New guidelines for variable speed drives

+ motors
While the connection between motor and inverter supply is usually
straightforward, there are still a number of issues which need to be
carefully considered, as this article explains
The rapid rate of development of variable speed drives and motors brings with it
many challenges for manufacturers, installers and users.
Variable speed AC drives are now being designed in to equipment and plant in ever
increasing numbers, fuelled by the two key benefits of costs reduction (through energy
saving and lower maintenance demands) or process improvements (better product
quality, higher dynamics, more flexible production etc).
Many modern automated production systems, batch processes and continuous
manufacturing operations, such as web printing, rely on the accurate control of
motor/drive systems.
As industry demands ever more precision and power, at reduce cost of purchase and
operation, so motor and drive producers are striving to build components and sub
systems that deliver the expected performance.
While the connection between motor and inverter supply is usually straightforward,
there are still a number of issues which need to be carefully considered.
Whilst the vast majority of VSD driven motors are applied without issue, some special
cases require additional guidance.
To date, little independent advice on handling such issues has been available.
Some information on the motor is available from the technical report IEC34 -17 1998
"Guide for the application of cage induction motors fed from converters", but this does
not reflect current state of the art and is inadequate for modern inverters.
A little further guidance on VSD issues may be obtained from BS EN 61800-2 "
Adjustable speed electrical power drive systems - Part 2: General requirements".
Users may therefore feel that an important area has lacked clear guidance so far.
Considerable work relating to the characterisation and specification of cage induction
motors and variable frequency converter supplies is being pioneered here in the UK, by a
joint working group comprised of industry experts.
Both GAMBICA, the Association for the Instrumentation, Control and Automation
Industry, and REMA, the Rotating Electrical Machines Association, have been working
on standards and guidelines relating to motors and variable speed drives (VSD).
However, although both associations were working independently towards the same
ultimate objective, it fell to Steve Barker (product marketing manager for variable speed
drives) at Siemens Automation and Drives in Manchester, to suggest that they teamed
up and formed a joint technical committee.
Mr Barker, who is Chair of the GAMBICA Association's VSD Group, explains:
"Although it seemed obvious that GAMBICA and REMA should pool their expertise,
the idea did appear to be somewhat revolutionary at the time it was suggested."
The concept was enthusiastically embraced by the manufacturers and a taskforce (also
convened by Steve Barker) was commissioned to investigate the issue of motor
insulation under inverter operation.
The results of the groups joint efforts can already be seen, with the publication of their
first Technical Guide, entitled: "Variable Speed Drives and Motors: Motor Insulation and
 PWM Inverter Drives".
The guide, which is the forerunner to a much more detailed technical report (also now
available) on the subject, is one of a series of planned publications that will provide
OEM equipment designers, systems integrators and end users with help on the correct
selection and use of motor/drive systems.
The co-operation between GAMBICA and REMA has not gone unnoticed
internationally.
Through the various international connections of both REMA and GAMBICA, the IEC
(International Electrotechnical Commission), who are responsible for setting so many of
the product standards now found in factory automation and process control, have also
taken up the challenge.
Previously, one IEC committee concerned itself with motors another group concentrated
on drives and power electronics.
Impressed with what they saw happening in the UK, the two IEC committees took the
decision to create a joint working group to address the specific issues applicable to
motors designed to be operated from inverter supplies.
The working group consists of nearly twenty international experts active in the field of
both drives and motors.
Together with end users, most of the major manufacturers are represented with
delegates from across Europe, North America and Japan.
Based on his similar experience in the UK, Steve Barker was appointed as the group
convenor challenged with steering the team to achieve the set objectives.
"At the inaugural meeting in London, last September, the priorities were set to
concentrate on cage induction motors designed for VSD operation operating at less than
1000 Volts."
Mr Barker explains.
" The aim of the team is clarify the key points of consideration and the outcome of this
working group's activity, WG26, will hopefully be new guidelines to address our core
issues."
The core issues are: Additional motor insulation stress due to inverter operation
Increases and effects on motor losses (efficency) Oscillating transient motor torques
Increased stray motor Bearing currents Electro-magnetically excited motor audible
noise.
Under some unfavourable conditions, the above can cause problems or unnecessary
irritation to the user and all these points require further investigation.
The remit of IEC's WG26 is to characterise each of these issues in detail, identify
possible solutions and finally to suggest design changes where appropriate.
It is hoped that new international guidelines or standards will be in place by within two
years, although Mr Barker admits that this is a tough task.
His objective is to provide authoritative information which will assist users to apply
equipment correctly and will persuade manufacturers to improve designs where needed.
In the UK study, GAMBICA and REMA evaluated the situation where the quality
motors offered by REMA members were controlled by PWM inverters from the
GAMBICA suppliers.
Although motor insulation stress is increased with VSD operation (dependent on cable
length), the key findings of the team were:- Motors running on a supply voltage of 500V
or less are not affected by these stresses Enhanced winding insulation systems are
required for supply voltages over 500V A key challenge for the team was to ensure that
the guidance was clear and straightforward.
As presented in their technical guide, they point to the need for users of motors running
 above 500V to pay special attention to the way the motor winding insulation has been
constructed.
It is recommended that for supply voltages between 500V and 690V, motors are chosen,
from the range offered by REMA members, with an enhanced insulation system.
These readily available motors may cost between 10 and 20 per cent more than a
standard design, but they offer the required assurance against costly failures.
If a motor is being considered from alternative suppliers, it is important, say the working
group, to establish the pulse withstand capability by discussing the application with the
supplier.
These can then be compared to the benchmark pulse withstand characteristics which are
included as part of the technical guide.
However, in some cases, for example where a drive is being retro-fitted to an existing
motor, or the characteristics of the motor cannot be identified, these recommendations
cannot be followed.
In these cases, alternative solutions such as output filters are available and it is usually
advisable to consult with the drive and/or motor manufacturer.
Beware, some special cases merit further attention.
For example, drives that use alternative non PWM control strategies (such as direct
torque injection schemes), could actually further double the motor's peak voltage stress
and therefore special mitigation measures may be needed.
The guide also offers advice on other applications such as active front end drives where
further limitations apply.
Finally, the working group points out that it is especially important to note that the use
of inverter drives with "Ex" rated motors used in hazardous environments may invalidate
the hazardous area certification and the application must be referred to the equipment
supplier Mr Barker feels that it is more important than ever to consider the motor and
drive as an integral package.
"The persuasive benefits offered by frequency converters will ensure that the expansion
of inverter control continues as VSD technology develops.
For optimum selections and increased assurance, the converter and motor components
need to be assessed together", he concludes.

