External parasites of raptors (Falconiformes and Strigiformes):

identification in an ex situ population from Mexico

Jaqueline B. de Oliveira1,2, Tiziano Santos1,3, Christopher Vaughan1,4,5 & Heber Santiago6
1. Instituto Internacional de Manejo y Conservación de Vida Sivestre (ICOMVIS), Universidad Nacional Autónoma,
Apdo. 1350-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica.
2. Cátedra de Parasitologia, Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco (UFRPE), Rua Dom
Manoel de Medeiros SN, Recife, CEP 52171-900, Pernambuco, Brasil; [email protected]
3. Laboratorio de Parasitología Veterinaria, Facultad de Estudios Superiores Cuautitlán Campo IV, Universidad Nacional
Autónoma de México, Km 2.5 carretera a Cuautitlán-Toloyucan, San Sebastián Xhala, Cuautitlan Izcalli, Estado de
Mexico, México, CP. 54714; [email protected]
4. Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706 USA;
[email protected]
5. Associated Colleges of the Midwest, Apartado 2562-2050, San Pedro, Costa Rica; [email protected]
6. Centro de Investigación y Conservación de Vida Silvestre (CIVS), Circuito Emiliano Zapata Norte, esq. con Circuito
Emiliano Zapata Sur, s/n, col. El Pino, Los Reyes La Paz, Estado de México, México, CP. 56507; [email protected]

Received 19-v-2010. Corrected 15-xii-2010. Accepted 21-i-2011.

Abstract: Raptorial birds harbor a variety of ectoparasites and the mayority of them are host specific. The aim
of this study was to identify the ectoparasites of captive birds of prey from Mexico, as well as to verify their
impact in the health of infested birds. Raptorial birds were confiscated and kept in captivity at the Centro de
Investigación y Conservación de Vida Silvestre (CIVS) in Los Reyes La Paz, Mexico State. Seventy-four birds
of prey (66 Falconiformes and eigth Strigiformes) of 15 species were examined for the presence of ectoparasites.
We examined both juvenile and adult birds from both sexes. The overall prevalence was 16.2%; 66.7% of raptors
were infested with a single type of external parasite. Lice were the most prevalent ectoparasites (91.7%), followed
by feather mites and fleas (8.3%). Degeeriella fulva (72.7%), Craspedorrhynchus sp. (45.4%) and Strigiphilus
aitkeni (9.1%) (Ischnocera, Philopteridae) were recovered from wings, head and neck regions of red-tailed
hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), Swainson’s hawk (B. swainsoni), Harris’s hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus) and Barn
owl (Tyto alba). Low lice infestation level was observed. Nymphs and females of feather mites Kramerella sp.
(Pterolichoidea, Kramerellidae) were recovered solely from Barn owl (T. alba); while one Caracara (Caracara
cheriway) was infested by the sticktight flea Echidnophaga gallinacea (Siphonaptera, Pulicidae). No clinical
signs were observed in any infested bird. Probably the periodic use of organophosphorates was responsible of
the low prevalence and lice infestation levels. The diversity of external parasites illustrates the importance of
detailed revision of incoming and long-term captive raptors as part of responsible captive management. Five
new hosts and geographic records are presented. Rev. Biol. Trop. 59 (3): 1257-1264. Epub 2011 September 01.

Key words: birds of prey, lice, feather mites, fleas, conservation, captivity.

