Bread - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Bread

Bread
Bread is a staple food prepared from a dough of flour and water, usually
Bread
by baking. Throughout recorded history it has been a prominent food in
large parts of the world and is one of the oldest man-made foods, having
been of significant importance since the dawn of agriculture.

Bread may be leavened by processes such as reliance on naturally

occurring sourdough microbes, chemicals, industrially produced yeast,
or high-pressure aeration. Commercial bread commonly contains
additives to improve flavor, texture, color, shelf life, nutrition, and ease
of manufacturing.

Bread plays essential roles in religious rituals and secular culture.

Various leavened breads

Main ingredients Flour, water

Contents Cookbook: Bread

Media: Bread
Etymology
History
Types
Properties
Physical-chemical composition
Culinary uses
Nutritional significance
Crust
Preparation
Formulation
Flour
Liquids
Fats or shortenings
Bread improvers
Leavening
Chemicals
Yeast
Sourdough
Steam
Bacteria
Aeration
Cultural significance
See also
References
Further reading

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External links

Etymology
The Old English word for bread was hlaf (hlaifs in Gothic: modern English loaf), which appears to be the oldest
Teutonic name.[1] Old High German hleib[2] and modern German Laib derive from this Proto-Germanic word, which
was borrowed into Slavic (Polish chleb, Russian khleb) and Finnic (Finnish leipä, Estonian leib) languages as well. The
Middle and Modern English word bread appears in Germanic languages, such as West Frisian brea, Dutch brood,
German Brot, Swedish bröd, and Norwegian and Danish brød; it may be related to brew or perhaps to break, originally
meaning "broken piece", "morsel".[3]

History
Bread is one of the oldest prepared foods. Evidence from 30,000 years ago
in Europe revealed starch residue on rocks used for pounding plants.[4] It is
possible that during this time, starch extract from the roots of plants, such
as cattails and ferns, was spread on a flat rock, placed over a fire and cooked
into a primitive form of flatbread. The world's oldest evidence of bread-
making has been found in a 14,500 year old Natufian site in Jordan's
northeastern desert.[5][6] Around 10,000 BC, with the dawn of the Neolithic
age and the spread of agriculture, grains became the mainstay of making
bread. Yeast spores are ubiquitous, including on the surface of cereal grains,
so any dough left to rest leavens naturally.[7]

There were multiple sources of leavening available for early bread. Airborne
yeasts could be harnessed by leaving uncooked dough exposed to air for Bread shop, Tacuinum Sanitatis
some time before cooking. Pliny the Elder reported that the Gauls and from Northern Italy, beginning of the
Iberians used the foam skimmed from beer called barm to produce "a 15th century
lighter kind of bread than other peoples" such as barm cake. Parts of the
ancient world that drank wine instead of beer used a paste composed of
grape juice and flour that was allowed to begin fermenting, or wheat bran steeped in wine, as a source for yeast. The
most common source of leavening was to retain a piece of dough from the previous day to use as a form of sourdough
starter, as Pliny also reported.[8][9]

The Chorleywood bread process was developed in 1961; it uses the intense mechanical working of dough to dramatically
reduce the fermentation period and the time taken to produce a loaf. The process, whose high-energy mixing allows for
the use of lower protein grain, is now widely used around the world in large factories. As a result, bread can be
produced very quickly and at low costs to the manufacturer and the consumer. However, there has been some criticism
of the effect on nutritional value.[10][11][12]

Types
Bread is the staple food of the Middle East, Central Asia, North Africa, Europe, and in European-derived cultures such
as those in the Americas, Australia, and Southern Africa, in contrast to parts of South and East Asia where rice or
noodle is the staple. Bread is usually made from a wheat-flour dough that is cultured with yeast, allowed to rise, and

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finally baked in an oven. The addition of yeast to the

bread explains the air pockets commonly found in
bread.[13] Owing to its high levels of gluten (which give the dough sponginess and elasticity), common or bread wheat is
the most common grain used for the preparation of bread, which makes the largest single contribution to the world's
food supply of any food.[14]

Bread is also made from the flour of other wheat species (including spelt,
emmer, einkorn and kamut).[15] Non-wheat cereals including rye, barley,
maize (corn), oats, sorghum, millet and rice have been used to make bread,
but, with the exception of rye, usually in combination with wheat flour as
they have less gluten.[16]

