Tool Steel Heat Treatment PDF

Tool Steels
11
Elhachmi Essadiqi
CONTENTS
11.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 651

11.2 Classification and Selection of Tool Steels............................................................... 652
11.2.1 Selection of Tool Steels ............................................................................... 652
11.2.2 Manufacturing Characteristics Are Related to Heat-Treatment Response... 661
11.3 Manufacturing of Tool Steels .................................................................................. 661
11.3.1 Steelmaking ................................................................................................. 661
11.3.2 Thermomechanical Processing .................................................................... 666
11.4 Important Steel Properties Relevant to the Manufacture of Tools.......................... 666
11.4.1 Dimensional Accuracy during Heat Treatment........................................... 666
11.4.2 Hot Formability .......................................................................................... 667
11.4.3 Cold Formability......................................................................................... 667
11.4.4 Machinability .............................................................................................. 667
11.4.5 Grindability ................................................................................................. 667
11.4.6 Polishability................................................................................................. 668
11.5 Important Properties Required for Various Applications........................................ 668
11.5.1 Hardness...................................................................................................... 668
11.5.2 Hardenability............................................................................................... 670
11.5.3 Toughness at Operational Temperature ...................................................... 673
11.5.4 Resistance to Thermal Fatigue.................................................................... 674
11.6 Heat Treatment ........................................................................................................ 674
11.6.1 Normalizing................................................................................................. 676
11.6.2 Stress-Relief Heat Treatments ..................................................................... 676
11.6.3 Annealing .................................................................................................... 678
11.6.4 Spheroidizing............................................................................................... 680
11.6.5 Carbides in Tool Steels................................................................................ 681
11.6.6 Hardening.................................................................................................... 682
11.6.6.1 Austenitizing ............................................................................... 682
11.6.6.2 Quenching ................................................................................... 684
11.6.6.3 Retained Austenite ...................................................................... 685
11.6.6.4 Tempering ................................................................................... 685
11.7 Characteristic Steel Grades for the Different Field of Tool Application................. 687
Bibliography ....................................................................................................................... 693
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Tool steels are very special steels used to shape, cut, and form an extremely wide variety of
metals and other materials under demanding conditions. The first known tool made of iron date
back 60 centuries. The heat treatment to harden tool iron, consisting of heating and water
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

quenching, was known 30 centuries ago. The earliest tool steels were based on plain carbon steel.
In the mid-19th century and early in the 20th century, highly alloyed tool steels were developed
to meet very stringent requirements for specific applications. This evolution was taking place in
parallel with the understanding of the benefit of the alloying elements such as manganese,
tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium, and chromium, and their availability. In parallel to this
evolution, steelmaking evolved toward more controlled conditions to improve the quality and
cleanliness of the tool steels. This advance in technology and knowledge allows designing
specialized tool steels for cold and hot working of metals, molding plastics, as well as for
many other special purposes. This chapter reviews manufacturing and heat treatment of various
types of tool steels to achieve the required properties for specific applications.
11.2 CLASSIFICATION AND SELECTION OF TOOL STEELS

Tool steels have been organized into groups that have evolved to perform specific functions,
such as forging, cold working, die casting, and high-speed machining, in a variety of operating
conditions. Within each group may be many grades that differ slightly from one another to
accommodate somewhat different processing requirements, operating conditions, or work
materials.
Various systems are used to classify tool steels. The most widely used system was developed
by the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI). It arranges tool steels into groups that are based
on prominent characteristics such as alloying, application, or heat treatment. Table 11.1 lists nine
main groups of tool steels and their identifying letter symbols [1,2]. Table 11.2 presents the AISI
classification and the nominal compositions of the most widely used tool steels [1,2]. These steels
are also identified by designation in the United Numbering System (UNS) for metals and alloys.
Other independent classification systems for tool steels from other countries such as Germany,
Japan, Great Britain, and France, exist, and are listed in Table 11.3 [1,3,4].
11.2.1 SELECTION OF TOOL STEELS

The selection of tool steel for a specific operation is based on two major criteria: (1) the
performance of the steel for a given application; and (2) analysis of the limitation associated
TABLE 11.1
Main Groups of Tool Steels and AISI Letter Symbols
Group Identifying Symbol
Water-hardening tool steels W

Shock-resisting tool steels S
Oil-hardening cold-working tool steels O
Air-hardening, medium-alloy cold-working tool steels A
High-carbon, high-chromium cold-working tool steels D
Mold steels P
Hot-working tool steels, chromium, tungsten, and molybdenum H
Tungsten high-speed tool steels T
Molybdenum high-speed tool steels M
Source: From G. Roberts, G. Krauss, and R. Kennedy, Tool Steels, 5th ed., ASM International,
Materials Park, OH, 1998, p. 7; Tool steels, Heat Treater’s Guide: Practices and Procedures for
Irons and Steels, H. Chandler, Ed., ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1995, pp. 517–669.

Tool Steels
TABLE 11.2
AISI Classification and Nominal Compositions of Major Tool Steels
Identifying Elements, %
AISI UNS No. C Mn Si Cr V W Mo Co Ni
Water-hardening tool steels

W1 T72301 0.60–1.40 (a) — — — — — — — —
W2 T72302 0.60–1.40 (a) — — — 0.25 — — — —
W5 T72305 1.10 — — 0.50 — — — — —
Shock-resisting tool steels
S1 T41901 0.50 — — 1.50 — 2.50 — — —
S2 T41902 0.50 — 1.00 — — — 0.50 — —
S5 T41905 0.55 0.80 2.00 — — — 0.40 — —
S6 T41906 0.45 1.40 2.25 1.50 — — 0.40 — —
S7 T41907 0.50 — — 0.75 — 1.75 — — —
Oil-hardening cold-work tool steels
01 T31501 0.90 1.00 — 0.50 — 0.50 — — —
02 T31502 0.90 1.60 — — — — — — —
0.6 (b) T31506 1.45 0.80 1.00 — — — 0.25 — —
07 T31507 1.20 — — 0.75 — 1.75 — —
Air-hardening, medium-alloy cold-work tool steels
A2 T30102 1.00 — — 5.00 — — 1.00 — —
A3 T30103 1.25 — — 5.00 1.00 — 1.00 — —
A4 T30104 1.00 2.00 — 1.00 — — 1.00 — —
A6 T30106 0.70 2.00 — 1.00 — — 1.25 — —
A7 T30107 2.25 — — 5.25 4.75 1.00 (c) 1.00 — —
A8 T30108 0.55 — — 5.00 — 1.25 1.25 — —
A9 T30109 0.50 — — 5.00 1.00 — 1.40 — 1.50
A10 (b) T30110 1.35 1.80 1.25 — — — 1.50 — 1.80
High-carbon, high-chromium cold-work steels
D2 T30402 1.50 — — 12.00 1.00 — 1.00 — —
653
Continued
654
TABLE 11.2 (Continued )
AISI Classification and Nominal Compositions of Major Tool Steels
Identifying Elements, %
AISI UNS No. C Mn Si Cr V W Mo Co Ni
D3 T30403 2.25 — — 12.00 — — — — —

D4 T30404 2.25 — — 12.00 — — 1.00 — —
D5 T30405 1.50 — — 12.00 — — 1.00 — —
D7 T30407 2.35 — — 12.00 4.00 — 1.00 — —
Low-alloy special-purpose tool steels
L2 T61202 0.50–1.10 (a) — — 1.00 0.20 — — — —
L6 T61206 0.70 — — 0.75 — — 0.25 (c) — 1.50
Mold steel
P2 T51602 0.07 — — 2.00 — — 0.20 — 0.50
P3 T51603 0.10 — — 0.50 — — — — 1.25
P4 T51604 0.07 — — 5.00 — — 0.75 — —
Steel Heat Treatment: Metallurgy and Technologies

P5 T51605 0.10 — — 2.25 — — — — —
P6 T51606 0.10 — — 1.50 — — — — —
P20 T51620 0.35 — — 1.70 — — 0.40 — 3.50
P21 T51621 0.20 1.20 (Al) — — — — — — 4.00
Chromium hot-work tool steels
H10 T20810 0.40 — — 3.25 0.40 — 2.50 — —
H11 T20811 0.35 — — 5.00 0.40 — 1.50 — —
H12 T20812 0.35 — — 5.00 0.40 1.50 1.50 — —
H13 T20813 0.35 — — 5.00 1.00 — 1.50 — —
H14 T20814 0.40 — — 5.00 — 5.00 — — —
H19 T20819 0.40 — — 4.25 2.00 4.25 — 4.25 —
Tungsten hot-work tool steels
H21 T20821 0.35 — — 3.50 — 9.00 — — —
H22 T20822 0.35 — — 2.00 — 11.00 — — —
H23 T20823 0.30 — — 12.00 — 12.00 — — —
H24 T20824 0.45 — — 3.00 — 15.00 — — —
H25 T20825 0.25 — — 4.00 — 15.00 — — —
H26 T20826 0.50 — — 4.00 1.00 18.00 — — —
Tool Steels
Molybdenum hot-work tool steels
H42 T20842 0.60 — — 4.00 2.00 6.00 5.00 — —
Tungsten high-speed tool steels
T1 T12001 0.75 (a) — 4.00 1.00 18.00 — — — —
T2 T12002 0.80 — — 4.00 2.00 18.00 — — —
T4 T12004 0.75 — — 4.00 1.00 18.00 — 5.00 —
T5 T12005 0.80 — — 4.00 2.00 18.00 — 8.00 —
T6 T12006 0.80 — — 4.00 1.50 20.00 — 12.00 —
T8 T12008 0.75 — — 4.00 2.00 14.00 — 5.00 —
T15 T12015 1.50 — — 4.00 5.00 12.00 — 5.00 —
Molybdenum high-speed tool steels
M1 T11301 0.80 (a) — — 4.00 1.00 1.50 8.00 — —
M2 T11302 0.85–1.00 (a) — — 4.00 2.00 6.00 5.00 — —
M3, class 1 T11313 1.05 — — 4.00 2.40 6.00 5.00 — —
M3, class 2 T11323 1.20 — — 4.00 3.00 6.00 5.00 — —
M4 T11304 1.30 — — 4.00 4.00 5.50 4.50 12.00 —
M6 T11306 0.80 — — 4.00 2.00 4.00 5.00 — —
M7 T11307 1.00 — — 4.00 2.00 1.75 8.75 — —
M10 T11310 0.85–1.00 (a) — — 4.00 2.00 — 8.00 5.00 —
M30 T11330 8.00 — — 4.00 1.25 2.00 8.00 8.00 —
M33 T11333 0.90 — — 4.00 1.15 1.50 9.50 8.00 —
M34 T11334 0.90 — — 4.00 2.00 2.00 8.00 8.00 —
M36 T11336 0.80 — — 4.00 2.00 6.00 5.00 8.00 —
Ultra hard high-speed tool steels
M41 T11341 1.10 — — 4.25 2.00 6.75 3.75 5.00 —
M42 T11342 1.10 — — 3.75 1.15 1.50 9.50 8.00 —
M43 T11343 1.20 — — 3.75 1.60 2.75 8.00 8.25 —
M44 T11344 1.15 — — 4.25 2.00 5.25 6.25 12.00 —
M46 T11346 1.25 — — 4.00 3.20 2.00 8.25 8.25 —
M47 T11347 1.10 — — 3.75 1.25 1.50 9.50 5.00 —
(a) Available with different carbon contents. (b) Contains graphite. (c) Optional.
Source: From G. Roberts, G. Krauss, and R. Kennedy, Tool Steels, 5th ed., ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1998, p. 8; Tool steels, Heat Treater’s Guide: Practices and
655
Procedures for Irons and Steels, H. Chandler, Ed., ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1995, pp. 517–669.
656
TABLE 11.3
Cross-References of AISI Tool Steels Designations to Designations in Other National Systems
Great Britain
United States (AISI) West Germany (DIN)a Japan (JIS)b (B.S.)c France (AFNOR)d Sweden (SS14)
Molybdenum high-speed steels (ASTM A600)

M1 1.3346 — 4659 BMI A35-590 4441 2715
Z85DCWV08-04-02-10
M2, reg C 1.3341, 1.3343, 1.3345, G4403 SKH51 (SKH9) 4659 BM2 A35-590 4301 2722
1.3553, 1.3554 Z85WDCV06-05-04-10
M2, high C 1.3340, 1.3342 — — A35-590 4302 —
Z90WDCV06-05-04-02
M3, class 1 — G4403 SKH52 — — —
M3, class 2 1.3344 G4403 SKH53 — A35-590 4360 (USA M3 class 2)
Z120WDCV06-05-04-03
M4 — G4403 SKH54 4659 BM4 A35-590 4361 —
Z130WDCV06-05-04-04

