Islamic architecture

The interior side view of the main dome of A view of intricate tile-work on the Mir-i-Arab Madrasa Selimiye
Mosque in Edirne, Turkey in Bukhara, Uzbekistan. (Persian style)
. (Ottoman style)

The large Hypostyle prayer hall in the A view of the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore,
Great Mosque of Kairouan, dating in its present Pakistan which was commissioned by the
form from the 9th century, in Kairouan, Tunisia
Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in 1671

Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the
present day. What today is known as Islamic architecture was influenced by Roman, Byzantine, Persian and all other lands
which the Muslims conquered in the 7th and 8th centuries.[1][2] Further east, it was also influenced by Chinese and Indian
architecture as Islam spread to Southeast Asia. It developed distinct characteristics in the form of buildings, and the
decoration of surfaces with Islamic calligraphy and geometric and interlace patterned ornament. The principal Islamic
architectural types for large or public buildings are: the Mosque, the Tomb, the Palace and the Fort. From these four types,
the vocabulary of Islamic architecture is derived and used for other buildings such as public baths, fountains and domestic
architecture.[3][4]
Many of the buildings which are mentioned in this article are listed as World Heritage Sites. Some of them, like the Citadel of
Aleppo, have suffered significant damage in the ongoing Syrian Civil War.[5]

Beginning
According to one set of views, Islam started during the lifetime of Muhammad in the 7th century CE,[6] and so did
architectural components such as the mosque. In this case, either the Mosque of the Companions in the Eritrean city
of Massawa,[7] or Quba Mosquein Medina, would be the first mosque that was built in the history of Islam.[8]
According to another set of views, which uses passages of the Quran,[9][10][11] Islam as a religion preceded
Muhammad,[12][13][14]representing even previous Prophets such as Abraham.[15] Abraham in Islam is credited with having built
َ
the Ka‘bah (Arabic: ‫ك ْـع َـبـة‬, 'Cube') in Mecca, and consequently its sanctuary, which is seen as the first mosque[8] that ever
existed.[16][17][18]

Influences
The Dome of the Rock (Qubbat al-Sakhrah) in Jerusalem (691) is one of the most important buildings in all of Islamic
architecture. It is patterned after the nearby Church of the Holy Sepulchre[19] and Byzantine Christian artists were employed
to create its elaborate mosaics against a golden background.[1][20] The great epigraphic vine frieze was adapted from the pre-
Islamic Syrian style.[21] The Dome of the Rock featured interior vaulted spaces, a circular dome, and the use of stylized
repeating decorative arabesque patterns. Desert palaces in Jordan and Syria (for example, Mshatta, Qasr Amra, and Khirbat
al-Mafjar) served the caliphs as living quarters, reception halls, and baths, and were decorated to promote an image of royal
luxury.
The horseshoe arch became a popular feature in Islamic structures. Some suggest the Muslims acquired this from
the Visigoths in Spain but they may have obtained it from Syria and Persia where the horseshoe arch had been in use by
the Byzantines. In Moorish architecture, the curvature of the horseshoe arch is much more accentuated. Furthermore,
alternating colours were added to accentuate the effect of its shape. This can be seen at a large scale in their major work,
the Great Mosque of Córdoba.[22]
The Great Mosque of Damascus (completed in 715 by caliph Al-Walid I),[23] built on the site of the basilica of John the
Baptist after the Islamic invasion of Damascus, still bore great resemblance to 6th and 7th century Christian basilicas. Certain
modifications were implemented, including expanding the structure along the transversal axis which better fit with the
Islamic style of prayer.
The Abbasid dynasty (750 AD- 1258[24]) witnessed the movement of the capital from Damascus to Baghdad, and then from
Baghdad to Samarra. The shift to Baghdad influenced politics, culture, and art. The Great Mosque of Samarra, once the
largest in the world, was built for the new capital. Other major mosques built in the Abbasid Dynasty include the Mosque of
Ibn Tulun in Cairo, Abu Dalaf in Iraq, the great mosque in Tunis. Abbasid architecture in Iraq as exemplified in the Fortress of
Al-Ukhaidir (c.775-6) demonstrated the "despotic and the pleasure-loving character of the dynasty" in its grand size but
cramped living quarters.[25]
The Great Mosque of Kairouan (in Tunisia) is considered the ancestor of all the mosques in the western Islamic world. Its
original marble columns and sculptures were of Romanworkmanship brought in from Carthage and other elements resemble
Roman form.[26][27] It is one of the best preserved and most significant examples of early great mosques, founded in 670 AD
and dating in its present form largely from the Aghlabid period (9th century).[28] The Great Mosque of Kairouan is constituted
of a massive square minaret, a large courtyard surrounded by porticos and a huge hypostyle prayer hall covered on its axis by
two cupolas. The Great Mosque of Samarra in Iraq, completed in 847 AD, combined the hypostyle architecture of rows of
columns supporting a flat base above which a huge spiraling minaret was constructed.
The Hagia Sophia in Istanbul also influenced Islamic architecture. When the Ottomans captured the city from the Byzantines,
they converted the basilica to a mosque (now a museum) and incorporated Byzantine architectural elements into their own
work (e.g. domes). The Hagia Sophia also served as a model for many Ottoman mosques such as the Shehzade Mosque,
the Suleiman Mosque, and the Rüstem Pasha Mosque. Domes are a major structural feature of Islamic architecture. The
dome first appeared in Islamic architecture in 691 with the construction of the Dome of the Rock, a near replica of the
existing Church of the Holy Sepulchre and other Christian domed basilicas situated nearby. Domes remain in use, being a
significant feature of many mosques and of the Taj Mahal in the 17th century. The distinctive pointed domes of Islamic
architecture, also originating with the Byzantines and Persians,[29][30] have remained a distinguishing feature of mosques into
the 21st century.[31][32]
Distinguishing motifs of Islamic architecture have always been the mathematical themes of ordered repetition, radiating
structures, and rhythmic, metric patterns. In this respect, fractal geometry has been a key utility, especially for mosques and
palaces. Other significant features employed as motifs include columns, piers and arches, organized and interwoven with
alternating sequences of niches and colonnettes.[33]