Gluten-free breads have been created[17] for people affected by gluten-

related disorders such as coeliac disease and non-coeliac gluten sensitivity,
who may benefit from a gluten-free diet. Gluten-free bread is made with Strucia — a type of European sweet
ground flours from a variety of materials such as almonds, rice, sorghum, bread
corn, or legumes such as beans, but since these flours lack gluten they may
not hold their shape as they rise and their crumb may be dense with little
aeration. Additives such as xanthan gum, guar gum, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), corn starch, or eggs are
used to compensate for the lack of gluten.[18][19][20]

Properties

Physical-chemical composition
In wheat, phenolic compounds are mainly found in hulls in the form of insoluble bound ferulic acid, where it is relevant
to wheat resistance to fungal diseases.[21]

Rye bread contains phenolic acids and ferulic acid dehydrodimers.[22]

Three natural phenolic glucosides, secoisolariciresinol diglucoside, p-coumaric acid glucoside and ferulic acid
glucoside, can be found in commercial breads containing flaxseed.[23]

Glutenin and gliadin are functional proteins found in wheat bread that contribute to the structure of bread. Glutenin
forms interconnected gluten networks within bread through interchain disulfide bonds.[24] Gliadin binds weakly to the
gluten network established by glutenin via intrachain disulfide bonds.[24] Structurally, bread can be defined as an
elastic-plastic foam (same as styrofoam). The glutenin protein contributes to its elastic nature, as it is able to regain its
initial shape after deformation. The gliadin protein contributes to its plastic nature, because it demonstrates non-
reversible structural change after a certain amount of applied force. Because air pockets within this gluten network
result from carbon dioxide production during leavening, bread can be defined as a foam, or a gas-in-solid solution.[25]

Culinary uses
Bread can be served at many temperatures; once baked, it can subsequently be toasted. It is most commonly eaten with
the hands, either by itself or as a carrier for other foods. Bread can be dipped into liquids such as gravy, olive oil, or
soup;[26] it can be topped with various sweet and savory spreads, or used to make sandwiches containing meats,

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cheeses, vegetables, and condiments.[27]

Bread is used as an ingredient in other culinary preparations, such as the

use of breadcrumbs to provide crunchy crusts or thicken sauces, sweet or
savoury bread puddings, or as a binding agent in sausages and other ground
meat products.[28]

Nutritional significance
Bread pudding
Nutritionally, bread is categorized as a source of grains in the food pyramid
and is a good source of carbohydrates and nutrients such as magnesium,
iron, selenium, B vitamins, and dietary fiber.[29]

Crust
Bread crust is formed from surface dough during the cooking process. It is hardened and browned through the Maillard
reaction using the sugars and amino acids and the intense heat at the bread surface. The crust of most breads is harder,
and more complexly and intensely flavored, than the rest. Old wives tales suggest that eating the bread crust makes a
person's hair curlier.[30] Additionally, the crust is rumored to be healthier than the remainder of the bread. Some
studies have shown that this is true as the crust has more dietary fiber and antioxidants such as pronyl-lysine,[31][32]
which is being researched for its potential colorectal cancer inhibitory properties.[33][34]

Preparation
Doughs are usually baked, but in some cuisines breads are steamed (e.g.,
mantou), fried (e.g., puri), or baked on an unoiled frying pan (e.g., tortillas).
It may be leavened or unleavened (e.g. matzo). Salt, fat and leavening agents
such as yeast and baking soda are common ingredients, though bread may
contain other ingredients, such as milk, egg, sugar, spice, fruit such as
raisins, vegetables such as onion, nuts such as walnut or seeds such as
poppy.[35]

Methods of processing dough into bread include the straight dough process,
the sourdough process, the Chorleywood bread process and the sponge and Steps in bread making, here for an
unleavened Chilean tortilla
dough process.

Formulation
Professional bread recipes are stated using the baker's percentage notation. The amount of flour is denoted to be 100%,
and the other ingredients are expressed as a percentage of that amount by weight. Measurement by weight is more
accurate and consistent than measurement by volume, particularly for dry ingredients. The proportion of water to flour
is the most important measurement in a bread recipe, as it affects texture and crumb the most. Hard wheat flours
absorb about 62% water, while softer wheat flours absorb about 56%.[36] Common table breads made from these
doughs result in a finely textured, light bread. Most artisan bread formulas contain anywhere from 60 to 75% water. In
yeast breads, the higher water percentages result in more CO2 bubbles and a coarser bread crumb. One pound (450 g)

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of flour yields a standard loaf of bread or two French loaves.

