CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Research Background

Agricultural commodities produced on the fields have to undergo a series of operations

such as harvesting, threshing, winnowing, bagging, transportation, storage, and processing before
they reach the consumer and there are appreciable losses in crop output at all these stages. The
losses are caused either by environmental factors such as temperature, moisture, type of storage
structure, insects, rodents, birds and fungi. The major losses during production, storage and
marketing of food grain are being attributed to infestation by insect pests, microbiological
contamination, and physiological changes (Ipsita Das et al. 2013). Insect infestations can occur
just prior to harvest or during storage or in-transit in a variety of carriers. The occurrence and
numbers of stored grain insect pests are directly related to geographical and climatic conditions
(S. Lal-B. P. Srivastava, 1985). Almost all species have remarkably high rates of multiplication
and, within one season, may destroy 10 – 15% of the grain and contaminate the rest with
undesirable odors and flavors.

Rice, (Oryza sativa L.) is the most important staple food crop in the world and it is a
major commodity for international and domestic trade. But, rice seeds are affected adversely by
many insect pests and fungi, destroying the viability and germination capability of the seeds and
rendering them useless for the production of rice (Andreuccetti, D et al. 1994). Rhyzopertha
dominica attacks a wide range of stored cereals and breeds extensively in a warm climate (S. J.
Langlinais, 1989), such as that of Malaysia. The larger grain borer is a serious pest that destroys
stored grain and cereal products. The adults and larvae bore into grain seeds and eat the kernel,
leaving a hollow husk (A.I. Khuri-J.A. Cornell, 1989).

Insect infestations in rice can occur just prior to harvest or during storage or in-transit in a
variety of carriers. This caused the losses during storage that classified as quantity loses and
quality loses. Quantity loses occur when the rice grain is consumed by insect and quality losses
are reflected to the reduced economic value of the crop. The stored-grain insects affect not only
the quantity of grain but also the quality of grain. Infestation causes decreased nutritional value,
reduced seed germination and lower economic value and also causes changes in chemical
compositions such as increase in moisture, free fatty acid levels, non-protein nitrogen content,
and decrease in pH and protein contents in food grain (Sanchez-Marinez et al. 1997).

1.2 Problem Statement

There is interest worldwide in reducing the quantities of pesticides and chemical

fumigants used in agricultural commodities. Various methods are used in an effort to control
these insect pests in rice paddies and in the harvested rice (Ipsita Das et al. 2013). Chemical
fumigation has played an important role on a global basis in controlling insect pests and bacteria
in agricultural commodities [14]. In Malaysia, a mixture of pirimiphosmethyl (12.0 mg of the
active ingredient), permethrin (1 mg), and piperonyl butoxide (5.0 mg) is used as one liter per
ton of paddy to achieve complete prevention of infestation (100% insect control) throughout the
grain storage period. Another method used in Malaysia is sealed storage with carbon dioxide
(CO2) gas (D.C. Montgomery, 2001). The major problem associated with the chemical methods
is that, even if they are applied with care and in limited quantity, there is a possibility that these
chemicals may remain in the food grains and have adverse effects on humans. Fumigation often
only kills live larvae or adult insects but does not sterilize the eggs which are still alive in the
grain kernels (G.E.P. Box et al. 1978).

The used of lime, as an alternative to the chemical fumigants, where the lime is misting
during the rice movement in the process will create a thin layer of lime for the rice to slower the
activity of the insect pests. According to a study this method could increase the number of days
for the egg to hatch for 25 to 40 days compared to 4 to 14 days without lime misting (Faiza Sdn.
Bhd, 2010). The wide space of process is needed to provide full coverage for the rice. The
effectiveness of this method can be low as after certain duration the activity of the insect egg will
start to hatch.
Besides, weewils behavior prostephanus Truncates lays egg outside the rice grain and in
between the grain. An installation of a suction system through the process is applied to reduce
numbers of insect egg. However, this technique will not be able to reduce the insect egg laid in
kernel. After certain number of days they start to hatch and create new colonies inside the grain.
The laying process will continue until the rice grain suffers quality and quantity losses.

