425902

2011
POMXXX10.1177/0305735611425902HallamPsychology of Music

Article

Psychology of Music

What predicts level of expertise 41(3) 267­–291

© The Author(s) 2011
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DOI: 10.1177/0305735611425902
and future musical aspirations in pom.sagepub.com

young instrumental players?

Susan Hallam
Institute of Education, University of London, UK

Abstract
Research exploring learning outcomes in instrumental music has tended to focus on attainment
ignoring other outcomes including long-term commitment to engage with music. This research
addresses this issue. One hundred and sixty-three instrumental music students completed a
questionnaire which sought information about their practising strategies, attitudes towards
learning and performing, the level of support they received, their level of attainment, time spent
practising and time learning. Their teachers were also asked to rate them on a range of musical and
motivational factors. The students were aged from 7–17 with standards on graded instrumental
examinations ranging from preliminary to Grade 8. A series of multiple regression analyses revealed
that the level of expertise attained was best predicted by various measures of time spent learning
while there were no statistically significant predictors of the quality of learning outcomes as assessed
by the mark awarded in the most recent graded examination. Future aspirations in relation to music
were predicted by a range of variables relating to enjoyment of musical activities, attitudes towards
playing an instrument and the perceived value of music, musical self-beliefs and practising strategies.

Keywords
expertise, practice, aspirations, learning, music

Over the last two decades explanations of achievement in learning to play an instrument have
been framed largely within the expertise paradigm. Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Romer
(1993) proposed that the amount of time an individual was engaged in “deliberate” practice
was monotonically related to the quality of that individual’s performance. Therefore, to reach
the highest levels of expertise the amount of practice should be maximized, although three
constraints were identified, resource, effort, and motivation. Resources referred to available
time and energy, access to teachers, training materials, and training facilities; effort concerned
avoiding exhaustion and limiting practice to an amount from which recovery could be made;

Corresponding author:
Susan Hallam, Institute of Education, University of London, 20 Bedford Way, London, WC1HOAL, UK.
Email: [email protected]
268 Psychology of Music 41(3)

while motivation concerned viewing deliberate practice as key to achieving further improve-
ments in performance. Their proposals were supported as the amount of practice accumulated
by the expert pianists in their samples was estimated at more than 10 times higher than that
for amateurs, while of the three groups of 10 violinists studied, those showing promise for
international careers and those of slightly less ability in comparison with those that planned
careers in music education spent more time practising alone and needed more rest to recover.
Ericsson et al.’s (1993) theoretical framework has underpinned much subsequent research,
with particular attention being paid to the importance of time spent practising, the quality of
practice, the way that practice changes with increased expertise, and more general issues
relating to motivation.
Adopting a similar approach to Ericsson et al. (1993), Sloboda, Davidson, Howe, and Moore
(1996) studied 257 young musicians aged 8–18 playing a variety of instruments at very differ-
ent levels of expertise. The most successful practised more than the other groups from the sec-
ond year of playing onwards. They undertook increasing amounts of practice up to Grade 8
standard. By this time they had undertaken an average of 3,30 hours of practice, although
there were large within-group differences. Some young musicians managed to attain high-
grade levels with relatively little practice while others did four times the average practice to gain
a given grade. Hallam (1998) studied 109 violin and viola students aged 6–16 also at different
levels of expertise. She found that level of expertise was best predicted by time spent learning
whether this was assessed as the length of time playing an instrument or a composite of length
of time and amount of practice. In both cases over 50% of the variance was explained.
McPherson (2005) in a 3-year longitudinal study of 157 children aged 7–9 mainly playing
wind instruments found that children’s accumulated practice explained between 9% and 32%
of the variance in scores on performed rehearsed music but not on other tasks, for instance,
sight-reading, playing from memory, or playing by ear. The importance of the length of time
learning is also illustrated in studies which have shown that those who reach the highest levels
of attainment tend to start playing at an early age (e.g., Davidson, Howe, Moore, & Sloboda,
1996; Jørgensen, 2002; Sosniak, 1990). These studies provide convincing evidence that time
spent learning is a salient determinant for achieving high levels of skill. The likelihood of any-
one achieving high levels of expertise without at least some “deliberate” practice is remote.
In many domains, a distinction is made not only in terms of the level of expertise attained,
for example, undergraduate, masters, doctorate, but also the quality of outcome at that level.
In graded instrumental music examinations, which children take when they are perceived as
having reached the required level of expertise, a mark is awarded indicating the quality of their
performance at that level of expertise. Strong consistent relationships between the amount of
practice and the quality of performance at any specific level of expertise have not been found.
For instance, Williamon and Valentine (2000) compared the amount, frequency, and distribu-
tion of deliberate practice undertaken by 22 pianists, aged 11–24, ranging in expertise from
Grade 1 to 8 while preparing an assigned composition by Bach. Quantity of deliberate practice
was not significantly correlated with the quality of performance. Similarly, Hallam (1998)
found that the length of time spent learning to play an instrument and on weekly practice were
not significant predictors of the mark attained in graded instrumental music examinations.
Only the music teacher’s assessment of musical ability was predictive of the quality of outcome
with a beta weight of 0.5. In contrast, O’Neill (1997) showed a strong relationship between the
amount of piece-specific practice and performance outcomes for a group of beginning musi-
cians with up to 6 months of musical experience. In light of the lack of consistency in previous
research findings the research reported here explores what best predicts the quality of perfor-
mance at each grade level.
Hallam 269