M7 1.3348 G4403 SKH58 — A35-590 4442 2782
Z100DCWV09-04-02-02
M10, reg C — — — — —
M10, high C — — — — —
M30 1.3249 — 4659 BM34 — —
M33 1.3249 — 4659 BM34 — —
M34 1.3249 — 4659 BM34 — —
M35 1.3243 G4403 SKH55 — A35-590 4371 —
Z85WDKCV06-05-05-04-02
A35-590 4372
Z90WDKCV06-05-05-04-02
M36 1.3243 G4403 SKH55, — A35-590 4371 —
G4403 SKH56 Z85WDKCV06-05-05-04
M41 1.3245, 1.3246 G4403 SKH55 — A35-590 4374 2723
Z110WDKCDV07-05-04-04
M42 1.3247 G4403 SKH59 4659 BM42 A35-590 4475 2736
Z110DKCWV09-08-04-02
M43 — — — A35-590 4475 —
Z110DKCWV09-08-04-02-01
Tool Steels
M44 1.3207 G4403 SKH57 4659 (USA M44) A35-590 4376 —
Z130KWDCV12-07-06-04-03
M46 1.3247 — — — —
M47 1.3247 — — — —
Intermediate high-speed steels
M50 1.2369, 1.3551 — — A35-590 3551 Y80DCV42.16 (USA M50)
M52 — — — — —
Tungsten high-speed steels (ASTM A600)
T1 1.3355, 1.3558 G4403 SKH2 4659 BT1 A33-590 4201 —
Z80WCV18-04-01
T2 — — 4659 BY2, 4659 BT20 4203 18-02 —
T4 1.3255 G4403 SKH3 4659 BT4 A35-590 4271 —
Z80WKCV18-05-04-01
T5 1.3265 G4403 SKH4B 4659 BT5 A35-590 4275 (USA T5)
Z80WKCV18-10-04-02
T6 1.3257 — 4659 BT6 — —
T8 — G4403 SKH10 — — —
T15 1.3202 4659 BT15 A35-590 4171 (USA T15)
Z160WKVC12-05-05-04
Chromium hot-work steels (ASTM A681)
H10 1.2365, 1.2367 G4404 SKD7 4659 BH10 A35-590 3451 32DCV28 —
H11 1.2343, 1.7783, 1.7784 G4404 SKD6 4659 BH11 A35-590 3431 FZ38CDV5 —
H12 1.2606 G4404 SKD62 4659 BH12 A35-590 3432 Z35CWDV5 —
H13 1.2344 G4404 SKD61 4659 BH13, 4659 H13 A35-590 3433 Z40CDV5 2242
H14 1.2567 G4404 SKD4 — 3541 Z40WCV3 —
H19 1.2678 G4404 SKD8 4659 BH19 — —
Tungsten hot-work steels (ASTM A681)
H21 1.2581 G4404 SKD5 4659 BH21, 4659 H21A A35-590 3543 2730
Z30WCV9
H22 1.2581 G4404 SKD5 — — —
H23 1.2625 — — — —
H24 — — — — —
H25 — — — — —
657
H26 — — 4659 BH26 — —
Continued
658
Great Britain
Molybdenum hot-work steels (ASTM A681)

H42 — — — 3548 Z65WDCV6.05 —
Air-hardening, medium-alloy cold-work steels (ASTM A 681)
A2 1.2363 G4404 SKD12 4659 BA2 A35-590 2231 Z100CDV5 2260
A3 — — — — —
A4 — — — — —
A5 — — — — —
A6 — — 4659 BA6 — —
A7 — — — — —
A8 1.2606 G4404 SKD62 — 3432Z38CDWV5 —
A9 — — — — —
A10 — — — — —

High-carbon, high-chromium cold-work steels (ASTM A681)
D2 1.2201, 1.2379, 1.2601 G4404 SKD11 4659 (USA D2), A35-590 2231 Z100CFV5 —
4659 BD2
4659 BD2A
D3 1.2080, 1.2436, 1.2884 G4404 SKD1, 4659 BD3 A35-590-2233 Z200C12 —
G4404 SKD2
D4 1.2080, 1.2436, 1.2884 G4404 SK1, 4659 BD3 A35-590 2233 Z200C12 —
G4404 SKD2
D5 1.2880 — — A35-590 2234 Z200CD12 2312
D7 1.2378 — — 2237 ZC30CVA12.04 —
Oil-hardening cold-work steels (ASTM A681)
O1 1.2510 G4404 SKS21, 4659 BO1 A35-590 2212 90 MWCV5 2140
G4404 SKS3,
G4404 SKS93,
G4404 SKS94,
G4404 SKS95
O2 1.2842 — 4659 (USA 02)
4659 BO2
Tool Steels
O6 1.2206 — — A35-5902132 130C3 —
O7 1.214, 1.2419, 1.2442, G4404 SKS2 — A35-590 2141 105WC13 —
1.2516, 1.2519
Shock-resisting steels (ASTM A681)
S1 1.2542, 1.2550 G4404 SKS 41 4659 BS1 A35-590 2341 55WC20 2710
S2 1.2103 — 4659 BS2 A35-590 2334 Y45SCD6 —
S5 1.2823 — 4659 BS5 — —
S6 — — — — —
S7 — — — —
Low-alloy special-purpose steels (ASTM A681)
L2 1.2235, 1.2241, G4404 SKT3, — A35-590 3355 55CNDV4 —
1.2242, 1.2243 G4410 SKC11
L6 1.2713, 1.2714 G4404 SKS51, — A35-590 3381 55NCDV7 —
G4404 SKT4
Low-carbon mold steels (ASTM A681)
L2 1.2235, 1.2241, G4404 SKT3, — A35-590 33335 55CNDV4 —
1.2242, 1.2243, G4410 SKC11
1.2713, 1.2714
L6 1.2713, 1.2714 G4404 SKS51, — A35-590 3381 55NCDV7 —
G4404 SKT4
Low-carbon mold steels (ASTM A681)
P2 — — — — —
P3 1.5713 — — 2881 Y10NC6 —
P4 1.2341 — — — (USA P4)
P5 — — — — —
P6 1.2735, 1.2745 G4410 SKC31 — 2882 10NC12 —
P20 1.2311, 1.2328, 1.2330 — 4659 (USA P20) A35-590 2333 35CMD7 (USA P20)
P21 — — — — —
Continued
659
660
Great Britain
Water-hardening steels (ASTM A686)

W1 1.1525, 1.1545, 1.1625, G4401 SK1, G4401 SK2, 4659 (USA WI), A35-590 1102 Y(1) 105, —
1.1654, 1.1663, G4401 SK3, G4401 SK4, 4659 BW1A, A35-590 1103 Y(1) 90,
1.1673, 1.1744, 1.1750, G4401 SK5, G4401 SK6, 4659 BW1B, A35-590 1104 Y(1) 80,
1.1820, 1.1830 G4401 SK7, G4410 SKC3 4659 BW1C A-35-590 1105 Y(1) 70,
A35-590 1200 Y(2) 140,
A35-590 1201 Y(2) 120,
A35-596 Y75, A35-596 Y90
W2 1.1645, 1.2206, 1.283 G4404 SKS43, G4404 SKS44 4659 BW2 A35-590 1161 Y120V, (USA W2A) (USA
A35-590 1162 Y105V, W2B) (USA W2C)
A35-590 1163 Y90V,
A35-590 1164 Y75V,

A35-590 1230 Y(2) 140C,
A35-590 2130 Y100C2
W5 1.2002, 1.2004, 1.2056 — — A35-590 1232 Y105C —
a
Deutsche Industries Normen (German Industrial Standards).
b
Japanese Industrial Standard.
c
British Standard.
d
L’Association Française de Normalization (French Standards Association).
(a) Available with different carbon contents. (b) Contains graphite. (c) Optional.
Source: From G. Roberts, G. Krauss, and R. Kennedy, Tool Steels, 5th ed., ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1998, pp. 10–12; J.G. Gensure and D.L. Potts, International
Metallic Materials Cross-Reference, 3rd ed., Genium Publishing, New York, 1988; C.W. Wegst, J.C. Hamaker, Jr., and A.R. Johnson, Tool Steels, 3rd ed., American Society for
Metals, Materials Park, OH, 1962.
with the manufacture of the tool die or mold. After the preliminary selection based on the
above two criteria, the final selection will be based on the final cost per unit part produced by
the tool [1].
11.2.2 MANUFACTURING CHARACTERISTICS ARE RELATED TO HEAT-TREATMENT RESPONSE

Service characteristics are related to toughness, resistance to softening, and wear resistance. An
overview and comparison of the most important manufacturing and service characteristics of
tool steels are given in Table 11.4. This qualitative ranking helps assessing various tool steels.
11.3 MANUFACTURING OF TOOL STEELS

Tool steels are prepared using various processes such as steelmaking and casting, powder
metallurgy (P=M), and the Ospray process. A summary of these manufacturing processes is
presented along with their benefits and limitations in terms of improved quality and lower cost.
11.3.1 STEELMAKING
Tool steels are processed through an electrical arc furnace (EAF); secondary refining pro-
cesses have been introduced recently such as argon–oxygen decarburization (AOD), vacuum–
oxygen decarburization (VOD), and the use of ladle furnaces [7]. The principle benefits
associated with secondary refining are reduced furnace time, increased overall capacity,
improved yield quality, consistency, and reproducibility.
Most tool steels are processed using EAFs. The cleanliness of the liquid steel and the control
of the chemistry are performed in ladle furnace, the AOD process, and vacuum arc degassing
process (VAD) [8,9]. In the latter process, optimum temperatures for vacuum degassing,
refining, as well as final alloy composition and subsequent ingot teeming can be accurately
controlled. In addition, stirring the argon under vacuum provides melt uniformity and maxi-
mizes the removal of undesirable gases and nonmetallic inclusions from the steel. Next to
vacuum arc melting, the VAD process improves cleanliness and hence, mechanical properties
in the final product. This process is required when higher levels of polishability and improving
toughness of tool steels are required. If more cleanliness and improved properties are required,
vacuum arc remelting (VAR) is employed. In this process, the molten steel from the VAD is
teemed into a cylindrical ingot. The ingot is then remelted under vacuum into a water-cooled
copper mold. The resultant VAR ingot is forged into intermediate billets or to the final product.
To improve cleanliness by reducing nonmetallic inclusions of the steel and to reduce segrega-
tion of other processes such as electroslag remelting, P=M, and spray forming are used.
Electroslag remelting, which is employed in the production of a relatively small percentage
of tool steels, involves passing an electrical current through a consumable electrode of similar
chemistry as that desired in the final ingot, that resistance melts under a protective, refining
slag, and is then solidified into an ingot. The electrode is usually of the similar chemistry as
the final ingot [10]. The cleanliness of ESR-melted product is superior to that of air-melted
EAF product due to the reduction of sulfur and the removal of inclusions by the ESR slag,
which results in better properties such as fatigue resistance, as illustrated in Figure 11.1, and
improved hot workability.
P=M has been used in the past to produce high-alloy tool steels. It is now a major
manufacturing process for various types of tool steels such as cold-work and hot-work tool
steels. The powder process involves melting the steel to the desired chemistry and then
producing the powder by impinging a thin stream of molten steel with jets of water or gas.
The powder is then processed through a series of operations such as drying, screening,

662
TABLE 11.4
Manufacturing and Service Characteristics of Tool Steels
Hardening and Tempering Fabrication and Service
Resistance to Hardening Amount of Distortion (a) Resistance to Approximate Machinability Toughness Resistance Resistance
AISI Designation Decarburization Response Cracking Hardness (b), HRC to Softening to Wear
Molybdenum high-speed steels

M1 Low Deep A or S, low, O, medium Medium 60–65 Medium Low Very high Very high
M2 Medium Deep A or S, low, O, medium Medium 60–65 Medium Low Very high Very high
M3 (class 1 and Medium Deep A or S, low, O, medium Medium 61–66 Medium Low Very high Very high
class 2)
M4 Medium Deep A or S, low, O, medium Medium 61–66 Medium Low Very high Very high
M6 Low Deep A or S, low, O, medium Medium 61–66 Medium Low Highest Very high