A method to eliminate the entire egg of insect pests is needed to ensure the quality of the
rice in storage to the consumer is maintained with a minimal loss in economic value. So there is
clearly a need to develop a method that can eliminate the entire egg and at the same time free
from chemical hazard.
The use of electromagnetic heat treatment or microwaves is selected as a new method for
post-harvest treatment of agriculture commodities. This method has a potential with no chemical
residues with acceptable quality of the commodities and minimal impact to the environment.
In the following chapter we will discuss the necessary or relevant literature review
conducted for this research.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter is divided into two parts. The first part attempts to discuss generally about
rice commodities, infestation on the grain and available method to disinfestation. The second
part intends to discuss a proposed method with the basic concept and principle involved

2.2 Rice

Rice is the primary staple for more than two billion people in Asia and for hundreds of
millions of people in Africa and Latin America (IRRI 1985). Among the major food crops it is
the only that is almost exclusively for human food. It constitutes half of the diet of the more than
1.6 billion people and 400 million rely on rice for a fourth to a half of their diet (Swaminathan
1984). Rice provides about 80% of the calories for two billons Asians and one-third of the
calories intake of one billion persons in Africa and Latin America (Chang 1984).

Rice grows in diverse soils and climates but it is best adapted to a warm, humid
environment. In that environment, insects are more prolific than in a cooler, dryer environment.
In addition, where year-around continuous cropping is practiced, there are overlapping insect
generation throughout of the year.

The most common stored-grain insects in Malaysia rice are Prostephanus Truncates and
Rhyzopertha dominica. Most stored-product insects have a wide range of food habits and they
can feed on several different dry food products. This wide range allows them to move from one
food product to another during storage and transportation leading to cross-infestations and
residual infestations. The distribution of insects in bulk grain is typically non-uniform and is
determined by gradients of temperature and moisture, distribution of dockage and broken grain,
and inter and intra-species interactions of insects.
 Prostephanus Truncates is a long-lived species with an extended oviposition period and a
relatively rapid larval development stage. Its development pattern is similar to the closely related
Rhyzopertha dominica, lesser grain borer, which is from the same insect family. The species has
a potential life span of several months, during which adults continue to feed and infest the host.
Optimum conditions for development on maize are 32𝑜 C and 70-80% relative humidity, and
under these conditions, the life cycle can be completed in 24 - 25 days (Hodges, 1986). Figure 1
shows a Prostephanus Truncates and its larva from egg.

Figure 1: Prostephanus Truncate, larger grain borer and its larva (GASGA Technical Leaflet).

Adults bore into maize grains making neat round holes, generating large quantities of dust as
they tunnel from grain to grain. After mating, adult females lay most eggs within the grain in
blind ended chambers bored at right angles to the main tunnel. Eggs are laid in batches of 20 and
covered with finely chewed maize dust. Oviposition begins 5 - 10 days after adult emergence,
reaching a peak at 15 - 20 days (Bell &Watters 1982). The same process occurs in rice grain.
Another Rice stem borer is Scirpophaga. This is a type of yellow stem borer of rice
attacks only rice and has wide distribution in all Asian countries. This insect cause the nature of
damage by its larva feeds inside the stem causing drying of the central leaving a hollow husk.
The month from October to December has been found conducive for the multiplication of this
insect. This insect commonly attacks in paddy stage.
The female lays 15 - 18 eggs in a mass near the tip on the upper surface of tender leaf
blade and covers them with buff colored hairs and scales. A female lays about 2 - 3 egg masses
and the incubation period ranges from 5 - 8 days. The newly hatched pale white larva enters the
leaf sheath and feeds for 2 – 3 days and bores into the stem near the nodal region. Usually only
one larva is found inside a stem but occasionally 2 - 4 larvae may also be noticed. The larva
becomes full grown in 33 - 41 days and measures about 20 mm long. It is white or yellowish
white with a well-developed prothoracic shield. Before pupation it covers the exit hole with thin
webbing and then forms a white silken cocoon in which it pupates. The pupa is dark brown and
measures 12 mm long. The pupae period varies from 6 -10 days and may get prolonged
depending on the weather conditions. The entire life-cycle is completed in 50 - 70 days (DR. A.
V. Navarajan Paul, 2007). Figure 2 shows a specie that commonly attack rice at paddy field
stage. Egg laying process occurs in paddy trunk.

Figure 2: A Scirpophaga species attacks at field stage (Indian Agricultural Research Institute).

There are various methods are used in an effort to control these insect pests in rice
paddies and in the harvested rice.