Calcium propionate is commonly added by commercial bakeries to retard

the growth of molds.[37]

Flour
Flour is grain ground to a powdery consistency. Flour provides the primary
structure, starch and protein to the final baked bread. The protein content
of the flour is the best indicator of the quality of the bread dough and the Baking bread in East Timor
finished bread. While bread can be made from all-purpose wheat flour, a
specialty bread flour, containing more protein (12–14%), is recommended
for high-quality bread. If one uses a flour with a lower protein content (9–11%) to produce bread, a shorter mixing time
is required to develop gluten strength properly. An extended mixing time leads to oxidization of the dough, which gives
the finished product a whiter crumb, instead of the cream color preferred by most artisan bakers.[38]

Wheat flour, in addition to its starch, contains three water-soluble protein groups (albumin, globulin, and proteoses)
and two water-insoluble protein groups (glutenin and gliadin). When flour is mixed with water, the water-soluble
proteins dissolve, leaving the glutenin and gliadin to form the structure of the resulting bread. When relatively dry
dough is worked by kneading, or wet dough is allowed to rise for a long time (see no-knead bread), the glutenin forms
strands of long, thin, chainlike molecules, while the shorter gliadin forms bridges between the strands of glutenin. The
resulting networks of strands produced by these two proteins are known as gluten. Gluten development improves if the
dough is allowed to autolyse.[39]

Liquids
Water, or some other liquid, is used to form the flour into a paste or dough. The weight of liquid required varies
between recipes, but a ratio of 3 parts liquid to 5 parts flour is common for yeast breads.[40] Recipes that use steam as
the primary leavening method may have a liquid content in excess of 1 part liquid to 1 part flour. Instead of water,
recipes may use liquids such as milk or other dairy products (including buttermilk or yoghurt), fruit juice, or eggs.
These contribute additional sweeteners, fats, or leavening components, as well as water.[41]

Fats or shortenings
Fats, such as butter, vegetable oils, lard, or that contained in eggs, affect the development of gluten in breads by coating
and lubricating the individual strands of protein. They also help to hold the structure together. If too much fat is
included in a bread dough, the lubrication effect causes the protein structures to divide. A fat content of approximately
3% by weight is the concentration that produces the greatest leavening action.[42] In addition to their effects on
leavening, fats also serve to tenderize breads and preserve freshness.

Bread improvers
Bread improvers and dough conditioners are often used in producing commercial breads to reduce the time needed for
rising and to improve texture and volume. The substances used may be oxidising agents to strengthen the dough or
reducing agents to develop gluten and reduce mixing time, emulsifiers to strengthen the dough or to provide other
properties such as making slicing easier, or enzymes to increase gas production.[43]

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Salt is often added to enhance flavor and restrict yeast activity. It also affects the crumb and the overall texture by
stabilizing and strengthening[44] the gluten. Some artisan bakers forego early addition of salt to the dough, whether
wholemeal or refined, and wait until after a 20-minute rest to allow the dough to autolyse.[45]

Leavening
Leavening is the process of adding gas to a dough before or during baking to
produce a lighter, more easily chewed bread. Most bread eaten in the West
is leavened.[46]

Chemicals
A simple technique for leavening bread is the use of gas-producing
chemicals. There are two common methods. The first is to use baking
powder or a self-raising flour that includes baking powder. The second is to
A dough trough, located in Aberdour
include an acidic ingredient such as buttermilk and add baking soda; the
Castle, once used for leavening
reaction of the acid with the soda produces gas.[46] Chemically leavened bread.
breads are called quick breads and soda breads. This method is commonly
used to make muffins, pancakes, American-style biscuits, and quick breads
such as banana bread.