Characteristics
Assimilation of earlier traditions
From the eighth to the eleventh century, Islamic architectural styles were influenced by two different ancient traditions:

1. Greco-Roman tradition: In particular, the regions of the newly conquered Byzantine Empire (Southwestern Anatolia,
Syria, Egypt and the Maghreb) supplied architects, masons, mosaicists and other craftsmen to the new Islamic rulers.
These artisans were trained in Byzantine architecture and decorative arts, and continued building and decorating in
Byzantine style, which had developed out of Hellenistic and ancient Roman architecture.
2. Eastern tradition: Mesopotamia and Persia, despite adopting elements of Hellenistic and Roman representative style,
retained their independent architectural traditions, which derived from Sasanian architecture and its
predecessors.[34]
The transition process between late Antiquity, or post-classical, and Islamic architecture is exemplified by archaeologic
findings in North Syria and Palestine, the Bilad al-Sham of the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. In this region, late antique, or
Christian, architectural traditions merged with the pre-Islamic Arabian heritage of the conquerors. Recent research on the
history of Islamic art and architecture has revised a number of colonialistic ideas. Specifically, the following questions are
currently subject to renewed discussions in the light of recent findings and new concepts of cultural history:

1. The existence of a linear development within the Islamic architecture;

2. the existence of an inter- and intracultural hierarchy of styles;
3. questions of cultural authenticity and its delineation.[35]
Compared to earlier research, the assimilation and transformation of pre-existing architectural traditions is investigated
under the aspect of mutual intra- and intercultural exchange of ideas, technologies and styles as well as artists, architects,
and materials. In the area of art and architecture, the Rise of Islam is seen as a continuous transformation process leading
from late Antiquity to the Islamic period. Early research into the area regarded the early Islamic architecture merely as a
break with the past, from which apparently rose a distorted and less expressive form of art,[36] or a degenerate imitation of
the post-classical architectural forms.[37] Modern concepts tend to regard the transition between the cultures rather as a
selective process of informed appropriation and transformation. The Umayyads played a crucial role in this process of
transforming and thereby enriching the existing architectural traditions, or, in a more general sense, of the visual culture of
the nascent Islamic society.[38]
Paradise garden

