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UNIT I – SOURCES AND EFFECTS resulted was disastrous, as

OF AIR POLLUTANTS burgeoning population strained
rudimentary public utilities and
Classification of air pollutants – services.
Particulates and gaseous pollutants –
Sources of air pollution – Source inventory
– Effects of air pollution on human beings
– Materials – Vegetation – Animals –
Global warming-ozone layer depletion –
Sampling and Analysis – Basic Principles
of Sampling – Source and ambient
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sampling – Analysis of pollutants –
Principles . Smoke, produced by burning coal and
wood, was the earliest form of air
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Air pollution: pollution.
 Air pollution is defined as the
presence of any solids, liquid or
gaseous matter present in the
atmosphere in such concentrations
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that may or tend to be injurious to
human beings or other living
creatures, plants, vegetation.
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An average human being requires 12KG of air / Smoke and ash produced by power plants
day
contributed significantly to the problem of
This is equal to 15 times greater than food / ai r
day pollution in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries .
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By 1940, air pollution in the United States

HISTORY OF AIR POLLUTIONS: and emerging public opinion pressured
• Air pollution has been a public government regulators to act. Smog
health problem since the discovery formed around Los Angeles, while other
of fire. In fact, incidents and metropolitan areas around the country
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episodes of air pollution have been began to report degradations in air quality
documented throughout history. and visibility. Growing familiarity with
• In ancient times, people used fire environmental issues and increased public
inside their caves and huts, often pressure hastened federal and state action.
filling the air with harmful smoke.
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• The Roman philosopher Seneca California was the first state to pass air
noted the “heavy air of Rome” in pollution regulations. Shortly after
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61 A.D., and King Edward I California acted in 1947, the federal

strictly prohibited coal burning in government convened the first National
London in 1273. Air Pollution Symposium composed of the
• The origin of modern air pollution leading environmental specialists and
problems can be traced to government representatives of the day.
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eighteenth century England and the This landmark symposium marked the
birth of the Industrial Revolution. introduction of federal government
• As manufacturing replaced involvement in environmental regulation.
predominantly agricultural
activities, populations shifted from In 1955, upheld by strong public support
the countryside to the city. What and improved science, Congress passed its
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first environmental legislation. From these Sources of coarse particles include

meagre beginnings the U.S. Environmental vehicles traveling on unpaved
Protection Agency and an effective public roads, materials handling, crushing
policy toward the environment were and grinding operations, and
instituted. windblown dust.
 Some particles are emitted directly
from their sources, such as
Air pollutants: smokestacks and cars. In other
 The solid, liquid or gaseous cases, gases such as SO2, NOx,
substances which causes air and VOCs interact with other
pollution is called air pollutants. compounds in the air to f orm fine
CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANTS particles.
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 Their chemical and physical
AIR POLLUTANT
compositions vary depending on
Primary pollutant: location, time of year, and weather.
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 The pollutant emitted directly from Trends in PM Levels :
the sources, either from the natural  Between 1990 and 1999, average
hazardous events like dust storms PM10 concentrations decreased 18
volcanoes or by human activities percent, while PM10 emissions
are called primary pollutant. decreased 16 percent.
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 EIA is not yet able to characterize
the long-term trends for PM2.5 in
urban areas, but this research
continues . In early 1999,
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 EIA initiated a new monitoring
network to begin assessing the
nature of the PM2.5 problem. By
December 2000, the network
consisted of approximately 1,700
monitors at over 1,100 sites.
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 EIA is now analyzing these data for

Secondary pollutant:
future reports. Particulate matter is
 The primary pollutant often react
the general term used for a mixture
with one another, water vapour or
of solid particles and liquid
with other atmospheric air to form
droplets found in the air.
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a new pollutant is called secondary

pollutant .
Sources of pollutant:
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(1) PARTICULATE MATTER

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(PM) :
SOURCES:
Sources of the Pollutant :
 Particulate matter originates from
many different stationary and
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mobile sources as well as from

natural sources.
 Fine particles result from the fuel
combustion of motor vehicles, Health effects:
power generation, and industrial  Some particles are large or dark
facilities, as well as from residential enough to be seen as soot or
fireplaces and wood stoves. smoke. Others are so small they
can hardly be detected with an producers and others are the focus
electron microscope. of regulatory action.
 PM2.5 describes the “fine”  The 1999 average air concentration
particles that are less than or equal of lead is 94 percent lower than in
to 2.5 micrometers in diameter. 1980. Emissions of lead decreased
 “Coarse” particles refers to 95 percent over the same 20- year
particles greater than 2.5, but less period.
than or equal to 10 micrometers in  Today the only violations of lead
diameter. NAAQS occur near large industrial
 PM10 refers to all particles less sources such as lead smelters.
than or equal to 10 micrometers in
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diameter. Just to put this in
perspective, ten micrometers are Health Effects of Lead:
about one-seventh the diameter of  Lead (Pb) forms stable compounds,
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h u ma n h a i r . which persist and accumulate both
 Particulate matter includes both in the environment and in the
fine and coarse particles. When human body.
inhaled, these particles can  Lead enters the human body
accumulate in the respiratory through ingestion and inhalation
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system and are closely associated with consequent absorption into the
with numerous health effects. blood stream and distribution to all
Exposure to coarse particles is body tissues.
primarily associated with  Clinical, epidemiological and
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aggravation of respiratory toxicological studies ha ve
conditions, such as asthma. demonstrated that exposure to lead
 Fine particles are also closely adversely affects human health .
associated with such effects as Low-level lead exposure has been
premature mortality of elderly found to interfere with specific
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p e r so n s , increased hospital enzyme systems and blood

admissions andemergency room production. Kidney a nd
visits for heart and lung patients, neurological cell damage has also
increased respiratory symptoms been associated with lead exposure.
and disease among the chronically  Animal studies have demonstrated
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ill, and decreased lung function in that lead can contribute to reduced
almost all population groups. fertility and birth defects.
 However, those groups that appear  Children are the most sensitive to
to be at greatest risk to such effects many of lead’s adverse effects.
include the elderly, individuals Recent studies show that lead also
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with cardiopulmonary disease such may be an important factor in high

as asthma, and children. blood pressure and subsequent
heart disease. Other serious
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(2) Lead (Pb) potential effects from lead

Sources & Trends in Lead Levels. exposure are behavioral.
 Historically atmospheric lead came
primarily from the combustion of (3) Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
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leaded gasoline. Sources of SO2:

 However, the use of unleaded gas  Sulfur dioxide is an atmospheric
since 1975 has reduced mobile pollutant that results from
source lead emissions by over combustion processes (mainly
90%. Currently stationary sources, burning of fossil fuels containing
such as lead smelters, battery sulfur compounds), petroleum
manufacturers, iron and steel refining, sulfuric acid
manufacturing and smelting of ores observed under conditions, which

containing sulfur. would promote the conversion of
 Fuel combustion, largely from sulfur dioxide to sulphuric acid.
coal-fired power plants, accounts  Sulfuric acid (H2S04) inhalation
for most of the total SO2 emissions. causes an increase in the
 The reduction of sulfur dioxide respiratory system’s mu c o u s
pollution levels can generally be secretions, which reduces the
achieved by using low sulfur system’s ability to remove
content fuels or chemical sulfur particulates via mucociliary
removal systems. clearance. This can result in an
increase incidence of respiratory
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Health Effects of SO2 : infection.
 The effects of SO2 on health are Trends in SO2 Levels.
irritation and inflammation of
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tissue that it directly contacts.  Nationally, average SO2 ambient
 Inhalation of SO2 causes bronchial concentrations have decreased 50
constriction resulting in an percent from 1980 to 1999 and 36
increased resistance to air flow, percent over the more recent 10-
reduction of air volume and a year period 1990–1999.
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marked increase in the respiratory  SO2 emissions decreased 28
and heart rate. percent from 1980 to 1999 and 21
 High concentrations of SO2 can percent from 1990 to 1999.
result in temporary breathing  Reductions in SO2 concentrations
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impairment for asthmatic children and emissions since 1994 are due,
and adults who are active outdoors. in large part, to controls
 Short-term exposures of asthmatic implemented under EPA’s Acid
individuals to elevated SO2 levels Rain Program beginning in 1995.
during moderate exertion may
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result in breathing difficulties that (4) Carbon Monoxide (CO):

can be accompanied by such Sources of the (CO):
symptoms as wheezing, chest  Carbon monoxide (CO) is a
tightness, or shortness of breath. colorless, odorless and, at high
 Other effects that often have been levels, a poisonous gas,formed
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associated with longer-term when carbon in fuel is not burned

exposures to high concentrations of completely.
SO2, in conjunction with high  It is a component of motor vehicle
levels of PM, include respiratory exhaust, which contributes about
illness, alterations in the lungs’ 60 percent of all CO emissions
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defenses, and aggravation of nationwide.

existing cardiovascular disease.  Non-road vehicles account for the
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 The population groups most remaining CO emissions from the

susceptible to these conditions transportation sources category.
include individuals with  High concentrations of CO
cardiovascular or chronic lung generally occur in areas with heavy
disease, as well as children and the traffic congestion. In cities, as
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elderly. much as 95 percent of all CO

 SO2 can exacerbate pre-existing emissions may come from
respiratory diseases (asthma, automobile exhaust.
bronchitis, emphysema). Health Effects of (CO):
 The enhancement (synergism) by  The toxic effects of high
particulate matter of the toxic concentrations of CO on the body
response to sulfur dioxide has been
are well known. Carbon monoxide burning of wood, from automobiles

is absorbed by the lungs and reacts and power plants.
with hemoglobin (the oxygen  Home heaters and gas stoves also
carrying molecule in the blood) to produce substantial amounts of
form carboxyhemoglobin (COHb). NO2 in indoor settings.
 This reaction reduces the oxygen Health Effects of NO2:
carrying capacity of blood because  Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a
the affinity of hemoglobin for CO reddish brown, highly reactive gas
is over 200 times that for oxygen. that is formed in the ambient air
 The higher the percentage of through the oxidation of nitric
hemoglobin bound up in the form oxide (NO).
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of carboxyhemoglobin, the more  Nitrogen oxides (NOx), the term
serious is the health effect. used to describe the sum of NO,
 The level of COHb in the blood is NO2 and other oxides of nitrogen,
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directly related to the CO play a major role in the formation
concentration of the inhaled air. of ozone, particulate matter, and
 For any given ambient air CO acid rain.
concentration, the COHb level in  Short-term exposures (i.e., less
the blood will reach an equilibrium than 3 hours) to low levels of
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concentration after a sufficient time nitrogen dioxide (NO2) may lead
period. to changes in airway
 This COHb equilibrium level will responsiveness and lung function
be maintained in the blood as long in individuals with pre-existing
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as CO ambient air level remains respiratory difficulties a nd
unchanged. increases in respiratory illness in
children (5–12 years old).
Trends in CO Levels :  Long-term exposures to NO2 may
 Nationally, the 1999 ambient lead to increased susceptibility to
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average CO concentration was 57 respiratory infection and may cause

percent lower than that for 1980, permanent alterations in the lung.
and is the lowest level recorded  Nitrogen oxides react in the air to
during the past 20 years. form ground level ozone and fine
 CO emissions levels decreased 22 particle pollution, which is
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percent over the same period. associated with adverse health