As a result of the increased interest in rap- toxicosis and metabolic or nutritional diseases
tors, a substantial volume of medical informa- (Fix & Barrows 1990, Deem et al. 1998, Wen-
tion is currently available (Fix & Barrows 1990, dell et al. 2002, Naldo & Samour 2004).
Wendell et al. 2002, Naldo & Samour 2004). External and internal parasites are one of
According to several studies, the most common the major determinants of population dynamics
causes of morbidity in these birds are infec- and adaptive processes, imposing fitness costs
tious and parasitic diseases, traumatic injuries, to their hosts and promoting genetic variation

Rev. Biol. Trop. (Int. J. Trop. Biol. ISSN-0034-7744) Vol. 59 (3): 1257-1264, September 2011 1257
(Ortego et al. 2007). The documented external of wild populations (Wendell et al. 2002, Deem
parasites of raptors include lice, feather mites, et al. 2008).
ticks, fleas, hippoboscid flies and fly larvae Several Mexican raptors are included in
(Sohn & Noh 1994, Morishita et al. 2001, the Appendices I and II of Convention on Inter-
Lierz et al. 2002, González-Acuña et al. 2005). national Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Although raptors infested with these ectopara- Fauna and Flora (CITES) (Peterson & Chalif
sites may show no clinical signs, severe infesta- 1989). Some species of endemic diurnal (Fal-
tion mainly by lice and feather mites, that may coniformes) and nocturnal (Strigiformes) rap-
cause raggedlooking feathers and self-inflicted tors are kept in captivity in Mexico, but studies
trauma; furthermore, some ectoparasites are about parasite fauna of these birds are scarce
vectors of several pathogens of rapine birds (Santos-Morin 2010). Therefore, the objective
(Miller et al. 1997, Deem 1999, Morishita et of this study was to identify ectoparasites of
al. 2001, Freitas et al. 2002). Successful work captive birds of prey from Mexico, as well as
in the field of conservation and management of to verify their repercussion in the health status
raptors requires detailed knowledge about their of infested birds.
pathogens (Morishita 1997, Deem 1999). For
this reason, in ex situ conservation programs, MATERIAL AND METHODS
diagnosis and control of ectoparasites should
be routine to incoming and long-term captive Study population: Between January and
raptors of a large, multispecies bird collec- December 2008, 74 raptors (66 Falconiformes
tion. Moreover, it is important to emphasize and eight Strigiformes) of 15 species (Table 1),
that the knowledge of morbidity and mortality juveniles and adults from both sexes (39 males
causes in captive raptors can provide a new and 35 female), were evaluated for the presence
insight into the health and conservation status of ectoparasites. The birds were confiscated by

TABLE 1
External parasites of raptors kept in captivity at the Centro de Investigación y Conservación de Vida Silvestre (CIVS) of
Mexico, January to December 2008

Orden Species Examined Infested External parasites

Falconiformes Falco sparverius (American kestrel) 8 -
F. peregrinus (Peregrine falcon) 3 -
Caracara cheriway (Caracara) 6 1 Echidnophaga gallinacea
Buteo swainsoni (Swainson’s hawk) 3 3 Craspedorrhynchus sp.
B. nitidus (Grey hawk) 5 -
B. jamaicensis (Red-tailed hawk) 18 7 Degeeriella fulva,
Craspedorrhynchus sp.
Craspedorrhynchus sp.
Buteo albicaudatus (White-tailed hawk) 1 -
Parabuteo unicinctus (Harris’s hawk) 20 2 Degeeriella fulva
Buteogallus antrhacinus (Common black hawk) 1 -
Accipiter striatus (Sharp-shinned hawk) 1 -
Strigiformes Bubo virginianus (Great horned owl) 4 -
Strix virgata (Mottled owl) 1 -
Athene cunicularia (Burrowing owl) 1 -
Megascops asio (Eastern screech owl) 1 -
Tyto alba (Barn owl) 1 1 Strigiphilus aitkeni, Kramerella sp.