More information:
• See contact details for Siemens Automation and
Drives and other news
• Email this news to a colleague

high frequency induction motor

Oct 15, 2002 7:03 pm, by prasanna
Subject : Engineering
from the electrical dept.
Text :
I am not worried about the efficiency and i am ready for 50% efficiency. and..i can provide
special bearings also... for friction..and..load is also optimum normal load.. in these
conditions... if i keep on increasing the induction motor frequency... about 50 Hz to
300Hz... using a VARIABLE DRIVE what happens to my induction motor? if so...shall i
run the motor at 500Hz? If no..what is the max safe operating frequency range?
Reply

 Re: high frequency induction motor

Oct 17, 2002 10:44 am, by Hakan Ozevin
There are special motors for high speed applications. It is not safe to operate an ordinary motor
above its permitted maximum speed. Look at the mechanical limits given by the motor
manufacturer.
Reply

 Re: high frequency induction motor

Feb 27, 2003 2:51 pm, by Vince
I have encountered spindle motor, that is up to 120,000 Rpm, basically supported by air bearing.
But I couldn't understand how they design a 4 poles motor run up above 100,000 rpm

Vince
Reply

 RE: high frequency induction motor

Feb 28, 2003 3:20 pm, by Bouchard, James
You supply is with power at 4000 Hz instead of 60 Hz ( and design the motor for that frequency )

James Bouchard
Reply

 Re: high frequency induction motor

Oct 16, 2002 2:04 pm, by sekar
Just consider no-load running. The core loss will increase dramatically with the frequency.(the vfd
output frequence AND the chopping freuency of the VFD). The motor will run very hot. You have
to provide additional cooling.
You will need oil mist cooled special ball bearings to run at really high speeds.500 Hz and 2
poles mean 30,000 rpm. The maximum allowed rotational speed for a normal ball bearing is
6000 RPM.

You will need to increase the applied voltage since the current drawn by the motor will start to fall
because of increasing impedance. If the applied voltage is not enough, the rotor can not pick up
to the speed and the slip will increase and you will be at a point at which the speed does not
increase anymore irespective of increase in freuency.

By the way the cost of an inverter is half the price of a set of high speed mist cooled ball
bearings. Since you are prepared to go for the bearings you as well try this with an inverter
instead first.

