
approaches that account for physical, psychological, and social factors.

53
 Markovic G et.al (2007) had conducted a study on effects of sprint and plyometric
training on muscle function and athletic performance the purpose of this study was to
evaluate the effects of sprint training on muscle function and dynamic athletic performance
and to compare them with the training effects induced by standard plyometric training. Male
physical education students were assigned randomly to 1 of 3 groups: sprint group (SG; n =
30), plyometric group (PG; n = 30), or control group (CG; n = 33). Maximal isometric squat
strength, squat- and countermovement jump (SJ and CMJ) height and power, drop jump
performance from 30-cm height, and 3 athletic performance tests (standing long jump, 20-m
sprint, and 20-yard shuttle run) were measured prior to and after 10 weeks of training. Both
experimental groups trained 3 days a week; SG performed maximal sprints over distances of
10-50 m, whereas PG performed bounce-type hurdle jumps and drop jumps. Participants in
the CG group maintained their daily physical activities for the duration of the study. Both SG
and PG significantly improved drop jump performance (15.6 and 14.2%), SJ and CMJ height
( approximately 10 and 6%), and standing long jump distance (3.2 and 2.8%), whereas the
respective effect sizes (ES) were moderate to high and ranged between 0.4 and 1.1. In
addition, SG also improved isometric squat strength (10%; ES = 0.4) and SJ and CMJ power
(4%; ES = 0.4, and 7%; ES = 0.4), as well as sprint (3.1%; ES = 0.9) and agility (4.3%; ES =
1.1) performance. We conclude that short-term sprint training produces similar or even
greater training effects in muscle function and athletic performance than does conventional
plyometric training. This study provides support for the use of sprint training as an applicable
training method of improving explosive performance of athletes in general.

Wilder RP, et.al (2006) conducted a study on physical fitness assessment. The
American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) gives the following definition of health-
related physical fitness: Physical fitness is defined as a set of attributes that people have or
achieve that relates to the ability to perform physical activity. It is also characterized by (1)
an ability to perform daily activities with vigor, and (2) a demonstration of traits and
capacities that are associated with a low risk of premature development of hypo kinetic
diseases (e.g., those associated with physical inactivity). Information from an individual's
health and medical records can be combined with information from physical fitness

54
assessment to meet the specific health goals and rehabilitative needs of that individual.
Attaining adequate informed consent from participants prior to exercise testing is mandatory
because of ethical and legal considerations. A physical fitness assessment includes measures
of body composition, cardio respiratory endurance, muscular fitness, and musculoskeletal
flexibility. The three common techniques for assessing body composition are hydrostatic
weighing, and skin fold measurements, and anthropometric measurements. Cardio
respiratory endurance is a crucial component of physical fitness assessment because of its
strong correlation with health and health risks. Maximal oxygen uptake (V02max) is the
traditionally accepted criterion for measuring cardio respiratory endurance. Muscular fitness
has historically been used to describe an individual's integrated status of muscular strength
and muscular endurance. An individual's muscular strength is specific to a particular muscle
or muscle group and refers to the maximal force (N or kg) that the muscle or muscle group
can generate. Dynamic strength can be assessed by measuring the movement of an
individual's body against an external load. Isokinetic testing may be performed by assessing
the muscle tension generated throughout a range of motion at a constant angular velocity.
The ability of a muscle group to perform repeated contractions over a specific period of time
that is sufficient to cause fatigue is termed muscular endurance. Musculoskeletal flexibility
evaluations focus on the joints and associated structures, ligaments, and muscles that cross
the joints. The sit-and-reach test and the behind-the-back reach test satisfy many of the
criteria for physical assessment of musculoskeletal flexibility. A physical fitness assessment
must be integrated into all activities of daily living, as well as the physician's examination, to
assess and promote health.

Christou M et.al (2006) had conducted a study on effects of resistance training on

the physical capacities of adolescent soccer players this study examined the effects of a
progressive resistance training program in addition to soccer training on the physical
capacities of male adolescents. Eighteen soccer players (age: 12-15 years) were separated in
a soccer (SOC; n = 9) and a strength-soccer (STR; n = 9) training group and 8 subjects of
similar age constituted a control group. All players followed a soccer training program 5
times a week for the development of technical and tactical skills. In addition, the STR group

55
followed a strength training program twice a week for 16 weeks. The program included 10
exercises, and at each exercise, 2-3 sets of 8-15 repetitions with a load 55-80% of 1 repetition
maximum (1RM). Maximum strength ([1RM] leg press, bench-press), jumping ability (squat
jump [SJ], countermovement jump [CMJ], repeated jumps for 30 seconds) running speed (30
m, 10 x 5-m shuttle run), flexibility (seat and reach), and soccer technique were measured at
the beginning, after 8 weeks, and at the end of the training period. After 16 weeks of training,
1RM leg press, 10 x 5-m shuttle run speed, and performance in soccer technique were higher
(p < 0.05) for the STR and the SOC groups than for the control group. One repetition
maximum bench press and leg press, SJ and CMJ height, and 30-m speed were higher (p <
0.05) for the STR group compared with SOC and control groups. The above data show that
soccer training alone improves more than normal growth maximum strength of the lower
limps and agility. The addition of resistance training, however, improves more maximal
strength of the upper and the lower body, vertical jump height, and 30-m speed. Thus, the
combination of soccer and resistance training could be used for an overall development of
the physical capacities of young boys.

Kotzamanidis C et.al (2005) had conducted a study on the effect of a combined

high-intensity strength and speed training program on the running and jumping ability of
soccer players the purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of a combined heavy-
resistance and running-speed training program performed in the same training session on
strength, running velocity (RV), and vertical-jump performance (VJ) of soccer players.
Thirty-five individuals were divided into 3 groups. The first group (n = 12, COM group)
performed a combined resistance and speed training program at the same training session,
and the second one (n = 11, STR group) performed the same resistance training without
speed training. The third group was the control group (n = 12, CON group). Three jump tests
were used for the evaluation of vertical jump performance: squat jump, countermovement
jump, and drop jump. The 30-m dash and 1 repetition maximum (1RM) tests were used for
running speed and strength evaluation, respectively. After training, both experimental groups
significantly improved their 1RM of all tested exercises. Furthermore, the COM group
performed significantly better than the STR and the CON groups in the 30-m dash, squat

56
jump, and countermovement jump. It is concluded that the combined resistance and running-
speed program provides better results than the conventional resistance training, regarding the
power performance of soccer players.