1258 Rev. Biol. Trop. (Int. J. Trop. Biol. ISSN-0034-7744) Vol. 59 (3): 1257-1264, September 2011
the Secretaria del Medio Ambiente y Recur- Ectoparasites collection: In order to
sos Naturales (SEMARNAT) because their obtain live material for different studies, the
breeders were not licensed to have wildlife use of cotton bag; diethyl ether or insecticide
avian species. Birds were kept at the Centro de were avoided. The birds were handled on a
Investigación y Conservación de Vida Silvestre clean white surface and the whole plumage was
(CIVS) in Los Reyes La Paz (20º22’ N, 98º59’ profusely and systematically surveyed (using a
W), state of Mexico, México. Other causes for magnifying glass) to remove, as far as possible,
admission at the CIVS included: acute traumat- all ectoparasites specimens found (Pérez et al.
ic injuries, electrocution, infectious diseases, 1996). On average, we thoroughly examined
orphaned young, metabolic and/or nutritional each bird about 20 minutes. Ectoparasites were
disease. All the birds were originally found in collected manually or with tweezers and stored
several counties from Mexico, but information into a labeled vial with 70% alcohol. Lice
regarding their origins was unavailable. and fleas were cleared in 10% KOH (potas-
According to Morishita et al. (2001), free- sium hydroxide) while mites were cleared in
living raptors are defined as birds in captiv- lactophenol (Freitas et al. 2002). Ectoparasites
ity for fewer than 24 hours and admitted were mounted on slides using Hoyer’s medium
solely because of acute traumatic injuries, (Pérez et al. 1996, Freitas et al. 2002). The
thus increasing the probability of otherwise arthropods were examined with a high-power
healthy subjects, free from seasonal dietary microscope and identified with a standard iden-
stresses, and with normal parasite burdens. tification keys and several published resources.
This way, the birds of the CIVS were long-term
captive raptors. Prevalence and lice infestation level: The
The 74 raptors lived in 12 enclosures, prevalence of external parasites was obtained
definided as following: A (n=8), B (n=11), C according to Margolis et al. (1982). On the
(n=4), D (n=8), E (n=3), F (n=6), G (n=7), H other hand, lice infestation level was defined
(n=1), I (n=10), J (n=6), K (n=3) and L (n=7).
as following: low (less than or equal to five
Enclosures allowed limited flight and included
lice observed after 10 random partings of the
sites protected from the weather and contained
feahers), moderate (greater than five lice after
resting perches. Cages were encompassed by
10 random partings of the feahers) and severe
wire or plastic screen net siding, and birds were
(moderate lice level and the presence of nits)
exposed to ambient weather conditions. Enclo-
(Morishita et al. 2001).
sures were raked two or three times/week.
Birds were fed three days/week with
thawed chicks, mice or rats and given free RESULTS
access to water.
In order to evaluate the health status, In general, 52.7% of the raptors present-
according to weight the birds were classified ed good corporal condition. Thin and obese
as following: thin, good condition and obese birds (31.1% and 16.2%, respectively) were
(Greenacre 2003, Haire 2003). also observed.
For the parasite control in the routine of The overall prevalence of external para-
CIVS, the birds were dewormed (with fenben- sites was 16.2% (74/12). Of the 66 Falconi-
dazole or ivermectin) upon arrival and twice at formes examined, 11 (16.7%) were infested;
year. Additionally, deworming was performed whereas with Strigiformes, infestation was
in the presence of clinical signs. Periodically, present in only one (12.5%) of eight exam-
the infested birds were treated with organo- ined. Eight birds (66.7%) were infested with
phosphorates dusting. Besides, birds were pro- a single type of ectoparasite (Table 1). The
vided with veterinary medical attention and/or birds infested were: Buteo jamaicensis (7/12),
flight rehabilitation as required. Parabuteo unicinctus (2/12), Buteo swainsoni