Best regards,
Sekar
Reply

 RE: high frequency induction motor

Oct 21, 2002 9:16 am, by Dobrowolski, Jacek
Hi,

Max safe operating frequency depends only on mechanical durability of the bearings and rotor
itself. But be careful as starting from the nominal frequency voltage cannot be higher then the
nominal voltage of the motor - this means that at 500 Hz you will get only 1/10 of the nominal
torque (if nominal frequency is 50).
Regards,

Jacek Dobrowolski, M. Sc. E. Eng.

Software Eng.
Reply

 Re: high frequency induction motor

Oct 16, 2002 11:29 am, by Dan
300Hz may be a bit much. Even if the motor can tolerate the mechanical stresses, loss of
available torque will be a problem for you. Maintaining torque across a given speed range
requires adjusting the applied voltage relative to frequency. (volts to hertz ratio). For
example, a 460 volt motor at 60hz runs with a 7.667 v/hz ratio. Beyond motor nameplate
frequency the VFD can't (or shouldn't) continue to raise the applied voltage to maintain
this ratio without exceeding the motor's voltage maximum, resulting in speed increases
without the corresponding increase in applied voltage - and available torque drops sharply.
Lots of helpful info can be found via your search engine, and I've found good basic
information at www.reliance.com/prodserv/motgen/b7097_2.htm , and other docs at the
same website.

AC
White Paper: Motors
Induction Motors -
Constant Frequency / Constant Voltage
Variable Frequency / Variable Voltage
| Abstract | Intro. | Terminology & Equivalent Circuits | Speed-Torque Curves | Efficiency & Losses | Adj. Freq. Variable Speed Op. |
Field Oriented Control | Constant Power Op. | Non-Fundamental Voltages, Current | Additional Motor Losses | Heat Dissipation |
Switched Voltage Waveforms | Noise | Oversizing-Derating | Conclusions |

Abstract
As more AC induction motors are applied to variable speed applications, it is increasingly
important to understand how these motors operate. The differences between operation on
"sinewave" power and "static" power supplies can be quite significant.
This session will review the basics of constant frequency / constant voltage operation of ac
induction motors. These principles of operation will then be extended to the case of
operation from variable frequency / variable voltage power. Finally, the effects of the non-
sinusoidal voltage and/or current waveshapes will be covered.
Introduction
AC induction motors have for many years been reliable workhorses in converting
electricity into rotating power. The last 20 years has seen increasing usage of these motors
with adjustable frequency controls to add variable speed capability to AC motors. While
AC motors were initially applied to relatively simple variable speed applications (such as
varying the flow rate of a fan or pump), advances in AC motors and control technology
have allowed their use in higher performance applications.
With these higher performance applications (and higher performance motors and controls)
has come the need for "high performance" matching of the control, motor, and the
application. This session will provide additional understanding of the adjustable-frequency,
variable-speed operation of AC induction motors, with the intent of fostering "smarter"
application and improved performance.

Constant Frequency , Constant Voltage Operation

Terminology and Equivalent Circuits
Before trying to understand the operation of AC induction motors on adjustable-frequency
power (variable-speed), it will be useful to briefly review the basic fixed-frequency
operation of AC induction motors. The fundamental electromagnetic components are the
stator and rotor (Figure 1). In the most common configuration, the stator has three
interconnected phase windings, and the rotor winding is a set of short circuited bars
known as a "squirrel cage."
Typical AC Induction Motor Stator and Rotor Laminations
Figure 1
With balanced three phase voltages applied to the windings of the stator, balanced currents
flow in the three interconnected phase windings. These currents produce a magnetic field
which "rotates" within the stator at a speed given by Equation 1.
N1 = 120 x f /P (1)
N1 = rotational speed of stator magnetic field in RPM (synchronous speed)
f = frequency of the stator current flow in Hz
P = number of motor magnetic poles
For various numbers of motors poles, Table 1 shows the synchronous speeds based on 60
Hz and 50 Hz frequencies.
POLES FREQ (Hz) N1 (RPM)
2 60 3600
2 50 3000
4 60 1800
4 50 1500
6 60 1200
6 50 1000
8 60 900
8 50 750
10 60 720
10 50 600
12 60 600
12 50 500

AC Motor Synchronous Speeds Table 1

The natural tendency is for the rotor to "follow" the rotating magnetic field, and at no-load
the rotor will turn at a speed y equal to Nl. Any difference in the rotational speed of the
magnetic field and the rotor will result in a voltage being induced in the rotor squirrel cage
winding. The resultant rotor current interacts with the magnetic field to produce torque.
The difference in rotor mechanical speed versus magnetic field rotational speed is what is
known as "slip."
The equivalent circuit for an AC induction motor can help visualize some of the motor
characteristics. Figure 2a shows separate circuits for the stator and rotor, with the
interaction between them modeled as a "transformer." This transformer has the unique
characteristic of also changing the frequency of the signal! While the current in the stator
is at the applied frequency of the motor power source, the rotor current flows at a
frequency based on the slip of the motor.