2.2.1 Chemical method

Since the 1950s, chemical insecticides have been used extensively in grain storage
facilities to control stored-product insect pests due to low cost, fast speed in processing, and ease
of use. Most postharvest pest management programs, therefore, rely heavily on fumigants. The
chemicals used to control insects in the bulk stored-grains are composed of two classes, namely,
contact insecticides and fumigants.
 Contact insecticides, such as malathion, chlorpyrifos-methyl, or deltamethrin, are sprayed
directly on grain or structures which provide protection from infestation for several months (R.
N. Sinha, 1985). Fumigants are gaseous insecticides applied to control insects in grains that are
inaccessible by contact insecticide. Some of the commonly used fumigants are methyl bromide
(MeBr) and phosphine which rapidly kill all life stages of stored-product insects in food product
(E. J. Bond, 1984). In Malaysia, a mixture of pirimiphosmethyl (12.0 mg of the active
ingredient), permethrin (1 mg),and piperonyl butoxide (5.0 mg) is used as one liter per ton of
paddy to achieve complete prevention of infestation (100% insect control) throughout the grain
storage period [manjur paper]. Besides, Methyl bromide is also used widely before since now
this type of fumigant is under the threat of withdrawal because it apparently depletes the ozone
layer (J. G. Leesch et al., 2000). It has already been established that the use of methyl bromide
has led to serious environmental damage and hazards to people’s health. For these reasons, the
Montreal Protocol constituted by the United Nations Environment Program agreed on a phasing
out of methyl bromide in the developed countries by 2005 and in the developing countries by
2015 (United Nations Environment Programme, 1997). Phosphine has been used as a
replacement of methyl bromide for a long time (S. Rajendran, 2001). However, conventional use
of phosphine has failed frequently to control insects (C. H. Bell, 1995).

2.2.2 Controlled Atmosphere Storage

In this method, normal composition of atmospheric air, that is, 21% oxygen, 0.03%
carbon dioxide, and 78% nitrogen is altered appropriately for disinfestation process. An
atmosphere containing more than 35% CO2 known as carbon dioxide atmosphere and the
atmosphere containing less than 1% are lethal to insects (Ipsita Das et al. 2013). Controlled
atmospheres are mainly based on the establishment of a low-oxygen environment which kills
pests. Insects in all stages are eliminated because of the lack of oxygen which causes the insect to
dry out and suffocate. This controlled atmosphere storage has been shown to be promising in
creating lethal conditions for insects and fungi in stored food commodities. Controlled
atmospheres are always being seen as average alternative such as longer treatment time, usability
and availability, and being not suitable for dealing with high level of infestation.
 2.2.3 Ionizing radiation

It is a process where infested food products are being exposed to ionizing radiation so as
to sterilize, kill, or prevent emergence of insect pests by damaging their DNA. The most
commonly used of ionizing radiation is gamma rays from radioactive cobalt- 60 .Irradiation with
high energy electrons is usually safer and easier to work with because it can be turned on and off
while an isotope is always radiating and humans must be shielded from it (P. G. Fields, 1995).
The ability of gamma rays to deeply penetrate pallet loads of food makes it one of the most
commonly used in postharvest pest control. Sterilization of many species of insects can be
accomplished at lower doses. However for the purpose of rice disinfestation requires high doses
of energy to the level of insect mortality. Higher the doses of energy could lead to damage to the
sample and more radiation may cause hazardous to human being. Besides, this method has not
received wide recognition because of high power consumption and irradiation has not been
accepted by many countries.

2.2.4 Lime Misting

This is a non-chemical method as an alternative to protect rice grain from infestation. T

During storage, the insect lays egg outside rice grain and between the grains. In the process of
packaging, the lime is misting during the movement of the conveyor for uniform coverage to the
rice. This provides a thin layer for the rice will produce a small electrical charge that enough to
make insect move away. This method will affect the insect activity to slower. The number of
days for the egg to hatch increases more than 2 week. This implementation will reduce number
of claim more than 50% (Offial communication: Mr. Shamsul, FAIZA Sdn. Bhd.). However,
after some times the insect is expected to start again. They start to create new colony by laying
egg in the rice grain.
With all above method discussed, there is interest worldwide to develop a new method
especially to reduce the use of chemical and pesticides in food at acceptable quality and maintain
the economic value of the commodities. Therefore, a propose method will be discussed in the
next part two.
2.3 Microwave

Microwave is the region range in the electromagnetic (EM) wave spectrum in the
frequency range from about 1 GHz to 100 GHz. This corresponds to a range of wavelengths
from 30 cm to 0.3 cm in free space. The free space is characterized by the electrical medium
parameter permittivity 𝜀𝑜 = 10−9 /36𝜋 farad/m, permeability, 𝜇𝑜 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦/𝑚, and
conductivity 𝜎𝑜 = 10−14 𝑚ℎ𝑜/𝑚 (Annapurna et al., Mc Graw Hill 2009). Microwaves are
invisible waves of energy that travel at the speed of light, 3 × 108 m/s. In the electromagnetic
spectrum, microwave lie between radio frequencies and infrared radiation. From the broad range
of microwave frequencies available, a few are designated for industrial, scientific and medical
applications (ISM). Microwaves are reflected by metals, transmitted through electrically neutral
materials such as glass, most plastics, ceramics and paper, and absorbed by electrically charged
materials (Decareau 1972; Mullin 1995).