Rev. Biol. Trop. (Int. J. Trop. Biol. ISSN-0034-7744) Vol. 59 (3): 1257-1264, September 2011 1259
(1/12), Caracara cheriway (1/12) and Tyto alba of them are host specific. The overall preva-
(1/12) (Table 1). lence of the external parasites was low (16.2%),
even with constant arrival of new infested birds
Chewing lice: Lice were the most preva- to CIVS. Low prevalence probably occurred
lent ectoparasites, detected in 91.7% (11/12) of because of periodic treatment of infested birds
birds evaluated. The raptor species infested by with organophosphorates. In captivity, the
lice were: B. jamaicensis (7/11), P. unicinctus prevalence of ectoparasites is low, contrary of
(2/11), B. swainsoni (1/11) and T. alba (1/11) what occurs in wild birds of prey (Lierz et al.
(Table 1). Lice (Ischnocera, Philopteridae) 2002). Red-tailed hawk (B. jamaicensis), Har-
identified were: Degeeriella fulva (72.7%) ris’s hawk (P. unicinctus), Swainson’s hawk (B.
(8/11), Craspedorrhynchus sp. (45.4%) (5/11) swainsoni), Caracara (C. cheriway) and Barn
and Strigiphilus aitkeni (9.1%) (1/11). owl (Tyto alba) were infested species.
B. jamaicensis was the host of D. fulva
and Craspedorrhynchus sp. Of the seven B. Chewing lice: Lice are the most prevalent
jamaicensis infested: 42.8% (3/7) presented ectoparasites of raptors (Pérez et al. 1996,
coinfestation, 42.8% (3/7) presented single Deem 1999, Morishita et al. 2001, Cooper
infestation by D. fulva and 14.3% (1/7) had
2002) and in this study their prevalence was
single infestation by Craspedorrhynchus sp.
high (91.7%). This high prevalence differs
(Table 1). D. fulva was located in the wings
from the one reported by Morishita et al.
while Craspedorrhynchus sp. was recovered in
(2001) and Pérez et al. (1996) in captive rap-
the head, neck and wing regions.
tors from rehabilitation centres of United States
Only one specimen of B. swainsoni had
(34.3%) and Spain (42%), respectively. In the
infestation by Craspedorrhynchus sp. (Table
1) on the head, neck and wings. D. fulva was present work, long-term captive infested rap-
also found in the wings from two (18.2%) P. tors were in the most inhabited enclosures (B
unicinctus (Table 1). The louse S. aitkeni was and I), which facilites the transmition (Cooper
recovered in one specimen of T. alba (Table 2002, Whiteman & Parker 2004). According to
1) and was found only in the wings. Overall, Whiteman & Parker (2004), there is a positive
infestation level was low and no clinical signs relationship between ectoparasite infestation
were observed in any infested bird. intensity and host density. Probably due to
periodic treatment, the lice infestation level
Feather mites: Nymphs and females of was low and no clinical signs were observed
Kramerella sp. (Pterolichoidea, Kramerellidae) in any infested bird, which was also observed
were recovered solely from T. alba, which also by Morishita et al. (2001). Despite this, captive
had lice infestation. No feather loss or damage birds of prey normally harbor small numbers of
was observed in infested bird. chewing lice that may increase in number when
hosts are unable to preen themselves (Deem
Fleas: The flea embedded on the face of 1999, Morishita et al. 2001). Lice do not only
one C. cheriway was identified as sticktight flea affect the fitness, viability and productivity of
Echidnophaga gallinacea (Siphonaptera, Pulici- their hosts, but also play a role as reservoirs
dae). The specimen recovered was a female. and in the transmission of infectious diseases
No clinical signs were observed in the among them (Pérez et al. 1996). In sick raptors,
infested bird. severe lice infestations may occur and cause
raggedlooking feathers, the bird may become
DISCUSSION highly irritated and cause self-inflicted trauma
(Pérez et al. 1996, Miller et al. 1997, Deem
Raptors harbor a variety of ectoparasites, 1999, Cooper 2002). In captivity, stress condi-
as demonstrated in this study, and the mayority tions are frequent; therefore infested raptors