AC Induction Motor Equivalent Circuits

Figure 2
Rather than work with such a two part equivalent circuit having currents at different
frequencies, the circuits of Figure 2a are typically modified to come up with a single
circuit as shown in Figure 2b.

Speed / Torque Curves

As an AC induction motor is started, the values of resistance and reactance offered by the
motor (or seen by the power source) will vary. At the instant of applying power to a
stopped motor, the magnetic field is rotating much faster than the (stationary) rotor. This
implies 100% slip, so r2/s is minimized. As a result, the current drawn at starting (locked
rotor) conditions is quite high. Also it is common to design rotor slots which have
dramatically different impedance at high slip (say 60 Hz for starting) versus at typically
less than I2 Hz slip (normal running). This changes the values of both x2 and r2 from
starting to running conditions.
As a motor accelerates to speed from a standstill, the changing impedances result in a
unique characteristic developed torque and current drawn during the time of acceleration.
Depending on the design of the motor, a torque / current characteristic such as one of
those shown in Figure 3 would typically result. The NEMA Design B motor is considered
the most "general purpose" of these characteristic shapes, with Design C and D typically
used for more "difficult to start" loads. Table 2 gives some ranges of characteristics for
integral HP, 1200 and 1800 RPM motors.
4 & 6 POLE MOTORS
10 - 125 HP

PER UNIT DATA

NEMA
LRA LRT BDT
DESIGN
A N/A 1.0 - 1.65 2.0
B 5.3 - 5.9 1.0 - 1.65 2.0
C 5.3 - 5.9 2.0 - 2.5 1.9
D 5.3 - 5.9 2.75 N/A

Typical AC Induction Motor Speed/ Torque / Current Data

Table 2

Typical AC Induction Motor Speed / Torque / Current Curves

Figure 3
As can be seen from all of these speed/torque curves, the current drawn by an AC motor
in accelerating a load up to speed can be dramatically higher than the nominal running
current. At the same time, the developed torque (during acceleration) may in some cases
be less than the rated full load torque. Various methods exist to control the starting current
drawn by an AC motor but the torque per amp seen during starting is always much lower
than at running conditions.
The nature of an AC induction motors acceleration to running speed is such that it can
impose high stresses on the stator end turns and the rotor. The high current draw also
stresses the upstream power system, including cabling, transformers, switchgear, etc. For
this reason, there is often significant effort made to "control" AC motor starting and
acceleration - both in terms of motor design as well as application.

Efficiency and Losses

Returning to the AC motor equivalent circuit of Figure 2b, we can identify three of the
five basic component losses which exist in AC induction motors. The losses dissipated in
the resistance of the stator and rotor windings, plus the core loss (eddy current and
hysteresis losses in lamination steel) are modeled in the equivalent circuit. A fourth
component loss is the friction and windage of the rotor, fan, bearings, etc. Finally, there is
the "leftover’ category of stray load losses. These are losses which are a compilation of
various less easily modeled losses, but are often a significant loss in highly efficient
machines. The stray load losses include eddy current losses in the conductors, core losses
due to flux distortion with load, etc.
Since the friction and windage and core losses are essentially independent of load, while
the other losses vary as the square of load (current), the efficiency of an AC induction
motor falls off precipitously at light loads (see Figure 4).

AC Induction Motor Efficiency vs. Load

Figure 4

Adjustable Frequency, Variable Speed Operation

For steady-state (as opposed to starting) operation, AC induction motors offer a
reasonably linear torque per amp and high power factor characteristic. This is seen in
Figure 5 as the part of the speed torque curve between "breakdown RPM" and
"synchronous (no load) RPM." It is this portion of the AC induction motor range of
operation within which adjustable frequency drives function.

AC Induction Motor Speed Torque Curve

Figure 5
By varying both the frequency and voltage supplied to an AC motor, the controller can
cause the motor to operate on a continuum of speed torque curves which allows operation
in the "linear" region between breakdown and synchronous speeds (Figure 6). This then
allows the motor to operate near its optimal torque per amp or maximum efficiency point
for a given load and speed.