Canellas A et.al (1999) had conducted a study on effect of 6 weeks of endurance

training on the lactate minimum speed. The aim of this study was to assess the sensitivity
of the lactate minimum speed test to changes in endurance fitness resulting from a 6 week
training intervention. Sixteen participants (mean +/- s: age 23+/-4 years; body mass 69.7+/-
9.1 kg) completed 6 weeks of endurance training. Another eight participants (age 23+/-4
years; body mass 72.7+/-12.5 kg) acted as non-training controls. Before and after the
training intervention, all participants completed: (1) a standard multi-stage treadmill test
for the assessment of V02max, running speed at the lactate threshold and running speed at
a reference blood lactate concentration of 3 mmol x 1(-1); and (2) the lactate minimum
speed test, which involved two supramaximal exercise bouts and an 8 min walking
recovery period to increase blood lactate concentration before the completion of an
incremental treadmill test. Additionally, a subgroup of eight participants from the training
intervention completed a series of constant-speed runs for determination of running speed
at the maximal lactate steady state. The test protocols were identical before and after the 6
week intervention. The control group showed no significant changes in V02max, running
speed at the lactate threshold, running speed at a blood lactate concentration of 3 mmol x
1(-1) or the lactate minimum speed. In the training group, there was a significant increase in
V02max (from 47.9+/-8.4 to 52.2+1-2.1 ml x kg(-l) x min(-l)), running speed at the
maximal lactate steady state (from 13.3+/-1.7 to 13.9+/-1.6 km x h(-l)), running speed at
the lactate threshold (from 11.2+/-1.8 to 11.9+/-1.8 km x h(-1)) and running speed at a
blood lactate concentration of 3 mmol x 1(-1) (from 12.5+/-2.2 to 13.2+/-2.1 km x h(-1))
(all P < 0.05). Despite these clear improvements in aerobic fitness, there was no significant
difference in lactate minimum speed after the training intervention (from 11.0+/-0.7 to
10.9+/-1.7 km x h(-l)). The results demonstrate that the lactate minimum speed, when
assessed using the same exercise protocol before and after 6 weeks of aerobic exercise
training, is not sensitive to changes in endurance capacity.

57
 Balogun JA. (1987) conducted a study on assessment of physical fitness of female
physical therapy students. This investigation was undertaken to assess the physical fitness
status of physical therapy students. Fifty female students, enrolled as juniors in a physical
therapy program of a private women's college, served as subjects. The students' body fat
composition, low-backlhamstring flexibility, aerobic capacity (V02, j, trunk muscular
endurance, static and dynamic (isotonic) muscular strength was determined. All the tests
were administered using standardized procedure. On the average, the subjects were 2 1.1 f
1.7 years old, 65.3 + 0.8 inches tall, weighed 60.1 + 0.9 kg, had 26.2 f 0.8% body fat, and
had a predicted VOn, of 2.28 f 0.06 L . Min-'. The low-back hamstring flexibility and trunk
muscular endurance were 36.8 + 1.1 cm and 26.4 f 0.9 repetitions, respectively. The static
grip strength of the right hand was significantly (p c 0.05) greater than the left hand. The
dynamic strength of the arm flexors and knee flexors on the ipsilateral side were not
significantly different (p > 0.05). The knee flexors were weaker (p < 0.01) than the knee
extensors. Results of the investigation revealed that the students' physical fitness compares
well but is not superior to the norms reported previously for female physical therapy students
and female college students of the same age.

De Salles BF et.al. (2009) made a research study on the rest interval between sets in
strength training. Strength training has become one of the most popular physical activities for
increasing characteristics such as absolute muscular strength, endurance, hypertrophy and
muscular power. For efficient, safe and effective training, it is of utmost importance to
understand the interaction among training variables, which might include the intensity,
number of sets, rest interval between sets, exercise modality and velocity of muscle action.
Research has indicated that the rest interval between sets is an important variable that affects
both acute responses and chronic adaptations to resistance exercise programmes. The
purpose of this review is to analyse and discuss the rest interval between sets for targeting
specific training outcomes (e.g. absolute muscular strength, endurance, hypertrophy and
muscular power). The Scielo, Science Citation Index, National Library of Medicine,
MEDLINE, Scopus, Sport Discus and CINAHL databases were used to locate previous
original scientific investigations. The 35 studies reviewed examined both acute responses and

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chronic adaptations, with rest interval length as the experimental variable. In terms of acute
responses, a key finding was that when training with loads between 50% and 90% of one
repetition maximum, 3-5 minutes' rest between sets allowed for greater repetitions over
multiple sets. Furthermore, in terms of chronic adaptations, resting 3-5 minutes between sets
produced greater increases in absolute strength, due to higher intensities and volumes of
training. Similarly, higher levels of muscular power were demonstrated over multiple sets
with 3 or 5 minutes versus 1 minute of rest between sets. Conversely, some experiments have
demonstrated that when testing maximal strength, 1 -minute rest intervals might be sufficient
between repeated attempts; however, from a psychological and physiological standpoint, the
inclusion of 3- to 5-minute rest intervals might be safer and more reliable. When the training
goal is muscular hypertrophy, the combination of moderate-intensity sets with short rest
intervals of 30-60 seconds might be most effective due to greater acute levels of growth
hormone during such workouts. Finally, the research on rest interval length in relation to
chronic muscular endurance adaptations is less clear. Training with short rest intervals (e.g.
20 seconds to 1 minute) resulted in higher repetition velocities during repeated submaximal
muscle actions and also greater total torque during a high-intensity cycle test. Both of these
findings indirectly demonstrated the benefits of utilizing short rest intervals for gains in
muscular endurance. In summary, the rest interval between sets is an important variable that
should receive more attention in resistance exercise prescription. When prescribed
appropriately with other important prescriptive variables (i.e. volume and intensity), the
amount of rest between sets can influence the efficiency, safety and ultimate effectiveness of
a strength training programme.

Durham M P (2001) compared the effects of plyometric and weighted-plyometric

training on lower body anaerobic power (modified 30-sec Bosco jump test). Strength-trained
females (N = 14) performed four weeks of training after being divided into two groups.
Depth jumps, split squats, and double-leg hops were performed. The weighted group
increased added resistance from 20% to 40% 1 RM over the four weeks.

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 Von Guenthner S, and Hammermeister J. (2007) explored the relationship
between wellness and athletic performance, this study assessed the link between wellness,
as defined by a high score on five wellness dimensions of emotional, social, spiritual,
intellectual, and physical well-being, with psychological variables thought to be related to
athletic performance as measured by athletes' self-report of specific athletic coping skills.
142 collegiate athletes completed a survey composed of the Optimal Living Profile to
measure wellness dimensions and the Athletic Coping Skills Inventory to measure specific
psychological variables. Analysis indicated that athletes scoring higher on the dimensions
of wellness also scored significantly higher on athletic coping skills. Specifically, male
athletes who scored higher on wellness also reported higher scores on coach ability,
concentration, goal setting/mental preparation, and peaking under pressure, and female
athletes who scored higher on wellness also reported higher scores in coping with
adversity, coach ability, concentration, goal setting/mental preparation, and freedom from
worry. Various dimensions of wellness seem related to better performance by involving the
athletic coping skills of intercollegiate athletes. Implications for coaches and sport
psychologists are also discussed.