Afif-Abad Garden, Shiraz

Gardens and water have for many centuries played an essential role in Islamic culture, and are often compared to the garden
of Paradise. The comparison originates from the Achaemenid Empire. In his dialogue
"Oeconomicus", Xenophon has Socrates relate the story of the Spartan general Lysander's visit to the Persian prince Cyrus
the Younger, who shows the Greek his "Paradise at Sardis".[39] The classical form of the Persian Paradise garden, or
the Charbagh, comprises a rectangular irrigated space with elevated pathways, which divide the garden into four sections of
equal size:
One of the hallmarks of Persian gardens is the four-part garden laid out with axial paths that intersect at the garden's centre.
This highly structured geometrical scheme, called the chahar bagh, became a powerful metaphor for the organization and
domestication of the landscape, itself a symbol of political territory.[40]
A charbagh from Achaemenid time has been identified in the archaeological excavations at Pasargadae. The gardens
of Chehel Sotoun (Isfahan), Fin Garden (Kashan), Eram Garden (Shiraz), Shazdeh Garden (Mahan), Dowlatabad
Garden (Yazd), Abbasabad Garden (Abbasabad), Akbarieh Garden (South Khorasan Province), Pahlevanpour Garden, all
in Iran, form part of the UNESCO World Heritage.[41] Large Paradise gardens are also found at the Taj Mahal (Agra), and
at Humayun's Tomb (New Delhi), in India; the Shalimar Gardens (Lahore, Pakistan) or at
the Alhambra and Generalife in Granada, Spain.[34]
Courtyard (Sehan)

The Great Mosque of Kairouan, with a large courtyard (sehan) surrounded by arcades, Kairouan, Tunisia.
The traditional Islamic courtyard, a sehan (Arabic: ‫)صحن‬, is found in secular and religious structures.

1. When within a residence or other secular building is a private courtyard and walled garden. It is used for: the
aesthetics of plants, water, architectural elements, and natural light; for cooler space with fountains and shade, and
source of breezes into the structure, during summer heat; and a protected and proscribed place where the women
of the house need not be covered in the hijab clothing traditionally necessary in public.
2. A sehan—courtyard is in within almost every mosque in Islamic architecture. The courtyards are open to the sky and
surrounded on all sides by structures with halls and rooms, and often a shaded semi-open arcade. Sehans usually
feature a centrally positioned ritual cleansing pool under an open domed pavilion called a howz. A mosque courtyard
is used for performing ablutions, and a 'patio' for rest or gathering.
Hypostyle hall
A Hypostyle, i.e., an open hall supported by columns combined with a reception hall set at right angle to the main hall, is
considered to be derived from architectural traditions of Achaemenid period Persian assembly halls ("apadana"). This type of
building originated from the Roman-style basilica with an adjacent courtyard surrounded by colonnades, like Trajan's
Forum in Rome. The Roman type of building has developed out of the Greek agora. In Islamic architecture, the hypostyle hall
is the main feature of the hypostyle mosque. One of the earliest hypostyle mosques is the Tarikhaneh Mosque in Iran, dating
back to the 8th century.[34]
Vaulting
In Islamic buildings, vaulting follows two distinct architectural styles: Whilst Umayyad architecture continues Syrian traditions
of the 6th and 7th century, Eastern Islamic architecture was mainly influenced by Sasanian styles and forms.
Umayyad diaphragm arches and barrel vaults
Qusair 'Amra
In their vaulting structures, Umayyad period buildings show a mixture of ancient Roman and Persian architectural
traditions. Diaphragm arches with lintelled ceilings made of wood or stone beams, or, alternatively, with barrel vaults, were
known in the Levant since the classical and Nabatean period. They were mainly used to cover houses and cisterns. The
architectural form of covering diaphragm arches with barrel vaults, however, was likely newly introduced from Iranian
architecture, as similar vaulting was not known in Bilad al-Sham before the arrival of the Umayyads. However, this form was
well known in Iran from early Parthian times, as exemplified in the Parthian buildings of Aššur. The earliest known example
for barrel vaults resting on diaphragm arches from Umayyad architecture is known from Qasr Harane in Syria. During the
early period, the diaphragm arches are built from coarsely cut limestone slabs, without using supporting falsework, which
were connected by gypsum mortar. Later-period vaults were erected using pre-formed lateral ribs modelled from gypsum,
which served as a temporal formwork to guide and center the vault. These ribs, which were left in the structure afterwards,
do not carry any load. The ribs were cast in advance on strips of cloth, the impression of which can still be seen in the ribs
today. Similar structures are known from Sasanian architecture, for example from the palace of Firuzabad. Umayyad-period
vaults of this type were found in Amman Citadel and in Qasr Amra.[42]
Islamic Spain
The double-arched system of arcades of the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba is generally considered to be derived
from Roman aqueducts like the nearby aqueduct of Los Milagros. Columns are connected by horseshoe arches, and support
pillars of brickwork, which are in turn interconnected by semicircular arches supporting the flat timberwork ceiling.