Between 1990 and 1999, ambient effects.
CO concentrations decreased 36 Trends in NO2 Levels:
percent, while the estimated  Over the past 20 years, monitored
number of exceedances of the levels of NO2 have decreased 25
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national standard decreased 93 percent.

percent.  All areas of the country that once
 During the same period, CO
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violated the national air quality

emissions fell 7 percent. standard for NO2 now meet that
 This improvement occurred despite standard .
a 30 percent increase in vehicle  While levels around urban
miles traveled in the United States monitors have fallen, national
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during the period. emissions of nitrogen oxides

(5) Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) : (which include NO, NO2 and other
Sources of NO2 : oxides of nitrogen) have actually
 The major sources of manmade increased over the 20 years by one
NOx emissions are high- percent.
temperature combustion processes,
 During that same time period,

emissions of NOx increased
1percent.
(6) Ozone (O3):

Sources of the Pollutant.
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 Ozone is not emitted directly into
the air but is formed by the reaction
of VOCs and NOx in the presence
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of heat and sunlight.
 Ground-level ozone forms readily
in the atmosphere, usually during
hot summer weather.
 VOCs are emitted from a variety of
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sources, including motor vehicles,
chemical plants, refineries,
factories, c o n su m e r a nd
commercial products, and other
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industrial sources.
Health Effects O3:
 Short-term (1–3 hours) and
prolonged (6–8 hours) exposures to
ambient O3 have been linked to a
number of health effects of
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concern.
 For example, increased hospital
admissions and emergency room
visits for respiratory causes have
been associated with ambient O3
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exposures .
 Exposures to O3 can make people
more susceptible to respiratory
infection, result in lung
inflammation, and aggravate pre-
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existing respiratory diseases such

a s a st h m a .
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Trends in Ozone Levels:

 Over the past 20 years, ambient
ozone levels decreased 20 percent
based on 1-hour
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data, and 12 percent based on 8-

hour data.
 Between 1980 and 1999, emissions
of VOCs have decreased 33
percent.
(7) Toxic Air Pollutants
Nature and Sources:
 Toxic or hazardous air pollutants (i) Ecosystem

are those pollutants that cause or  Long before pollutant effects
may cause cancer or other serious become manifest in human health,
health effects, such as reproductive they were seen in the environment.
disorders, birth defects, or adverse  When sulfur dioxide (SO2) and
environmental and ecological nitrogen oxides (NOx) are
effects. transformed into acids in the
 Examples of toxic air pollutants atmosphere, the resulting
include benzene, found in gasoline; precipitation (rain, snow, or fog) is
perchloroethylene, emitted from deposited onto vegetation and into
some dry cleaning facilities; and the lakes and soil.
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methylene chloride, used as a  Damage to vegetation usually
solvent by a number of industries. occurs in the structural mechanisms
 Most air toxics originate from of the leaf since it is the leaf that
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manmade sources, including provides the mechanics for growth.
mobile sources (i.e., cars, trucks,  A leaf is typically divided into
and construction equipment) and three parts: (1) the epidermis (outer
stationary sources (i.e., factories, protective layer), (2) the mesophyll
refineries, power plants), as well as (the spongy center section), and (3)
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indoor sources (i.e., building the veins (a dense network of tubes
materials and activities such as that carries nutrients throughout the
cleaning). plant).
 Some air toxics are also released  When plants are exposed to SO2,
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from natural sources such as O3, NO2, and acid rain, all three
volcanic eruptions and forest fires. structures are inextricably damaged
Health and Environmental Effects: (Wark and Warner, 1976).
 People exposed to toxic air (ii) Damage to vegetation
pollutants at sufficient  Usually occurs in the structural
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concentrations may experience mechanisms of the leaf since it is

various health effects including the leaf that provides the
damage to the immune system, as mechanics for growth.
well as neurological, reproductive  A leaf is typically divided into
(i.e., reduced fertility), three parts: (1) the epidermis (outer
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developmental, respiratory and protective layer), (2) the mesophyll

other health problems. (the spongy center section), and (3)
 Many of these toxins may increase the veins (a dense network of tubes
the risk of developing cancer or that carries nutrients throughout the
experiencing other serious health plant).
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effects.  When plants are exposed to SO2,

 In addition to exposure from O3, NO2, and acid rain, all three
breathing air toxics, risks also are structures are inextricably damaged
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associated with the deposition of (Wark and Warner, 1976).

toxic pollutants onto soils or (iii) Property Damage:
surface waters, where they are  Property damage is another
taken up by plants and ingested by significant by-product of air
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animals and eventually magnified pollution. Research has shown that

up through the food chain. acid rain can destroy irreplaceable
 Like humans, animals may cultural treasures such as buildings
experience health problems due to and outdoor art.
air toxics exposure.  In addition, acid rain cracks and
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF splits rubber products, nylon,
AIR POLLUTION
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polymer plastics, paint dyes, and  Before falling to the Earth, SO2
other textiles. and NOx gases and related
 Acidification not only soils particulate matter (sulfates and
buildings, clothing, a nd nitrates) contribute to poor
automobiles, but also deteriorates visibility and impact public health.
the metal and stone in our
buildings and monuments.  Major human health concerns
(iv) Quality Of Life: associated with their exposure
 Quality of life is another matter include effects on breathing and the
that is also diminished by respiratory system, damage to lung
particulate matter and ozone tissue, and premature death.
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formation.
 Pristine vistas can be significantly
altered by air pollution transported THE GREENH OUSE EFFECT
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from several hundred miles away.  The Greenhouse Effect or Global
For example, pollutants can Climate Change is another
substantially affect outdoor sports environmental effect of air
and recreation. pollution.
 One survey of sixty-one native  Under normal circumstances, solar
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trout streams in southwestern radiation enters the earth’s
Pennsylvania found that 26% of the atmosphere where it is then
streams studied did not support transformed into heat radiation .
viable populations of brook trout Some of this radiation is absorbed,
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due to acidic conditions reflected, or reradiated within the
(Swistoock, et al., 1991). Likewise earth’s atmosphere.
the cosmetic appearance of our  However, as atmospheric
homes and cars require significant “greenhouse gases” increase, long-
expenditures of time and money to wave IR heat radiation is reradiated
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remain free of the damaging effects and trapped within the earth’s
of air pollution. atmosphere, eventually resulting in
ACID RAIN a warming of the earth’s surface.
Nature and Source of the Problem:  Recent scientific evidence shows
 Acidic deposition or “acid rain” that the greenhouse effect is being
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occurs when emissions of sulfur increased by the continued release

dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides of “greenhouse gases” into the
(NOx) in the atmosphere react with atmosphere causing the Earth’s
water, oxygen, and oxidants to temperature to rise. This is called
form acidic compounds. “global warming.”
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 These compounds fall to the Earth  Carbondioxide (CO2) accounts for

in either dry form (gas and about 81 percent of greenhouse
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particles) or wet form (rain, snow, gases released in the United States.
and fog). Some are carried by the Carbon dioxide emissions are
wind, sometimes hundreds of largely due to the combustion of
miles, across state and national fossil fuels in electric power
borders. generation, and the transportation
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 In the United States, electric utility and industrial sectors.

plants that burn fossil fuels produce  Methane (CH4) emissions, which
about 64 percent of annual SO2 result from agricultural activities,
emissions and 26 percent of NOx landfills, and other sources, are the
emissions . next largest contributors to
Health and Environmental Effects: greenhouse gas emissions in the
United States and worldwide.
 Industrial processes such as foam

production, refrigeration, dry
cleaning, chemical manufacturing,
and semiconductor manufacturing
produce other greenhouse gas
emissions, su c h as hydro
fluorocarbons (HFCs).
 Smelting of aluminum produces
another greenhouse gas called
perfluorinated compounds (PFCs).
 While NOx and VOC emissions
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from automobile exhaust and
industrial processes contribute to
the formation of ground-level
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ozone or smog, also a greenhouse
gas. GREEN HOUSE EFFECT
Human Health and Environmental STRATOSPHERIC OZONE
Effects. D EP LETI O N
 In 1988, the Intergovernmental Nature and Sources of the Problem.
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Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)  The stratosphere, located about 6 to
was formed to assess the available 30 miles above the Earth, contains
scientific a nd economic a layer of ozone gas that protects
information on climate change. living organisms from harmful
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 In 1995, the IPCC published a ultraviolet radiation (UV-b) from
report representing the work of the sun. However, over the past
more than 2,000 of the world’s two decades this protective shield
leading scientists. has been damaged.
 The IPCC concluded that humans  Each year, an “ozone hole” forms
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are changing the Earth’s climate, over the Antarctic, and ozone
and that “climate change is likel y levels fall to 70 percent below
to have wide-ranging and mostly n o r ma l .
adverse impacts on human health,  Even over the United States, ozone
with significant loss of life.” levels are about 5 percent below
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 According to the IPCC, greenhouse normal in the summer and 10

gas emissions could cause a 2° to percent below normal in the winter.
6° Fahrenheit rise in temperature  Data today shows a trend of 3.4
during the next century, if percent decrease per decade in
atmospheric levels are not reduced. average total ozone over the
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 Although this change may appear northern hemisphere mid-latitudes

small, it could lead to more since 1979.
extreme weather events such as  As the ozone layer thins, more UV-
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droughts and floods that may b radiation reaches the Earth. In

threaten coastal resources and 1996, scientists demonstrated for
wetlands by raising sea level. the first time that UV-b levels over
 These effects could also increase mo s t populated areas ha ve
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the risk of certain diseases by increased.

producing new breeding sites for  In the 1970s, scientists had linked
pests and pathogens. Agricultural several substances associated with
regions and woodlands are also h u ma n activities to oz one
susceptible to changes in climate depletion, including the use of
that could result in increased insect chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
populations and plant disease.
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halons, carbon tetrachloride, and following section on Global

methyl chloroform. Warming and Climate Change).
 These chemicals are emitted from Programs To Restore The Stratospheric
commercial air conditioners, Ozone Layer:
refrigerators, insulating foam, and  In 1987, 27 countries signed the
other industrial processes. Strong Montreal Protocol, a treaty that
winds carry them through the lower recognized the international nature
part of the atmosphere, called the of ozone depletion and committed
troposphere, a nd into the the world to limiting the production
stratosphere. of ozonedepleting substances.
 There, strong solar radiation  Today, over 170 nations have
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releases chlorine and bromine signed the Protocol, which has
atoms that attack protective ozone been strengthened five times and
molecules. Scientists estimate that now calls for the elimination of
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one chlorine atom can destroy those chemicals that deplete
100,000 ozone molecules. stratospheric ozone.
Human Health And Environmental  The 1990 Clean Air Act
E ffe c ts : Amendments established a U.S.
 Some UVb radiation reaches the regulatory program to protect the
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Earth’s surface even with normal stratospheric ozone layer.
ozone levels.  In January 1996, U.S. production
 However, because the ozone layer of many ozone-depleting
normally absorbs most UV-b substances virtually ended,
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radiation from the sun, ozone including CFCs, carbon
depletion is expected to lead to tetrachloride, and methyl
increases in harmful effects chloroform. Production of halons
associated with UV-b radiation. In ended in January 1994.
humans, UV-b radiation is linked Trends in Stratospheric Ozone
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to skin cancer, including D e p l e t i on :

melanoma, the form of skin cancer  Scientific evidence shows that the
that has the highest fatality rate. approach taken under the Montreal
 UV-b also causes cataracts and Protocol has been effective to date.
suppression of the immune system.  In 1996, measurements showed
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The effects of UV-b radiation on that the concentrations of methyl

plant and aquatic ecosystems are chloroform had started to fall,
not well understood. indicating that emissions had been
 However, the growth of certain greatly reduced.
food plants can be slowed by  Concentrations of other ozone
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excessive UV-b radiation. In depleting substances in the upper

addition, some scientists suggest layers of the atmosphere, like
that marine phytoplankton, which CFCs, are also beginning to
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are the base of the ocean food decrease.