Tungsten high-speed steels
T1 High Deep A or S, low, O, medium High 60–65 Medium Low Very high Very high
T2 High Deep A or S, low, O, medium High 61–65 Medium Low Very high Very high
T4 Medium Deep A or S, low, O, medium Medium 62–66 Medium Low Highest Very high
T5 Low Deep A or S, low, O, medium Medium 60–65 Medium Low Highest Very high
T6 Low Deep A or S, low, O, medium Medium 60–65 Low to Low Highest Very high
medium
T8 Medium Deep A or S, low, O, medium Medium 60–65 Medium Low Highest Very high
T15 Medium Deep A or S, low, O, medium Medium 63–68 Low to Low Highest Highest
medium
Chromium hot-work steels
H10 Medium Deep Very low Highest 39–56 Medium High High Medium
to high
H11 Medium Deep Very low Highest 38–54 Medium Very high High Medium
to high
Tool Steels
to high
to high
H14 Medium Deep Low Highest 40–47 High High High Medium
H19 Medium Deep A or S, low, O, medium High 40–57 High High High Medium to high
Tungsten hot-work steels
H21 Medium Deep A or S, low, O, medium High 36–54 Medium High High Medium to high
H22 Medium Deep A or S, low, O, medium High 39–52 Medium High High Medium to high
H23 Medium Deep A or S, low, O, medium High 34–37 Medium Medium Very high Medium to high
H24 Medium Deep A or S, low, O, medium High 45–55 Medium Medium Very high High
H25 Medium Deep A or S, low, O, medium High 35–44 Medium High Very high Medium
H26 Medium Deep A or S, low, O, medium High 43–48 Medium Medium Very high High
Molybdenum hot-work steels
H42 Medium Deep A or S, low, O, medium Medium 50–60 Medium Medium Very high High
Air-hardening medium-alloy cold-work steels
A2 Medium Deep Lowest Highest 57–62 Medium Medium High High
A3 Medium Deep Lowest Highest 57–65 Medium Medium High Very high
A4 Medium to high Deep Lowest Highest 54–62 Low to Low to Medium Medium to high
medium medium
A6 Medium to high Deep Lowest Highest 54–60 Low to Low to Medium Medium to high
medium medium
A7 Medium to high Deep Lowest Highest 57–67 Low Low High Highest
A8 Medium to high Deep Lowest Highest 50–60 Medium Medium High Medium to high
A9 Medium to high Deep Lowest Highest 35–56 Medium Medium High Medium to high
A10 Medium to high Deep Lowest Highest 55–62 Medium Medium Medium High
to high to high
D2 Medium Deep Lowest Highest 54–61 Low Low High High to very high
D3 Medium Deep Lowest High 54–61 Low Low High Very high
D4 Medium Deep Lowest Highest 54–61 Low Low High Very high
D5 Medium Deep Lowest Highest 54–61 Low Low High High to very high
D7 Medium Deep Lowest Highest 58–65 Low Low High Highest
Oil-hardening cold-work steels
O1 High Medium Very low Very high 57–62 High Medium Low Medium
O2 High Medium Very low Very high 57–62 High Medium Low Medium
O6 High Medium Very low Very high 58–53 Highest Medium Low Medium
O7 High Medium W, high, O, very low W, high, O, 58–64 High Medium Low Medium
663
very low
Continued
664
TABLE 11.4 (Continued)
Manufacturing and Service Characteristics of Tool Steels
Hardening and Tempering Fabrication and Service
Resistance to Hardening Amount of Distortion (a) Resistance to Approximate Machinability Toughness Resistance Resistance
AISI Designation Decarburization Response Cracking Hardness (b), HRC to Softening to Wear
Shock-resisting steels
S1 Medium Medium Medium High 40–68 Medium Very high Very high Medium
S2 Low Medium High Low 50–60 Medium Highest Highest Low
to high
S5 Low Medium Medium High 50–60 Medium Highest Highest Low
to high
S6 Low Medium Medium High 54–56 Medium Medium Very high Low
S7 Medium Deep A, lowest, O, low A, highest, 47–57 Medium Very high High Low to medium
O, high
Low-alloy special-purpose steels
L2 High Medium W, low, O, medium W, high, 45–63 High Very Low Low to medium
O, medium high (c)

L6 High Medium Low High 45–62 Medium Very high Low Medium
P2 High Medium Low High 58–64 (c) Medium High Low Medium
to high
P3 High Medium Low High 58–64 (c) Medium High Low Medium
to low
P4 High High Very low High 58–64 (c) Medium High Medium High
P5 High — W, high, O, low High 58–64 (c) Medium High Low Medium
P6 High — A, very low, O, low High 58–64 (c) Medium High Low Medium
P20 High Medium Low High 28–37 Medium High Low Low to medium
to high
P21 High Deep Lowest High 30–40 (d) Medium Medium Medium Medium
Water-hardening steels
W1 Highest Shallow High Medium 50–64 Highest High (e) Low Low to medium
A, Air cool; B, brine quench; O, oil quench; S, salt bath quench; W, water quench. (b) After tempering in temperature range normally recommended for this steel. (c) Carburized case
hardness. (d) After aging at 510 to 5508C. (e) Toughness decreases with increasing carbon content and depth of hardening.
Source: From A.M. Bayer, T. Vasco, and L.R. Walton, Wrought tool steels, in ASM Handbook, Vol. 1, Properties and Selection: Iron, Steels, and High-Performance Alloys, 10th ed.,
1990, p. 772 Tool Steels, Products Manual, American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington, D.C., 1978.
750 109
700 102
ESR
650 94
Stress, MPa
600 87
Stress, ksi
550 80
Air melted
500 73
450 65
400 58
Indicates runout
350 51
104 105 106 107 108
Cycles
FIGURE 11.1 S–N curves for tension–compression fatigue testing of transverse air-melted and ESR A2
specimen. (From G. Roberts, G. Krauss, and R. Kennedy, Tool Steels, 5th ed., ASM International,
Materials Park, OH, 1998, p. 33; T.V. Philip, Met. Technol., 1975, 554–564.)
annealing, sintering, and pressing into billets that are conventionally forged or rolled into
bars. This process is more suitable for the production of more highly alloyed tool steels such
as high-carbon, high-chromium, and high-speed steels. These steels are very difficult to
produce by cast ingot process due to slow cooling rates, resulting in macrosegregation and
the formation of eutectic-carbide structure that are difficult to be broken down during hot
working [12]. Rapid solidification associated with P=M process reduces segregation and
produces uniform and fine microstructure of an atomized powder. High-speed steels pro-
duced by P=M have better grindability than the same steel produced by casting due to their
fine and uniformly distributed carbides. Figure 11.2 illustrates the finer and uniformly
distributed carbides and homogeneous microstructure in bars produced by P=M compared
to that in ingot casting [13].
The spray forming process [1] is attracting more attention because of its economy and
capability of producing dense, preformed products of metals of different shapes. This process
consists of gas atomization of molten metal by nitrogen or argon into small droplets. These
droplets are deposited into a rotating collector that can produce products with different
(a) Powder-metallurgically produced bars (b) Bars produced by ingot casting
250 µm
FIGURE 11.2 Microstructure in 100-mm diameter. Bars of high-speed steel M3 produced by (a) P=M
and (b) ingot casting. (From S. Wilmes, H-J. Becker, and R. Krumpholz, ‘‘Tool Steels’’, A Handbook for
Materials Research and Engineering, Vol. 2, Applications, ed., Verein Deurscher Eisenhuttenleute, 1993,
p. 327.)

shapes such as billet, hollows, and sheet. Tool steels have been produced in Japan using the
Ospray process since 1986. High-carbon, high-speed steel, and high-chromium cast iron are
the alloy sprayed [8,14]. High-alloy steels made using Ospray have uniform and fine carbides
of a size close to P=M products. A comparison of properties of high-speed steel tools
manufactured by Ospray, powder metallurgy, and ingot metallurgy, is given in Table 11.5.
It shows that the performance of tools produced by the Ospray process is equivalent to that
produced by P=M.
11.3.2 THERMOMECHANICAL PROCESSING

The purpose of hot working such as hot forging and hot rolling is to produce tool steels close
to the final shape and dimension and to improve the properties and performance of the final
tool through grain refinement and uniform carbide distribution. After hot working, the
forged or rolled bars must be annealed usually to avoid cracking during machining, grinding,
or reheating for further work. The typical hot working start temperature range is about 1190
to 10908C and the finish temperature range is about 955 to 10108C, depending on the steel
grade and the process used to produce it.
Usually, in finish rolling after forging, a rapid heating of a 135-mm diameter billet from
room temperature to the hot rolling temperature of approximately 11508C in 10 min is used to
prevent decarburization. Hot workability of tool steels depends on their chemistry and high
alloying reduces it. It improves with grain refinement and reduction of segregation. Hot
working of a cast structure is lower than that of the forged or rolled billet because of the
coarser grain size and carbides, as well as higher segregation degree of the former micro-
structure.
11.4 IMPORTANT STEEL PROPERTIES RELEVANT TO THE MANUFACTURE

OF TOOLS
The properties of steels that are important in the manufacturing of tools include dimen-
sional accuracy, hot ductility, cold formability, machinability, grindability, polishability, and
resistance to decarburization.
11.4.1 DIMENSIONAL ACCURACY DURING HEAT TREATMENT

Distortion, which is the sum of all changes in dimension and shape that appear after heat
treatment, is a common concern in tool steel manufacturing. Usually it is difficult and
TABLE 11.5
Comparison of Properties (Relative Values) of High-Speed Tool Steel Made
by Various Processes
Property Ospray Metallurgy Powder Metallurgy Ingot Metallurgy
Carbide size, mm 5–6 2–3 15–20

Bend strength 90 100 60
Wear resistance 100 90 100
Grindability 80 100 25
Toughness 90 100 60
Source: From G. Roberts, G. Krauss, and R. Kennedy, Tool Steels, 5th ed., ASM International,
Materials Park, OH, 1998, p. 41.

expensive to machine tool steels in the hardened condition. The final shape of some tool steels
is produced by machining in the soft-annealed condition [13]. To prevent distortion that
cannot be avoided during heat treatment, this process is carried out prior to manufacturing of
tool steel. The factors that affect dimensional accuracy are (1) specific volume differences of
phases existing before and after heat treatment; (2) thermal stresses caused by temperature
differences between the surface and the core of heat-treated tool; and (3) stresses that are
caused by phase transformation.
Segregation affects distortion through its influence on transformation. Segregation can be
reduced by homogenization heat treatment.
11.4.2 HOT FORMABILITY

The hot ductility of tool steels is important because it prevents cracking during hot rolling or
forging. Hot ductility is reduced by the presence of carbides along grain boundaries, inclu-
sions, sulfur, and tramp elements such as Cu, Sn, and Sb. Improving steel cleanliness by
remelting process is beneficial in preventing transverse cracking during hot forming of highly
alloyed tool steels, such as ledeburitic steels that have poor hot ductility. Crack initiation
could be prevented by improving the surface quality.
11.4.3 COLD FORMABILITY

Soft annealing that produces microstructure with large and spheroidized carbides improves
cold forming such as hobbing and lowers hardness. Tool steels with very high-carbide content
such as ledeburitic carbides, that cannot be influenced strongly by soft annealing, are rarely
manufactured by cold forming.
11.4.4 MACHINABILITY
Machinability is characterized by all the properties of a material that play a role in shaping
steels by the use of cutting tools. Soft steels such as low-carbon tool steels with high-ferrite
content are difficult to machine due to adhesion between the tool and workpiece. In this case,
tool steel is machined in the normalized condition with a ferrite–pearlite microstructure, and
not in the soft-annealed condition. Steels with a high-carbon content are machined under
soft-annealing condition with spheroidized carbides [13]. The best machining results are
obtained with a hardness between about 180 and 230 HB.
Machinability is reduced by the presence of hard particles such as alumina and silica and
special carbides, which increase cratering on the cut surface and abrasion on the top surface.
It is well known that sulfur improves machinability through its influence on chip formation.
Sulfur is generally limited to 0.1% to avoid high anisotropy of properties, such as toughness.
11.4.5 GRINDABILITY
Grindability is the ability to remove a large amount of material by grinding in a short period
of time without damaging the tool surface. The grindability index is the volume of metal
removed per volume of wheel wear. Usually, tools, that are heat treated after machining, are
shaped by grinding after heat treatment. Surface damaging can be caused by the accumula-
tion of heat in the surface, which may cause surface tempering or hardening. Stresses
developed during such heating through volumetric changes may create grinding check defects.
Grindability, which can be measured by abrasion, decreases with increasing hardness, carbide
content, hardness of carbides, and carbide size.