Delecluse C. (1997) studied the influence of strength training on sprint running

performance. Today, it is generally accepted that sprint performance, like endurance
performance, can improve considerably with training. Strength training, especially, plays a
key role in this process. Sprint performance will be viewed multi dimensionally as an initial
acceleration phase (0 to 10 m), a phase of maximum running speed (36 to 100 m) and a
transition phase in between. Immediately following the start action, the powerful extensions
of the hip, knee and ankle joints are the main accelerators of body mass. However, the
hamstrings, the m. adductor magnus and the m. gluteus maximus are considered to make the
most important contribution in producing the highest levels of speed. Different training
methods are proposed to improve the power output of these muscles. Some of them aim for
hypertrophy and others for specific adaptations of the nervous system. This includes general
(hypertrophy and neuronal activation), velocity specific (speed-strength) and movement
specific (sprint associated exercises) strength training. In developing training strategies, the

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coach has to keep in mind that strength, power and speed are inherently related to one
another, because they are all the output of the same functional systems. As heavy resistance
training results in a fibre type lib into fibre type Ha conversion, the coach has to aim for an
optimal balance between sprint specific and nonspecific training components. To achieve this
they must take into consideration the specific strength training demands of each individual,
based on performance capacity in each specific phase of the sprint.

2.3 STUDIES ON PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIABLE

Tanskanen M, et.al (2008) conducted a study on aerobic fitness, energy balance, and
body mass index are associated with training load assessed by activity energy
expenditure.The present study examined whether activity energy expenditure related to body
mass (AEE/kg) is associated with maximal aerobic fitness (VO (2max)), energy balance, and
body mass index (BMI) during the 2 hardest weeks of the military basic training season
(BT). An additional purpose was to study the accuracy of the pre-filled food diary energy
intake. Energy expenditure (EE) with doubly labeled water, energy intake (El), energy-
balance, and mis-recording was measured from 24 male conscripts with varying VO(2max).
AEE/kg was calculated as (EE x 0.9-measured basal metabolic rate)/body mass. The reported
El was lower (P<0.001) than EE (15.48 MJ/day) and mis-recording of the pre-filled diary
was -20%. The negative energy balance (-6+/-26%) was non-significant; however, the
variation was high. The subjects with a low VO(2max), a high BMI, and a negative energy
balance were vulnerable to low AEE/kg. However, in the multivariate regression analysis
only BMI remained in the model, explaining 33% of the variation in AEE/kg. During
wintertime BT, AEE/kg is affected by energy balance, VO(2max), and BMI. From these
three factors, overweight limits high-level training the most. Furthermore, an optimal energy
balance facilitates physical performance and enables high training loads.

Hoekstra T, et.al (2008) conducted a study on associations between aerobic and

muscular fitness and cardiovascular disease risk. BACKGROUND: It is not clear what the
relative contribution is of specific components of physical fitness (aerobic and muscular) to
cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. We investigated associations between aerobic fitness

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(endurance) and muscular fitness (power) and CVD risk factors. METHODS: Data were
obtained from the Young Hearts project, a representative sample of 12- and 15-year-old boys
and girls from Northern Ireland (N = 2016). Aerobic fitness was determined by the 20-m
shuttle run test, muscular fitness by the Sargent jump test. CVD risk factors included sum of
skin folds, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, serum total cholesterol (TC), HDL
cholesterol, and TC: HDL ratio. Several linear regression analyses were conducted for 4 age
and gender groups separately, with the risk factor as the outcome variable. RESULTS:
Significant associations between aerobic fitness and a healthy CVD risk profile were found.
These observed relationships were independent of power, whereas the (few) relationships
between muscular fitness and the risk factors were partly explained by endurance.
CONCLUSIONS: Tailored, preventive strategies during adolescence, incorporating
endurance rather than power sports, could be encouraged to help prevent CVD. This is
important because existing studies propose that healthiness during adulthood is founded on
healthiness in adolescence.

Nakhostin-Roohi B, et,al (2008) conducted a study on BMI,Fat percentage and

vo2max in college female staff. AIM: Low levels of physical activity and cardio respiratory
fitness are both associated with higher risk of all-cause and disease-specific mortality. The
purpose of this study is to examine obesity and fitness of the female staff of Ardebil Azad
University in the northwest of Iran. METHODS: Thirty seven staff (medium age: 32.97+/-
5.81 year, height: 158.21+/-5.88 cm, Body Mass Index [BMI]: 26.59+/-4.02 kg/m (2)) of
Ardebil Azad University participated in this study voluntarily. Primary measurements of
interest in the present study were height, BMI, subcutaneous skin folds, and cardio
respiratory fitness determined by 1 609 meter (one mile) walk test. RESULTS: The subjects
of the present study are more obese than some other population (fat percentage: 28.68+/-
5.33) and cardio respiratory fitness of them is rather low (VO (2max): 33.43+/-6.90
mL/kg/min). CONCLUSION: Social/lifestyle factors such as the level of education, marital
status, exercise, dietary and smoking habits may be related to overweight/obesity and cardio
respiratory fitness in female staff of Ardebil Azad University.

62
 Borresen J et.al (2008) had conducted a study on autonomic control of heart rate
during and after exercise: measurements and implications for monitoring training status.
Endurance training decreases resting and sub maximal heart rate, while maximum heart rate
may decrease slightly or remain unchanged after training. The effect of endurance training on
various indices of heart rate variability remains inconclusive. This may be due to the use of
inconsistent analysis methodologies and different training programmes that make it difficult
to compare the results of various studies and thus reach a consensus on the specific training
effects on heart rate variability. Heart rate recovery after exercise involves a coordinated
interaction of parasympathetic re-activation and sympathetic withdrawal. It has been shown
that a delayed heart rate recovery is a strong predictor of mortality. Conversely, endurance-
trained athletes have an accelerated heart rate recovery after exercise. Since the autonomic
nervous system is interlinked with many other physiological systems, the responsiveness of
the autonomic nervous system in maintaining homeostasis may provide useful information
about the functional adaptations of the body. This review investigates the potential of using
heart rate recovery as a measure of training-induced disturbances in autonomic control,
which may provide useful information for training prescription.

Ekblom B, et.al (2007) conducted a study on Secular trends of physical fitness in

Swedish adults. The aim of the present study was to study differences in fitness (maximal
aerobic power (VO(2max)), balance control, abdominal strength and endurance) and
anthropometric data in Swedish women and men (20-65 years of age) between two national
cross-sectional samples, studied in 1990/1991 and 2000/2001, respectively. The absolute
and relative VO (2max) (aerobic fitness), estimated from a sub maximal test, declined with
increasing age in both genders. The sub maximal test was validated against running VO
(2max), Furthermore, the relative aerobic fitness (mL/min/kg) was lower in the 2000/2001
sample in men but not in women. Overall physical activity level was unchanged in both
genders. An unexpected finding was that in both samples there were no major differences in
relative VO (2max) between men and women of the same age. Combined overweight and
obesity (body mass index> or =25) is becoming more prevalent in men, but not in women
with prevalence in 2000/2001 of 61% and 38% for men and women, respectively. Balance

63
control and abdominal strength and endurance decrease with increasing age with no
differences between the two samples. Thus, the near future health situation for men may be
worse, while for women it may be less or no differences compared with today.