AC Induction Motor Steady State Operation

Figure 6
As long as the motor flux is maintained constant while the frequency and voltage are
varied, the basic "shape" of the speed torque curve will remain unchanged. The motor
flux is proportional to the internal "counter-emf" divided by the frequency of that
generated voltage. This can be described as:

The motor counter-emf (Eg) can also be thought of as the voltage across the magnetizing
reactance (xm) in the equivalent circuit of Figure 2b. Maintaining constant flux while the
speed (frequency) is varied can then be seen as requiring constant ratio of Eg / f .
Since Eg is a motor internal voltage, this needs to be related to the terminal voltage of the
motor. From the AC motor equivalent circuit, it can been seen that the voltage drops
across the stator resistance and leakage reactance represent the "difference’ between Eg
and the terminal voltage Vt.
If a controller were to maintain a constant ratio of AL voltage to frequency (Vt / f), rather
than Eg / f, this would result in a decreasing flux level at lower speeds (frequencies). The
curves of Figure 7 demonstrate the effect of this failure to maintain the motor flux. It can
be seen that the peak value of torque falls of at the reduced flux levels. In fact, the peak
torque is approximately proportional to the square of the flux level, so the drop-off can be
significant. The torque per amp is also proportional to the motor flux, so increased current
draw for a given load will also result from reduced flux.
Speed Torque with Contant Terminal V/Hz
Figure 7

As a means to improve the system characteristics (beyond the curves of Figure 7),
controllers often compensate for the difference between Vt and Eg in order to select tile
correct voltage for a given frequency. This compensation is often referred to as "voltage
boost." Since the major detrimental effect of constant Vt / f is at low voltages, low
frequencies (low speeds), the voltage drop across the stator leakage reactance is usually
ignored (as the impedance of an inductor is proportional to frequency). This leaves the
drop across the stator resistance as the major source of a discrepancy between Vt and Eg
at these low speeds.
Many controllers use a value of voltage boost which compensates for the IR drop of the
stator at a current equal to the motor full load amps.
Vb =If1 x r1 (3)
Vb is the per phase (line-to-neutral) voltage boost,
rl is the per phase stator resistance,
Ifl is the motor full load current.
This would result in a voltage versus frequency characteristic as shown in Figure 8. A
weakness in this technique of boosting voltage is that the value of Vb is only "correct" for
a single value of load current. If the full load current is used to set the voltage boost, then
the motor will be overfluxed for lighter loads, and underfluxed for overload conditions.
Depending on the low speed performance required by a given application, this may or may
not be a problem.
Low Speed Voltage Boost
Figure 8

"Field Oriented" Control

In order to obtain better control of AC motor torque, adjustable frequency controls
sometimes make use of a regulation scheme known as "field-oriented" or "vector" control.
This technique is intended to control the motor flux, and thereby be able to decompose the
AC motor current into "flux producing" and "torque producing" components. These
current components can be treated separately (in the control), then recombined to create
the actual motor phase currents. This results in a solution to the boost adjustment
problem, plus provides much better control of the motor torque - which allows higher
dynamic performance.
In order to accomplish field-oriented control, the controller needs to have an accurate
model of the motor equivalent circuit. This model eliminates the need to set "volts-per-
Hz" and "boost" as is done m scalar (non field-oriented) control schemes. The actual
voltage seen at the motor is then a result of the motor equivalent circuit and the specific
current being regulated by the controller.
One result of field-oriented control is that by virtue of the motor flux being maintained, the
motor torque-per-amp can be held constant down to zero speed. An additional advantage
results from the improved control (predictability) of motor output torque - that is, higher
"dynamic" performance. This allows AC drives to serve applications requiring high
"velocity loop bandwidth," such as servos.

Constant Power Operation

The discussions above regarding voltage boost and field oriented control as a means to
maintain motor flux have been presented in regard to "constant torque" operation. This
can also he thought of as operation "below base speed" (Figure 9).
AC Motor Speed Ranges
Figure 9
Above the speed at which the output voltage of the controller is maximum, the controller
can no longer maintain constant flux as speed is increased further. This is equivalent to
where a DC motor begins to be "field weakened" to achieve higher speeds. Both for AC as
well as DC machines, voltage (armature voltage for DC) remains constant, so for constant
load current, constant output power is available.
As the frequency supplied to an AC induction motor is increased (with voltage held
constant), the "field weakening" causes a reduction in the motor peak torque capability as
seen in Figure 10. This family of curves can alternatively be drawn as speed - power,
rather than speed - torque curves (Figure 1). The fact that the peak power decreases as
speed is increased by field weakening is the most "inherent" limitation to the "constant
power speed range" of an AC drive.