1260 Rev. Biol. Trop. (Int. J. Trop. Biol. ISSN-0034-7744) Vol. 59 (3): 1257-1264, September 2011
must be treated (Morishita 1997, Deem 1999, the most reliable means for identifying the
Morishita et al. 2001). eleven Craspedorrhynchus species from fal-
Degeeriella fulva and Craspedorrhynchus coniformes (Pérez et al. 1996, Price et al.
sp. were the most frequent lice, and they 1997, Morishita et al. 2001). Unfortunately,
have been found in the Red-tailed hawk (B. specimens of Craspedorrhynchus could not
jamaicencis), Harris’s hawk (P. unicinctus) and be identified at the species level because of
Swainson’s hawk (B. swainsoni). According to poor conditions of the male genitalia, which
Morishita et al. (2001), the trunk of the birds occurred also in other surveys (Morishita et al.
seems to be the predilection site of the lice, fol- 2001, Dik 2006). Colpocephalum turbinatum,
lowed by the head region. In this study, D. fulva Degeeriella regalis, Kurodaia fulfofasciata
appeared to demonstrate a slight preference and Laemobothrion maximum are registered
for wings (between the barbs of the long wing in B. swainsoni worldwide (Dalgleish 2009),
remiges), over head and neck regions (Pfaffen- while Craspedorrhynchus platystomus have
berger & Rosero 1984, Pérez et al. 1996), been recorded in captive falconiforms B. buteo
while, Craspedorrhynchus sp. was found in the and B. rufinus from Spain and Turkey (Pérez et
head, neck and body (thorax and wings), which al. 1996, Dik & Aydenizöz-Özkayhan 2007).
was also observed in captive raptors from Similar to this study, specimens of Craspe-
Spain (Pérez et al. 1996). These areas should dorrhynchus from B. swainsoni could not be
be checked with attention for presence of ecto- identified at the species level by Morishita et
parasites during the physical exam. al. (2001). However, according these authors,
It is important to emphasize that three the female louse recovered may have been
specimen of seven infested B. jamaicencis C. hirsutus, reported solely in Ferruginous
(Red-tailed hawk) presented coinfestation, hawk (B. regalis).
similar to reported by Pfaffenberger & Rose- Degeeriella emersoni and Laemobothrion
ro (1984). Furthermore, in other surveys, B. maximum are the only lice species reported in
jamaicensis was the raptor that presented high- Harris’s hawk (P. unicinctus) (Dalgleish 2009).
est infestation levels (Pfaffenberger & Rosero In this study, single infestation by D. fulva was
1984, Morishita et al. 2001), so this falconi- observed in two specimens of Harris’s hawks,
form species should receive special attention which were in the same enclosure with the
during the external examination in captive Red-tailed hawks infested by this louse. We
bird collections. believe that finding D. fulva in P. unicinctus
Degeeriella is one of the most frequent may represent a direct accidental transfer from
genera of louse from wild and captive falconi- infested B. jamaicensis or the louse also could
forms worldwide (Pérez et al. 1996, González- have been indirectly transferred by care-givers.
Acuña et al. 2008), being D. fulva, D. regalis Although most lice are host specific, several
and Craspedorrhynchus americanus the spe- cases of secondary transfer among ecologically
cies recorded in wild and captive B. jamai- related hosts and captive species are recorded
censis (Morishita et al. 2001, Dalgleish 2009). (Clayton 1990, Morishita et al. 2001). There-
Coinfestation by D. fulva and C. americanus fore, P. unicinctus is presented as a new host
was observed in B. jamaicensis from the Unit- of D. fulva.
ed States by Pfaffenberger & Rosero (1984), Colpocephalum, Kurodaia and Strigiphi-
which considered that C. americanus is specific lus are the genera of chewing lice from Stri-
to this falconiform. Thereby, this is a new geo- giformes (Price & Beer 1963, Morishita et al.
graphical record of D. fulva in B. jamaicensis. 2001, Dalgleish 2009). However, Strigiphilus
Craspedorrhynchus sp. was also found in is the only genus of lice with its members
B. swainsoni (Swainsoni’s hawk). Craspedor- restricted to owl hosts (Price & Beer 1963,
rhynchus species are relatively homogeneous Clay 1966, Clayton 1990). K. subpachygaster,
morphologically and the male genitalia are C. pectinatum and C. turbinatum were recorded