11.4.6 POLISHABILITY
Tool steels with polished surfaces are used in stamping, forming, and plastic processing.
Ledeburitic tool steels are more difficult to polish due to the presence of hard carbides.
Microstructure inhomogeneities result in poor response to polishing. Clean steels with fewer
nonmetallic inclusions and reduced segregation have excellent polishability. Hard inclusions
such as alumina or silicates are detrimental to the quality of polished tool steels. Polishability
increases with the hardness, but this is not the only factor to take into account for designing
tool steels with high hardness.
11.5 IMPORTANT PROPERTIES REQUIRED FOR VARIOUS APPLICATIONS

Tool steels are high-quality steels as opposed to construction steels, for which new steel grades
are developed more economically with mechanical properties obtained directly from forging
or rolling. The Mechanical property of tool steels requires very highly controlled heat
treatment. The microstructure and properties of tool steels resulting from heat treatment
depend on the chemical composition for a given grade, on the annealing conditions.
Tool steels are used for many applications dealing with manufacturing. Their field of
application includes machining, cutting, forming by stamping, pressing or forging, forming of
shapes from the molten state in glass, plastics, or metals, and die casting. All tool steels are
characterized and identified on the basis of their use for a particular application. Their
characteristics cannot be found in the chemical composition or the properties.
The important properties of tool steels are constant hardness at low and high temperat-
ures, hardenability, retention of hardness, high compression strength and pressure resistance,
fatigue strength, toughness at operational temperatures, wear resistance at room and high
temperatures, thermal fatigue resistance, and corrosion resistance.
Tool steels are associated with high hardness. However, the hardness of a tool must only be
high in relation to the hardness of the material to be machined or processed. It is generally an
order of magnitude related to quenched and tempered structural steels. Normal hardness values
vary between about 200 HV for glass-mold steels at the lower level, and 900 HV for forming and
machining tools at the upper level [13]. Hardness is the most important characteristic of steels
from which their potential application can be recognized. The wear resistance of tool steels
increases with increasing hardness, and toughness is reduced with increasing hardness.
11.5.1 HARDNESS
The hardness of tool steels is related to the material to be processed. It varies between about
200 HV for glass-mold steels at the lower level and 900 HV for forming and machining tools at
the upper level. Obtaining high hardness and microstructures that have high hardness are the
major objectives of final heat treatment applied to tool steels.
Carbon content is the dominant factor controlling the strength of martensite through its
interaction with other structural elements of a martensitic microstructure [15–17]. Figure 11.3
illustrates hardness as a function of carbon for various microstructures obtained from the
austenite transformation and heat treatment of carbon steels. Martensite transformation
from austenite is never complete. At the end of the transformation corresponding to the
temperature Mf a certain amount of austenite is untransformed (retained austenite [RA]) [18].
This amount of RA depends on the martensite temperature range Ms–Mf; it increases as the
range narrows, and this range narrows as Ms is lowered.
Hardness is the most important characteristic of a tool steels that indicates their potential
application. The hardness also allows to draw a conclusion on the working stress limit and

1100
1000
65
900
800
60
Hardness, Vickers
Hardness, Rockwell C
700
Martensitic structure (quenched)
600
50
500
400 40
300 30
Pearlitic structure (air cooled)
20
200 10
100
Spheroidized carbide structure
0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20

Carbon, %
FIGURE 11.3 Hardness of three microstructures as a function of carbon content. The high-carbon
region of the martensitic structure curve is broad due to retained austenite. (From E.C. Bain and H.W.
Paxton, Alloying Elements in Steel, 2nd ed., American Society for Metals, Metals Park, OH, 1961, p. 37.)
thus, on the shape stability of a tool. Due to this shape stability, hardness must be sufficiently
high that the yield stress is above the highest load stress on the tool. The relationship between
hardness and flow stress in the case of tool steels is shown in Figure 11.4. However, increasing
the hardness for shape stability could affect other properties such as toughness, which is
usually reduced, and thus, the susceptibility to fracture of the tool steel is increased. Wear
resistance increases with increasing hardness.
3500
Steel: Hardening temperature:
N/mm2
3000 S 6-5-2 12208C

S 18-0-1 12908C
60 WCrV 7 9008C
Bending yield (flow) stress,
2500
120 W 4 8708C
2000
1500
1000
Fracture without plastic deformation

500
due to too low a tempering temperature
0
70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25
Hardness, HRC
FIGURE 11.4 Relationship between hardness and bending yield stress of hardened tool steels. (From
S. Wilmes, H.-J. Becker, and R. Krumpholz, ‘‘Tool steels,’’A Handbook for Materials Research and
Engineering, Vol. 2, Applications, ed., Verein Deurscher Eisenhuttenleute, 1993, p. 306; J.C. Hamaker
Jr., V.C. Stang, and G.A. Roberts, Trans. Amer. Soc. Metals, 49, 1957, S. 550=75.)

70
1000
High-speed steel alloyed with cobalt
900 and vanadium
65
800 High-speed steel
60
Hardness, HRC
700
Cast
hard alloy
600 55
Hardness, HV
500 50
45
400 40
300 30
Nickel alloy 20
NiCr 19 NbMo
200 10
Unalloyed steel C125
100
Hot-work steel alloyed with tungsten
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Testing temperature, 8C
FIGURE 11.5 Hardness at elevated temperatures of different types of tool steels. (From S. Wilmes,
H-J. Becker, and R. Krumpholz, ‘‘Tool steels,’’ A Handbook for Materials Research and Engineering,
Vol. 2, Applications, ed., Verein Deurscher Eisenhuttenleute, 1993, p. 307; G.A. Roberts, Trans.
Metallurg. Soc. AIME, 236, 1966, S. 950=63.)
The hardness of tool steels decreases with increasing temperature. Figure 11.5 illustrates
the variation with temperature of hardness of various types of tool steels. Tools that operate
above 2008C must have high hardness as possible at elevated temperatures to ensure the shape
stability and an adequate value of wear resistance of the tool steel at the operating conditions.
At temperatures higher than 6008C the hardness of martensitic tool steels is no longer
sufficient to cope with the stress. Reliable hardness is to be found in some austenitic steel
and in nickel and cobalt alloys that on the other hand are not suitable for tools at low
operating temperatures due to their low hardness. In tool steels, martensite formation is the
most efficient method of improving hardness.
Hardness is usually measured with various loads on the Rockwell C scale (HRC), which
uses a diamond cone indenter, and on the Vickers scale (HV), which uses a diamond pyramid
indenter. The equivalent hardness numbers between HRC and HV are given in Table 11.6.
Soft annealing, which produces ferrite matrix with interstitial carbides, could reduce
hardness. Cr is the element that has less influence on the solid solution strengthening as
illustrated in Figure 11.6.
The most effective way of improving hardness in tool steels is through martensite forma-
tion during quenching and precipitation of fine carbides of Mo, Cr, and V.
11.5.2 HARDENABILITY
Hardenability, which is of equal importance as hardness, includes maximum achievable
hardness during quenching, and the depth of hardening obtained by quenching in a specific

Tool Steels
TABLE 11.6
Approximate Conversion of Hardness Values and Tensile Strengths for Steels
Rockwell Hardness C
Vickers Hardness Brinell Hardness C Scale 150 kg Load A Scale 60 kg Load Superficial 30-N Scleroscope Tensile Strength
No. HV No. 3000 kg Load Diamond Cone HRC Diamond Cone HRA 10 kg Load Hardness No. (Approx.)a
10 mm Ball Diamond Cone
100 95 — 43 — —
120 115 — 46 — 393
140 135 — 50 21 455
160 155 53 24 517
180 175 56 27
579
200 195 58 30 634
220 215 60 31 696
240 235 20.3 60.6 41.7 34 765
260 255 24.0 62.4 45.0 37 827
280 275 27.1 63.8 47.8 40
889
300 295 29.8 65.2 50.2 42 952
320 311 32.2 66.4 52.3 45 1007
340 328 34.4 67.6 54.4 47 1069
360 345 36.6 68.7 56.4 50 1131
380 360 38.8 69.8 58.4 52
1207
400 379 40.8 70.8 60.2 55 1289
420 397 42.7 71.8 61.4 57 1372
440 415 44.5 72.8 63.5 59 1461
460 433 46.1 73.6 64.9 62 1537
480 452 47.7 74.5 66.4 64 1620
500 471 49.1 75.3 67.7 66 1703
520 487 50.5 76.1 69.0 67 1793
540 507 51.7 76.7 70.0 69 1862
671
560 525 53.0 77.4 71.2 71 1951
Continued
672
Approximate Conversion of Hardness Values and Tensile Strengths for Steels
Rockwell Hardness C
Brinell Hardness C Scale 150 kg Load A Scale 60 kg Load Superficial 30-N

Vickers Hardness No. 3000 kg Load Diamond Cone HRC Diamond Cone HRA 10 kg Load Scleroscope Tensile Strength
No. HV 10 mm Ball Diamond Cone Hardness No. (Approx.)a
580 545 54.1 78.0 72.1 72 2020

600 564 55.2 78.6 73.2 74 2089
620 582 56.3 79.2 74.2 75 2186
640 601 57.3 79.8 75.1 77 2262
660 620 58.3 80.3 75.9 79 2358
680 638 59.2 80.8 76.8 80 2448
700 656 60.1 81.3 77.6 81
720 670 61.0 81.8 78.4 83
740 684 61.8 82.2 79.1 84

760 698 62.5 82.6 79.7 86
780 710 63.3 83.0 80.4 87
800 722 64.0 83.4 81.1 88
820 733 64.7 83.8 81.7 90
840 745 65.3 84.1 82.2 91
860 — 65.9 84.4 82.7 92
880 — 66.4 84.7 83.1 93
900 — 67.0 85.0 83.6 95
920 — 67.5 85.3 84.0 96
940 — 68.0 85.6 84.4 97
a
These values are substracted from Ref. [15] and converted to MPa.
Source: From G. Roberts, G. Krauss, and R. Kennedy, Tool Steels, 5th ed., ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1998, p. 83; Smithells Metals Reference Book, 9th ed.,
pp. 21-4, and 21-5.
240
P Si Mn
220
200
Mo
180
Hardness, Brinell
Ni V
160
W
140
Cr
120
100
80
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Alloying element, %
FIGURE 11.6 Influence of alloying elements on solid solution strengthening of ferrite. (From E.C. Bain
and H.W. Paxton, Alloying Elements in Steel, 2nd ed., American Society for Metals, Metals Park, OH,
1961, p. 62.)
manner. With the same hardness, a tempered martensite has better toughness than a bainitic
or pearlitic microstructure.
Steels for forging and pressing dies and for cutting tools need a thin surface zone with very
high surface-hardness but with a soft core. These steels are used in tools subjected to bending
or impact, due to their lack of susceptibility to cracking. Jominy tests for hardenability
assessment used for structural steels are not suitable for tool steels due to their high degree
of hardenability. Depth hardening of the tool steels is assessed using time–temperature–
transformation (TTT) curves.
Alloying elements that stabilize austenite increase hardenability. However, with tool steels
the choice of alloying elements depends on many other properties such as carbide formation,
carbide hardness, decarburization tendency, nitridability, and deformability. The following
examples illustrate the effects of some alloying elements: (1) adding Ni gives good harden-
ability without carbide formation but with lower transformation temperature; (2) Si increases
the tendency of decarburization; and (3) Cr, Mo, W, and V result in carbide formation and
make the steels easy to nitride.
In tool steels, carbide quantities are up to 5 vol.% in hot-work tool steels, up to 20% in high-
speed tool steels, and up to 25 vol.% in ledeburitic steel with 12%Cr. With C content above 0.7%,
the result of increasing the hardening temperature produces a more stable austenite, which
results in large quantities of retained austenite, and therefore the hardness is decreased.
11.5.3 TOUGHNESS AT OPERATIONAL TEMPERATURE