AC Motor Speed/Torque Curves Basd on Field Weakening by Increasing Frequency

with Constant Voltage
Figure 10
AC Motor Speed/Power Curves Basd on Field Weakening by Increasing Frequency
with Constant Voltage
Figure 11

Non-Fundamental Voltages Current

Up to this point, we’ve talked about varying the voltage and frequency applied to an AC
induction motor as if the voltages and currents were still sinusoidal in shape. In fact,
depending on the type of adjustable frequency controller, various nonfundamental voltage
and current components will exist (Figure 12).

Typical Adjustable Frequency Controller Voltage and Current Waveforms

Figure 12
The waveforms in Figure 12 are often looked at in the frequency domain (Laplace or
Fourier transform). In the waveforms of Figure 12 a, b, c, d, the higher frequency
components (non-fundamental components) are "harmonics’ of the fundamental frequency.
That is they occur at frequencies equal to integer multiples of the fundamental frequency.
For the PWM waveforms of Figure 12 e, f, the switching (carrier) frequency is usually not
synchronized to the fundamental frequency. This leads to a set of non-fundamental
frequency components which are not true harmonics of the fundamental frequency.
Whether or not the non-fundamental current components are harmonics of the
fundamental, they do not contribute to the normal production of torque. They can, in fact,
produce pulsating (ripple) torque’s which lead to other problems. The nonfundamental
voltages similarly do not provide fundamental flux for the development of torque.

Additional Motor Losses

While these non-fundamental components do not provide basic torque, they do cause
motor losses. Since the stator winding carries the total current (fundamental and non-
fundamental components), the RMS value of the total current produces the stator winding
12R loss. The RMS value of the non-fundamental currents can range from I % of the
fundamental to over 10%, depending on the controller and motor combination, as well as
the operating point.
The non-fundamental components in the stator can also be "transferred" to the rotor by
transformer action (induction). Depending on the specific motor design, including rotor
slot details, the rotor may "see" a significant increase in its non-fundamental (non-slip
frequency) current. This will then result in added rotor I2R losses.
The non-fundamental voltage harmonics will produce flux variations which are not adding
to motor torque, but which do cause eddy current and hysteresis losses in the motor
magnetic laminations. Again, the specific combination of controller and motor will
strongly influence the magnitude of these additional losses.

Heat Dissipation
Adding to the motor heating caused by the additional losses discussed above, a "self-
ventilated’ (e.g. DPG, TEFC) motor WM have less ability to dissipate these losses at
lower speeds (Figure 13). For this reason, it is often appropriate to use a motor with
ventilation which is speed-independent (TENV, DPFV, TEBC) when operating across a
wide range of speeds. As can be discerned from Figure 13, the desirability of speed-
independent cooling is typically more pronounced for larger machines.
Influence of Speed on Heat Dissipation
Figure 13
In addition to the problem of loss of dissipation at lower speeds, the use of a TEFC or
DPG motor for operation at high speeds can result in large windage losses, as well as
acoustic noise problems.

Switched Voltage Wavefronts

The use of semiconductor switching devices to create the adjustable frequency input to
AC induction motors can result in some effects beyond the "non-fundamental
components" issues. The waveforms seen in Figure 14 are expanded views of the PWM
voltage of Figure 12 e. As power transistors have evolved, their ability to "turn on"
quickly has also improved dramatically. This implies a high level of "dV/dt" as defined in
Figure 14 b. Both this high dV/dt as well as the higher peak voltages seen by a motor
applied with this type of controller need to be considered in designing motors for these
applications.