Figure 3: The classification of electromagnetic wave (HowStuffWorks).

2.3.1 Principle of Microwave heating

 Microwave heating is based on the transformation of alternating electromagnetic field
energy into thermal energy by affecting polar molecules of a material. All matter is made up of
atoms and molecules and some of these molecules are electrically neutral but many are bipolar.
When an electric field is applied the bipolar molecules tend to behave like microscopic magnets
and attempt to align themselves with the field. When the electrical field is changing millions of
times per second (915 or 2450 million times per second), these molecular magnets are unable to
keep up the forces acting to slow them. This resistance to the rapid movement of the bipolar
molecules creates friction and results in heat dissipation in the material exposed to the
microwave radiation. Biological material placed in such radiation absorbs an amount of energy
which depends on the electrical characteristics of the material and heat is produced. In general,
the higher the moisture and oil content the more energy is absorbed and the more heat is
generated (R. Vandivambal, 2005). The most important characteristic of microwave heating is
volumetric heating which is different from conventional heating. The electromagnetic energy
directly interacts with commodities to raise the interior temperature and significantly reduce
treatment times as compared to conventional hot-water immersion and heated air methods.
Conventional heating occurs by convection or conduction where heat must diffuse from the
surface of the material. Volumetric heating means that materials can absorb microwave energy
directly and internally and convert it into heat. The power generated in a material is proportional
to the frequency of the source, the dielectric loss of the material, and the square of the field
strength within it. The conversion of microwave energy to heat is expressed by the following
equation (H. Linn, 2003):

𝑃 = 2𝜋𝐸 2 𝑓𝜀 ′′ 𝜀𝑜 𝑉

Where P is power (W),

E is the electric field (V/m),
f is frequency (Hz),
𝜀𝑜 is the permittivity of free space (F/m),
𝜀 ′′ is the dielectric lost factor and 𝑉 is the volume of the material (m3).
 Dielectric properties of food depend on composition, temperature, bulk density, and
microwave frequency. Since the influence of a dielectric depends on the amount of mass
interacting with the electromagnetic fields, the mass per unit volume, or density, will also have
an effect on the dielectric properties. This is especially notable with particulate dielectrics such
as food grains. For granular and particulate materials, both the dielectric constant and loss factor
tend to increase linearly with increasing bulk density of the materials especially in lower
moisture materials such as cereal grains (S. O. Nelson, 2012).

2.3.2 Principle of microwave in rice treatment optimization.

The use of microwaves for killing insects is based on the dielectric heating effect
produced in grain, which is a relatively poor conductor of electricity. Since this heating depends
upon the electrical properties of the material, there is a possibility of advantageous selective
heating in mixtures of different substances. In a rice disinfestation or treatment, it is possible to
heat the insects to a lethal temperature because they have high moisture content while leaving the
drier rice with slightly warm. Raising the temperature of infested materials by any means can be
used to control insects if the infested product can tolerate the temperature levels that are
necessary to kill the insects. There has been a lot of research on microwave disinfestation of
cereals especially wheat and of some other food materials such as nuts, corn and cherries.

In this research, the heating process must be implemented with the condition that the
temperature is less than 70𝑜 C to avoid damage to the rice. The rice is exposed to the microwave
energy for about three minutes by maintaining the temperature less than 70𝑜 C. These are the
optimum parameters to ensure the quality of rice and mortality of insects (Official
Communication: Mr. Shamsul, FAIZA Sdn. Bhd.).
According to a latest studies in china, an industrial microwave oven (QW-15HM,
Guangzhou Kewei Microwave Oven Energy Ltd., China.) with 2450MHz frequency was used in
the research. The effective length, width and height of the microwave oven were 7114, 600 and
60 mm, respectively. The microwave power (w), rice temperature (T), and speed of the belt
could be controlled continuously. The final rice temperature throughout the microwave oven was
determined by nine temperature sensors fixed at the exit of the conveyor belt, which were
positioned symmetrically at the upper layer, center layer and bottom layer with three points (left
edge, middle and right edge) for each layer in figure 5. The maximum difference among these
temperature sensors was less than 0.9C. The final rice temperature was calculated by taking the
mean of the nine measured values.