chain, are already under stress from  It takes several years for these
UV-b radiation. substances to reach the stratosphere
 This stress could have adverse and release chlorine and bromine.
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consequences for human food

supplies from the oceans. Because
they absorb CO2 from the
atmosphere, significant harm to
phytoplankton populations could
increase global warming (see the
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 Air pollution meteorology is the

study of how pollutants are
delivered and dispersed into the
ambient air (Wanta, 1977).
 The environmental scientist is
particularly interested in the data
obtained from dispersion modelling
because it provides critical
information about the fate and
effect of pollutants upon human
health and the environment.
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 In fact, the ability to predict the
behaviour of pollution in the
ambient air is essential when
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attempting to manage and control
its impact.
RISK ASSESSMENT  Knowledge of air pollution
Health Risks: meteorology is essential to air
Health risks, put simply, are a measure of quality planning activities .
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the chance that Understanding t he
you will way air pollution is
experience transported a nd
health dispersed ma y
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problems . indicate where to
properly locate air
pollution monitoring
stations .
 Meteorologica
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l data may also be

u se d to develop
implementation plans
a nd predict the
atmospheric processes
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that will ultimately affect an area’s

ability to comply with National
Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS).
 The purpose of this chapter is to
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introduce you to the atmospheric

UNIT II DISPERSION OF and topographical factors that
POLLUTANTS influence nature’s ability to
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transport and disperse air pollution.

Elements of atmosphere – Meteorological
factors – Wind roses – Lapse rate –
Atmospheric stability and turbulence –
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Plume rise – Dispersion of pollutants –

Dispersion models – Applications.
METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS
AND ELEMENTS OF ATMOSPHERE
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Structure of the Atmosphere 3000

FACTORS AFFECTING
POLLUTANT DISPERSION:
 Wind velocity 2000
 Temperature
 Atmospheric pressure
1000 ELR
AL R
in
0
0 1020 30
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TEMP
The three major relative position:
L A PS E R A T E (a) When ELR >ALR = the environment
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 The temperature of the anbient air is said to be unstable & super
normally decreases witvgh increases adiabatic lapse rate.
in the altitude (height), this change of (b) When ELR<ALR = the environment is
temperature is called lapse rate. said to be stable & sub adiabatic lapse
rate.
Environmental lapse rate:
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 The prevailing lapse rate at a (c) When ELR = ALR = the environment
is said to be neutral.
particular time and the particular
IMPACT OF WIND ON DISPERSION OF
place and determined by sending a POLLUTANT
balloon equipped with thermometer The moving air is called wind, such a
is called environmental lapse rate. movement caused by the unequal distribution
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Adiabatic lapse rate: of temperature and pressure on earth surface.

 The air parcel moves up, its  A critical relationship exists
temperature decreases as its own heat between atmospheric stability and
energy is expanded due to increase in pollutant concentrations.
the volume of parcel, this rate of
 Pollutants that c a nnot be
change in temperature with height is
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called adiabatic lapse rate. transported or dispersed into the

 Dry adiabatic lapse rate: expand and upper atmosphere quickly become
cooling at 9.8ºC / km. trapped at ground level and pose a
 Wet adiabatic lapse rate: expand and significant risk to human health
cooling at 6ºC / km. and the environment.
d
 This relationship can be visualized

in the behaviour of emission
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plumes from industrial smoke

stacks.
 Six types of air pollution plumes
illustrate the relationship between
atmospheric stability and pollutant
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emissions: looping plumes, fanning

plumes, coning plumes, lofting
plumes, fumigating plumes, and
trapping plumes.
(a) Looping plumes:
13
 Pollution that is released into an

unstable atmosphere forms looping
plumes .
 Rapid changes in temperature and
pressure may result in plumes that
appear billowing and puffy.
 While unstable conditions are
usually favorable for pollutant
dispersion, high concentrations of
air pollution forced down by
cooling air can be harmful if
in
trapped at ground level.
 This can occur on sunny days with
light to moderate winds, which
ot.
combine with rising and sinking air
to cause the stack gases to move up (d) Coning plumes:
and down in a wavy pattern  Neutral or slightly unstable
producing a looping plume conditions create a coning
(Godish, 1997). plume that is distinguished by
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large billows or puffs of
pollutants.
 Coning plumes are typically
formed on partly cloudy days
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when there is an alternate
warming and cooling of the
atmosphere .
 Warm gases released into cool,
ambient air mix, expand, and
s.b
rise into the upper atmosphere

(Godish, 1977).
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(b) Fanning plumes:

 A fanning plume occurs during
stable conditions a nd is
d
characterized by long, flat streams

of pollutant emissions.
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 Because atmospheric pressure is

stable, there is neither a tendency
for emissions to raise nor descend
permitting (horizontal) wind
velocity to transport and disperse
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the pollutant.
 Fanning plumes are usually seen (e) Lofting plumes:
during the early morning hours just  When the atmosphere is relatively
before the sun begins to warm the stable, warm air remains above
atmosphere and winds are light cool air and creates an inversion
(Godish, 1997). layer.
14
 Pollutants released below the

inversion layer will remain trapped
at ground level and, in the absence
of any atmospheric instability,
prevent the upward transport of the
pollutant .
 When there is little or no vertical
mixing, pollutants tend to form in
high concentrations at ground
level.
 When conditions are unstable or
in
neutral above the inversion layer,
stack gases above that level form a
lofting plume that can effectively
ot.
disperse the pollutant into the
TO P O G R A P H Y
upper atmosphere (Godish, 1997).
 Another factor that affects the
transport and dispersion of air
pollution is topography.
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 Topography is simply the
representation of surface features
such as mountains, hills, rivers, and
valleys.
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 For example, the locationn of an
urban area in or around a mountain
range can create significant
pollution problems for the
population .
 While horizontal and vertical
s.b
airflow can be conducive to

(f) Fumigating plumes: pollutant dispersion, a mountain
 In the early morning, if the plume range becomes a natural barrier.
is released just below the inversion (i) Valleys:
 In addition, air has a natural
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layer, a very serious air pollution

episode could develop. tendency to flow downhill and
 When pollutants are released below accumulate in a valley floor in
the inversion layer, gaseous much the same manner as water.
emissions quickly cool and  As cool, dense air descends into a
valley, large populations may be
d
descend to ground level.

 This condition is known as put at great risk for excessive
fumigation and results in a high exposure to pollutants.
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concentration of pollution that can  When this natural flow of cool air
be damaging to both humans and is accompanied by a temperature
the environment alike. inversion, the effect upon human
health can be catastrophic.
 In some valleys the inversion layer
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can be several hundred meters

thick, resulting in air pollution
being trapped at ground level.
15
(ii) Lakes and Oceans:

 Large bodies of water also affect DISPERSION MODELING
the transport and dispersion of air  Wind sp e e d a nd direction,
pollution. atmospheric stability, plume rise
 Air that is located over land heats and topography interact in complex
more rapidly than lakes and oceans, ways to cause the transport and
which absorbs more heat, but at a dispersion of air pollution.
slower rate.  Pollutant dispersion modelling was
 As the heated air rises into the created as a comprehensive means
upper atmosphere, it cools and of viewing the results of these
tends to migrate toward other cold complex interactions, collecting
in
air masses, most of which are data attributable to various
found over large bodies of water. elements, both natural a nd
 This cycle begins as a warm parcel manmade, and estimating the
ot.
of air settles over water, rapidly amount of ground-level pollution at
cools, and creates a weak various distances from the source.
circulation cell.  Modelling, therefore, is a
 The cycle is completed during mathematical representation of
hours of darkness as sea breezes pollutant dispersion and the factors
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recycle air back toward the cooling that influence it.
landmasses .  As an extension of these
(iii) Mountains: mathematic representations,
 Los Angeles, Denver, and Mexico scientists also use computer
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City are examples of locations that modelling to produce graphic
all experience high concentrations representations of the transport and
of pollution simply because they dispersion of air pollution.
are located in natural basins  Types of Pollutant Dispersion:
bordered by mountain ranges (a) Distribution of pollutants
s.b
(Godish, 1997). injected within and outside the air

cavity.
 Although many other factors (b) The effect of streamlining an
contribute to the air pollution obstacle during the design phase of
problems in these cities, the an effluent stack.
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topography of the surrounding area

has a significant and unyielding
influence.
 Even under the most favourable

d
atmospheric conditions, natural

barriers such as mountain ranges
easily trap escaping pollutants.
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 Although little can be done to

overcome the effects of
topographic features, intelligent
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planning that relies on recorded

information regarding seasonal
patterns of wind speed and
direction, atmospheric stability,
and topography can significantly  Two common models used by the
reduce the harmful effects of air U.S. EPA are the Assessment
pollution on population centres. population Exposure Mode l
16
(ASPEN) and the Industrial trying to simplify complex and

Source Complex (ISC) Model. interrelated factors that affect the
 These two models are frequently transport and dispersion of air
used in the permitting process and pollution.
for environmental health impacts,  In conclusion, meteorology plays
because they can indicate how an important role in the dispersion
existing and additional pollutant and transport of air pollution. It is
sources will affect the ambient air inherently important to study its
concentrations and potentially the role within the strategies to control
exposed populations’ health risk. air pollution control and as part of
Assessment Population Exposure air pollution dispersion modeling
in
Model (ASPEN): studies .
 T he Assessment Population  As emissions released from one
Exposure Model calculates ambient region continue to affect the
ot.
air levels based on meteorology, population and ecosystems of
chemistry, and rates which air another, air pollution dispersion
toxics are emitted into the modelers mu s t attempt to
atmosphere. understand the complex effects of
 Currently ASPEN’s ambient meteorology upon the transport and
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concentration outputs are then used dispersion of air pollutants.
in conjunction with the Hazardous
Air Pollutant Exposure Model
UNIT III AIR POLLUTION
(HAPEM4), as a screening tool to
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examine national exposure levels CO NT R O L
of specific toxic air pollutants. Concepts of control – Principles and
 Estimated exposures can then be design of control measures – Particulates
combined with quantitative health control by Gravitational – Centrifugal –
impact information to estimate Filtration – Scrubbing – Electrostatic
s.b
population health risk estimates precipitation – Selection criteria for