Adjustable Frequency Controller Output Voltage Waveforms

Figure 14
The higher peak voltages seen at the motor terminals provide a higher dielectric stress on
the motor insulation system. These peaks occur at each transition (carrier frequency for a
PWM controller) on each of the motor phases. Due to the repetitive nature of this voltage,
an inadequate motor insulation system (from a dielectric standpoint) will often fall in a
rather short period of time (days to months).
The high dV/dt of these switched wavefronts contributes to the overshoot and ringing of
the voltage at the motor terminals, but also has an interesting effect of its own. Based on
Equation 4, a high dV/dt can cause a high current flow in a capacitive circuit.
I = C x dV/dt (4)

While motors are often not thought of as having a characteristic capacitance, there are
both phase to ground as well as phase to phase capacitances associated with AC induction
motors. This capacitive effect is "distributed’ in that the windings have various "Positions"
relative to the stator core, as well as to the other phases. This causes the capacitively-
coupled current flow to also be (unequally) distributed. These currents, while very short in
duration, also occur at every transition (dV/dt) and can cause failure of an inadequately
insulated motor in a short time.
Another result of these capacitively-coupled currents is that if a ground connection is not
provided (from the motor frame), significant psuedo-square wave voltages will occur on
the motor frame which can be a hazard to personnel. A proper ground connection will
eliminate these voltages, but there will be fairly high frequency currents flowing to ground.
The leads connecting the controller to the motor also will experience some of the same
capacitively coupled currents as the motor (phase to phase and phase to ground).

Noise
Another effect of the non-fundamental waveforms of Figure 12 on AC induction motors is
the possibility to produce acoustic noise. Beyond noise due to "windage" effects, the
majority of motor noise is due to components deforming in a manner which can pump air
in the audible frequency range.
While all structures have characteristic sets of natural frequencies and corresponding mode
shapes, some of these are of more concern. If any of the non-fundamental waveform
frequencies are closely aligned with motor natural frequencies, the forces produces by
these voltages and currents may excite mode shapes which could result in high audible
noise at a specific frequency.
The use of motor designs which have as "sparse" as possible a set of (potentially noise
producing) natural frequencies is a good starting point to reduce opportunities for noise
problems. By appropriate design of the electromagnetic structure, the force distribution of
the higher frequencies can also be mitigated.

Oversizing / Derating
An approach to applying AC induction motors to adjustable-h-frequency, variable-speed
operation can be to oversize or derate motors for the application. This is an approach
which may in simple applications be successful, but a number of potential hazards exist.
Whether or not a motor is derated / oversized will not be of any help if the insulation
system is inadequate for the switched voltage wavefronts from the controller. A motor
loaded to less dm full load can fail just as quickly as one fully utilized if the insulation
dielectric capability is lacking.
A motor which is derated will have lower reactances, which in a CSI application may be
fine, but can cause excessive current ripple in a PWM environment. This high ripple can
cause IIET trips of the controller, overheating of the controller transistors, or motor
overheating. Also a derated motor will have low damping as a result of the its low slip,
which can cause instability problems in open loop drives, or modeling problems in a field-
oriented controller.
Since AC induction motors can have a significant level of no load (magnetizing) current
compared to full load current, a derated motor will often operate at a reduced power
factor at the application load. This can result in higher full load current which may exceed
the continuous rated current of the controller.

Conclusions
AC induction motors are likely to continue to be reliable sources of fixed speed rotating
power. Their successful use in variable speed applications is increasing. In order to avoid
unsuccessful applications, the users, controller and motor manufacturers need to
communicate well. This will allow appropriate matching of the load, motor, and controller.