Fagard RH (2006) had conducted a study on exercise is good for your blood
pressure: effects of endurance training and resistance training. 1. Although several
epidemiological studies have not observed significant independent relationships between
physical activity or fitness and blood pressure, others have concluded that blood pressure is
lower in individuals who are more fit or active. However, longitudinal intervention studies
are more appropriate for assessing the effects of physical activity on blood pressure. 2.
Previously, we have performed meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials involving
dynamic aerobic endurance training or resistance training. Inclusion criteria were: random
allocation to intervention and control; physical training as the sole intervention; inclusion of
healthy sedentary normotensive and/or hypertensive adults; intervention duration of at least 4
weeks; availability of systolic and/or diastolic blood pressure; and publication in a peer-
reviewed journal up to December 2003. 3. The meta-analysis on endurance training involved
72 trials and 105 study groups. After weighting for the number of trained participants,
training induced significant net reductions of resting and day time ambulatory blood pressure
of 3.0/2.4 mmHg (P < 0.001) and 3.3/3.5 mmHg (P < 0.01), respectively. The reduction of
resting blood pressure was more pronounced in the 30 hypertensive study groups (-6.9Z-4.9)
than in the others (-1.9/-1.6; P < 0.001 for all). Systemic vascular resistance decreased by
7.1% (P < 0.05), plasma noradrenalin by 29% (P < 0.001) and plasma rennin activity by 20%
(P < 0.05). Bodyweight decreased by 1.2 kg (P < 0.001), waist circumference by 2.8 cm (P <
0.001), percentage body fat by 1.4% (P < 0.001) and the Homeostatic Model Assessment
(HOMA) index of insulin resistance by 0.31 units (P < 0.01). High-density lipoprotein-
cholesterol increased by 0.032 mmol/L (P < 0.05). 4. Resistance training has been less well
studied. A meta-analysis of nine randomized controlled trials (12 study groups) on mostly
dynamic resistance training revealed a weighted net reduction of diastolic blood pressure of
3.5 mmHg (P < 0.01) associated with exercise and a non-significant reduction of systolic
blood pressure of 3.2 mmHg (P = 0.10). 5. In conclusion, dynamic aerobic endurance

64
training decreases blood pressure through a reduction of systemic vascular resistance, in
which the sympathetic nervous system and the renin-angiotensin system appear to be
involved, and favourably affects concomitant cardiovascular risk factors. In addition, the few
available data suggest that resistance training is able to reduce blood pressure.

Eisenmann JC, et.al (2005) conducted a study on relationship between adolescent

fitness and fatness and cardiovascular disease risk factor in adulthood. PURPOSE: To
examine the relationship between cardio respiratory fitness and body fatness during
adolescence and cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors in adulthood. METHODS: The
sample was 48 participants from the Aerobics Center Longitudinal Study (ACLS) who had
one clinical visit during adolescence (mean age = 15.8 years) and a follow-up visit during
adulthood (mean age = 26.6 years). Values for treadmill time (TM), body fatness (body mass
index [BMI], percent body fat [%BF], and waist circumference [WC]), traditional CVD risk
factors (blood pressure [BP], fasting total cholesterol [TC], high-density lipoprotein
cholesterol [HDL-C], triglycerides [TG], and glucose), and a composite metabolic syndrome
risk factor score were adjusted for age and sex. The relationships between adolescent TM
and body fatness variables and adult CVD risk factors were examined by partial correlations,
controlling for length of follow-up (mean = 11 years). The correlation between changes in
TM and body fatness (DeltaTM and Deltabody fatness, respectively) and changes in CVD
risk factors between adolescence and adulthood (DeltaCVD risk factors) were also examined.
Adolescent cardio respiratory' fitness and body fatness variables also were separated into 2
categories based on the median split: low (below median) and high (above median).
RESULTS: TM and body fatness variables showed moderate stability between adolescence
and adulthood ( r = 0.44-0.78). Adolescent TM and DeltaTM showed moderate correlations
with adult body fatness indicators (BMI, WC, and %BF, r = -0.34 to -0.47) and Delta body
fatness ( r = -0.24 to -0.46), respectively. Adolescent TM was not significantly related to
traditional CVD risk factors in adulthood. Adolescent WC was significantly related to adult
BP ( r = 0.33 to 0.45), and body fatness variables during adolescence were significantly
related to adult TM ( r = -0.32 to -0.44). The DeltaWC was significantly related to DeltaTM
(r = -0.46) and DeltaHDL-C (r = -0.51), and DeltaBMl was significantly related to DeltaBP

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(r = 0.45) and DeltaHDL-C ( r = -0.34). Subjects with a high TM during adolescence showed
lower levels of body fatness as adults, and those with high levels of WC during adolescence
showed higher BP during adulthood. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate a significant
relationship between adolescent cardio respiratory fitness and adult body fatness and a lack
of an association between adolescent cardio respiratory fitness and adult cholesterol, BP, and
glucose levels. Adolescent body fatness is moderately related to select adult CVD risk
factors.

Knapit JJ et.al (2004) had conducted a study on soldier load carriage: historical,
physiological, biomechanical, and medical aspects. This study reviews historical and
biomedical aspects of soldier load carriage. Before the 18th century, foot soldiers seldom
carried more than 15 kg while on the march, but loads have progressively risen since then.
This load increase is presumably due to the weight of weapons and equipment that
incorporate new technologies to increase protection, firepower, communications, and
mobility. Research shows that locating the load center of mass as close as possible to the
body center of mass results in the lowest energy cost and tends to keep the body in an upright
position similar to unloaded walking. Loads carried on other parts of the body result in
higher energy expenditures: each kilogram added to the foot increases energy expenditure
7% to 10%; each kilogram added to the thigh increases energy expenditure 4%. Hip belts on
rucksacks should be used whenever possible as they reduce pressure on the shoulders and
increase comfort. Low or mid-back load placement might be preferable on uneven terrain but
high load placement may be best for even terrain. In some tactical situations, combat load
carts can be used, and these can considerably reduce energy expenditure and improve
performance. Physical training that includes aerobic exercise, resistance training targeted at
specific muscle groups, and regular road marching can considerably improve road marching
speed and efficiency. The energy cost of walking with backpack loads increases
progressively with increases in weight carried, body mass, walking speed, or grade; type of
terrain also influences energy cost. Predictive equations have been developed, but these may
not be accurate for prolonged load carriage. Common injuries associated with prolonged load
carriage include foot blisters, stress fractures, back strains, metatarsalgia, rucksack palsy, and

66
knee pain. Load carriage can be facilitated by lightening loads, improving load distribution,
optimizing load-carriage equipment, and taking preventive action to reduce the incidence of
injury.