(U.S. EPA, 2000). equipment – Gaseous pollutant control by
adsorption – Absorption – Condensation –
Combustion – Pollution control for
Industrial Source Complex Model specific major industries.
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(ISC):
 The Industrial Source Complex CONTROL OF STA TIONARY
Model is a more specific and SOURCES, PARTICULATE
precise tool than the HEM. It uses MATTER:
local data and predicts pollutant  The types of inorganic and organic
d
levels at specific locations. air pollutants stationary sources

 The ISC is a steady-state Gaussian emit are dependent on the specific
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plume model that can be used to process operations.

estimate air pollutant  For example, in 1993, stationary
concentrations from a wide variety source fuel combustion accounted
of sources associated with an for 34.2% of all air pollution,
industrial source complex second only to mobile sources,
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(Zannetti, 1990). which contributed 56.2% (Godish,

 Both models, however, are simply 1997).
tools to help scientists make  Fossil fuel fired boilers emit ash,
evaluations of air pollution sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and
dispersion . mercury, and or vanadium if
 The accuracy of the models is contained in the fuel.
limited by the inherent problems of
17
 Certain boiler firing conditions can volatile organic solvents from

also produce “cenospheres,” which fugitive sources or inorganics such
are light hollow spheres that can be as carbon disulfide and hydrogen
coated with unburned carbon. sulfide in rayon production and
 The carbon can adsorb sulfur fluorine compounds as in the
trioxide (SO3) and water to form production of aluminum.
sulfuric acid (H2 SO4). 4. Waste Emissions: Emissions of
Metallurgical plants can emit a malodorous substances or
variety of metal dusts, including oxidation compounds in the
iron oxides and sometimes exhaust from oxidation, heating or
fluorides and chlorides. drying processes.
in
 Industrial plants manufacturing INDUSTRIAL PROCESS OPERATION
inorganic chemicals will emit AIR EMISSION POINTS AND
various waste gases depending on CATEGORIES
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their product.
 Odorous organic waste gases can
also be emitted from
organochemical and petrochemical
plants.
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 Most of the air pollution produced
by stationary sources results from
the incomplete combustion of fuel
or industrial processing.
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 Industrial pollutant sources such as
these and others can be categorized
into several groups based on their
specific process operation:
1. Process Operations: Process
s.b
operations with incomplete

chemical reactions, which include
combustion due to unconverted
reactants, or a reaction having a
final yield that is less than expected
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theoretical conversion.
2. Atmospheric Releases:
Atmospheric releases of a process’s
secondary c o mp o n e n t s or CONTROL PROCEDURES
impurities of raw materials. The control of stationary source emissions
can be accomplished through the
d
application of a sound control strategy.

The control strategy required for an
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industrial environmental impact is a four

step process:
(1) Elimination of the problem source or
operation,
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(2) Modification of the source operation,

(3) Relocation of the source,
(4) Selection and application of the
appropriate control technology.
E XH AU S T P O L L UT A NT
3. Auxiliary Losses: The auxiliary CHARACTERISTICS:
losses of compounds such as • Total exhaust gas flow rate
18
• Exhaust gas temperature forces the gas stream to accelerate

• Required control efficiency as the duct narrows and then
• Particle size distribution e xpa n ds .
• Particle resistivity  As the gas enters the venture
• Composition of emissions throat, both gas velocity and
• Corrosiveness of exhaust gas over turbulence increase.
operating range  Depending on the scrubber design,
• Moisture content the scrubbing liquid is sprayed into
• Stack pressure the gas stream before the gas
• Exhaust gas combustibility and encounters the venturi throat, or in
flammability properties the throat, or upwards against the
in
PROCESS OR SITE gas flow in the throat.
CHARACTERISTICS:  The scrubbing liquid is then
• Reuse/recycling of collected emissions atomized into small droplets by the
ot.
• Availability of space turbulence in the throat and
• Availability of additional electrical droplet-particle interaction is
power increased.
• Availability of water  Some designs use supplemental
• Availability of wastewater treatment hydraulically or pneumatically
sp
facilities atomized sprays to augment droplet
• Frequency of startup and shutdowns creation.
• Environmental conditions  However, the disadvantage of these
• Anticipated changes in control designs is that clean liquid feed is
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regulations required to avoid clogging.
• Anticipated changes in raw materials
• Plant type – stationary or mobile  After the throat section, the mixture
 Technologies used to control decelerates, and further impacts
particulate matter focus on occur causing the droplets to
s.b
removing particles from the agglomerate.

effluent gas stream.  Once the particles are captured by
 Many factors (such as particle size the liquid, the wetted PM and
a nd chemical characteristics) excess liquid droplets are then
determine the appropriate separated from the gas stream by
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particulate control device for a an entrainment section, which

process. usually consists of a cyclonic
 Devices most commonly used to separator and/or a mist eliminator.
control particulate matter include
1. Electrostatic precipitators
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2. Fabric filters
3. Venture scrubbers
4. Cyclone collectors
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5. Settling chambers.
VENTURI SCRUBBERS:
 Venturi scrubbers use a liquid
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stream to remove solid particles.

 A venturi scrubber accelerates the
waste gas stream to atomize the
scrubbing liquid and to improve
gas-liquid contact.
 In a venturi scrubber, a “throat”
section is built into the duct that
19
 Electrodes in the center of the flow

lane are maintained at high voltage
and generate the electrical field that
forces the particles to the collector
plates .
 The high voltage electrodes are
long wires or rigid “masts”
suspended from a frame in the
upper part of the ESP that run
through the axis of each tube.
 Rigid electrodes are generally
in
supported by both an upper and
lower frame.
 In modern designs, sharp points are
ot.
added to the electrodes, either at
the entrance to a tube or along the
entire length in the form of stars to
provide additional ionization sites.
VENTURE SCRUBBER
sp
ADVANTAGES OF VENTURI
S CR UB B E R S :
• Capable of handling flammable and
explosive dusts
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• Can handle mists in process exhausts
• Relatively low maintenance
• Simple in design and easy to install
• Collection efficiency can be varied
• Provides cooling for hot gases
• Neutralizes corrosive gases and dusts
s.b
DISADVANTAGES OF SCRUBBERS :
• Effluent liquid can create water pollution
problems
• Waste product collected wet
• High potential for corrosion problems
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• Requires protection against freezing

• Final exhaust gas requires reheating to
avoid visible plume
• Collected PM may be contaminated, and  The power supplies for the ESP
not recyclable convert the industrial AC voltage
d
• Disposal of waste sludge may be very (220 to 480 volts) to pulsating DC

e x p e n si v e voltage in the range of 20,000 to
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100,000 volts as needed.

Electrostatic precipitators.  The voltage applied to the
 An ESP is a PM control device that electrodes causes the gas between
uses electrical forces to move the electrodes to break down
particles entrained within an
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electrically, an action known as a

exhaust stream onto collection “corona.”
surfaces .  The electrodes are usually given a
 The entrained particles are given an negative polarity because a
electrical charge when they pass negative corona supports a higher
through a corona, a region where voltage than does a positive corona
gaseous ions flow. before sparking occurs.
20
 The ions generated in the corona existing equipment has a range of

follow electric field lines from the actual operating efficiencies of 90
electrode to the collecting pipe. to 99.9%.
 Therefore, each electrode-pipe  Although several factors determine
combination establishes a charging ESP collection efficiency, ESP size
zone through which the particles is the most important. Size
m u st p a ss . determines treatment time.
 As larger particles (>10μm  The longer a particle spends in the
diameter) absorb many times more ESP, the greater will be its chance
ions than small particles (>1μm of being collected.
diameter), the electrical forces are  Maximizing electric field strength
in
much stronger on the large will effectively maximize ESP
particles. collection efficiency.
 When the collection plates are
ot.
filled to capacity, the particulate is
removed from the plates by
“rapping,” which is a mechanical
means to dislodge the particulate.
 The collected particulate material
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slides downward into a hopper
located below the unit.
 In wet ESPs, the collectors are
either intermittently or
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continuously washed by a spray of
liquid, usually water.
 The collection hoppers used by dry
Cumulative PM, PM10, and PM2.5
ESPs are replaced with a drainage Collection Efficiencies for Dry ESPs
system.
s.b
 The wet effluent is collected, and DISADVANTAGES:

often treated on-site.  ESPs are also difficult to install in
 In a wire-pipe ESP, also called a sites, which have limited space,
tubular ESP, the exhaust gas flows  Since ESPs must be relatively large
vertically through conductive to obtain the low gas velocities
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tubes, generally with many tubes necessary for efficient PM

operating in parallel. collection.
 The tubes may be formed as a FABRIC FILTERS:
circular, square, or hexagonal  In a fabric filter, flue gas is passed
honeycomb. through a tightly woven or felted
d
 Square and hexagonal pipes can be fabric, causing PM in the flue gas
packed closer together than to be collected on the fabric by
cylindrical pipes, reducing wasted
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sieving and other mechanisms.

space.  Fabric filters may be in the form of
 Pipes are generally 7 to 30 cm (3 to sheets, cartridges, or bags, with a
12 inches (in.) in diameter and 1 to number of the individual fabric
4 m (3 to 12 feet) in length. filter units housed together in a
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ADVANTAGES : group. Bags are the most common

 The collection efficiency of an ESP type of fabric filter.
is quite reliably about 99 percent  The dust cake that forms on the
for particles less than 10μm. filter from the collected PM can
 Wire-Plate Type Typical new significantly increase collection
equipment design efficiencies are efficiency.
between 99 and 99.9%, while older
21
 Fabric filters are frequently reduce the inlet loading of

referred to as baghouses because particulate matter (PM) to
the fabric is usually configured in downstream collection devices by
cylindrical bags. removing larger, abrasive particles.
 Bags may be 6 to 9m (20 to 30 ft)  Settling chambers are also referred
long and 12.7 to 30.5 centimeters to as gravity settling chambers,
(cm) (5 to 12 inches) in diameter. gravity collectors, expansion
 Groups of bags are placed in chambers, and outfall chambers.
isolable compartments to allow  This is because settling chambers
cleaning of the bags or replacement are quite effective in removing
of some of the bags without only large particles; therefore, they
in
shutting down the entire fabric can be frequently used in
filter. combination with other control
 Operating conditions are important devices .
ot.
determinants of the choice of  Settling chambers, which rely on
fabric. Some fabrics (i.e., gravitational settling as a collection
polyolefins, nylons, acrylics, mechanism are the simplest and
polyesters) are useful only at oldest mechanical collectors.
relatively low temperatures of 95°  Settling chambers are generally
sp
to 150ºC (200° to 300ºF). For built in the form of long,
hightemperature flue gas streams, horizontal, rectangular chambers
more thermally stable fabrics such with an inlet at one end and an exit
as fiberglass, Teflon, or Nomex at the side or top of the opposite
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may be used. end.
 Flow within the chamber must be
uniform and without any
macroscopic mixing. Uniform
flow is can be improved by flow
s.b
straightness at the inlet to the

chamber.
 Hoppers are used to collect the
settled-out material, though drag
scrapers and screw conveyers have
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also been employed.