Figure 5: Model diagram of the 2450 MHz microwaves heating system.

After preparation, sample rice containing rice weevils and their eggs was put into a
plastic package (width_length ¼ 120mm_160 mm) made from polyethylene with thickness 0.7
mm; the package was then sealed. The sealed packages were inserted into the column of medium
rice, which was conveyed through the microwave oven. Length, width of medium rice and speed
of belt were controlled to keep the rice flow (Q) at 400–1200 kg/h. Belt speed and microwave
oven power were monitored for change in the energy consumption (dh), treatment time (t) and
rice flow to investigate the effects of these factors on the mortality of rice weevils.
After irradiation, adult rice weevils were separated from the sealed packages and
observed for 24 h to determine whether they were dead. Then the mortality of adults was
calculated. Sample rice containing eggs was placed in jars and cultured in a growth chamber at
25 1C, with a relative humidity of 75%. The number of larvae was noted and they were taken out
every day for 1 month. Adult insects were considered dead if no movement was observed.
Moribund and surviving adults were observed over the following 3 days. Mortality of adults was
calculated as
𝑁𝑑
𝑀𝐴 = × 100%
𝑁𝑐

Where MA is % mortality of adults, Nd is number of dead adult insects for each trial, and Ns is
the sum of live and dead adult insects for each trial.
Mortality of eggs was calculated as

𝑁𝑡
𝑀𝐸 = 1 − × 100%
𝑁𝑐

where ME is % mortality of eggs, Nt is the number of

larvae which emerged in sample rice for each trial and Nc is
the number of larvae which emerged in the control sample.
Microwave irradiation dosage was the input power of the
microwave oven divided by the weight of irradiated rice
which passed through the microwave oven during the same
time period. The final rice temperature was defined as the
temperature (1C) of the rice as it left the microwave oven.
Energy consumption was the product of microwave dose
and treatment time.

The next chapter will discuss the proposed method in terms of design, block diagram and
circuitry construction.

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter attempts to discuss the proposed project approach. This approach includes
the overall design, block diagram and circuitry construction.

3.2 The project proposal approach

The main objective of this proposal is to study the mortality of the rice insect when
exposed to the microwave radiation on certain duration and acceptable temperature.

3.2.1 Overall Prototype Design

 Figure 4 shows the proposed prototype to be constructed for the rice treatment
optimization using microwave. All the parts of the prototype are label as shown. The descriptions
of each part are given below.

 Power supply Unit: This unit consists of main power supply for the whole
system and High Voltage for the magnetron unit. Besides, a small d.c. power
supply is also design for the purpose of microcontroller.
 Controller unit: The heart of this unit is a microcontroller. A close-loop control
system is used to maintain the temperature at acceptable value by cut-off and on
the supply to the magnetron unit for adequate heat energy exposed to the sample.
The temperature should be maintained at 60 degree centigrade for 3 minutes.
(Official Communication: Mr. Shamsul, FAIZA Sdn. Bhd.)
 Magnetron: A magnetron is a high power microwave oscillator in which the
potential energy of an electron cloud near the cathode is converted into r.f. energy
in a series of cavity resonators.
 Fan assembly 1: The fan provides a waveguide for the waves. A hollow type
system path will be applied to assist the wave blown to fill up the space of test
sample.
 Fan assembly 2: This unit ensures that the samples are exposed to the waves
uniformly.
 Temperature sensor: Signal from this sensor is sent to the controller to obtain
the desired temperature to be maintained. Proposed type of sensor will be a
thermistor or the most common temperature sensor semiconductor type LM35.
 Sample tray: A rice sample is scattered in a layer for uniformly exposing to the
waves.
 Figure 4: Proposed prototype design

3.2.2 Block Diagram

POWER SUPPLY FAN 1 AND 2

MAGNETRON

𝜇𝐶𝑂𝑁𝑇𝑅𝑂𝐿𝐿𝐸𝑅 TEMPERATURE
SENSOR

TEMPERATURE
DISPLAY
3.2.3 Circuitry construction
 Switching
circuit

Temperature
sensor on
sample

 Circuit description
 The circuit consists of two main parts. First part is a controller circuit and the
second part is microwave circuit. For controller circuit, a microcontroller is designed to
receive temperature signal from rice sample based on setting temperature to activate the
power supply switch of the microwaves circuit. When the temperature reaches its desired
value, the controller sent a signal to cut-off the power supply switch of the microwaves
circuit.
 CHAPTER 4

PRELIMINARY RESULT

This chapter

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