Hooper TL et.al (2004) had conducted a study on the effects of graded forward and
backward walking on heart rate and oxygen consumption. Single-group repeated-measures
design. To compare the effects of forward walking (FW) and backward walking (BW) on
heart rate (HR) and oxygen consumption (V02) at treadmill grades of 5%, 7.5%, and
10%.Previous studies of locomotion by humans on a treadmill have reported larger
cardiovascular exertion and potential biomechanical benefits of BW as compared to FW for
treadmill grades ranging from 0% to 5%. The present study extends these findings by
examining the cardiovascular effects of BW and FW at treadmill grades greater than
5%.Twenty-nine volunteers participated in this study. Two subjects were excluded, leaving
27 study subjects (15 females, 12 males; mean age +/- SD, 24.0 +/- 3.4 years). V02 and HR
were measured using open-circuit calorimetry and electrocardiogram, respectively. For both
forward and backward walking, subjects performed each of the 3 grades for 6 minutes,
during which HR and V02 were measured. Two-way repeated-measures ANOVAs were
employed for inferential statistical analysis. Percent maximum heart rate (HR(max)) and
percent maximum oxygen consumption (V02(max)) increased incrementally for treadmill
grades of 5% to 7.5% to 10% for both FW and BW (P < .00001). For each of the 3 treadmill
grades, percent HR(max) and percent V02(max) was 17% to 20% higher for BW than for
FW (P < .00001). No statistically significant interactions were detected between direction of
walking and treadmill grade. Backward walking on a treadmill at 67.0 m/min (2.5 mph) and
grades of 5%, 7.5%, and 10% elicits a greater percent HR(max) and percent V02(max) than
does forward walking under the same conditions and, if incorporated into sustained training
regimens, would be expected to improve aerobic endurance.

Carter Banister Ew et.al (2003) had conducted a study on effect of endurance

exercise on autonomic control of heart rate. Long-term endurance training significantly
influences how the autonomic nervous system controls heart function. Endurance training
increases parasympathetic activity and decreases sympathetic activity in the human heart at
67
rest. These two training-induced autonomic effects, coupled with a possible reduction in
intrinsic heart rate, decrease resting heart rate. Long-term endurance training also decreases
sub maximal exercise heart rate by reducing sympathetic activity to the heart. Physiological
ageing is associated with a reduction in parasympathetic control of the heart; this decline in
parasympathetic activity can be reduced by regular endurance exercise. Some research has
indicated that females have increased parasympathetic and decreased sympathetic control of
heart rate. These gender-specific autonomic differences probably contribute to a decreased
cardiovascular risk and increased longevity observed in females.

Carter JB et.al (2003) had conducted a study on the effect of age and gender on
heart rate variability after endurance training. This research investigated the age and gender
differences in cardiovascular adaptation to a standardized/quantified endurance-training
program that included two taper periods. The latter was analyzed from spectral analysis of
electrocardiogram records of heart rate variability (HRV) at rest in groups of young (19-21
yr) and middle aged (40-45 yr), mixed gender groups (6 males and 6 females), pre- and post
standardized training. All subjects were recreational runners who completed the same 12-wk
running program. Before, and subsequent to training, HRV was measured during supine rest
and sub maximal cycling. There was a significant decrease in heart rate both at rest (2.7 +/-
0.45 beats x min-1) and during sub maximal exercise (8.1 +/- 0.67 beats x min-1) in both age
groups after training. After training, total spectral power increased (560.7 +/- 308.9 ms2), as
well as high-frequency power (362.3 +/- 405.5 ms2), in both age groups at rest. The young
group showed a greater increase in total power (849.0 +/- 308.7 ms2) after the training
program. It is concluded that a well-designed 12-wk endurance-training program will
decrease resting and sub maximal heart rate in both younger and older adults. The significant
increase in HRV, total power, and high-frequency power in all groups after endurance
training indicates that HRV measurement appears to provide an effective, noninvasive
assessment of cardiovascular adaptation to aerobic training.

Hasselstrem H, et.al (2002) conducted a study on physical fitness and physical

activity during adolescence as predictors of cardiovascular disease risk in young adulthood.
The purpose of this study was to determine if physical activity, aerobic fitness and isometric

68
strength during adolescence were predictors of cardiovascular risk factor levels in young
adulthood. The following measurements were carried out: maximal oxygen uptake
(VO(2)max), maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) in four muscle groups, physical activity
(questionnaire), blood pressure (BP), total cholesterol, high density lipoprotein cholesterol
(HDL-C), triglycerides, anthropometric variables and body fat % (sum of four skin folds).
The data were collected from the Danish Youth and Sports study, an observational
longitudinal study in which two measurements were carried out over an eight-year period.
The findings in this study indicated that the relationships between the absolute levels of
physical fitness and activity in adolescence and the subsequent level of CVD risk factors are
weak. However, the changes in physical fitness and physical activity were related to the
absolute levels of CVD risk factors in young adulthood, especially in men. Weak
relationships were found between the changes in physical fitness/activity and changes in
CVD risk factor levels in both sexes. In conclusion, many subjects changed their levels of
physical activity and physical fitness between adolescence and young adulthood and the
changes, especially in aerobic fitness, seemed to be the best predictor of CVD risk factor
levels in young adulthood.

Tomlin DL,et.al(2002) conducted a study on the relationship between aerobic

fitness, power maintenance and oxygen consumption during intense intermittent exercise.
This study examined the relationships between V02max, power maintenance and oxygen
consumption during intense intermittent work. Female recreational soccer players were
assigned to either a low aerobic power group (LOW, n = 6, mean (SD) V02max = 34.4 (2.4)
mL.kg(-l)min(-l) or to a moderate aerobic power group (MOD, n = 7, V02max = 47.6 (3.8)
mL.kg(-l).min(-l)). V02 was measured while subjects performed 10 6-s all-out sprints (30-s
passive recovery) on a Monark cycle ergo meter. LOW and MOD subjects generated similar
peak 6-s power (p = .58) but MOD had a smaller decrement in power (% DO) over the 10
sprints (LOW vs. MOD: 18.0 (7.6) vs 8.8 (3.7) % DO, p = .02). The MOD group also
consumed significantly more oxygen than LOW in 9 of the 10 sprint-recovery cycles (p <
.05). Significant relationships were seen between V02max and the aerobic response to the
sprint-recovery series (r = .78, p =.002) as well as between V02max and % DO (r = -.65, p =

69
.02), while a non-significant relationship was seen between the oxygen consumed during the
sprint-recovery cycles and % DO (r = -.41, p = .16). Thus, V02max appears to be related to
both an increased aerobic contribution to sprint-recovery bouts and the enhanced ability of
the MOD group to resist fatigue during intense intermittent exercise.

Kostka T,et.al(1998) conducted a study on Physical activity, fitness and integrated

antioxidant system in healthy active elderly women. We have related the oxidative stress
and antioxidant defense system to maximal oxygen consumption (V02max) and physical
activity in elderly women. Twenty-nine community dwelling, healthy, active women aged
66-82 years participated in this study. Physical activity was measured by a questionnaire
and expressed using two physical activity indices: mean habitual daily energy expenditure
(MHDEE) and daily energy expenditure corresponding to leisure time sports activities
(Sports activity index). Malondialdehyde (MDA), plasma total antioxidant status (TAS), the
red blood cell (RBC) superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxides (GPX) as well
as serum GPX activities were determined under resting conditions. MDA was correlated
positively with V02max (r = 0.42), while RBC GPX was significantly negatively
associated with V02max (r =-0.39), MHDEE (r=-0.38) and sports activity index (rho=-
0.36). Our data suggest that in healthy active older women the relationship between
physical activity/fitness and antioxidant defense system may be complex, and that for some
parameters an unfavorable influence of strenuous exercise may exist. The findings of this
cross-sectional design need to be supported in further prospective studies before the
associations are accepted as real.