 The dust removal system must be
sealed to prevent air from leaking
into the chamber which increases
turbulence causes dust re
d
entrainment, and prevents dust

from being properly discharged
Fabric filters in general provide high
from the device.
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collection efficiencies on both coarse and

 There are two primary types of
fine (submicron) particulates. Typical new
settling chambers: the expansion
equipment design efficiencies are between
chamber and the multiple-tray
99% and 99.9%.
chamber.
SETTLING CHAMBERS:
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 In the expansion chamber, the

 This type of technology is a part of
velocity of the gas stream is
the group of air pollution controls
significantly reduced as the gas
collectively referred to as
expands in a large chamber.
“precleaners.”
 They are referred to as precleaners
because they are often used to
22
Disadvantages of Settling Chambers:

 Relatively low PM collection
efficiencies
 Unable to handle sticky or tacky
materials
 Large physical size
 Trays in multiple-tray settling
chamber may warp
CYCLONE SEPERATOR:
 This type of air pollution control is
also referred to as a “precleaner,”
in
because they too are used to reduce
the inlet loading of particulate
matter (PM) to downstream
ot.
collection devices by removing
 The reduction in velocity allows larger, abrasive particles.
larger particles to settle out of the  Cyclones are also referred to as
gas stream. cyclone collectors, cyclone
 A multiple-tray settling chamber is separators, centrifugal separators,
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an expansion chamber with a and inertial separators.
number of thin trays closely spaced  In applications where many small
within the chamber, which causes cyclones are operating in parallel,
the gas to flow horizontally the entire system is called a
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between them. multiple tube cyclone,
 While the gas velocity is increased multicyclone, or multiclone.
slightly in a multiple-tray chamber,  Cyclones use inertia to remove
when compared to a simple particles from the gas stream. The
expansion chamber, the collection cyclone imparts centrifugal force
s.b
efficiency generally improves on the gas stream, usually within a

because the particles have a much conical shaped chamber.
shorter distance to fall before they  Cyclones operate by creating a
are collected. double vortex inside the cyclone
 Multiple-tray settling chambers body. The incoming gas is forced
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have lower volume requirements into a circular motion downward,

than expansion-type settling forcing the particulates to the inner
chambers for the collection of surface of the cyclone walls.
small particles (<15μm).  At the bottom of the cyclone, the
Advantages of Settling Chambers: gas turns and then spirals up
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 Low capital cost through the center of the cyclone

 Very low energy cost and exits out of the top outlet.
 No moving parts  Particles in the gas stream are
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 Few maintenance requirements forced toward the cyclone walls by

 Low operating costs the centrifugal force of the
 Excellent reliability spinning gas, but are opposed by
 Low pressure drop through device the fluid drag force of the gas
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 Device not subject to abrasion due travelling through and out of the
to low gas velocity cyclone.
 Provide incidental cooling of gas  For larger particles, inertial
stream momentum overcomes the fluid
 Dry collection and disposal drag force so that the particles
reach the cyclone walls and are
collected .
23
 For smaller particles, the fluid drag (2) body diameter, (3) gas exit
force overwhelms the inertial diameter, (4) gas inlet duct area,
momentum and causes these and (5) gas density.
particles to leave the cyclone with
the exiting gas.
 Gravity also causes the larger
particles that reach the cyclone
walls to travel down into a bottom
hop pe r .
 While they rely on the same
separation me c h a n i s m as
in
momentum separators, cyclones are
more effective because they have a
more complex gas flow pattern.
ot.
 Pressure drop is an important
parameter because it relates
directly to operating costs and Advantages of Cyclones:
control efficiency. For a given  Low capital cost
cyclone, higher control efficiencies  No moving part
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can be obtained by increasing inlet  Few maintenance requirements
velocities, but this also increases  Low operating costs
the pressure drop.  Relatively low-pressure drop
 In general, 18.3 meters per second  Dry collection and disposal
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(60 feet per second) is considered  Relatively small space
the best operating velocity. requirements
 Common ranges of pressure drops Disadvantages of Cyclones:
for cyclones are 0.5 to 1  Relatively low PM collection
kilopascals (kPa) (2 to 4 in. H2 O) efficiencies
s.b
for low-efficiency units (high  Unable to handle sticky or tacky

throughput), 1 to 1.5 kPa (4 to 6 in. materials
H2 O) for medium efficiency units  High efficiency units may
(conventional) and 2 to 2.5 kPa (8 experience high-pressure drops
to 10 in. H2O) for high-efficiency CONTROL OF STA TIONARY
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units. SOURCES - GASEOUS

 Cyclones are used to control PM, EMISSIONS
and primarily PM greater than 10  Stationary sources such as power
micrometers (μm) in aerodynamic plants, chemical production
diameter. facilities, oil refineries,
d
 However, there are high efficiency manufacturing plants, printers, dry

cyclones designed to be effective cleaners, and even residential wood
for PM less than or equal to 10μm
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stoves produce a significant

and less than or equal to 2.5μm in amount of the criteria and
aerodynamic diameter (PM10 and hazardous air pollutants (HAPs),
PM2.5). that are emitted in the atmosphere
 Although cyclones may be used to each day.
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collect particles larger than 200μm, GASEOUS EMISSIONS:

gravity settling chambers or simple  The preferred method for
momentum separators are usually controlling gaseous pollutants is
satisfactory and less subject to with add-on control devices used to
abrasion. destroy or recover the pollutant.
 Cyclone efficiency will decrease
with increases in (1) gas viscosity,
24
 The control techniques used by  Thus, any organic/air mixture will

add-on equipment include ignite if its temperature is raised to
combustion, adsorption, a sufficiently high level.
absorption, and condensation.  The required level of VOC control
 Combustion devices currently in of the waste gas that must be
use include thermal or catalytic achieved within the time that it
incinerators, flares, boilers, and spends in the thermal combustion
process heaters. chamber dictates the reactor
THERMAL INCINERATORS: temperature.
 T h e r ma l incinerators a re  The shorter the residence time, the
commonly used to destroy volatile higher the reactor temperature must
in
organic compounds (VOCs). be.
 In general, incineration involves  The nominal residence time of the
the destruction of liquid, solid, or reacting waste gas in the
ot.
gaseous waste by a controlled burn combustion chamber is defined as
at high temperatures. the combustion chamber volume
 Incinerators are one of the most divided by the volumetric flow rate
positive and proven methods for of the gas.
destroying VOC, with efficiencies  Most thermal units are designed to
sp
up to 99.9% possible. provide no more than 1 second of
 Thermal incinerators are often the residence time to the waste gas
best choice when high efficiencies with typical temperatures of 650°
are needed and the waste gas is to 1100 °C (1200° to 2000 °F).
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above 20%.  Thermal incinerators have a PM
 A straight thermal incinerator is control efficiency that varies
comprised of a combustion between 79 and 96%, while VOC
chamber and does not include any control efficiencies can range as
heat recovery of exhaust air by a high as 99.9%.
s.b
heat exchanger (this type of

incinerator is referred to as a
recuperative incinerator).
 The heart of the thermal incinerator
is a nozzle-stabilized flame
ata
maintained by a combination of
auxiliary fuel, waste gas
compounds, and supplemental air
added when necessary.
 On passing through the flame, the
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waste gas is heated from its

preheated inlet temperature to its
ignition temperature.
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 The ignition temperature varies for

different compounds and is usually
determined empirically. ADVANTAGE:
 An ignition temperature is the  One advantage of thermal
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temperature at which the incineration is that the energy and

combustion reaction rate exceeds heat produced by the process can
the rate of heat losses, thereby be recovered and used to power
raising the temperature of the gases other processes in the facility.
to some higher value. DISADVANTAGE:
 Thermal incinerators are also not
generally cost-effective for low-
25
concentration, high flow organic absorbed by a chemical reaction,

vapour streams. this is an important difference.
 Thermal incinerators are not  The adsorbed material is held
usually as economical, on an physically, rather loosely, and can
annualized basis, as recuperative or be released or desorbed rather
regenerative incinerators because easily by either heat or vacuum.
they do not recover waste heat
energy from the exhaust gases.
ADSORPTION:
in
 Adsorbers ha ve be e n u se d
primarily to control the emission of
VOCs.
ot.
 The control of VOC emissions
typically reduces the
concentrations from between 400
and 2,000 parts per million (ppm)
to under 50 ppm.
sp
 Adsorption technology can now
extend the range of VOC
concentrations from 20 ppm to
one-fourth of the Lower Explosive
log
Limit (LEL).
 At the lower end of this range, such
small concentrations may be  By contrast, an absorber reacts
difficult or uneconomical to control chemically with the substance
by another technology or even by being absorbed, and thus holds the
absorbed substance more strongly,
s.b
all adsorbents. Incinerators,

membrane separators, a nd requiring more energy to release
condensers may be economically the absorbed substance.
feasible when used in place of  Unfortunately, one of the
absorbers at the upper end of the adsorbents is called “absorbent
carbon.” This persisting misnomer
ata
range.
 In addition to emission control, the came from the time before
adsorber makes recovery of the adsorption became understood in
VOC possible. Recovery of a the 1920s.
reusable or marketable VOC can  A better term is “activated carbon.”
Carbon is activated by the
d
significantly offset the cost of

emission control. pyrolysis of coal, wood, bark,
 Adsorbers can also increase the coconut husks, etc. to remove all
vil
concentration of VOC to allow the volatile material as a gas or

either destruction by incineration, vapour, leaving only the carbon.
or recovery by either membrane or  This carbon might then be partially
condenser to be economically oxidized to enlarge its pores .
Carbon adsorption systems can be
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feasible.
 In the adsorption process, the either regenerative or non-
pollutant is adsorbed on the surface regenerative. A regenerative
(mostly the internal surface) of a system contains more than one
granule, bead, or crystal of carbon bed.
adsorbent material. It is not  As one bed is used to actively
remove pollutants, another bed is
26
cleaned and prepared for future  The adsorption isotherm is still

use. defined as the pounds of material
 Steam can be used to purge the that can be adsorbed per pound of
captured pollutant from the bed, a d so r b e n t .
and the pollutant is either recycled
or destroyed. ABSORPTION:
 By “regenerating” the carbon, the  Absorption is a process used to
same activated carbon material can remove a gaseous pollutant by
be used again and again. dissolving it in a liquid. Water is
 Regenerative systems are best used the most commonly used absorbent
when the concentration of the fluid.
in
pollutant in the gas stream is  As the gas stream passes through
relatively high. the liquid, it becomes mixed in the
 Carbon needs to be replaced every solution in much the same way that
ot.
six months to five years, or when sugar is absorbed in a glass of
there is a bed fire. The frequency water when stirred.
depends on the type of carbon, the  Absorption is commonly used to
frequency of regeneration, and the recover products or to purify gas
temperature at which it operates. streams that ha ve high
sp
 On t he other hand, non concentrations of organic
regenerative systems usually have c o mp o u n d s .
thinner beds of activated  However, a major disadvantage of
 Carbon and are discarded when the absorption process is the
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they become saturated with the amount of wastewater created.
pollutant. Because the carbon  Critics of column absorbers and
coated pollutant residue creates a scrubbers quickly note that the
solid waste problem, non- wastewater created by such devices
regenerative carbon absorbers are convert a problem of air pollution
s.b
generally used only when the into one of water pollution.