The toughness of tool steels that are subjected to dynamic stresses is the ability to release stress
peaks by a small local plastic deformation that prevents a crack formation. Toughness is a generic
term for all influences which concern the resistance of a tool to fracture [13]. The toughness of tool
steels that are used with service hardness below about 55 HRC is better assessed by impact energy
on notched and unnotched specimens. In the case of tool steels with hardness in service higher than

55 HRC, static bending tests and the static torsion tests have been shown to be reliable. When
comparing materials having the same hardness, only plastic bending energy or torsional energy
needs to be considered in assessing toughness. Toughness properties are influenced strongly by the
microstructure, and they show improvement with a more homogeneous microstructure. Finer
spheroidized carbides also improve toughness. It is improved by segregation reduction, cleanli-
ness, and reduction of inclusions such as oxides, sulfides, and carbides. To reduce toughness
anisotropy, producing clean steel is not enough; there is a need for additional homogenizing which
reduces the degree of segregation. In the case of alloyed steels, a reduction of segregation can be
achieved by P=M, which also produces very fine carbides. Toughness properties deteriorate with
the presence of an upper bainite microstructure due to carbide precipitation.
11.5.4 RESISTANCE TO THERMAL FATIGUE

The failure of material by heat checking is caused by the creep behavior of tool steels. Steels that
are used for forging tools, pressure casting dies, glass forming, and plastic molds are subjected
to thermal cycling during which heat checking is caused. The formation of these cracks is
delayed by the use of materials with a high yield strength and high toughness at elevated
temperatures [13]. The propagation of heat checking is connected with oxidation processes. It is
then important to use chromium-alloyed steels because chromium improves the scaling resist-
ance. At higher tool temperatures, such as those sustained by a glass forming molds, the
chromium content should be higher. The resistance to heat checking can be improved by
using steels with high thermal conductivity. It is advantageous to use steels with a homogeneous
quenched, and tempered microstructure.
11.6 HEAT TREATMENT

The properties of tool steels depend strongly on heat treatment processing, which depends on
their chemical composition and their application. The heat treatment of tool steels consists of
a three-stage process: (1) heating the steel to the austenite region to form austenite; (2) cooling
the steel from the austenitization temperature to transform the austenite to martensite; and
(3) tempering to eliminate RA and to form carbides within the martensite.
The schematic diagrams of heat treatment steps required for producing tool steels are
illustrated in Figure 11.7 and Figure 11.8 [8,23,24].
After casting or powder manufacturing and hot working, heat treatment processing steps
include normalizing, annealing, machining, and stress relief followed by hardening. The final
shaping of tool steels by forming and machining is performed before the final hardening heat
treatment step, due to the very high as-heat treated hardness that makes tool steels very
difficult to shape. However, final dimensions can be adjusted by grinding with highly abrasive
materials or by electrodischarge machining [25].
Two aspects are of importance to tool steels; the first is homogenization or reduction of
microstructure heterogeneity that is produced by segregation phenomenon during solidi-
fication and the second is the refinement of grains, which improves the required mechanical
properties. Annealing to homogenize the microstructure is based on diffusion phenomenon.
This heat treatment consists of maintaining the tool steel at a given temperature for a period
of time followed by a controlled cooling rate. A coarse grain size may result from this. The
homogenizing treatment is followed by a grain refinement step. This treatment is carried
out at a temperature 508C above Ac3 for hypoeutectic steels, and above Ac1 for hypereu-
tectic steels. This cycle consists of reheating the steel at the required temperature for a
minimum period of time required, followed by cooling in a manner to prevent the formation
of bainite [28].

L Tool steel processing
Solidification/casting
Forging/rolling
A+C
Normalizing
Temperature
Annealing Slow cooling (−108C/h)
A+F+C
Stress relief
Air
F+C cool
Machining
Ms
Hardening
RT
Time
FIGURE 11.7 Schematic diagram of tool steel processing and heat treatment prior to final hardening
heat treatment. A, austenite; C, carbides; F, ferrite; M, martensite. (From G. Roberts, G. Krauss, and
R. Kennedy, Tool Steels, 5th ed., ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1998, p. 67; G. Krauss,
Steels: Heat Treatment and Processing Principles, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1990.)
The heat treatment of tool steels is implemented to achieve one of the following targets:
1. To obtain a desired microstructure and properties suitable for machining or cold

deformation
2. To release residual stresses accumulated during previous thermal and mechanical
treatments
3. To homogenize the microstructure with globular carbides by a spheroidization
treatment
4. To dissolve by a normalizing treatment the intergranular carbides that are detrimental
to the mechanical properties of tool steels
L Tool steel heat treatment
A+C
Austenitizing
Temperature
A+F+C Quenching
Preheat Tempering
Pearlite
F+C H2O
Salt Air
Bainite
Ms
Martensite
RT
Time
FIGURE 11.8 Schematic diagram of tool steel heat treatment steps for final hardening. (From
G. Roberts, G. Krauss, and R. Kennedy, Tool Steels, 5th ed., ASM International, Materials Park,
OH, 1998, p. 68.)

11.6.1 NORMALIZING
Normalizing is a heat treatment that is performed in hot forged or hot-rolled tool steels to
produce more uniform, fine-grained microstructures for subsequent annealing and hardening
heat treatments. The normalizing treatment helps to produce a more uniform distribution of
precipitates. In tool steels with more stable carbides such as Cr and W carbides, the precipitates
may be preferentially aligned in the hot-working direction, or present at grain boundaries.
The normalizing process consists of heating the steel to the temperature region indicated in
Figure 11.9 by the crosshatched area, followed by air-cooling. During heating and holding at
the normalizing temperature, the initial ferrite–carbide structure that is stable at low temper-
atures transforms to austenite. The dissolution of carbides during heating depends on the alloy
content of the tool steels. During cooling austenite transforms to ferrite and cementite. In the
case of the low-alloy tool steels, cementite and pearlite will form during air-cooling. The
carbides in this structure will be spheroidized in subsequent annealing treatments. In high-
alloy tool steels, due to their high hardenability, martensite may form during air-cooling, which
may cause cracking, and thus, a normalizing treatment should be avoided for these tool steel
grades. Table 11.7 lists normalizing and annealing temperatures for different tool steel grades
[5,26]. As previously indicated, high-alloy steels should not be normalized.
11.6.2 STRESS-RELIEF HEAT TREATMENTS

Heat treatment usually causes residual stresses, quench cracks, and distortion. Residual
tensile surface stresses may cause cracking during manufacturing, or fracture in service,
whereas compressive surface stresses are generally beneficial, they prevent cracking during
manufacturing and service and hence improve fatigue strength and resistance to stress
corrosion cracking. The objective of a stress-relief heat treatment is to reduce residual stresses
1100 2010
Upper temperature limit for forging E

Acm
1000 1830
G
900 1650
A3 Normalizing
Temperature, 8C
Temperature, 8F
Oil
quenching
800 Oil 1470
quenching
Water quenching S
P K
A1
700 Water quenching 1290
Annealing
Recrystallization annealing
600 1110
Stress-relief annealing
500 930
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Carbon, wt%
FIGURE 11.9 Schematic diagram of heat treatment temperature ranges for carbon and tool steels. (From
G. Roberts, G. Krauss, and P. Kennedy, Tool Steels, 5th ed., ASM International, Materials Park, OH,
1998, p. 68; K.E. Thelning, Stell and its Hert Treatment, 2nd ed., Butterworths, London, 1984.)

TABLE 11.7
Normalizing and Annealing Temperatures of Tool Steels
Annealing
Normalizing
Type Temperature, 8C Temperature, 8C Rate of Cooling, 8C=h Hardness, HB

M1, M10 Do not normalize 815–870 22 207–235
M2 Do not normalize 870–900 22 212–241
M3, M4 Do not normalize 870–900 22 223–255
M30, M33, M34, M35, Do not normalize 870–900 22 235–269
M36, M41, M42, M46, M47
T1 Do not normalize 870–900 217–255
Intermediate high-speed steels
H10, H11, H12, H13 Do not normalize 845–900 22 192–229
H14 Do not normalize 870–900 22 207–235
H21, H22, H25 Do not normalize 870–900 22 207–235
H23 Do not normalize 870–900 212–255
H24, H26 Do not normalize 870–900 217–241
H41, H43 815–870 22 207–235
D2, D3, D4 Do not normalize 870–900 22 217–255
D5 Do not normalize 870–900 22 223–255
D7 Do not normalize 870–900 22 235–262
Medium-alloy, air-hardening, cold-work steels
A2 Do not normalize 845–870 22 201–229
Continued

Normalizing and Annealing Temperatures of Tool Steels
Annealing
Normalizing
Type Temperature, 8C Temperature, 8C Rate of Cooling, 8C=h Hardness, HB

O1 870 760–790 22 183–212
O2 845 745–775 22 183–212
O6 870 765–790 11 183–217
O7 900 790–815 22 192–217
S1 Do not normalize 790–815 22 183–229 (c)
S2 Do not normalize 760–790 22 192–217
Mold steels
P2 Not required 730–815 22 103–123
P3 Not required 730–815 22 109–137
P4 Do not normalize 870–900 14 116–128
P5 Not required 845–870 22 105–116
P6 Not required 845 8 183–217
P20 900 760–790 22 149–179
P21 900 Do not anneal
L2 871–900 760–790 22 163–197
L3 900 790–815 22 174–201
L6 870 760–790 22 183–212
Carbon–tungsten special-purpose steels
F1 900 760–800 22 183–207
F2 900 790–815 22 207–235
Water-hardened steels
W1, W2 790–925 (d) 740–790 (e) 22 156–201
W5 870–925 760–790 22 163–201
Source: From A.M. Bayer, T. Vasco, and L.R. Walton, Wrought tool steels, in ASM Handbook, Vol. 1, Properties
and Selection: Iron, Steels, and High-Performance Alloys, 10th ed., 1990, p. 769.
caused by phase transformation during thermomechanical processing, machining or grinding.

There is no microstructural change during this process, which should be performed at
temperatures below Ac1 as shown in Figure 11.9. Stress relief is accomplished by a recovery
mechanism. The duration of such a treatment is short and is in the range of 1 to 2 h depending
on the section thickness. Stress relieving is performed in air furnaces or salt baths. In this
process heating and cooling rates are not critical; however, cooling rates should be slow
enough (3008C=h maximum) to prevent the introduction of new residual stress.
11.6.3 ANNEALING
Annealing is a heat treatment process consisting of heating the tool steel above a certain temp-
erature and holding at this temperature for a given length of time. This is followed by cooling at a
predetermined rate, usually in the furnace, to room temperature in order to produce a micro-
structure that is stable at or below room temperature. The stable structure consists of a mixture of

ferrite and carbides, the distribution of which depends on thermomechanical history of the tool
steels. Tool steels subjected to an annealing treatment are soft and thus, easily machined and heat
treated. If the tool steel is cold or hot rolled, it must be annealed again before subsequent
operations. Annealing is also needed before a hardening operation, particularly in the case of
high-alloy steels, to produce a homogeneous microstructure needed for subsequent heat treatment.
The required annealing conditions depend on tool steel application and its alloy content.
Hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid steels are annealed to just above the upper critical tem-
perature Ac3, and the lower critical temperature Acm1, respectively. The range of these
temperatures is indicated schematically in Figure 11.10.
There are various types of annealing such as full annealing, isothermal annealing, and
spheroidizing.
Full annealing consists of heating the steel above the transformation temperature Ac3 into
the single-phase austenite for hypoeutectoid steel, and above A1 in the two-phase field of
austenite and carbides, in the case of hypereutectoid steels. If the hypereutectoid steels are
heated above Acm, carbides will form during slow cooling at grain boundaries of austenite and
may cause fracture during forming or in service. The holding time at the reheating tempera-
ture is about 1 h per 25-mm thickness to dissolve the carbides present in steel and to form
austenite [28]. The holding step is followed by very slow cooling rate in the furnace. The
cooling rates are lower than 258C=h to allow transformation of austenite to ferrite and the
formation of globular carbides. The annealing temperatures are in the range of 730 to 9008C
depending on the chemical composition of the steel, as indicated in Table 11.8.
Isothermal annealing is another variant of full annealing. The reheating and holding steps are
similar to that of full annealing, followed by cooling the workpiece very rapidly to a temperature
just below the transformation range and holding it at this temperature for 1 h or more, to allow
complete transformation of the austenite to ferrite–pearlite or pearlite–cementite. Air-cooling
follows this holding step. The isothermal process is useful for small parts where the cooling rate
from the homogenization temperature can be achieved.
1600 2912
1500 2732
1400 2552
1300 2372
Temperature, 8F
Temperature,8C
1200 2192
Hot working
1100 and 2012
homogenizing
1000 1832
Normalizing
900 1652
800 Annealing 1472
700 1292
600 1112
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Carbon content, wt%
FIGURE 11.10 Temperature range of normalizing, annealing, hot working, and homogenizing hypoeu-
tectoid and hypereutectoid steels. (From G. Krauss, Steels: Heat Treatment and Processing Principles,
ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1990, p. 108.)