Arcades of the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba Arcades of the Aljaferíaof Zaragoza

Arcades of the Aljaferíaof Zaragoza

In later-period additions to the Mosque of Córdoba, the basic architectural design was changed: Horseshoe arches were now
used for the upper row of arcades, which is now supported by five-pass arches. In sections which now supported domes,
additional supporting structures were needed to bear the thrust of the cupolas. The architects solve
d this problem by the construction of intersecting three- or five-pass arches. The three domes spanning the vaults above
the mihrab wall are constructed as ribbed vaults. Rather than meeting in the center of the dome, the ribs intersect one
another off-center, forming an eight-pointed star in the center which is superseded by a pendentive dome.[43]
The ribbed vaults of the mosque-cathedral of Córdoba served as models for later mosque buildings in the Islamic West of al-
Andaluz and the Maghreb. At around 1000 AD, the Mezquita de Bab al Mardum (today: Mosque of Cristo de la Luz)
in Toledo was constructed with a similar, eight-ribbed dome. Similar domes are also seen in the mosque building of
the Aljafería of Zaragoza. The architectural form of the ribbed dome was further developed in the Maghreb: The central
dome of the Great Mosque of Tlemcen, a masterpiece of the Almoravids built in 1082, has twelve slender ribs, the shell
between the ribs is filled with filigree stucco work.[43]
Islamic Iran (Persia)
Because of its long history of building and re-building, spanning the time from the Abbasids to the Qajar dynasty, and its
excellent state of conservation, the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan provides an overview over the experiments Islamic architects
conducted with complicated vaulting structures.[44]
The system of squinches, which is a construction filling in the upper angles of a square room so as to form a base to receive
an octagonal or spherical dome, was already known in Sasanian architecture.[45] The spherical triangles of the squinches were
split up into further subdivisions or systems of niches, resulting in a complex interplay of supporting structures forming an
ornamental spatial pattern which hides the weight of the structure.
The "non-radial rib vault", an architectural form of ribbed vaults with a superimposed spherical dome, is the characteristic
architectural vault form of the Islamic East. From its beginnings in the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan, this form of vault was used
in a sequence of important buildings up to the period of Safavid architecture. Its main characteristics are:[44]

1. Four intersecting ribs, at times redoubled and intersected to form an eight-pointed star;
2. the omission of a transition zone between the vault and the supporting structure;
3. a central dome or roof lantern on top of the ribbed vault.
While intersecting pairs of ribs from the main decorative feature of Seljuk architecture, the ribs were hidden behind
additional architectural elements in later periods, as exemplified in the dome of the Tomb of Ahmed Sanjar in Merv, until
they finally disappeared completely behind the double shell of a stucco dome, as seen in the dome of Ālī Qāpū in Isfahan.[44]
Non-radial rib vault in the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan Dome of the tomb of Ahmed Sanjar in Merv