Document B-7097-2

VFDs Can Cut Costs

Variable-frequency drives are beneficial, but you must avoid voltage spikes that can
cause winding failure.
By Chuck Yung, Electrical Apparatus Service Association
When you want to control motor speed, you usually choose a clutch or a variable-
frequency drive (VFD)—also called an inverter. In most cases, the advantages of VFDs
make them the better choice, so much so that industry installs 10,000 to 15,000 VFDs
each week. But VFDs have their limitations; for example, they cannot multiply torque.
Misapplication can be expensive and frustrating. But correctly applied, VFDs can reduce
costs while increasing success with production goals.
How VFDs work
The primary purpose of a VFD is to enable constant-speed ac induction motors to run at
variable speeds. Two factors determine the speed of an ac induction motor: the frequency
of the supplied power and the number of magnetic poles per phase. For example, at 60 Hz
the synchronous speed of a four-pole motor is 1800 rpm (120 x 60 cycles/sec divided by 4
poles = 1800 rpm). Unless one of these factors changes, the speed remains constant. But a
VFD can change the utility’s sinusoidal ac power to variable-frequency dc current, making
it possible to adjust (reduce) the speed of ac induction motors almost infinitely.
The most common method VFDs use to accomplish this is pulse width modulation. By
sending the motor pulses of dc voltage in varied widths, an inverter mimics the increasing
and decreasing amplitude of an ac sine wave. The pulse at the center of each wave is the
widest (longest duration), while those on either side of it are progressively narrower
(shorter duration). When VFDs modulate the width of pulses in this way, they are referred
to as pulse-width modulation inverters (PWMs).
The amplitude or peak voltage of each pulse is, in theory, about the same as the maximum
amplitude of the sinusoidal voltage supplied by the utility. The polarity of the pulses
changes from positive to negative during the second half of each cycle, replicating the
polarity shift that occurs with ac power during each complete cycle.
With the VFD, you can adjust the motor speed by simply changing the frequency of the
simulated sine wave. Decreasing the frequency slows the motor, while increasing it (within
limits) causes the motor to speed up. Although VFD technology works well in most
situations, serious problems may arise with some applications and motor-drive systems.
Switching frequency and cable length problems
Because a VFD sends out several thousand pulses each second, the switching frequency
can become a problem. This is true especially if the cable between the drive and motor is
more than 50 ft long. In such cases, a reflected and an incident pulse can meet at the
motor terminals, effectively doubling the voltage that surges into the motor winding.
Similar to a wave striking a beach, a pulse’s amplitude can increase as it reflects back and
crosses other incoming waves. Extensive testing by motor manufacturers and others
shows that cables longer than 50 ft contribute to the higher voltage spikes that cause
motor winding failures.
Extensive testing shows you can expect voltage spikes of 1500-2000 V or more at the
terminals of a motor rated for 460 V operation. Unfortunately, standard insulation systems
will not handle this kind of overvoltage. IEEE Standard 43 specifies proof-testing the
insulation system integrity of new 460 V windings only once at 2000 V. The standard does
not account for the voltage stress a VFD may impose several times each second
throughout the life of a motor.
Some motor manufacturers have developed VFD-duty motors by upgrading winding
voltage-withstand capability and reducing the core and winding losses. Likewise, several
drive manufacturers have improved the quality of output power from the drive. Faster rise
times may be desirable from a control perspective, but a slower rise time is gentler to the
motor. The relationships between cable length, motor insulation, and VFD rise time are
complex. Each variable plays a part in determining the corona inception voltage, which is
the threshold at which high voltages partially discharge, ionizing trapped air and
deteriorating insulation. If a particular combination (motor, VFD, and cable length/type)
works well, changing any one variable can change everything.
Some end users employ line filters to protect their motors. Such filters dissipate the energy
increase caused by long cables. Filters are not particularly expensive (about 10 to 20
percent of the cost of the drive), but they do add more components to the system. When
possible, it is preferable to avoid cable runs longer than 50 ft.
Increased heating
Even where cable length is not a problem, motors can run 10-20 C hotter on a simulated
60 Hz PWM waveform than on real sinusoidal power. Excess heat is a major cause of
insulation deterioration and failure. Insulation life drops by half with each 10 C increase in
temperature. That means the insulation system of a motor that runs 20 C hotter than its
rated temperature would last only one-fourth of its normal life.
Adding to the problem, VFD-driven motors generally operate at lower speeds. The fan
therefore will dissipate less heat, leading to an even hotter motor and more heat in the
windings.
Fortunately, most VFD applications today involve motors driving fans or pumps. These
are centrifugal loads, so the power required to drive them increases as the cube of the
speed increase. Conversely, driving the pump impeller at a lower speed reduces power
requirements significantly. That means less current, so heating due to the current density of
the winding also decreases. These factors do not necessarily offset each other, however, so
predicting the winding temperature is difficult.
Final tips
VFDs offer many benefits, not the least of which is the ability to directly drive variable-
speed loads using ac induction motors. If you elect to install one, try to avoid long cable
runs. You also should consider using a line filter or reactor to reduce or eliminate harmful
voltage spikes.
Another option might be to buy an inverter duty replacement motor. If the motor is large
and expensive, a cost-effective alternative may be to have a local service center rewind it
using inverter-duty wire and special insulation. You also should specify additional varnish
treatments to fill spaces between wires, increasing the corona inception voltage (the
threshold at which the corona effect occurs). The additional varnish also improves heat
conduction from the wire to the laminations, helping to cool the motor. These steps should
prolong the life of the motor when operating with a VFD.
Chuck Yung is a technical support specialist with the Electrical Apparatus Service
Association (EASA), 1331 Baur Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63132; (314) 993-2220.EASA is an
international trade organization that keeps members up to date on materials, equipment,
and state-of-the-art technology related to the sale, service, and maintenance of motors,
generators, drives, controls, and other electromechanical equipment through its
engineering and education programs.