Flynn TW et.al (1994) had conducted a study on comparison of cardiopulmonary

responses to forward and backward walking and running. Backward running has long been
used in sports conditioning programs and has recently been incorporated into rehabilitative
settings as a method of increasing quadriceps strength while decreasing the joint compressive
forces about the knee. Although backward locomotion has been studied kinetically, the
metabolic cost of backward walking and/or running has not to our knowledge been
previously characterized. Oxygen consumption and other cardiopulmonary variables were
measured under constant speed exercise during backward and forward walking at 107.2 m.
70
min-1 and during backward and forward running at 160.8 m.min-1. Peak oxygen
consumption (V02peak) was also measured during maximal incremental backward and
forward running. V02, HR, and blood lactate were significantly higher (P < 0.001) during
backward walking and running than during forward walking and running. During backward
walking and backward running, subjects exercised at 60% and 84% of their forward
V02peak, respectively. In conclusion, for a given speed, backward locomotion elicits a
greater metabolic demand and cardiopulmonary response than forward locomotion. In
general, these data suggest that while undergoing rehabilitation, an injured athlete may
continue to exercise using backward walking/running at an intensity sufficient enough to
maintain cardiovascular fitness levels.

OToole ML (1989) had conducted a study on gender differences in the

cardiovascular response to exercise. During an acute bout of dynamic exercise, cardiac
output increases in direct proportion to the increase in oxygen uptake. The mechanisms by
which the cardiac output is increased during exercise may differ between men and women.
The increased blood flow is distributed to the exercising skeletal muscle, to the myocardium,
and, if exercise lasts longer than 5 minutes, to the skin. Blood flow to tissues whose
metabolic rate has not been increased is reduced as a result of a general, sympathetically
mediated vasoconstriction. During dynamic exercise, muscle blood flow, degree of
peripheral vasoconstriction, increase in heart rate, and increase in myocardial blood flow and
oxygen uptake are all functions of relative workload, often expressed as a %V02 max.
During an acute bout of resistive exercise, the increase in oxygen uptake and cardiac output
is small, at least partially because perfusion of the exercising muscles is difficult as a result
of high intramuscular pressures. The heart rate increase is also small. Blood pressure
increases markedly as a result of increased total peripheral resistance. Dynamic exercise
training results in cardiovascular adaptations both at rest and during exercise. At rest,
myocardial hypertrophy of the volume overload type is the most common, but not universal,
finding. Dynamic exercise that involves a sizable resistive exercise component may produce
changes in myocardial structure and function similar to those resulting from static exercise.
The effects of dynamic exercise training on myocardial function at rest need further

71
investigation. The cardiovascular effects of dynamic exercise training are manifest during
sub maximal exercise by reduced heart rates, blood pressures, and less vasoconstriction in no
exercising tissues; increased stroke volumes; and unchanged cardiac outputs and oxygen
uptakes at any given exercise load. During maximal exercise, V02 max, maximal cardiac
output, and maximal stroke volume are all increased. Maximal heart rate and blood pressure
at maximal exercise are unchanged. Redistribution of the cardiac output to better perfuse the
exercising muscles also occurs. Certain other factors that may modify the cardiovascular
response to exercise include phase of the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, age, exercise mode,
length of the exercise session, and environmental conditions such as heat stress. Although
there are some physiologic differences that may affect the mechanism of the changes, the
overall response of the cardiovascular system to exercise is similar in men and women.

Evans DL (1985) had conducted a study on cardiovascular adaptations to exercise

and training. The cardiovascular system provides the link between pulmonary ventilation and
oxygen usage at the cellular level. During exercise, efficient delivery of oxygen to working
skeletal and cardiac muscles is vital for maintenance of ATP production by aerobic
mechanisms. The equine cardiovascular response to increased demand for oxygen delivery
during exercise contributes largely to the over 35-fold increases in oxygen uptake that occur
during submaximal exercise. Cardiac output during exercise increases greatly owing to the
relatively high heart rates that are achieved during exercise. Heart rate increases
proportionately with workload until heart rates close to maximal are attained. It is remarkable
that exercise heart rates six to seven times resting values are not associated with a fall in
stroke volume, which is maintained by splenic contraction, increased venous return, and
increased myocardial contractibility. Despite the great changes in cardiac output, increases in
blood pressure during exercise are maintained within relatively smaller limits, as both
pulmonary and systemic vascular resistance to blood flow is reduced. Redistribution of blood
flow to the working muscles during exercise also contributes greatly to the efficient delivery
of oxygen to sites of greatest need. Higher work rates and oxygen uptake at sub maximal
heart rates after training imply an adaptation due to training that enables more efficient
oxygen delivery to working muscle. Such an adaptation could be in either blood flow or

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arteriovenous oxygen content difference. Cardiac output during sub maximal exercise does
not increase after training, but studies using high-speed treadmills and measurement of
cardiac output at maximal heart rates may reveal improvements in maximal oxygen uptake
due to increased stroke volumes, as occurs in humans. Improvements in hemoglobin
concentrations in blood during exercise after training are recognized, but at maximal
exercise, hypoxemia may reduce arterial oxygen content. More effective redistribution of
cardiac output to muscles by increased capillarization and more efficient oxygen diffusion to
cells may also be an important means of increasing oxygen uptake after training.

Bayly WM et.al (1983) had conducted a study on cardiovascular effects of sub

maximal aerobic training on a treadmill in Standard bred horses, using a standardized
exercise test. Seven healthy, unexercised, previously trained, adult Standard bred horses were
allotted to 2 groups and trained 78 days on a treadmill set at a 7 degree 30' angle. The groups
were trained on different schedules, and the effects of training on heart rate, cardiac output,
stroke volume, arteriovenous oxygen difference, systemic blood pressure, and venous lactic
acid were determined. Measurements were made at rest, during exercise on the treadmill at
rates of 55 m/min, 75 m/min, 100 m/min, and 154 m/min, and at 5 minutes after exercise
(standardized exercise test). Heart rate and cardiac output decreased during the training
period. Significantly slower heart rates were observed at 55 m/min by day 8, at 100 m/min
and 154 m/min by day 36, at 1 minute after exercise by day 57, and at 5 minutes after
exercise by day 78 (P less than 0.05). Stroke volume increased with exercise, but not
significantly. The arteriovenous oxygen difference increased significantly (P less than 0.05)
with each increase in work load. There was no significant increase with training, although an
upward trend was recorded. Mean systemic blood pressure did not differ from resting with
treadmill rates of 55 m/min, 75 m/min, or 100 m/min. It was greater at 154 m/min, although
this was not significant. During exercise, the total peripheral resistance decreased to as little
as 30% of its resting value. After exercise, diastolic and mean arterial blood pressures and
peripheral resistance increased. Marked increases in blood volume and blood viscosity
during exercise were closely related to the decrease in peripheral resistance. There was no
significant effect of training on blood pressure. Venous lactic acid concentrations at rest were

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greater than those of the horses on the treadmill at rates of 55 m/min, 75 m/min, and 100
m/min and at 5 minutes after exercise on days 1, 8, and 15. Subsequently, they were not
different from resting values. Differences in the effects of the different training programs
could not be detected.