Upper dome of Ālī Qāpū, Isfahan Adina Mosque, West Bengal, India

Domes
Based on the model of pre-existing Byzantine domes, the Ottoman Architecture developed a specific form of monumental,
representative building: Wide central domes with huge diameters were erected on top of a centre-plan building. Despite
their enormous weight, the domes appear virtually weightless. Some of the most elaborate domed buildings have been
constructed by the Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan.
When the Ottomans had conquered Constantinople, they found a variety of Byzantine Christian churches, the largest and
most prominent amongst them was the Hagia Sophia. The brickwork-and-mortar ribs and the spherical shell of the central
dome of the Hagia Sophia were built simultaneously, as a self-supporting structure without any wooden centring.[46] In the
early Byzantine church of Hagia Irene, the ribs of the dome vault are fully integrated into the shell, similar to
Western Roman domes, and thus are not visible from within the building.[47] In the dome of the Hagia Sophia, the ribs and
shell of the dome unite in a central medallion at the apex of the dome, the upper ends of the ribs being integrated into the
shell: Shell and ribs form one single structural entity. In later Byzantine buildings, like the Kalenderhane Mosque, the Eski
Imaret Mosque (formerly the Monastery of Christ Pantepoptes) or the Pantokrator Monastery (today: Zeyrek Mosque), the
central medallion of the apex and the ribs of the dome became separate structural elements: The ribs are more pronounced
and connect to the central medallion, which also stands out more pronouncedly, so that the entire construction gives the
impression as if ribs and medallion are separate from, and underpin, the proper shell of the dome.[48]
Mimar Sinan solved the structural issues of the Hagia Sophia dome by constructing a system of centrally symmetric pillars
with flanking semi-domes, as exemplified by the design of the Süleymaniye Mosque (four pillars with two flanking shield walls
and two semi-domes, 1550–1557), the Rüstem Pasha Mosque (eight pillars with four diagonal semi-domes, 1561–1563), and
the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne (eight pillars with four diagonal semi-domes, 1567/8–1574/5). In the history of architecture,
the structure of the Selimiye Mosque has no precedent. All elements of the building subordinate to its great dome.[49][50][51]

Schematic drawing of a pendentive dome Central domes of the Hagia Sophia

 Dome of the Kalenderhane Mosque

 Selimiye Mosque
Muqarnas
The architectural element of muqarnas developed in northeastern Iran and the Maghreb around the middle of the 10th
century. The ornament is created by the geometric subdivision of a vaulting structure into miniature, superimposed pointed-
arch substructures, also known as "honeycomb", or "stalactite" vaults. Made from different materials like stone, brick, wood
or stucco, its use in architecture spread over the entire Islamic world. In the Islamic West, muqarnas are also used to adorn
the outside of a dome, cupola, or similar structure, whilst in the East is more limited to the interior face of a vault.

Design of a muqarnas quarter vault from the Topkapı Scroll Muqarnas in the Alhambra

The muqarna of a mosque in Bukhara, Uzbekistan

Ornaments
As a common feature, Islamic architecture makes use of specific ornamental forms, including mathematically complicated,
elaborate geometric and interlace patterns, floral motifs like the arabesque, and elaborate calligraphic inscriptions, which
serve to decorate a building, specify the intention of the building by the selection of the textual program of the inscriptions.
For example, the calligraphic inscriptions adorning the Dome of the Rock include quotations from the Quran (e.g., Quran
19:33–35) which reference the miracle of Jesus and his human nature.
The geometric or floral, interlaced forms, taken together, constitute an infinitely repeated pattern that extends beyond the
visible material world.[52] To many in the Islamic world, they symbolize the concept of infinite proves of existence of one
eternal God. The repetitiveness, simplicity contrasted with complexity and percision suggests that our complex universe is
only one of the many manifestations of the infinitely obvious and present Allah, the one God. Furthermore, the Islamic artist
conveys a definite spirituality without the iconography of Christian art. Non-figural ornaments are used in mosques and
buildings around the Muslim world, and it is a way of decorating using beautiful, embellishing and repetitive Islamic
art instead of using pictures of humans and animals (which some Muslims believe is forbidden (Haram) in Islam).
Instead of recalling something related to the reality of the spoken word, calligraphy for the Muslim is a visible expression of
spiritual concepts. Calligraphy has arguably become the most venerated form of Islamic art because it provides a link
between the languages of the Muslims with the religion of Islam. The holy book of Islam, al-Qur'ān, has played a vital role in
the development of the Arabic language, and by extension, calligraphy in the Arabic alphabet. Proverbs and complete
passages from the Qur'an are still active sources for Islamic calligraphy. Contemporary artists in the Islamic world draw on the
heritage of calligraphy to use calligraphic inscriptions or abstractions in their work.