Yeast
Many breads are leavened by yeast. The yeast most commonly used for
leavening bread is Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the same species used for
brewing alcoholic beverages. This yeast ferments some of the carbohydrates
in the flour, including any sugar, producing carbon dioxide. Commercial
bakers often leaven their dough with commercially produced baker's yeast.
Baker's yeast has the advantage of producing uniform, quick, and reliable
results, because it is obtained from a pure culture.[46] Many artisan bakers
produce their own yeast with a growth culture. If kept in the right Compressed fresh yeast
conditions, it provides leavening for many years.[47]

The baker's yeast and sourdough methods follow the same pattern. Water is mixed with flour, salt and the leavening
agent. Other additions (spices, herbs, fats, seeds, fruit, etc.) are not needed to bake bread, but are often used. The mixed
dough is then allowed to rise one or more times (a longer rising time results in more flavor, so bakers often "punch
down" the dough and let it rise again), then loaves are formed, and (after an optional final rising time) the bread is
baked in an oven.[46]

Many breads are made from a "straight dough", which means that all of the ingredients are combined in one step, and
the dough is baked after the rising time;[46] others are made from a "pre-ferment" in which the leavening agent is
combined with some of the flour and water a day or so ahead of baking and allowed to ferment overnight. On the day of
baking, the rest of the ingredients are added, and the process continues as with straight dough. This produces a more
flavorful bread with better texture. Many bakers see the starter method as a compromise between the reliable results of
baker's yeast and the flavor and complexity of a longer fermentation. It also allows the baker to use only a minimal
amount of baker's yeast, which was scarce and expensive when it first became available. Most yeasted pre-ferments fall

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into one of three categories: "poolish" or "pouliche", a loose-textured mixture composed of roughly equal amounts of
flour and water (by weight); "biga", a stiff mixture with a higher proportion of flour; and "pâte fermentée", which is
simply a portion of dough reserved from a previous batch.[48][49]

Before first rising After first rising After proofing, ready to bake

Sourdough
Sourdough is a type of bread produced by a long fermentation of dough
using naturally occurring yeasts and lactobacilli. It usually has a mildly sour
taste because of the lactic acid produced during anaerobic fermentation by
the lactobacilli.[50][51]

Sourdough breads are made with a sourdough starter. The starter cultivates
yeast and lactobacilli in a mixture of flour and water, making use of the
microorganisms already present on flour; it does not need any added yeast.
A starter may be maintained indefinitely by regular additions of flour and Sourdough loaves

water. Some bakers have starters many generations old, which are said to
have a special taste or texture.[50] At one time, all yeast-leavened breads
were sourdoughs. Recently there has been a revival of sourdough bread in artisan bakeries.[52]

Traditionally, peasant families throughout Europe baked on a fixed schedule, perhaps once a week. The starter was
saved from the previous week's dough. The starter was mixed with the new ingredients, the dough was left to rise, and
then a piece of it was saved (to be the starter for next week's bread).[46]

Steam
The rapid expansion of steam produced during baking leavens the bread, which is as simple as it is unpredictable.
Steam-leavening is unpredictable since the steam is not produced until the bread is baked. Steam leavening happens
regardless of the raising agents (baking soda, yeast, baking powder, sour dough, beaten egg white) included in the mix.
The leavening agent either contains air bubbles or generates carbon dioxide. The heat vaporises the water from the
inner surface of the bubbles within the dough. The steam expands and makes the bread rise. This is the main factor in
the rising of bread once it has been put in the oven.[53] CO2 generation, on its own, is too small to account for the rise.
Heat kills bacteria or yeast at an early stage, so the CO2 generation is stopped.

Bacteria
Salt-rising bread employs a form of bacterial leavening that does not require yeast. Although the leavening action is
inconsistent, and requires close attention to the incubating conditions, this bread is making a comeback for its cheese-
like flavor and fine texture.[54]

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Aeration
Aerated bread was leavened by carbon dioxide being forced into dough under pressure. From the mid 19th to mid 20th
centuries bread made this way was somewhat popular in the United Kingdom, made by the Aerated Bread Company
and sold in its high-street tearooms. The company was founded in 1862, and ceased independent operations in 1955.[55]

The Pressure-Vacuum mixer was later developed by the Flour Milling and Baking Research Association for the
Chorleywood bread process. It manipulates the gas bubble size and optionally the composition of gases in the dough via
the gas applied to the headspace.[56] The organic baker Andrew Whitely, writing in The Independent, called the process
"the covert corruption of our daily food".[57]

Cultural significance
Bread has a significance beyond mere nutrition in many cultures because of
its history and contemporary importance. Bread is also significant in
Christianity as one of the elements (alongside wine) of the Eucharist,[58]
and in other religions including Paganism.[59]