Rev. Biol. Trop. (Int. J. Trop. Biol. ISSN-0034-7744) Vol. 59 (3): 1257-1264, September 2011 1261
in captive and free-ranging T. alba from Spain induce morbidity and mortality, no localized
(Martín-Mateo 2006); while S. aitkeni was dermatitis or anemia was noted in response to
recovered only in free-ranging T. alba from ectoparasitism. Heavy infestations can result in
United States (Morishita et al. 2001). In the anemia, blindness, severe pathology or death
present study, S. aitkeni was the only species of birds if untreated (Mactier 1970, Cooper &
recovered from the wings of the Barn owl (T. Mellau 1992, Boughton et al. 2006, Gyimesi et
alba). This louse occurs only on Barn owls, al. 2007). The impact of E. gallinacea on the
and only on those in the New World, Australia C. cheriway confirms previous findings that
and Southeast Asia (Clay 1966, Pfaffenberger sticktight fleas can be benign in captive avian
& Rosero 1984, Clayton 1990, Morishita et hosts (Gyimesi et al. 2007). The infestation
al. 2001, Dalgleish 2009). Thereby, S. ait- was treated with manual removal of flea com-
keni is recorded for the first time in T. alba in bined with topical organophosphorates dusting
Latin America. and environmental treatment; and subsequent
recheck exams did not reveal any fleas on
Feather mites: Furthermore of louse S. this bird or any of the other birds housed in
aitkeni, feather mites Kramerella sp. were also the same enclosure. It is important to mention
recovered from the only specimen of Barn owl. that, despite being embedded around the face
Kramerella sp. is specific to Falconiformes of bird, detection of the flea was not imme-
and Strigiformes (Krantz 1978, Sohn & Noh diate. This case illustrates the importance of
1994, Gaud & Atyeo 1996). However, there systematic and detailed revision procedures for
are no records in captive or free-ranging T. alba incoming and long-term captive raptors as part
from Latin America. Despite coinfestation, no of responsible captive management of a large,
feather loss or damage was observed. Gener- multispecies bird collection (Morishita 1997,
ally the presence of mites does not determine Morishita et al. 2001, Gyimesi et al. 2007).
negative effects in the health of raptors, except External parasites are frequent and can
in the mange cases by Knemidocoptes (Deem be deleterious for the health of birds of prey;
1999, Miller et al. 2004). thereby, the knowledge of the these parasites
contributes and help ensure prompt, appropri-
Fleas: One noteworthy and surpring result ate and judicious control (Morishita 1997,
of this study was the sticktight flea Echidnoph- Deem 1999, Morishita et al. 2001, Joseph
aga gallinacea in one Caracara (C. cheriway). 2006, Willette et al. 2009). The monitoring of
It is difficult to know how the bird had been ectoparasitism should be a routine part of the
infested because the bird was a long-term cap- health care of incoming and long-term cap-
tive Caracara that lived with other long-term tive raptors of conservation centers like the
captive birds of the same species. One hypothe- CIVS, since parasite prevention and monitor-
sis is that the flea could have been accidentally ing programs require minimal time and cost
transferred by care-givers through their clothes. (Morishita 1997).
E. gallinacea is a major pest of the domes- Due to that the CIVS is also a rehabilita-
tic chicken (Gallus gallus) and despite the tion center of wild birds of prey, the knowledge
sticktight fleas’ worldwide distribution and its of the causes of morbidity and mortality of
broad host range, there is a scarcity of reports incoming and long-term captive raptors can
on flea infestations in captive and free-living provide insight about the health status and con-
avian species (Mactier 1970, Cooper & Mel- servation of wild populations.
lau 1992, Beaucournu et al. 2005, Boughton et
al. 2006, Gyimesi et al. 2007). In raptors, this ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
flea had been reported only in Elanus leucu-
rus (black-shouldered kite) in Kenya (Cooper We acknowledge the staff of the Centro de
2002). Although this flea has the potential to Investigación y Conservación de Vida Silvestre