Geometrical tile ornament (Zellij), Ben Youssef Madrasa, Maroc Bengali Islamic terracotta on a 17th-century mosque in
Tangail, Bangladesh

Architectural forms
 Many forms of Islamic architecture have evolved in different regions of the Islamic world. Notable Islamic architectural types
include the early Abbasid buildings, T-Type mosques, and the central-dome mosques of Anatolia. The oil-wealth of the 20th
century drove a great deal of mosque construction using designs from leading modern architects.
Arab-plan or hypostyle mosques are the earliest type of mosques, pioneered under the Umayyad Dynasty. These mosques
are square or rectangular in plan with an enclosed courtyard and a covered prayer hall. Historically, because of the warm
Mediterranean and Middle Eastern climates, the courtyard served to accommodate the large number of worshippers during
Friday prayers. Most early hypostyle mosques have flat roofs on top of prayer halls, necessitating the use of
numerous columns and supports.[53] One of the most notable hypostyle mosques is the Mezquita in Córdoba, Spain, as the
building is supported by over 850 columns.[54] Frequently, hypostyle mosques have outer arcades so that visitors can enjoy
some shade. Arab-plan mosques were constructed mostly under the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties; subsequently,
however, the simplicity of the Arab plan limited the opportunities for further development, and as a result, these mosques
gradually fell out of popularity.[53]
The Ottomans introduced central dome mosques in the 15th century and have a large dome centered over the prayer hall. In
addition to having one large dome at the center, there are often smaller domes that exist off-center over the prayer hall or
throughout the rest of the mosque, where prayer is not performed.[55] This style was heavily influenced by
the Byzantine religious architecture with its use of large central domes.[53]

 A sample of modern Islamic architecture - The mosque of international conferences center - Isfahan
Specific architectural elements

Plan view of Bab al-Barqiyya along Ayyubid Wall. Located close to one of Cairo's main modern traffic arteries, al-Azhar Street,
the Fatimid-era Bab al-Barqiyya fortified gate was constructed with interlocking volumes that surrounded the entrant in such
a way as to provide greater security and control than typical city wall gates. Laser scan data from an Aga Khan
Foundation/CyArk research partnership.
Islamic architecture may be identified with the following design elements, which were inherited from the first mosque
buildings (originally a feature of the Masjid al-Nabawi).

 Minarets or towers (these were originally used as torch-lit watchtowers, as seen in the Great Mosque of Damascus;
hence the derivation of the word from the Arabic nur, meaning "light"). The minaret of the Great Mosque of
Kairouan in Tunisia is considered as the oldest surviving minaret in the world.[56] It has the shape of a square massive
tower of three superimposed sections.[56]
 A four-iwan plan, with three subordinate halls and one principal one that faces toward Mecca
 Mihrab or prayer niche on an inside wall indicating the direction to Mecca.
 Domes and Cupolas. In South East Asia (Indonesia and Malaysia), these are very recent additions.
 Pishtaq is the formal gateway to the iwan, usually the main prayer hall of a mosque, a vaulted hall or space, walled on
three sides, with one end entirely open; a Persian term for a portal projecting from the facade of a building, usually
decorated with calligraphy bands, glazed tilework, and geometric designs.[57][58]
 Iwans to intermediate between different pavilions.
Qibla
Qibla is the direction in which Mecca is from any given location, and within Islamic architecture it is a major component of
both the features and the orientation of the building itself.[59] Ancient Islamic cities and the Mihrab in mosques were meant
to be built facing in this direction, yet when actually observing the layout of such areas they do not all point to the same
place.[59] This is due to discrepancies in the calculations of the Islamic scientists in the past who determined where Mecca was
from their individual locations. Scholars note that these differences come about for a multitude of reasons, such as some
misunderstanding the meaning of Qibla itself, the fact that the geographic coordinates of the past do not line up with the
coordinates of today, and that the determination of this direction was more an astronomical calculation, rather than a
mathematical one. Early mosques were constructed according to either the calculations of what direction Qibla was
approximately, or with the Mihrab facing south, as that was the direction that the Prophet Muhammad was facing when he
prayed in Medina, which is a city directly north of Mecca[59]
Early history

Moorish ceiling in Alhambra. Section of the Umayyad-era Mshatta Facade, now in the Pergamon
Museum in Berlin, from a palace near Amman.