pollutant concentration is  Absorption equipment is designed
extremely low. to mix as much of the gas and
 Each adsorbent has an adsorption liquid as possible. Absorbers are
capacity, which is referred to as the often referred to as scrubbers and
ata
“adsorption isotherm.” are commercially available in many

 Historically, with carbon, the forms.
isotherm was used to measure the  T he m o st commonly u se d
pounds of pollutant per pound of absorption equipment includes
adsorbent that could be adsorbed at spray towers, packed columns,
d
a given temperature. spray chambers, and venture

 However, the adsorption isotherm scrubbers.
is also a function of pollutant  The packed-column absorber has a
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concentration as measured by the column filled with an inert (non-

partial pressure of the vapour, and reactive) substance, such as plastic
it is also a function of the total or ceramic that increases the liquid
ambient pressure around the surface area in which the absorbing
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adsorbent. liquid and the pollutant gas can

 The number of molecules that can mix. The inert material helps to
be stored in the “well” is pressure maximize the absorption capability
dependent, with closer spacing of o f t h e c o l u mn .
adsorbed molecules being  As the gas and liquid are
associated with higher pressure. introduced at opposite ends of the
column, a counter-current flow is
27
produced that serves to efficiently

mix the two substances.
 In general, absorbers can achieve
removal efficiencies greater than
95 percent.
 Packed-bed scrubbers consist of a
chamber containing layers of
variously shaped packing material,
such as Raschig rings, spiral rings,
or Berl saddles that provide a large
surface area for liquid-particle
in
contact.
 The packing is held in place by
wire mesh retainers and supported
ot.
by a plate near the bottom of the
scrubber.
 Scrubbing liquid is evenly
introduced above the packing and
flows down through the bed. The
sp
liquid coats the packing and  In packed-bed scrubbers, the gas
establishes a thin film, but it should stream is forced to follow a
be noted that the pollutant to be circuitous path through the packing
absorbed must be soluble in the
log material, on which much of the PM
fluid. impacts .
 In vertical designs (packed towers),  The liquid on the packing material
the gas stream flows up the collects the PM and flows down
chamber (countercurrent to the the chamber towards the drain at
liquid). Some packed beds are the bottom of the tower.
s.b
designed horizontally for gas flow  A mist eliminator (also called a

across the packing “de-mister”) is typically positioned
 Physical absorption depends on the above/after the packing and
properties of the gas stream and the scrubbing liquid supply.
liquid solvent, such as density and  Any scrubbing liquid and wetted
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viscosity, as well as specific PM entrained in the exiting gas

characteristics of the pollutant(s) in stream will be removed by the mist
the gas and the liquid stream (i.e., eliminator and returned to drain
diffusivity, equilibrium solubility). through the packed bed.
 In a packed-bed scrubber, high PM
d
concentrations can clog the bed;

hence the limitation of these
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devices to streams with relatively

low dust loadings.
 Plugging is another serious
problem for packed-bed scrubbers
because the packing is more
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difficult to access and clean than

other scrubber designs.
 Mobile-bed scrubbers are available
that are packed with low-density
plastic spheres that are free to
move within the packed bed.
28
 T h e se scrubbers are less They leave the condenser as a

susceptible to plugging because of single exhaust stream.
the increased movement of the  In a surface condenser, the coolant
packing material. is separated from the vapours by
 In general, packed-bed scrubbers tubular heat transfer surfaces, and
are more suitable for gas scrubbing leave the device by separate exits.
than PM scrubbing because of the  Surface condensers are commonly
high maintenance requirements for called shell and tube heat
control of PM. e xc ha n ge r s .
 The temperature of the coolant is
C O N D E N S A T IO N : increased, so the devices also act as
in
 Condensation is the process of heaters.
reducing a gas or vapour to a  Condensers of this type generally
liquid. yield removal efficiencies of 50 to
ot.
 Any gas can be reduced to a liquid 95 percent, depending on the
by lowering its temperature and/or design and application.
increasing its pressure.
 So a condenser removes gaseous
pollution from the air by lowering
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the temperature of the gas to a
point at which it becomes
condensed and collected as a
liquid.
log
 A simple example of the
condensation process occurs when
droplets of water form on the
outside of a cold glass of water.
 The cold temperature of the glass
s.b
causes water vapour from the

surrounding air to b e c o me
transformed into a liquid state on
the surface of the glass.
 Condensation can be achieved
ata
through either increasing pressure

or by extracting heat from the
system, but heat extraction is the
most commonly used technique.
Condensers are also used to
d
recover valuable products from a

waste stream.
 Like scrubbers, condensers produce
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wastewater that must be disposed.

Consequently, condensers are
generally used in combination with
other control devices.
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 Condensers fall into two basic

categories; contact and surface
condensers.
 In a contact condenser the coolant
and vapour stream are physically
mixed.
29
for the control and removal of

atmospheric pollutants.
 Monitoring of the air quality can be
very complex, since it requires the
collection of data that allows for a
resolution of the dynamic nature of
air quality in terms of its spatial
and temporal variation.
UNIT IV AIR QUALITY  Ambient air quality monitoring can
M AN AG E M E NT be defined as a systematic, long-
Air quality standards – Air quality term assessment of air pollutant
in
monitoring – Preventive measures – Air levels in our communities.
pollution control efforts – Zoning – Town  This monitoring is usually
planning regulation of new industries – undertaken to characterize air
ot.
Legislation a nd enforcement – quality in urban areas, near large
Environmental impact assessment and air point sources of air pollution or
quality. where there are sensitive
environmental receptors.
 In general, ambient air monitoring
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AIR QUALITY MON ITORING
 The primary goal of any air networks are typically used to:
pollution control program is to • characterize local, regional, and
protect people a nd their national air quality conditions
• assess health impacts
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e n v i r o n me n t from excessive
exposure to atmospheric pollutants. • assess effectiveness of control
 Evaluating the success or failure of programs
pollution control programs largely • help form the basis for new
depends on the availability of control programs
accurate data about ambient • assess source impacts
s.b
(outside) concentrations of air • provide information to the public

pollutants or air quality.
 Consequently, an entire body of
research has emerged that attempts
to better estimate the quantity and
ata
types of pollutants in the ambient

air, and to better characterize and
quantify the specific sources of
those pollutants.
 Air Quality is a dynamic and
d
complex environmental
phenomenon exhibiting large
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temporal and spatial variation.

 The temporal and spatial variations
in atmospheric levels of pollution,
which is the essence of air quality,
are caused by
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(a) changes in the pollutant

source(s) emission rates
(b) changes in meteorology and
topography, which provide the
mechanisms for chemical reactions
of pollutants in the atmosphere and
30
microscopy, or analyzed physically

or chemically.
 Due to the potential adverse health
effects of very small particles,
particle sizing or particle size
distributions of inhaled air are of
significant interest.
 Very large particles (approximately
15μm or larger) suspended in
inhaled air, are removed in the nose
and throat, and thus do not reach
in
the lungs.
 Particles that are approximately
10μm and smaller are inhaled into
ot.
the lower respiratory system.
 Particles in the ambient air have an
idealized or tri-modal distribution
with regard to particle size. This
particle size distribution appears to
sp
have peaks at about 10μm, 0.4μm,
and 0.01μm.
log
s.b
ata
National Ambient Air

Quality Standards Size Distribution and Sources of Atmospheric
 A standardized NAAQS was first Particles
d
promulgated in 1971. GASEOUS POLLUTANT

COLLECTION:
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PARTICULATE MA TTER  Collection of gases can be

COLLECTION: accomplished by absorption,
 Filtration and impaction are and adsorption—in an evacuated
have been the most widely used for container (grab sampling)—or by
sampling particulate matter. condensation.
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 A primary advantage of filtration is  The method of choice will depend

the feasibility of handling large largely on the physical properties
volume rates of flow. Also, sample of the gas of interest.
that has been collected and filtered  Absorption is particularly
is usually readily available for important, in the wet-chemical
direct observation using analysis.
31
 Adsorption is the process by which 4. Scheduling sampling and duration—

gases are attracted, concentrated, long term or short term.
and retained at a boundary surface. 5. Selecting air sampling methods—
 In air pollution monitoring, continuous, integrated, grab sampling,
adsorption techniques are intermittent sequential sampling or a
commonly used for collecting a combination of these.
specific gas or combination of 6. Equipment selection—identification of
gases. suitable instruments, calibration
 A typical process consists of instruments and shelter design and
removing a gas from flowing air fabrication .
stream through a container filled 7. Setting calibration procedures—
in
with an adsorbent such as activated preparation of gas mixtures of known air
carbon, silica gel, or molecular pollutant concentrations along with
sieve. instrument flow calibrations.
ot.
8. Choosing data recording methods—
several methods of recording are available
(i.e., strip chart, analog or digital electronic
data loggers).
9. Data analysis—useful types of analysis
sp
include spatial distribution of pollutants,
concentration frequency distribution,
averaging time analysis and regression
analysis.
log
10. Reporting results—presented results
can be in the form of graphs, histograms,
pollution roses and isopleths maps.
POLLUTION PREVENTION:
 F or decades, research a nd
s.b
government regulation have been

conducted to focus the attention of
the environmental community on
Averaging times for gaseous the measurement and control of
pollutants pollutants in the ambient air.
ata
 However, slowly emerging within

An effective Air Surveillance the pages of air pollution control is
Monitoring Network is composed of ten a new approach to waste
operating elements: management: a strategy known as
1. Set objectives—included in this item is Pollution Prevention.
d
quality of data needed, what air pollutants  For de c a de s , air pollution

should be measured, sampling times and professionals have been so
seasons of the year sampling will be
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consumed with how to control

performed. and eliminate air pollution that
2. Choosing the parameters to be little thought was given to
measured, in addition to specific pollutants preventing its creation.
meteorological parameters (i.e., speed,  Recognizing this deficiency,
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wind direction, temperature and mixing Congress passed the Clean Air Act
depth) and topographical features, may Amendment of 1990 and installed
need to be included. the framework and structure for an
3. Selecting sampling sites—number and effective pollution prevention
placement based on money and manpower program .
constraints and confidence in the desired  Pollution prevention emphasizes
results. the reduction or elimination of
32
waste production before it is amendment to the Resource

emitted into the environment. Conservation and Recovery Act
 Scientists, engineers, a nd ( R C R A ) i n 19 84 .
technicians joining this new effort  Congress made “waste
of air pollution management focus minimization” – as pollution
their attention on how industries prevention was first defined – a
can reduce or altogether eliminate national policy objective and
the production of waste at the declared that the generation of
source. hazardous waste was to be reduced
 At industrial or commercial or eliminated wherever possible.
facilities, pollution prevention may  On the heels of the RCRA,
in
require the substitution of process Congress issued an important 1986
chemicals in the refining process report (EPA/530-SW-033) that
that will be less hazardous to more narrowly defined and
ot.
human health or the environment. articulated the concept of “waste
 Pollution prevention may also minimization” or pollution
include creative alterations of the prevention (Theodore and Young,
process, equipment, or plant 1992).
operating practices in order to  This legislation regulates over 400
sp
reduce or eliminate air pollution. various chemicals and compounds
LEGISLATIVE HISTORY that require treatment or disposal.
 Since much of the air pollution Superfund Amendments a nd
problem in the United is plant, Reauthorization Act (1986):
log
process, or vehicle related,  The of Superfund Amendments
Congress and the U.S. EPA drafted and Reauthorization Act (SARA)
a new management strategy of 1986 created the Emergency
directed toward controlling these Planning and Community Right-
pollutants. To-Know Act (EPCRA), also
s.b
 The Pollution Prevention Act known as SARA Title III.