In many cultures, bread is a metaphor for basic necessities and living

conditions in general. For example, a "bread-winner" is a household's main
economic contributor and has little to do with actual bread-provision. This
is also seen in the phrase "putting bread on the table". The Roman poet
Juvenal satirized superficial politicians and the public as caring only for
"panem et circenses" (bread and circuses).[60] In Russia in 1917, the
Bolsheviks promised "peace, land, and bread."[61][62] The term
"breadbasket" denotes an agriculturally productive region. In Slavic cultures
bread and salt is offered as a welcome to guests.[63] In India, life's basic
necessities are often referred to as "roti, kapra aur makan" (bread, cloth,
and house).[64] A Ukrainian woman in national
dress welcoming with bread and salt
Words for bread, including "dough" and "bread" itself, are used in English-
speaking countries as synonyms for money.[1] A remarkable or
revolutionary innovation may be called the best thing since "sliced bread".[65] The expression "to break bread with
someone" means "to share a meal with someone".[66] The English word "lord" comes from the Anglo-Saxon hlāfweard,
meaning "bread keeper."[67]

Bread is sometimes referred to as "the staff of life", although this term can refer to other staple foods in different
cultures: the Oxford English Dictionary defines it as "bread (or similar staple food)".[68][69] This is sometimes thought
to be a biblical reference, but the nearest wording is in Leviticus 26 "when I have broken the staff of your bread".[70]
The term has been adopted in the names of bakery firms.[71]

See also
Bread portal
Bread bowl Breading
Bread clip Bread machine
Bread dildo Bread pan

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Croutons Sliced bread

List of breads Sop
List of bread dishes Stuffing
List of toast dishes White bread
Quick bread

References
1. Harper, Douglas. "bread" (http://www.etymonline.com/?term=bread). Online Etymology Dictionary.
2. Diakonov, I. M. (1999). The paths of history. Cambridge University Press. p. 79. ISBN 978-0-521-64398-6. "Slavic
langues retain many Gothic words, reflecting cultural borrowings: thus khleb, (bread) from an earlier khleiba from
Gothic hlaifs, or, rather, from the more ancient form hlaibhaz, which meant bread baked in an oven (and, probably,
made with yeast), as different from a l-iepekha, which was a flat cake moulded (liepiti) from paste, and baked on
charcoal. [the same nominal stem *hlaibh- has been preserved in modern English as loaf; cf. Lord, from ancient
hlafweard bread-keeper]"
3. "The Etymology of the Word 'Bread' " (http://www.bonappetit.com/test-kitchen/ingredients/article/the-etymology-of-
the-word-bread). Bon Appetit. Retrieved 30 September 2016.
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//www.allotment.org.uk/recipes/bread-making/chorleywood-process). allotment.org.uk
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Christensen, L.P. & Hansen, Å. (2002). "Changes in dietary fibre, phenolic acids and activity of endogenous
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Further reading
Kaplan, Steven Laurence: Good Bread is Back: A Contemporary History of French Bread, the Way It Is Made, and
the People Who Make It. Durham/ London: Duke University Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-8223-3833-8
Jacob, Heinrich Eduard: Six Thousand Years of Bread. Its Holy and Unholy History. Garden City / New York:
Doubleday, Doran and Comp., 1944. New 1997: New York: Lyons & Burford, Publishers (Foreword by Lynn Alley),
ISBN 1-55821-575-1 &lt
Spiekermann, Uwe: Brown Bread for Victory: German and British Wholemeal Politics in the Inter-War Period, in:
Trentmann, Frank and Just, Flemming (ed.): Food and Conflict in Europe in the Age of the Two World Wars.
Basingstoke / New York: Palgrave, 2006, pp. 143–71, ISBN 1-4039-8684-3
Cunningham, Marion (1990). The Fannie Farmer cookbook. illustrated by Lauren Jarrett (13th ed.). New York:
Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-56788-4.
Trager, James (1995). The food chronology: a food lover's compendium of events and anecdotes from prehistory
to the present. Henry Holt. ISBN 978-0-8050-3389-2.
Davidson, Alan (1999). The Oxford Companion to Food. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-211579-9.
D. Samuel (2000). "Brewing and baking". In P.T. Nicholson; I. Shaw. Ancient Egyptian materials and technology.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 537–76. ISBN 0-521-45257-0.
Pyler, E.J. (1988). Baking Science & Technology 3rd Ed. vols. I & II. Sosland Publishing Company.
ISBN 978-1-882005-02-4.

External links
Bread at Wikibook Cookbooks
Bread and confectionery travel guide from Wikivoyage

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