2.4 STUDIES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL VARIABLES

Van der Gucht E,et.al.(2009) examined depressogenic psychological processes and

reward responsivity in relation to different mood episodes (mania, depression, remission) and
bipolar symptomatology. One hundred and seven individuals with bipolar disorder (34 in a
manic/hypomanic or mixed affective state; 30 in a depressed state and 43 who were
euthymic) and 41 healthy controls were interviewed with Structured Clinical Interview for
DSM-IV and completed a battery of self-rated and experimental measures assessing negative
cognitive styles, coping response to negative affect, self-esteem stability and reward
responsiveness. Individuals in all episodes differed from controls on most depression-related
and reward responsivity measures. However, correlational analyses revealed clear
relationships between negative cognitive styles and depressive symptoms, and reward
responsivity and manic symptoms. Separate psychological processes are implicated in
depression and mania, but cognitive vulnerability to depression is evident even in patients
who are euthymic.

Mullen R, Lane A, and Hanton S. (2009) examined the intensity and direction of
the competitive state anxiety response in collegiate athletes as a function of four different
coping styles: high-anxious, defensive high-anxious, low-anxious and repressors.
Specifically, the study predicted that repressors would interpret competitive state anxiety
symptoms as more facilitative compared to high-anxious, defensive high-anxious, and low-
anxious performers. Separate Multivariate Analyses of Variance (MANOVA) were
performed on the intensity and direction subscales of the modified Competitive State Anxiety
Inventory-2 (CSAI-2). A significant main effect was identified for trait worry revealing that
low trait anxious athletes reported lower intensities of cognitive and somatic anxiety and
higher self-confidence and interpreted these as more facilitative than high trait anxious

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athletes. The prediction that performers with a repressive coping style would interpret state
anxiety symptoms as more facilitative than performers with non-repressive coping styles was
not supported.

Edwards B, and Higgins DJ.(2009) compare the mental health and vitality of
people caring for a family member with a disability with those of the general population.
Second, to identify factors experienced by carers that put them at risk of poor mental health
and vitality. Cross-sectional design where logistic and multiple regression analyses were
used to compare rates of mental health problems and vitality between careers and the general
population while controlling for demographic characteristics. In addition, logistic and
multiple regression using data from the survey of careers were used to identify risk factors
for poor mental health and vitality that were particular to care giving. A randomly selected
representative survey of 1002 careers from the Australian Centre link administrative database
(June 2006) who received government payments to care for a person with a disability or
severe medical condition, or a person who was frail aged. A sample of 10 223 non-careers
was drawn from the fourth wave of the Household, Income and Labor Dynamics in Australia
Survey, a nationally representative household panel survey (August 2004 to February 2005).
Mental health and vitality as measured by the Medical Outcomes Study 36-item Short-Form
Health Survey. Compared with the general population, careers were at significantly greater
risk of having a mental health problem and lower levels of vitality, even after controlling for
demographic characteristics. For careers, the risk factors for poor mental health and lower
levels of vitality were caring for a person with a disability' with higher care needs,
experiencing greater levels of financial stress, lower levels of support and worse family
functioning. Careers are at greater risk of mental health problems and lower energy levels
than the general population.

Barnow S, et. al. (2009) reported that the cognitive theory of personality disorders
hypothesizes that the emotional dysregulation and interpersonal problems in individuals with
borderline personality disorder (BPD) are, at least partially, caused by dysfunctional
cognitive schemas. These schemas lead to biased evaluation of environmental and
interpersonal stimuli. This study examined the interpersonal evaluations of individuals with

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BPD, depressive and healthy control participants with the thin-slice judgments paradigm.
Participants were asked to evaluate six persons in six film clips, which showed these persons
for 10s, during which these persons entered a room and took a seat. Interpersonal style of the
BPD group was investigated with the Inventory of Interpersonal Problems (IIP-C)
questionnaire. Individuals with BPD judged the persons as being more negative and
aggressive and less positive than the healthy participants, and more aggressive than the
depressive individuals. In addition, individuals with BPD reported more extreme
interpersonal behavior relative to the controls. The findings indicate an aggressivistic
evaluation bias and elevated levels of interpersonal problems in individuals with BPD as
suggested in the cognitive theory.

Kercher A, and Rapee RM.(2009) study evaluates a pathway for depressive risk that
integrates cognitive diathesis-stress and stress-generation theories, following Hankin and
Abramson's (2001, Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 31(4), 491-504)
elaborated cognitive-diathesis transactional stress model. In this model, young adolescents
with initial depressive symptoms were hypothesised to experience later stressors that were at
least partly dependent on their behaviour. The interaction of cognitive vulnerability, a
tendency to make depressogenic attributions and to ruminate, with these dependent stressors
was then hypothesised to predict depressive symptoms after 6 months. This model was
supported in a sample of 756 young adolescents, with cognitive style aid dependent stressors
partly mediating the relationship between initial and subsequent depressive symptoms.
Cognitive vulnerability was also linked with an increased likelihood of dependent stressors.

Stine-Morrow EA, et.al.(2008) studied on cognitive training have suggested that the
effects of experience are narrow in augmenting or maintaining cognitive abilities, while
correlational studies report a wide range of benefits of an engaged lifestyle, including
increased longevity, resistance to dementia, and enhanced cognitive flexibility. The latter
class of evidence is ambiguous because it is possible that it is simply the case that those with
relatively better cognitive vitality seek out and maintain a wider raige of activities. The
authors report data from a field experiment in which older adults were randomly assigned to
participate in a program intended to operationalize an engaged lifestyle, built on a team-

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based competition in ill-defined problem solving. Relative to controls, experimental
participants showed positive change in a composite measure of fluid ability from pretest to
posttest. This study, thus, provides experimental evidence for the proposition that
engagement, in the absence of specific ability training, can mitigate age-related cognitive
declines in fluid ability.

Von Guenthner S, and Hammermeister J. (2007) explored the relationship

between wellness and athletic performance, this study assessed the link between wellness, as
defined by a high score on five wellness dimensions of emotional, social, spiritual,
intellectual, and physical well-being, with psychological variables thought to be related to
athletic performance as measured by athletes' self-report of specific athletic coping skills.
142 collegiate athletes completed a survey composed of the Optimal Living Profile to
measure wellness dimensions and the Athletic Coping Skills Inventory to measure specific
psychological variables. Analysis indicated that athletes scoring higher on the dimensions of
wellness also scored significantly higher on athletic coping skills. Specifically, male athletes
who scored higher on wellness also reported higher scores on coach ability, concentration,
goal setting/mental preparation, and peaking under pressure, and female athletes who scored
higher on wellness also reported higher scores in coping with adversity, coach ability,
concentration, goal setting/mental preparation, and freedom from worry. Various dimensions
of wellness seem related to better performance by involving the athletic coping skills of
intercollegiate athletes. Implications for coaches and sport psychologists are also discussed.