TABLE 11.8
Effect of Alloying Elements in Tool Steels
Ferrite-Stabilizing Elements Austenite-Stabilizing Elements
Chromium Carbon
Molybdenum Cobalt
Niobium Copper
Silicon Manganese
Tantalum Nickel
Titanium Nitrogen
Tungsten
Vanadium
Zirconium
Source: From G. Roberts, G. Krauss, and R. Kennedy, Tool Steels, 5th

ed., ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1998, p. 50.
11.6.4 SPHEROIDIZING
There are many heat treatment approaches for producing spheroidized microstructures. The
spheroidizing method used for tool steels consists of heating the steel just below Ac1, main-
taining it for a period of time, with cyclic heating and cooling above A1 and below Ar1,
followed by slow cooling rates, lower than 1508C=h. The temperature range for spheroidizing
treatment is indicated in Figure 11.11.
The microstructure produced by spheroidization consists of spherical carbides uniformly
distributed in a matrix of ferrite. It is the most stable microstructure and has a good
machinability compared to other microstructures formed in tool steels. Figure 11.12 shows
a spheroidized microstructure of 1.0% carbon steel.
The first step of spheroidization will produce a distribution of very fine-spheroidized
particles from the pearlitic, bainitic, or martensitic start microstructure. In the case of highly
alloyed steel coarser alloy carbide particles are produced.
1100 2012
1000 1832
Temperature, 8C
Temperature, 8F
900 1652
800 1472
Spheroidizing
700 1292
Process and recrystallization annealing

600 1112
Stress relieving
500 932
400 752
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Carbon content, wt%
FIGURE 11.11 Temperature range around A1 used for spheroidization. (From G. Krauss, Steels: Heat
Treatment and Processing Principles, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1990 p. 118.)

FIGURE 11.12 Spheroidized microstructure 1.0% C steel, 2000 magnification. (From E.C. Bain and
H.W. Paxton, Alloying Elements in Steel, 2nd ed., American Society for Metals, Metals Park, OH,
1961, p. 101.)
Another key microstructural change associated with the development of spheroidized

carbide–ferrite microstructures concerns the transformation of austenite on cooling
from the annealing temperature. In the absence of carbide particles, the austenite on slow
cooling will transform to pearlite, a lamellar mixture of ferrite and cementite. However, if
dispersed undissolved carbides are present, pearlite does not nucleate and grow; instead,
further spheroidization and growth of carbides take place as the austenite transforms to
ferrite and additional carbides. This is why the annealing temperature has to be kept low
enough to ensure that sufficient undissolved carbides are present in the austenite at the start
of cooling to promote nucleation and growth of additional spherical carbide on furnace
cooling [8].
11.6.5 CARBIDES IN TOOL STEELS

The microstructure of annealed tool steels consists of ferrite and carbides. The nature of these
carbides depends on the chemical composition of the steel. The types of carbides and some of
their characteristics are listed below [8,28]:
1. M3C, which is an orthorhombic carbide of cementite type. M could be iron, manganese, or

chromium with a minor substitution of W, Mo, or V. They are present in low-alloy tool
steels for cold-working applications and in high-alloy steels for hot-working applications.
2. M7C3 is a hexagonal-type carbide mostly present in Cr steels. They are resistant to
dissolution at high temperature and are hard and abrasion resistant; these carbides are
found in tempered high-speed steels.
3. M23C6 is a face-centered cubic (fcc)-type carbides found in high-Cr steels and all high-
speed steels. The Cr can be replaced with Fe to yield carbide with W and Mo.
4. M6C is fcc-type carbide; W or Mo-rich carbides may contain amounts of Cr, V, and Co
present in all high-speed steels. They are extremely resistant to abrasion.
MC is fcc-type carbide. These carbides are vanadium-rich carbides that resist dissolution. The
small amount that dissolves plays a role on secondary hardening by reprecipitation.

In hypoeutectoid steels and cold-working tool steels, the most favorable annealed struc-
ture for machining is pearlite with a fine-lamellar structure. In hypereutectoid C steels used
for cold-working tool steel, the favorable structure for machining is globularized cementite.
All alloy steels have a globularized carbide structure in the annealed state. Fine-globular
carbides uniformly distributed have better properties in service. This is obtained by reducing
segregation through appropriate steelmaking practices, large reductions during hot working,
and appropriate cooling conditions after hot-transformation cycles.
During the annealing operations, the formation of proeutectoid carbides at grain bound-
aries should be avoided. These carbides are not soluble during austenitization [28].
11.6.6 HARDENING
The hardening operation of tool steels consists of three heat treatment steps: austenitization,
quenching to obtain martensite, and finally tempering [8,19,28]. These steps are discussed below.
11.6.6.1 Austenitizing
The austenitizing heat treatment is the most critical step performed on tool steels. The
following precautions have to be observed during austenitizing: to prevent abnormal grain
growth, distortion or loss of ductility, excessive carbide solution that will affect austenite
chemistry and hence hardenability, and decarburization that may modify surface chemistry,
the austenitizing temperature and holding time should be very well controlled. The austenitiz-
ing temperature is particularly important for high-alloy steels such as high-speed steels where
the austenitizing temperatures are close to the solidus temperature [19].
Figure 11.13 illustrates the austenite-phase field and the associated critical transformation
temperatures [8,19] including the eutectoid temperature, Ac1, which corresponds to the
transformation during heating of ferrite and carbide to austenite. The effect of alloying
elements on eutectoid temperature and eutectoid composition is given in Figure 11.14a
940
1700 E
G Ac1 and Ar1 900
Other data
1600
860
Temperature, 8C
Temperature, 8F
820
1500
780
Ar3 Ac3 Accm Arcm
1400 A3 Acm
Ac1 Ac1
S 740
A1 A1
1300 Ar1 Ar1
700
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

Carbon, %
FIGURE 11.13 The transformation temperature on cooling, heating, and equilibrium for Fe–C alloys as
influenced by heating and cooling at 0.1258C=min. (From G. Roberts, G. Krauss, and R. Kennedy, Tool
Steels, 5th ed., ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1998, p. 52; E.C. Bain and H.W. Paxton,
Alloying Elements in Steel, 2nd ed., American Society for Metals, Metals Park, OH, 1961, p. 20.)

1300
Ti
Eutectoid temperature, 8C
1200 0.80
Mo Si
1100 W
Eutectoid carbon
content, %
1000 0.60
Cr
900
0.40 Cr
800
700 Mo Si W Mn
0.20
600 Ti Ni
Ni Mn
500
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
(a) Alloying elements, % (b) Alloying elements, %
FIGURE 11.14 Effect of alloying elements on (a) the eutectoid transformation temperature Ac1 and (b)
the concentration of carbon eutectoid. (From Steel Heat Treatment Handbook, G.E. Totten and M.A.H.
Howes, Eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1997, pp. 48–51.)
and Figure 11.14b, respectively. Alloying elements used in tool steels are categorized either as
ferrite-stabilizing elements that reduce austenite-phase domain, or austenite-stabilizing elem-
ents that extend it. They are indicated in Table 11.7 [8]. Figure 11.15 through Figure 11.17
show the effect of Mn, Cr, and Mo on the extend of the phase field of pure austenite at
elevated temperature [18].
During reheating in the austenite region, the ferritic structure with carbides transforms
into austenite with or without carbides, depending on the chemical composition of the tool
steels. In low-alloy steel, a homogeneous austenitic microstructure without carbides may form
during austenitization treatment. In high-alloy tool steel, the resultant microstructure consists
of austenite and carbides that are not dissolved. In ledeburitic steels, not all carbides are
dissolved during reheating, even at the liquidus temperature [28]. It is of interest to note that
in high-speed tool steels made by P=M in which the carbides are finer than that in the same
steels made by conventional methods, carbide dissolution occurs more readily, particularly if
these carbides are of MC type [28].
The microstructure of annealed low-alloy tool steels consists of ferrite and M3C
type carbides, which are easily dissolved in the austenite region. Generally, the quenching
temperature is 508C above Ac3. These temperatures are a good compromise between dissol-
1500
2600
1400
2400 1300
2200
Temperature, 8C
Temperature, 8F
1200
2.5%
9% 1100
2000 4%
6.5%
1800 1000
0.35% Mn
2.5% Mn 900
1600 4% Mn
800
1400
Carbon steel, 0.35% Mo
700
1200
6.5% Mn 600
9% Mn
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Carbon, %
FIGURE 11.15 Effect of Mn on the austenite-phase field in Fe–Mn–C alloys. (From E.C. Bain
and H.W. Paxton, Alloying Elements in Steel, 2nd ed., American Society for Metals, Metals Park,
OH, 1961, p. 104.)

2800
1500
2600
1400
2400
Temperature, 8C
1300
Temperature, 8F
2200 1200
19%
Cr
2000 15% 1100
Cr
12% 1000
1800 Cr
5%
Cr 900
1600
Carbon steel, 0% Cr 800
1400
700
1200
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Carbon, %
FIGURE 11.16 Effect of Cr on the austenite-phase field in Fe–Cr–C alloys. (From E.C. Bain
and H.W. Paxton, Alloying Elements in Steel, 2nd ed., American Society for Metals, Metals Park,
OH, 1961, p. 105.)
ution of carbides and minimizing austenite gain growth. The austenitizing treatment, 30 min
per 25-mm thickness of the heat-treated tool in the temperature range of 750 to 9008C, is
sufficient for homogenization.
In highly alloyed steels and ledeburitic steels, the austenitizing temperatures are higher
than the low-alloy steels, due to the difficulty of dissolution of carbides of the type M7C3,
M23C6, M6C, and MC present in the annealed microstructure. The dissolution of these
carbides depends on the annealing temperature, austenitizing temperature, and the holding
time at this temperature.
11.6.6.2 Quenching
During quenching from the austenitizing temperature, austenite may transform to martensite
with some volume fraction of RA. This is possible when the austenite to ferrite–carbide
transformation is suppressed by high cooling rates [8] or alloying elements that retard
2800
1500
2600
1400
2400 1300
Temperature, 8C
Temperature, 8F
2200 7% 1200
Mo
2000 4% 1100
Mo
1800 1000
2%
Mo 900
1600
Carbon steel, 0% Mo
800
1400
700
1200
600
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Carbon, %
FIGURE 11.17 Effect of Mo on the austenite-phase field in Fe–Mo–C alloys. (From E.C. Bain and H.W.
Paxton, Alloying Elements in Steel, 2nd ed., American Society for Metals, Metals Park, OH, 1961, p. 106.)

this transformation. Quenching media are typically water, brine, oil, salt, inert gas, or air
depending on the composition and the thickness of the tool steel [26].
11.6.6.3 Retained Austenite