(1990) shifted the focus from the  This statute was designed to
measurement and control of improve community access to
industrial emissions to preventing information about local chemical
the generation of pollution ha z a r ds a nd to facilitate
ata
altogether. d e v e l o p me n t of chemical
 While only a fine distinction may emergency response plans by State
appear to exist between the two and local agencies.
approaches, the Act clearly defines  EPCRA requires that companies in
Pollution Prevention. According to specific categories that
d
the legislation, Pollution manufacture, process, or use

Prevention is any reduction of chemicals in specified quantities
must file written reports, provide
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generated waste or recycling

activity undertaken at the pollutant notification of spills or releases and
source that results in either (1) a maintain an inventory of toxic
reduction in the total volume or chemicals.
quantity of waste or (2) a reduction Certain companies are required to
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in the toxicity of the waste in order submit annual reports listing any
to eliminate the threat to human releases of “toxic chemicals” in
health and the environment. relation to EPCRA Section 313,
Resource Conservation and Recovery and commonly known as the Toxic
Act (1984): Chemical Release Inventory.
 T he c onc e pt of pollution Pollution Prevention Act (1990).
prevention first emerged in an
33
 This landmark legislation was

passed in 1990 that established
pollution prevention as a national
objective .
 The Pollution Prevention Act
(PPA) raised pollution prevention
from “a desirable goal” to the
status of national policy and
created the U.S. EPA’s Office of
Pollution Prevention.
 The law directs every facility to
in
report information about the
management of each toxic
chemical they release or treat and
ot.
requires manufacturing facilities to
describe what efforts have been
made to eliminate or reduce the Source Reduction:
quantities of those chemicals.  Source reduction is defined as any
P O LLU TI O N P R EV EN TI O N
sp
activity that reduces or eliminates
S TR A TE G I ES the generation of waste at the
 By the nature of its definition, source, usually within a production
pollution prevention begins before process (Theodore and Young,
pollution is created.
log
199 2) .
 Therefore, the prevention of  Ideally, the opportunity to employ
pollution is dependent on one of the many options of source
considerable forethought a nd reduction occurs before a pollutant
planning . is even generated.
 In this regard, pollution prevention  The advantage of reducing or
s.b
is much more proactive than eliminating waste before it occurs

traditional control strategies. is that it altogether avoids the need
 After every avenue of reducing or to later process or dispose of it.
eliminating pollutants has been  Source reduction options can
employed, any residual pollutant is frequently involve only minor
ata
recycled into no r m a l plant procedural changes during

operations. processing, rather than the
 In the event that remaining waste expensive retooling required of
has no substantial fuel property or control technology solutions.
recyclable quality, the most  Two of the most useful methods of
d
effective form of control source reduction are materials

technology would be to reduce the substitution and source control.
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pollutant toxicity before it is Recycling:

emitted into the ambient air.  Although recycling techniques are
 Disposal by dumping pollution into also an important means of
wells, landfills, or the ocean should pollution prevention, they should
be considered only as a last resort. be used only when other source
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reduction techniques have been

exhausted .
 On-site recycling of waste is
especially effective when a waste
product can be used as a fuel
34
supplement or substitute to power a toxicity of a substance that cannot

plant’s manufacturing operation. be eliminated or recycled.
 Some waste by-products, in fact, Disposal:
have a high enough energy value to  Waste disposal can often be the last
serve as a primary fuel source for opportunity to safely shield
many industrial operations. humans and the environment from
the toxic effects of pollution.
 While disposal is the least
attractive of all the options
discussed, any substance that
cannot be rendered harmless must
in
be disposed of in a safe and
responsible manner.
 The Hazardous and Solid Waste
ot.
Amendments (1984) detail specific
responsibilities of manufacturers or
government agencies to properly
Treatment : safeguard the public from
hazardous waste disposal.
sp
 Occasionally, however, a pollutant
will have a chemical composition COMPLIANCE AND
that cannot be reduced, substituted, ENFORCEMENT:
or effectively recycled.  The mission of the enforcement
log operations of an agency is to carry
 Usually these substances are
extremely toxic forms of waste and out those field tasks designed to
represent one of the biggest bring sources into compliance with
challenges to the pollution regulations at the earliest possible
prevention specialist. time and to maintain their
 Once chemicals reach this point, compliance .
s.b
they must either be converted to a  Enforcement actions vary widely

less toxic form or safely disposed among agencies, and policies
of in secure locations. setting enforcement strategy are as
 Waste treatment is often individualistic as the agencies
accomplished through chemical or themselves. This chapter presents
ata
mechanical means and is frequently various enforcement mechanisms.

one of the last options left for safe  Although inspectors are not free to
disposal of pollution. choose from the mechanisms
 Treatment of hazardous materials available, it is hoped this chapter
can include incineration, chemical will widen their perspective of
d
alteration, or biological and enforcement .

physical treatment. Enforcement Systems
vil
 Technology has provided many  Control strategies are woven into

means of eliminating such waste, five enforcement systems for
but the most preferable is implementation:
incineration. (a) Permits to construct and
 Incineration alters the toxic operate;
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character of a pollutant, and it also (b) Compliance monitoring;

disposes of the substance with only (c) Compliance plan enforcement;
minimal residue. (d) Surveillance and complaint
 The overall goal of any treatment response: and
process is to reduce the amount and (e) Initiation of an enforcement
action (response).
35
PERMITS TO CONSTRUCT: a. Subjecting sources to periodic

The purpose of this permit is to prevent review.
construction of a new stationary source or b. Allowing the denial of an
modification of an existing source, if operating permit, making operation
emissions from that source would: of a source a violation.
(a) Result in a violation of applicable c. Providing a periodic update of
portions of the control strategy; the original permit documents
(b) Prevent attainment or maintenance of regarding ownership change,
one or more of the National Ambient Air process change, materials change,
Quality Standards (NAAQS); etc.
(c) Cause significant deterioration of air d. Updating emission inventory.
in
quality which is currently better than that e. Providing a systematic check of
Required by the NAAQS. compliance status by:
The permits systems aid enforcement • Observing visible emissions
ot.
and may also aid the applicant by: • Inspecting emission monitors and
(a) providing for engineering review prior control device instrumentation
to construction, so any necessary changes • Reviewing recorded emissions data
can be made with less cost than after • Inspecting control devices for good
construction begins (not applicable to operating and maintenance procedures
sp
registration);
(b) Preventing construction before it starts
if the new source does not comply in all
respects;
log
(c) Requiring, if needed, that the permit
documents highlight parameters which are
important to proper functioning of the
control equipment;
(d) Insuring that required emission
s.b
monitors will be installed;

(e) Requiring, in some cases, that the
permit document include an operations and
maintenance program;
(f) Denying operating permits if inspection
ata
or tests show noncompliance, so the source

cannot legally operate until it is in
compliance;
(g) Giving notice of change when adding,
modifying or deleting sources;
Compliance Monitoring and
d
(h) Keeping the emission inventory up to

date; and Inspections:
(i) Acting as a good continuing training  Compliance monitoring is a system
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program by having the inspector do the used by regulatory agencies to

permit inspections, allowing a view of the determine if environmental laws
equipment as it is being constructed. and regulations are being obeyed.
Two types of compliance monitoring are
OPERATING PERMITS:
u se d :
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 The Clean Air Act Amendments of

1990 conditioned industrial  Continuous, self-monitoring of a
operations on stringent regulations regulated facility and compliance
for the release of pollutants into the inspections .
atmosphere .  Most state regulatory agencies
require that certain facilities self-
Operating permits aid enforcement by:
36
monitor and report their deterrent to further violations by the

compliance status. facility.
 The proliferation of industrial sites Conducting an Inspection:
coupled with declining resources There are five steps in conducting an
for state inspection teams make the inspection:
full participation of each facility an a. Review rules and source records.
essential part of proper compliance.  Obtain basic facility information
 A typical monitoring regulation (i.e., names, titles, maps, process
will specify a facility’s duty to flow diagrams, and potential safety
monitor and report accurate records hazardous) .
of pollutant emissions and will  Review applicable federal, state,
in
specify emission levels for each and local laws and regulations, and
criteria pollutant within the facility. review the facility’s compliance
 Full compliance with the terms of and enforcement history. Study the
ot.
the self-monitoring agreement is most recent permits for the facility
frequently a condition of a site’s and find the acceptable operating
continued operation. conditions and a ny special
conditions, exemptions or waivers.
b. Prepare an inspection plan:
sp
 Know the purpose of the inspection
and the tasks necessary to
accomplish it. Prepare an
inspection schedule.
log
c. Enter the facility and hold an
opening conference:
 The purpose of this meeting is to
inform the plant official of the
s.b
purpose of the inspection, the

authority under which it will be
conducted, and the procedures to
be followed.
d. Conduct an inspection, obtain
ata
samples, and hold a closing

conference:
There are four main objectives to a  A post-inspection meeting should
compliance monitoring inspection: be scheduled with the appropriate
a. Observe the facility and identify facility officials to provide a final
d
specific environmental problems, if any opportunity to gather information,

exist. This information will enable EPA to answer questions, and make
confidentiality declarations.
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determine whether the facility is in

compliance .  Facility officials should be
b. Provide EPA with facts about a facility informed of their right to receive a
or site’s compliance status and ensure the duplicate of any sample collected
quality of self reported information. for laboratory analysis or to
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c. Collect and preserve evidence of any c ond uc t simultaneous

specific problems that appear to be measurements.
violations. e. Prepare a report:
d. The inspection itself displays a  The inspection report serves two
regulatory awareness that acts as a purposes:
 It provides the agency easy access
to facility information, and it
37
constitutes a major part of evidence g. Installation and system start-up.