Viskic, et.al. (2007) analyzed the impact of special programmed physical education
including dance, aerobics and rhythmic gymnastics on the development of motor and
functional abilities and morphological characteristics of female fourth-grade high-schoolers
in Zagreb. A total sample of 220 high-schoolers aged 16-18 years were divided into two
groups: experimental group of 115 students attending the program composed of dance
structures and aerobics, and control group of 105 students attending classic program of
physical education. A set of 3 morphological variables, 6 motor variables and one functional
variable were applied in both groups on three occasions during an academic year (initial,
transient and final measurements). Two-factor analysis of variance (MANOVA repeated

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measure design) showed the experimental program to significantly influence the
development of coordination/agility and specific rhythm coordination, functional aerobic
ability, repetitive and explosive strength and flexibility, along with significant reduction of
overweight and adipose tissue. Study results clearly indicate that the existing programs of
physical education should be revised and replaced by more appropriate ones

Carr CM.(2006) highlighted the area of sport psychology as it relates to

performance psychology skills (mental training), including a historical overview and current
topics overview. The use of mental training skills may be of interest to the practicing
physical medicine and rehabilitation professional in the treatment of his or her patients. It is
important that the physical medicine professional recognize what sport or performance
psychology represents within the paradigm of psychological interventions. Referring to an
individual based on his or her training (licensed psychologist versus mental training
consultant) is essential for the appropriate management of psychological issues related to
performance. The issues related to the psychological rehabilitation of the injured athlete are
of importance to the medical staff; the overview of affective responses can assist in
understanding the normal and adaptive responses of the injured athlete. Finally, a brief
description of a psychologist's role within a sports medicine and rehabilitation practice is
presented. The psychological issues that are present in the world of sport and elite
performance are numerous, and not all are mentioned in this article. Issues of eating
disorders, substance abuse, and psychological health with athletes should be further explored
within the physical medicine and rehabilitation discipline as well as in the sports medicine
discipline. The ever-evolving psychological dynamics of individuals involved in sport and
elite performance are intriguing and unique. A specialized knowledge base, training, and
experience in providing psychological services are required to treat this unique population.
Counseling and clinical issues of the athlete and elite performer require further attention in
the realm of psychological interventions, including further exploration of the efficacy of
interventions for performance enhancement. The field of applied sport psychology may offer
the physical medicine professional a unique perspective into the care of patients who are
athletes and elite performers.

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 Buckworth and Dishman’s (2002) review of the related literature concluded that
positive associations between exercise and self esteem have been found, but effects are
stronger for individuals initially lower in self esteem and the exercise has more potent effect
on physical self concept and self esteem than on general self perceptions. Exercise induces a
sense of competence and person’s physical characteristics. Positive self esteem is associated
with good mental health. So linking exercises with improvement in physical self concept and
with better self esteem offers another reason for adopting and maintaining a physically active
lifestyle.

Wininger (2002) examined the anxiolytic (anxiety reducing) effects of exercise for
elderly women engaging in a single bout of aqua aerobics. Volunteers (N=29) completed
questionnaires immediately before and after participating in an aqua aerobics class. The
average age of participants was 66.4 yr. A brief form of Spielberger's State Anxiety
Inventory and a questionnaire on demographic items were administered prior to engagement
in exercise, and the brief form of the State Anxiety Inventory was administered again
immediately after the exercise session. There was a significant difference on a t test between
participants' ratings of anxiety before exercise (M = 16.8) compared to after exercise (M=
13.9); participants' ratings of state anxiety were somewhat lower after exercising.
Weaknesses of the present study and suggestions for research are presented.

Wilson J.R. et.al. (2001) examined the effects on mood of two bouts of maximal
aerobic exercise (Bruce and Ramp protocols) and one bout of anaerobic exercise (Wingate
Test) was evaluated in college aged males. Mood was measured with the Activation De-
Activation Adjectival Check List (AD-ACL). Physiological measures showed that the two
aerobic protocols were similar. Pre and post exercise mood changed significantly in each
exercise test in a similar manner. And it was concluded that the pre and post exercise mood
is altered after maximal aerobic and anaerobic exercises.

Berger and Motl (2000) conducted a study on recent 25 years reviews of related
research literature to the effect of exercise on Profile of Mood States (POMS). They
concluded that there is unequivocal support for the mood enhancing effects of exercise.

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specifically on improved vigor and reduced tension, depression, anger, confusion and
fatigue. With respect to exercise intensity, the authors recommend that unless a participant
prefers low or high exercise intensity, optimal conditions for mood changes occur at a
moderate intensity level. In summary, exercise, in particular moderate intensity aerobic
exercise, reduced negative mood and improved positive mood state.

Anies (1998) studied the effect of exercise on mood states of sedentary females. 66
female students of All Saints College, Trivandrum participated in this study. Mood states
was first induced by POMS questionnaire and responses were collected prior to the training
programme and the same questionnaire was administered after the exercise programme of a
total of 12 sessions extending over a period of 4 weeks having 3 sessions per week with a
duration of 45 minutes. Mood states was measured using POMS questionnaire before and
after exercise. Results showed significant difference between pre test and post test where the
sedentary female have positive influence upon their mood states due to the exercise
programme given.

Berger, Owen and Man (1993) determined the exercise and mental health literature
and then examined the influence of rational difference on the acute mood benefits of
swimming on women college students (N=70) from Czechoslovakia and the United States.
They completed the POMS before and after class on thee occasions. The United States
swimming classes met for 50 minutes twice a week through out a 14 weeks semester
Czechoslovakian swimming classes met for 90 minutes once a week throughout a biweek
semester in comparison with their respective controls. Czechoslovakian swimmers reported
greater mood changes than the United States swimmers. The Czechoslovakian and United
States swimmers reported mood improvement on tension, depression, anger, vigor and
confusion.

Stratton (1990) conducted a study to examine changes in mood states of college

cross country runners across a competitive season. Also compare the mood state profiles of
the men’s team and the women’s team. The POMS questionnaire was administered to the
athletes every other week on Wednesday afternoon prior to practice throughout the season.

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Significant variations were identified for both the teams. Result reveals that the fatigue score
for the females was higher than that for the males.

Berger and David (1988) experimented stress reduction and mood enhancement in
four exercise modes, swimming, body conditioning, hatha yoga and fencing. Students
voluntarily enrolled in co-educational fencing, body conditioning, swimming and yoga
administered the POMS, a measure of mood states and the state anxiety subscale of the STM
before and after class on three different days, students were significantly more fatigued than
before. In body conditioning, the interaction between pre and post means was significant.
Yoga participants felt significantly better after exercising on four POMS subscales.

Phol (1984) assessed the effect of a 12 week aerobic dance class on body image, self
esteem and fitness in female college students. 119 female college students participated in
this study, 43 of those in the experimental group and the 76 to the control group. Self images
were assessed using Joumard’s Self Catherseis Scales and Fitness were assessed using
Cooper’s 12 min run. Body image, self image and fitness were assessed on a pre test, post
test basis with a minimum time between testing occasions of 12 weeks for all sessions.
There is a positive and moderate correlation between body and self image.

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