After quenching, the microstructure of tool steels consists of martensite and RA. The latter
reduces the hardness of the steel and affects the properties of tools in service. During work
hardening RA transforms to martensite. The quantity of RA that is related to the reduction of
Mf depends on the chemical composition, austenitizing temperature, and cooling rate. RA
increases with increasing austenitizing temperature due to the increase of carbon content and
other alloying elements by the dissolution of carbides present in the annealed structure [28].
All of the alloying elements, except cobalt, lower Ms. Carbon has the most powerful effect
on Ms temperature. The higher the alloy content of austenite, the lower the Ms temperature
and the greater the amount of RA at room temperature [8].
For a given tool steel alloy and austenitizing conditions, the content of RA varies with
cooling rate and is maximum around the critical cooling rate for martensite.
11.6.6.4 Tempering
Tempering, which is the final step of the heat treatment of tool steels, consists of heating the
as-quenched microstructure to temperatures below the transformation temperature Ac1. It is
a very complex phenomenon originating from the as-quenched microstructure of tool steels,
which consists primarily of martensite with RA and carbides. The microstructure and
tempering reactions are reviewed in more detail in Refs. [8,29,34]. During tempering there
are three or five transformation steps that occur depending, on the alloying of tool steels:
1. In the first step between 50 and 2008C, there is precipitation of epsilon carbides, which
delays softening of the as-quenched structure. During this step a volumetric contraction
occurs.
2. The second step is between 200 and 3508C, during which dissolution of epsilon carbide
and precipitation of cementite are occurring along with a reduction in hardness.
3. The temperature range of the third step depends on the chemical composition of the
steel and corresponds to a reduction in the stability of RA. This instability is produced
by carbide precipitation, which reduces the alloy content in solution in the austenite,
the and hence increases Ms. This instability starts at 150 and 4508C, for carbon steels
and high-alloy tool steels, respectively. The transformation of RA to martensite or
bainite during cooling results in a volume increase. This expansion increases with
increasing volume fraction of RA.
4. The fourth stage corresponds to highly alloyed tool steels containing carbide-forming
elements. There is an exchange of carbon between cementite and other carbides; this
phenomenon is associated a large volumetric expansion.
5. The fifth stage, which is also associated with highly alloyed tool steels, starts at 6008C
and continues until Ac1. It corresponds to the coalescence of carbides and results in an
annealed microstructure. This phenomenon is associated with a volumetric contraction.
It is necessary that the person designing the heat treatment be familiar with the nature of the
dilatations that occur during the tempering operations in order to arrive at the proper final
dimensions prior to heat treatment.
The variation of the hardness of tool and die steels with respect to the tempering
temperature could have one of the four principal behaviors given in Figure 11.18. Class 1 is
typical of carbon and low-alloy tool steels in which the hardness is decreasing progressively

Cla
ss
1
3
Class
Class 2
Class 4
Hardness
Tempering temperature
Tempering parameter, T(c + log t )
FIGURE 11.18 Four major types of hardness versus tempering temperature in tool steels. (From
G. Roberts, G. Krauss, and R. Kennedy, Tool Steels, 5th ed., ASM International, Materials Park,
OH, 1998, p. 100.)
with increasing temperature due to the precipitation and coarsening of cementite, or of other
low-alloy carbides. Class 2 is characteristic of medium- to high-alloy cold-working die steels
in which the alloying addition retards carbide precipitation and related softening. Curves
between Class 1 and Class 2 could be obtained for low- to medium-alloy steels. Class 3 is
representative of highly alloyed high-speed steels in which secondary hardening occurs at
high-tempering temperatures. The final hardness of these steels could exceed that in the
untempered condition. Class 4 is representative of the medium- to high-alloy hot-working
tool steels that exhibit a secondary hardening, as is the case with Class 3. In Class 4, the as-
quenched hardness is lower than that of class 3 due to its lower carbon content.
Secondary hardening is a result of the transformation of RA to martensite on cooling from
the tempering temperature, and of precipitation of an ultrafine dispersion of alloy carbides [30].
Tungsten, vanadium, chromium, and molybdenum that are the strong carbide-forming
elements are most commonly used to achieve secondary hardening. To take advantage of their
precipitation characteristics, they must be dissolved in austenite during the austenitizing
treatment in order to be incorporated into the martensite formed during quenching with
sufficient supersaturation for secondary hardening during tempering. Figure 11.19 through
Figure 11.22 show the effect of strong carbide-forming elements on the secondary hardening of
0.5% C tool steel [8].
The recommended tempering conditions for optimum performance with recommended
austenitizing temperatures of each of the tool steels are given in Table 11.9. The tempering
treatment should be performed as soon as possible after quenching, and heating to tempering
temperatures should be slow to ensure temperature homogenization within the tool steel and
the prevention of cracking. Slow cooling in still air is also recommended to minimize the
development of residual stresses [8].
In carbon and low-alloy steels, tempering increases the toughness of hardened steels from
the low value characteristic of as-quenched martensite. In high-alloy tool steels, tempering

Tempering temperature, F
−200 200 600 1000
˚1400 1800
800 Vanadium steels
700
600
500
400
Hardness, HV
Hardness, HV
300
%C %V
200 0.50 −(calc)
0.46 0.26
0.43 0.53
0.46 1.02
0.48 2.02
−130 95 315 540 760 980

Tempering temperature, C
˚
FIGURE 11.19 Secondary hardening caused by alloy carbide precipitation produced by V additions.
(From G. Roberts, G. Krauss, and R. Kennedy, Tool Steels, 5th ed., ASM International, Materials
Park, OH, 1998, p. 104.)
increases the hardness in addition to producing a dispersion of stable alloy carbides resistant
to coarsening during exposure to heating. Such coarsening would lower hardness and limit
tool life during high-speed machining or high-temperature forging.
11.7 CHARACTERISTIC STEEL GRADES FOR THE DIFFERENT FIELD

OF TOOL APPLICATION
For more information on the selection of tool steels the reader could consult Refs. [1,6,8,13].
The selection of tool steels for some applications is presented below.
1. Steels for plastic molds
During the formation of plastics, dies are subjected to heat and pressure. The tempera-
ture of the dies is as high as 2508C and the strength of about 100 MPa. In this case,
hardness retention and strength requirements are of minor importance. However, good
machining properties and a low degree of distortion in hardening of plastic molds are
very important. P20 steel is a good choice for molds due to its low degree of distortion
and good machinability. In the case of abrasive plastics, the molds are made of steels
O2 and D2. During processing of aggressive plastics, which decompose into a chem-
ically reactive products, molds are made of corrosion-resistant steel containing 0.38%
C, 16% Cr, 1.2% Mo. For operating temperatures higher than 3008C, the use of H11
steels is an excellent material choice.

Tempering temperature, 8F
−200 200 600 1000 1400 1800
800
Tungsten steels
700
600
500
400
Hardness, HV
300
%C %V
0.50 −(calc)
200
0.47 1.13
0.46 5.42
0.55 10.62
0.55 15.07
0.55 20.19
−130 95 315 540 760 980

Tempering temperature, 8C
FIGURE 11.20 Secondary hardening caused by alloy carbide precipitation produced by tungsten
additions. (From G. Roberts, G. Krauss, and R. Kennedy, Tool Steels, 5th ed., ASM International,
Materials Park, OH, 1998, p. 104.)
−200 200 600 1000 1400 1800
800 Molybdenum steels
700
600
500
400
Hardness, HV
300
%C %V
200 0.50 −(calc)
0.46 0.51
0.47 0.98
0.50 1.96
0.48 5.07
−130 95 315 540 760 980

FIGURE 11.21 Secondary hardening caused by alloy carbide precipitation produced by Mo additions.
(From G. Roberts, G. Krauss, and R. Kennedy, Tool Steels, 5th ed., ASM International, Materials
Park, OH, 1998, p. 104.)

−200 200 600 1000 1400 1800
800 Chromium steels

700
600
500
400
Hardness, HV
300
200 %C %V
0.50 −(calc)
0.35 3.88
0.48 7.39
0.52 11.73
−130 95 315 540 760 980

FIGURE 11.22 Secondary hardening caused by alloy carbide precipitation produced by chromium
additions. (From G. Roberts, G. Krauss, and R. Kennedy, Tool Steels, 5th ed., ASM International,
Materials Park, OH, 1998, p. 104.)
2. Steels for high-pressure die casting molds

In die casting, tools are heated to about 5008C and are subjected to high mechanical
forces and erosion. Molds in this process are subjected to temperature changes that
may lead to a heat checking defect. The occurrence of this defect could be delayed by
increasing the steel hardness of the molds that should be adapted to thermal stresses of
the tool surface, which in turn depends on the wall thickness of the cast. The relationship
between hardness and wall thickness of the cast is given by the following formula [13]:
HRC ¼ 56 Sÿ(0:14)
HRC is in the Rockwell C hardening and S is the wall thickness of the cast in mm.
Dies used for light metal casting are commonly made of H11 and H13 steels. The steel
H10, due to its hardness retention and its higher hardness at high temperature, is used for
copper casting. Die parts that are subjected to high thermal stresses are made of tool steels
with high retention of hardness such as H19 and H21.
3. Steels for cold-forming tools
Cold-forming processes such as cold rolling, stamping, deep drawing, extrusion, and
bending have the advantage of making parts with high-dimension accuracy and good
surface quality that does not need machining. In these processes, tools are subjected to
high stresses from pressure and friction. Tool steels with a high hardness are used in
these applications. Dies for extrusion are made of tool steels such as M2, M48, and H11
that are good for compressive stresses higher than 300 MPa. Other steels are suitable

690
TABLE 11.9
Hardening and Tempering of Tool Steels
Hardening
Preheat Hardening Holding Quenching Tempering

Type Rate of Heating Temperature, 8C Temperature, 8C Time, min Medium (a) Temperature, 8C

M1, M7, M10 Rapidly from preheat 730–845 1175–1220 2–5 O, A, or S 540–595 (c)
M2 Rapidly from preheat 730–845 1190–1230 2–5 O, A, or S 540–595 (c)
M3, M4, M30, M33, M34 Rapidly from preheat 730–845 1205–1230 (b) 2–5 O, A, or S 540–595 (c)
M6 Rapidly from preheat 790 1175–1205 (b) 2–5 O, A, or S 540–595 (c)
M36 Rapidly from preheat 730–845 1220–1245 (b) 2–5 O, A, or S 540–595 (c)
M41 Rapidly from preheat 730–845 1190–1215 (b) 2–5 O, A, or S 540–595 (d)

M47 Rapidly from preheat 730 845 1180–1205 (b) 2–5 O, A, or S 525–595 (d)
T1, T2, T4, T8 Rapidly from preheat 815–870 1260–1300 (b) 2–5 O, A, or S 540–595 (c)
T5, T6 Rapidly from preheat 815–870 1275–1300 (b) 2–5 O, A, or S 540–595 (c)
T15 Rapidly from preheat 815–870 1205–1260 (b) 2–5 O, A, or S 540–650 (d)
H10 Moderately from preheat 815 1010–1040 15–40 (e) A 540–650
H11, H12 Moderately from preheat 815 995–1025 15–40 (e) A 540–650
H19 Moderately from preheat 815 1095–1205 2–5 A or O 540–705
H41, H43 Rapidly from preheat 730–845 1095–1190 2–5 O, A, or S 565–650
H42 Rapidly from preheat 730–845 1120–1220 2–5 O, A, or S 565–650
H21, H22 Rapidly from preheat 815 1095–1205 2–5 A or O 595–675
H23 Rapidly from preheat 845 1205–1260 2–5 O 650–815
H24 Rapidly from preheat 815 1095–1230 2–5 O 565–650
Tool Steels
H25 Rapidly from preheat 815 1150–1260 2–5 A or O 565–675
H26 Rapidly from preheat 870 1175–1260 2–5 O, A, or S 565–675
High-carbon, high-chromium, cold-work steels
D1, D5 Very slowly 815 980–1025 15–45 A 205–540
D3 Very slowly 815 925–980 15–45 O 205–540
D4 Very slowly 815 970–1010 15–45 A 205–540
D7 Very slowly 815 1010–1065 30–60 A 150–540
Medium-alloy air-hardening cold-work steels
A2 Slowly 790 925–980 20–45 A 175–540
A3 Slowly 790 955–980 25–60 A 175–540
A4 Slowly 675 815–870 20–45 A 175–425
A6 Slowly 650 830–870 20–45 A 150–525
A7 Very slowly 815 955–980 30–60 A 150–540
A8 Slowly 790 980–1010 20–45 A 175–595
A9 Slowly 790 980–1025 20–45 A 510–620
A10 Slowly 650 790–815 30–60 A 175–425
O1 Slowly 650 790–815 10–30 O 175–260
O2 Slowly 650 760–800 5–20 O 175–260
O6 Slowly — 790–815 10–30 O 175–315
O7 Slowly 650 O: 790–830 10–30 O or W 175–290
W: 845–885
S1 Slowly — 900–955 15–45 O 205–650
S2 Slowly 650 (f) 845–900 5–20 B or W 175–425
S5 Slowly 760 870–925 5–20 O 175–425
S7 Slowly 650–705 925–955 15–45 A or O 205–620
Mold steels
P2 — 900–925 (g) 830–845 (h) 15 O 175–260
P3 — 900–925 (g) 800–830 (h) 15 O 175–260
P4 — 970–995 (g) 970–995 (h) 15 A 175–480
P5 — 900–925 (g) 845–870 (h) 15 O or W 175–260
P6 — 900–925 (g) 790–815 (h) 15 A or W 175–230
P20 — 870–900 (h) 815–870 15 O 480–595 (i)
Continued 691
692
Hardening and Tempering of Tool Steels
Hardening
Preheat Hardening Holding Quenching Tempering