1262 Rev. Biol. Trop. (Int. J. Trop. Biol. ISSN-0034-7744) Vol. 59 (3): 1257-1264, September 2011
(CIVS), México. Tiziano Santos was supported Clayton, D.H. 1990. Host specificity of Strigiphilus owl
in part by grants from the U.S. Fish and Wild- lice (Ischnocera: Philopteridae), with the description
of new species and host associations. J. Med. Ento-
life Service. mol. 27: 257-265.

Cooper, J.E. 2002. Birds of Prey: health and disease. Blac-

RESUMEN kwell, United Kingdom.
Las aves rapaces albergan una gran variedad de ecto- Cooper, J.E. & L.S. Mellau. 1992. Sticktight fleas (Echid-
parásitos y la mayoría de ellos son específicos de acogida. nophaga gallinacea) on birds. Vet. Rec. 130: 108.
El objetivo de este estudio fue identificar los ectoparásitos
de aves de presa en cautiverio en México y verificar su Dalgleish, R.C. 2009. Birds and their associated chewing
impacto en la salud de las aves. Se estudiaron 74 rapaces lice (Downloaded: January 10, 2009, www.phthirap-
(66 Falconiformes y ocho Strigiformes) de 15 especies, tera.org/Bird%20list.html).
juveniles y adultos de ambos sexos que fueron confiscadas
y mantenidas en el Centro de Investigación y Conserva- Deem, S.L. 1999. Infectious and parasitic diseases of
ción de Vida Silvestre (CIVS) en Los Reyes La Paz (20º22’ raptors. Compend. Contin. Educ. Pract. Vet. 21:
N, 98º59’ W), estado de México. La prevalencia fue de 329-338.
16.2%; 66.7% de las rapaces estaban infestadas por un
único tipo de ectoparásito. Los piojos fueron los más preva- Deem, S.L., S.P. Terrel & D.J. Forrester. 1998. A retros-
lentes (91.7%), seguidos por los ácaros y las pulgas (8.3%). pective study of morbidity and mortality of raptors in
Los piojos Degeeriela fulva (72.7%), Craspedorhynchus Florida: 1988-1994. J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 29: 160-164.
sp. (45.4%) y Strigiphilus aitkeni (9.1%) fueron extraídos
de las alas, cabeza y cuello de aguililla cola-roja (Buteo Deem, S.L., E. Ladwing, C. Cray, W.B. Karesh & G.
jamaicensis), aguililla migratoria (B. swainsoni), aguililla Amato. 2008. Health assessment of the ex situ popu-
lation of St Vicent parrots (Amazona guildingii) in
de Harris (Parabuteo unicinctus) y lechuza de campanario
St Vicent and the Grenadines. J. Avian. Med. Surg.
(Tyto alba). El ácaro Kramerella sp. fue extaído de T. alba;
22: 114-122.
mientras que un Caracara (Caracara cheriway) estaba
infestado por la pulga Echidnophaga gallinacea. No se
Dik, B. 2006. Mallophaga species on long-legged buzzards
observaron signos clínicos en ninguna de las aves infesta-
(Buteo rufinus): new records from Turkey. Türkiye.
das. Probablemente el uso periódico de organofosforatos
Parazitol. Derg. 30: 226-230.
fue el responsable de la baja prevalencia y de los niveles de
ingesta de piojos. La diversidad de ectoparásitos identifica- Dik, B. & M. Aydenizöz-Özkayhan. 2007. Mallophaga
dos ilustra la importancia de una detallada revisión de las species on long-legged buzzards (Buteo rufinus) in
rapaces en cautiverio. Cinco nuevos hospederos y registros Turkey. Türkiye. Parazitol. Derg. 31: 298-301.
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