Bab al-Futuh gate built by the Fatimid vazir Badr al-Jamali.

There are few buildings dating from the era of Prophet Muhammad, but one example is the Jawatha Mosque in Saudi Arabia.
The Rashidun Caliphate (632–661) was the first state to use Islamic Architecture.
The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) combined elements of Byzantine architecture and Sassanid architecture, but Umayyad
architecture introduced new combinations of these western and eastern styles.[72] The horseshoe arch appears for the first
time in Umayyad architecture, later to evolve to its most advanced form in al-Andalus.[73] Umayyad architecture is
distinguished by the extent and variety of decoration, including mosaics, wall painting, sculpture and carved reliefs with
Islamic motifs.[74] The Umayyads introduced a transept that divided the prayer room along its shorter axis.[75] They also added
the mihrab to mosque design.[75] The mosque in Medina built by al-Walid Ihad the first mihrab, a niche on the qibla wall,
which seems to have represented the place where the Prophet stood when leading prayer. This almost immediately became
a standard feature of all mosques.[75]
The Abbasid architecture of the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1513) was strongly influenced by Sassanid architecture, and later by
Central Asian styles. The Abbasid mosques all followed the courtyard plan. The earliest was the mosque that al-Mansur built
in Baghdad. since destroyed. The Great Mosque of Samarra built by al-Mutawakkil was 256 by 139 metres (840 by 456 ft). A
flat wooden roof was supported by columns. The mosque was decorated with marble panels and glass mosaics. [76] The prayer
hall of the Abu Dulaf mosque at Samarra had arcades on rectangular brick piers running at right angles to the qibla wall. Both
of the Samarra mosques have spiral minarets, the only examples in Iraq.[76] A mosque at Balkh in what is now Afghanistan was
about 20 by 20 metres (66 by 66 ft) square, with three rows of three square bays, supporting nine vaulted domes. [77]
Construction of the Great Mosque at Córdoba (now a cathedral known as the Mezquita) beginning in 785 CE marks the
beginning of Moorish architecture in the Iberian peninsulaand North Africa (see Moors). The mosque is noted for its striking
interior arches. Moorish architecture reached its peak with the construction of the Alhambra, the magnificent palace/fortress
of Granada, with its open and breezy interior spaces adorned in red, blue, and gold. The walls are decorated with
stylized foliage motifs, Arabic inscriptions, and arabesque design work, with walls covered in glazed tile. Their other, smaller,
survivals such as the Bab Mardum in Toledo, or the caliphal city of Medina Azahara. Moorish architecture has its roots deeply
established in the Arab tradition of architecture and design established during the era of the first Caliphate of
the Umayyads in the Levant circa 660AD with its capital Damascus having very well preserved examples of
fine Arab Islamic design and geometrics, including the carmen, which is the typical Damascene house, opening on the inside
with a fountain as the house's centre piece.
Fatimid architecture in Egypt followed Tulunid techniques and used similar materials, but also developed those of their own.
In Cairo, their first congregational mosque was al-Azhar mosque ("the splendid") founded along with the city (969–973),
which, together with its adjacent institution of higher learning (al-Azhar University), became the spiritual center for Ismaili
Shia. The Mosque of al-Hakim (r. 996–1013), an important example of Fatimid architecture and architectural decoration,
played a critical role in Fatimid ceremonial and procession, which emphasized the religious and political role of
the Fatimid caliph. Besides elaborate funerary monuments, other surviving Fatimid structures include the Aqmar
Mosque (1125)[78] and the Al-Hakim Mosque, as well as the monumental gates for Cairo's city walls commissioned by the
powerful Fatimid emir and vizier Badr al-Jamali (r. 1073–1094).[79]
The reign of the Mamluks (1250–1517 AD) in Egypt marked a breathtaking flowering of Islamic art which is most visible in old
Cairo. Religious zeal made them generous patrons of architecture and art. Trade and agriculture flourished under Mamluk
rule, and Cairo, their capital, became one of the wealthiest cities in the Near East and the center of artistic and intellectual
activity. This made Cairo, in the words of Ibn Khaldun, "the center of the universe and the garden of the world", with majestic
domes, courtyards, and soaring minarets spread across the city.