for su b se q u e n t enforcement h. Source test for compliance.
actions. i. Operating permit secured.
 This report should be accurate, A well-monitored compliance plan
relevant, comprehensive, materially benefits enforcement efforts
coordinated, objective, well because:
organized, neat and legible. a. Time slippage can be spotted and action
COMPLIANCE PLAN taken to increase the speed of the
ENFORCEMENT: compliance program.
 The purpose of a compliance plan b. Valuable time is saved in generating
inspection is to inspect progress legal compulsion if there is no action or
in
toward specific milestones of a gross deviation from the time schedule.
compliance plan, administrative c. Penalties for noncompliance are
order, court order or Section 113(d) apparent to the source.
ot.
delayed compliance order. SURVEILLANCE AND COMPLAINT
 Many agencies will formalize RE S P O NS E :
administrative or de r s into  Surveillance is accomplished by a
negotiated compliance plans. systematic program of looking for
Compliance plans may also be observable violations within the
sp
generated in cases brought before a inspector's assigned district.
hearing board or into a court of  Observations are made from
law. outside the source boundary and
 Once such plans are negotiated or are either on a random basis or
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directed, their implementation is according to a schedule by time or
subject to verification by onsite source class.
inspection.  Surveillance should be around-the
 The most important parts of the clock where conditions and agency
compliance plan are the scheduled personnel permit and should
s.b
tasks and their completion dates, include una nn ou nc e d onsite

entered into the plan as inspections .
recognizable milestones indicating  Response to citizen complaint is a
progress toward the ultimate significant part of the inspector's
compliance status. job.
ata
 The compliance plan should always  A complaint can involve a specific

include a specified penalty for violation such as visible emission,
failure to meet the various or it can and often does relate to
completion dates. n u i sa n c e .
A compliance plan for the construction INITIATION OF AN ENFORCEMENT
d
or modification of a major facility A C T IO N :

would include the following milestones:  Enforcement action must be taken
a. Engineering study, pilot studies whenever the inspector establishes
vil
and source testing to generate the facts and gathers evidence to

process and emission data, and cost prove the occurrence of a violation
estimates. of the rules and regulations, a
b. Approval of funds by permit to construct or operate, or
Ci
management (Board of Directors). the terms and conditions of an

c. Completion of final design, bids taken order or compliance plan.
and best proposal selected.  The objective of enforcement is to
d. Approval of APC Agency. Construction bring all sources into a compliance
permit secured. status as soon as possible.
e. Order placed for equipment.  Enforcement alternatives range
f. Delivery of equipment. from voluntary compliance on
38
specific notice to comply to "file with the violator; at a minimum the

legal action first and talk later." inspector is likely to be consulted.
 Most agencies operate somewhere e. Hearing or trial conducted. If the case is
in between, depending on the litigated, the inspector may find his notes
circumstances of the violation, the and other documents subject to discovery,
agency resources, the specifics of and ultimately may be called on
the statutes, and the availability and to serve as a government witness.
effectiveness of legal assistance
including the judicial processes of
the area.
Alternative enforcement procedures
in
include:
a. Notice of violation with
administrative orders to correct.
ot.
Used for first offenders and for
relatively new requirements.
b. Administrative conference or
hearing leading to a formal
administrative abatement order and
sp
an agreedon compliance schedule.
c. Citations, which are paid without
court appearance, similar to traffic
tickets.
log
d. Administratively imposed
penalties according to a schedule of
fines.
e. Civil or criminal suits leading to
imposition of fines and other
s.b
punishments and/or judicial orders

incorporating specific compliance
plans.
f. Court ordered injunctions to stop
the violating practice.
ata
g. Administrative revoking of
permits to construct or permits to
operate, making further work or
operation unlawful.
An enforcement action:
d
a. The violation is found and documented

in an inspection report.
b. Decision made by agency on the level
vil
and type of enforcement action to be

initiated .
c. Enforcement documents drafted and
filed. The inspector may be responsible for
Ci
drafting all or a portion of a notice of

noncompliance or a formal complaint or
compliance order.
d. Settlement negotiations entered. The
inspector may serve as a member of the
team negotiating a settlement agreement
39
UNIT-5
NOISE POLLUTION
Noise
In simple terms, noise is unwanted sound. Sound is a form of energy which is emitted by
a vibrating body and on reaching the ear causes the sensation of hearing through nerves.
Sounds produced by all vibrating bodies are not audible. The frequency limits of
in
audibility are from 20 HZ to 20,000 HZ.
ot.
A noise problem generally consists of three inter-related elements- the source, the receiver
and the transmission path. This transmission path is usually the atmosphere through which
the sound is propagated, but can include the structural materials of any building containing
the receiver Noise may be continuous or intermittent. Noise may be of high frequency
sp
or of low frequency which is undesired for a normal hearing. For example, the
typical cry of a child produces sound, which is mostly unfavorable to normal
hearing. Since it is unwanted sound, we call it noise.
log
The discrimination and differentiation between sound and noise also depends upon the
habit and interest of the person/species receiving it, the ambient conditions and impact of
the sound generated during that particular duration of time. There could be instances that,
excellently rendered musical concert for example, may be felt as noise and exceptional
s.b
music as well during the course of the concert! Sounds of frequencies less than 20 HZ are
called infrasonics and greater than 20,0000 HZ are called ultrasonics. Since noise is also
a sound, the terms noise and sound are synonymously used and are followed in this
module.
ata
Sources of noise
Where does it generate from?
The sources of noise may vary according to daily activities. They sources may be
d
domestic (movement of utensils, cutting and peeling of fruits/vegetables etc.) natural

(shores, birds/animal shouts, wind movement, sea tide movement, water falls etc.),
vil
commercial (vendor shouts, automobiles, aeroplanes, marriages, laboratory, machiner y

etc.) industrial (generator sets, boilers, plant operations, trolley movement, transport
vehicles, pumps, motors etc.). The noise levels of some of the sources are summarised at
Ci
table 4. Typical surveys pertaining to causes of noise pollution, reveal the various sources
of noise pollution and frequency variation of their occurrences. The results of a survey
conducted in Central London, way back in 1961-62 reveals the presence of noise
pollution even in the early ‘60s. Road traffic is identified as the major source of
noise pollution while at home or outdoors or at work.
40
Impacts of noise
Why bother about noise? Often neglected, noise induces a severe impact on humans
and on living organisms. Some of the adverse effects are summarised below.
Annoyance: It creates annoyance to the receptors due to sound level fluctuations.

The aperiodic sound due to its irregular occurrences causes displeasure to hearing and
causes annoyance.
in
Physiological effects: The physiological features like breathing amplitude, blood pressure,
heart-beat rate, pulse rate, blood cholesterol are effected.
ot.
Loss of hearing: Long exposure to high sound levels cause loss of hearing. This is mostly
unnoticed, but has an adverse impact on hearing function.
sp
Human performance: The working performance of workers/human will be affected as
they'll be losing their concentration.
log
Nervous system: It causes pain, ringing in the ears, feeling of tiredness, thereby effecting
the functioning of human system.
Sleeplessness: It affects the sleeping there by inducing the people to become restless and
s.b
loose concentration and presence of mind during their activities.
Damage to material : The buildings and materials may get damaged by exposure to
infrasonic / ultrasonic waves and even get collapsed.
ata
Control of Noise Pollution

Noise generation is associated with most of our daily activities. A healthy human ear
responds to a very wide range of SPL from - the threshold of hearing at zero dB,
d
uncomfortable at 100-120 dB and painful at 130-140 dB(3). Due to the various adverse
impacts of noise on humans and environment (See LO-5), noise should be controlled.
vil
The technique or the combination of techniques to be employed for noise control depend
upon the extent of the noise reduction required, nature of the equipment used and the
economy aspects of the available techniques.
Reduction in the noise exposure time or isolation of species from the sources form part of
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the noise control techniques besides providing personal ear protection, engineered control
for noise reduction at source and/or diversion in the trajectory of sound waves.
Noise Control at Source

The noise pollution can be controlled at the source of generation itself by employing
41
techniques like
Reducing the noise levels from do mestic sectors: The domestic noise coming from
radio, tape recorders, television sets, mixers, washing machines, co oking operations can
be minimised by their selective and judicious operation. By usage of carpets or any
absorbing material, the noise generated from felling of items in house can be minimised.
Maintenance of automobiles: Regular servicing and tuning of vehicles will reduce the
in
noise levels. Fixing of silencers to automobiles, two wheelers etc., will reduce the noise
levels.
Control over vibrations: The vibrations of materials may be controlled using proper
ot.
foundations, rubber padding etc. to reduce the noise levels caused by vibrations.
Low voice speaking: Speaking at low voices enough for communication reduces the
sp
excess noise levels. log
Prohibition on usage of loud speakers: By not permitting the usage of loudspeakers in
the habitant zones except for important meetings / functions. Now-a-da ys, the urban
Administration of the metro cities in India, is becoming stringent on usage of
loudspeakers.
s.b
Selection of machinery: Optimum selection of machinery tools or equipment reduces

excess noise levels. For example selection of chairs, or selection of certain
machinery/equipment which generate less noise (Sound) due to its superior technolog y
etc. is also an important factor in noise minimisation strategy.
ata
Maintenance of machines: Proper lubrication and maintenance of machines, vehicles

etc. will reduce noise levels. For example, it is a common experience that, many parts of
a vehicle will become loose while on a rugged path of journey. If these loose parts are not
d
properly fitted, they will generate noise and cause anno yance to the driver/passenger.
Similarly is the case of machines. Proper handling and regular maintenance is essential
vil
not only for noise control but also to improve the life of machine.
Ci
42

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UNIT I – SOURCES AND EFFECTS resulted was disastrous, as

By 1940, air pollution in the United States

61 A.D., and King Edward I California acted in 1947, the federal

first environmental legislation. From these Sources of coarse particles include

 EIA is now analyzing these data for

a new pollutant is called secondary

(1) PARTICULATE MATTER

mobile sources as well as from

p e r so n s , increased hospital enzyme systems and blood

with cardiopulmonary disease such may be an important factor in high

(2) Lead (Pb) potential effects from lead

leaded gasoline. Sources of SO2:

manufacturing and smelting of ores observed under conditions, which

result in breathing difficulties that (4) Carbon Monoxide (CO):

associated with longer-term when carbon in fuel is not burned

defenses, and aggravation of nationwide.

 The population groups most remaining CO emissions from the

elderly. much as 95 percent of all CO

are well known. Carbon monoxide burning of wood, from automobiles

average CO concentration was 57 respiratory infection and may cause

percent over the same period. associated with adverse health

national standard decreased 93 percent.

violated the national air quality

during the period. emissions of nitrogen oxides

 During that same time period,

(6) Ozone (O3):

existing respiratory diseases such

Trends in Ozone Levels:

data, and 12 percent based on 8-

 Toxic or hazardous air pollutants (i) Ecosystem

concentrations may experience mechanisms of the leaf since it is

developmental, respiratory and protective layer), (2) the mesophyll

effects.  When plants are exposed to SO2,

associated with the deposition of (Wark and Warner, 1976).

animals and eventually magnified pollution. Research has shown that

occurs when emissions of sulfur increased by the continued release

 These compounds fall to the Earth  Carbondioxide (CO2) accounts for

 In the United States, electric utility and industrial sectors.

 Industrial processes such as foam

 According to the IPCC, greenhouse normal in the summer and 10

 Although this change may appear northern hemisphere mid-latitudes

droughts and floods that may b radiation reaches the Earth. In

the risk of certain diseases by increased.

halons, carbon tetrachloride, and following section on Global

to skin cancer, including D e p l e t i on :

The effects of UV-b radiation on that the concentrations of methyl

excessive UV-b radiation. In depleting substances in the upper

are the base of the ocean food decrease.

consequences for human food

 Air pollution meteorology is the

l data may also be

that will ultimately affect an area’s

introduce you to the atmospheric

transport and disperse air pollution.

Plume rise – Dispersion of pollutants –

Structure of the Atmosphere 3000

Adiabatic lapse rate: of temperature and pressure on earth surface.

called adiabatic lapse rate. transported or dispersed into the