Type Rate of Heating Temperature, 8C Temperature, 8C Time, min Medium (a) Temperature, 8C
P21(j) Slowly Do not preheat 705–730 60–180 A or O 510–550

L2 Slowly — W: 790–845 10–30 O or W 175–540
O: 845–925
L3 Slowly — W: 775–815 10–30 O or W 175–315
O: 815–870
L6 Slowly — 790–845 10–30 O 175–540

Carbon–tungsten special-purpose steels
F1, F2 Slowly 650 790–870 15 W or B 175–260
Water-hardening steels
W1, W2, W3 Slowly 565–650 (k) 760–815 10–30 B or W 175–345
(a) O, oil quench; A, air cool; S, salt bath quench; W, water quench; B, brine quench. (b) When the high temperature heating is carried out in a salt bath, the range of temperatures
should be about 148C lower than given here. (c) Double tempering recommended for not less than 1 h at temperature each time. (d) Triple tempering recommended for not less
than 1 h at temperature each time. (e) Times apply to open furnace heat treatment. For pack hardening, a common rule is to heat 1.2 min per mm (30 min per in.) of cross section
of the pack. (f) Preferable for large tools to minimize decarburization. (g) Carburizing temperature. (h) After carburizing. (i) carburized per case hardness. (j) P21 is a
precipitation-hardening steel having a thermal treatment that involves solution treating and aging rather than hardening and tempering. (k) Recommended for large tools and
tools with intricate sections.
Source: From A.M. Bayer, T. Vasco, and L.R. Walton, Wrought tool steels, in ASM Handbook, Vol. 1, Properties and Selection: Iron, Steels, and High-Performance Alloys, 10th
ed., 1990, pp. 770–771.
for lower compressive stresses such as the ledeburitic chromium steel D2. In the case of
deep drawing dies subject to friction forces, steel D2 is suitable for drawing punches
and drawing rings and steel O2 is used for ejectors and blank holders. Nitriding could
be applied to avoid cold welding.
Stamping tools that are subject to pressure and friction stresses lower than those
encountered in extrusion can be made from O2 for blank holders and S1 for tools to
produce coins. In rolling, suitable tool materials for cold rolls are steels L3, O, A2, D2,
and M4 for thread rolls and multiroll stands.
4. Steels for hot forging
In the case of hammer forging that is characterized by impact loading between the tool
and the forged part, there is no need for a die material with hardness retention. The L6
family of tool steels is a good material for massive dies. Also, high-carbon (1.45%) steel
with 3.3% vanadium due to its wear resistance and its hardness is suitable for dies with
flat cutting. Wear resistance on the surface of these steels can be increased by nitriding
or chromium plating for flat cuts.
The hot-working steels H10, H11, and H13 are suitable for press forging dies that
are heated during forging process due to the longer time contact between forged parts and
die. Martensitic-hardened microstructure is suitable for delaying heat checking in dies
for forging copper alloys. For hot-rolling steels H11, H20, and H21 are suitable.
5. Steel alloys for hot extrusion
Hot extrusion is a hot-forming process used to produce long, straight, semifinished metal
products such as bar, solid, and hollow sections, tubes, wires, and strips. The forming
temperature depends on the alloys to be extruded. Tool steels used in extrusion must have
high-temperature strength due to the high pressing forces involved in this process. Hot-
working steels are generally adequate except in the isothermal extrusion of titanium, for
which superalloys are more appropriate [35]. The tool steels H11 and H13 are suitable for
the extrusion of light metals; while in the case of extrusion of heavy metals such as copper
and steels Ni-base super alloy tool steels H26 and T15 are more suitable. For tube
extrusion the mandrel steels H10 and H19 are more appropriate.
6. Steels for machining
In machining operations, tools for turning are made of high-speed steels. Abrasive wear
resistance and hardness at high temperature are the two important properties for
machining tool steels. Cobalt addition in the range of 5 to 12% to the base alloy M2
improves the hardness at higher temperatures. Steel M41 which contains 4.8% Co, is
used for milling cutters and screw taps. The addition of V in the range of 3 to 5%
increases wear resistance. The alloy M3 with 3% V is used for countersinks, broaches,
and threading taps. More information on high-speed steels is to be found in Ref. [8].
M40 type steels are used for machining aerospace materials such as Ti and nickel-base
alloys. Due to its high wear resistance T15 tool steels are used for lathe tools and
machining materials with high-tensile strength.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. G. Roberts, G. Krauss, and R. Kennedy, Tool Steels, 5th ed., ASM International, Materials Park,
OH, 1998, pp. 7–28.
2. Tool steels, Heat Treater’s Guide: Practices and Procedures for Irons and Steels, H. Chandler, Ed.,
ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1995, pp. 517–669.
3. J.G. Gensure and D.L. Potts, International Metallic Materials Cross-Reference, 3rd ed., Genium
Publishing, New York, 1988.
4. C.W. Wegst, J.C. Hamaker, Jr., and A.R. Johnson, Tool Steels, 3rd ed., American Society for
Metals, Materials Park, OH, 1962.

5. A.M. Bayer, T. Vasco, and L.R. Walton, Wrought tool steels, in ASM Handbook, Vol. 1, Properties
and Selection: Iron, Steels, and High-Performance Alloys, 10th ed., 1990, pp. 757–779.
6. Tool Steels, Products Manual, American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington, D.C., 1978.
7. K.W. Lange, Thermodynamic and kinetic aspect of secondary steelmaking processes, Int. Mater.
Rev., 3 (2), 1988, 53–89.
OH, 1998, pp. 30–43.
9. Atlas Specialty Steels Division, Rio Algom Limited, Edmonton.
10. G. Hoyle, Electroslag Processes, Principles and Practices, Applied Science, Essex, U.K., 1983.
11. T.V. Philip, ESR: a means of improving transverse mechanical properties in tool and die steels, Met.
Technol., 1975, 554–564.
12. G.A. Roberts and R. Cary, Tool Steels, 4th ed., ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1998.
13. S. Wilmes, H-J. Becker, and R. Krumpholz,‘‘Tool steels,’’ A Handbook for Materials Research and
Engineering, Vol. 2, Applications, ed., Verein Deurscher Eisenhuttenleute, 1993, pp. 302–373.
11. T. Itami and Y. Kawashima, The Production of Rolling Mill Rolls and High Speed Cutting Tools at
Sumitomo Heavy Industries, Spray Forming: Science, Technology and Application, Metal Powder
Industries Federation, Princeton, NJ, 1992, pp. 77–91.
OH, 1998, pp. 67–107.
16. W.C. Leslie and R.J. Sober, The strength of ferrite and of martensite as functions of composition,
temperature and strain rate, Trans. ASM, 60, 1967, 459–484.
17. G. Krauss, Heat treated martensitic steels: microstructural systems for advanced manufacture, Iron
Steel Inst. Jpn., 35 (4), 1995, 349–359.
18. Steel Heat Treatment Handbook, G.E. Totten and M.A.H. Howes, Eds., Marcel Dekker, New
York, 1997.
19. E.C. Bain and H.W. Paxton, Alloying Elements in Steel, 2nd ed., American Society for Metals,
Metals Park, OH, 1961.
20. J.C. Hamaker Jr., V.C. Stang, and G.A. Roberts, Trans. Amer. Soc. Metals, 49, 1957, S. 550=75.
21. G.A. Roberts, Trans. Metallurg. Soc. AIME, 236, 1966, S. 950=63.
22. Smithells Metals Reference Book, 8th ed., Elsevier Butterworth, Heinemann, 2004, pp. 21-4
and 21-5.
23. J.R.T. Branco and G. Krauss, Heat treatment and microstructure of tool steels for molds and dies,
in Tool materials for Molds and Dies, G. Krauss and H. Nordberg, Eds., Colorado School of Mines
Press, Golden, CO, 1987, pp. 94–117.
24. G. Krauss, Steels: Heat Treatment and Processing Principles, ASM International, Materials Park,
OH, 1990.
25. Abrasives for grinding operations, ASM, Specialty Handbook: Tool Materials, J.R. Davis, Ed.,
26. B.A. Becherer and T.J. Witheford, Introduction to heat treating of tool steels, Heat Treating, Vol. 4,
27. K.E. Thelning, Steel and its Heat Treatment, 2nd ed., Butterworths, London, 1984.
28. R. Lévéque, Traitement Thermiques des Aciers À Outils, Technique de l’Ingenieur, Traité
Métallurgie, M 1134, 1997.
29. G.R. Speich and W.C. Leslie, Tempering of steel, Metall. Trans., 3, 1972, 1043–1054.
30. Y. Imai, Phases in quenched and tempered steels, Trans. Jpn. Inst. Met., 16, 1975, 721–734.
31. G. Peter, Winchell symposium on the tempering of steel, Metall. Trans. A, 14A, 1983, 991–1145.
32. G. Krauss, Tempering and structural change in ferrous martensitic structures, in Phase Transform-
ation in Ferrous Alloys, A.R. Marder and J.J. Goldstein, Eds., TMS-AIME, Warrendale, PA, 1984,
pp. 101–123.
33. G. Krauss and P.E. Repas, Eds., Fundamentals of Aging and Tempering in Bainitic and Martensitic
Steel Products, Iron and Steel Society, Warrendale, PA, 1992.
34. G.R. Speich and K.A. Taylor, Tempering of ferrous martensites, in Martensite, G.B. Olson and
W.S. Owen, Eds., ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1992, pp. 243–275.
35. Handbook of Workability and Process Design, G. Dieter, H.A. Kuhn, and S.L. Semiatin, Eds., ASM
International, Materials Park, OH, 2003, pp. 291–315.

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Tool Steels

11.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 651

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

11.2 CLASSIFICATION AND SELECTION OF TOOL STEELS

11.2.1 SELECTION OF TOOL STEELS

Water-hardening tool steels W

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AISI UNS No. C Mn Si Cr V W Mo Co Ni

Water-hardening tool steels

AISI UNS No. C Mn Si Cr V W Mo Co Ni

D3 T30403 2.25 — — 12.00 — — — — —

Steel Heat Treatment: Metallurgy and Technologies

Molybdenum high-speed steels (ASTM A600)

Steel Heat Treatment: Metallurgy and Technologies

Molybdenum hot-work steels (ASTM A681)

Steel Heat Treatment: Metallurgy and Technologies

Water-hardening steels (ASTM A686)

Steel Heat Treatment: Metallurgy and Technologies

11.2.2 MANUFACTURING CHARACTERISTICS ARE RELATED TO HEAT-TREATMENT RESPONSE

11.3 MANUFACTURING OF TOOL STEELS

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

Molybdenum high-speed steels

Steel Heat Treatment: Metallurgy and Technologies

Steel Heat Treatment: Metallurgy and Technologies

(a) Powder-metallurgically produced bars (b) Bars produced by ingot casting

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

11.3.2 THERMOMECHANICAL PROCESSING

11.4 IMPORTANT STEEL PROPERTIES RELEVANT TO THE MANUFACTURE

11.4.1 DIMENSIONAL ACCURACY DURING HEAT TREATMENT

Carbide size, mm 5–6 2–3 15–20

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

11.4.2 HOT FORMABILITY

11.4.3 COLD FORMABILITY

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11.5 IMPORTANT PROPERTIES REQUIRED FOR VARIOUS APPLICATIONS

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0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20

3000 S 6-5-2 12208C

Fracture without plastic deformation

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

Brinell Hardness C Scale 150 kg Load A Scale 60 kg Load Superficial 30-N

580 545 54.1 78.0 72.1 72 2020

Steel Heat Treatment: Metallurgy and Technologies

11.5.3 TOUGHNESS AT OPERATIONAL TEMPERATURE

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11.5.4 RESISTANCE TO THERMAL FATIGUE

11.6 HEAT TREATMENT

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Annealing Slow cooling (−108C/h)

1. To obtain a desired microstructure and properties suitable for machining or cold

L Tool steel heat treatment

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11.6.2 STRESS-RELIEF HEAT TREATMENTS

Upper temperature limit for forging E

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Molybdenum high-speed steels

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