The focus of the expertise paradigm on “deliberate” practice raised questions about the role
of the quality of practice in determining the outcomes of learning. Professional musicians,
typically establish an overview and aural mental schema of music to be learned by studying the
score, playing the music, or learning from a live or recorded model. Difficult sections are identi-
fied based on the formal structure of the music, the most difficult parts being divided into
smaller subdivisions. As practice progresses the sections are linked together (Chaffin, Imreh,
Lemieux, & Chen, 2003; Hallam, 1995a, 1995b). To what extent do young musicians adopt
similar strategies? Gruson (1988) studied 43 pianists from novice to professional level finding
that as expertise developed there was an increase in the repetition of sections, verbalizing and
playing hands separately, while errors, repeating single notes and pauses decreased. Hallam
(1997) studying 55 string players aged 6–18 ranging from beginner to post-Grade 8 standard
identified six levels of practice. At the lowest level there was much time wasting and work was
incomplete; at the second level the music was played through with no corrections; at the third,
single notes were corrected; at the fourth, the material was played through with short sections
repeated en route; at the fifth the material was played through with large sections practised en
route; while at the sixth level the material was played through initially, with difficult sections
identified and worked on in isolation. The correlation between these levels and graded exami-
nation level was 0.69. A 3-year longitudinal study of relative beginners found that 90% of
home practice time was spent playing through a piece with the children sometimes repeating a
small section after an error. Some worked things out before playing (McPherson & Renwick,
2001). Taken together, these studies suggest that novices’ practising strategies are less than
effective and that they do not systematically correct errors. This may be because they lack
appropriate mental schema (Hallam, 1997; McPherson, 2005).
Practice typically consists of technical and repertory work (Hallam, 1995a; McPherson,
2005; McPherson & McCormick, 1999), the former often undertaken at the start of practice
(Duke, Flowers, & Wolfe, 1997). A distinction has also been made between formal and informal
practice (playing favourite pieces by ear, messing about with music, improvising) (McPherson
& McCormick, 1999; Sloboda & Davidson, 1996). High achievers tend to report more formal
and informal practice (Sloboda & Davidson, 1996). Playing undertaken as part of a musical
group may also support the automatization of musical skills, although, to date, this has not
been considered. When preparing for an examination students tend to increase the amount of
practice, are better motivated, more organized and have a greater focus on technical require-
ments (Davidson & Scutt, 1999; Hallam, 2001a, 2001b). The extent to which this is under-
taken may contribute to the quality of performance.
Professional musicians also exhibit high-level metacognitive skills (Hallam, 2001a) i.e.
“knowledge concerning one’s own cognitive processes and products” and “the active monitor-
ing and consequent regulation and orchestration of these processes” (Flavell, 1976, p. 232).
This is not always the case for young musicians. Some young learners are easily distracted
(McPherson & Renwick, 2001; Miksza, 2006). McPherson and Zimmerman (2002) suggest
that self-regulation, including self-observation, environmental and covert self-regulation is
important in effective learning. Working with 101 high school wind players, McPherson
(1997) explored mental strategies in relation to sight-reading, playing by ear and from mem-
ory, and improvising. On each of the measures, self-regulated musicians consciously employed
more sophisticated and musically appropriate strategies. In a performance task, Hallam (2001a,
2001b) explored the extent of implicit planning adopted as students completed a time-limited
task. Those who exhibited high levels of planning completed the task, identified difficulties
early on, concentrated their efforts on those difficulties, and then integrated learned sections
270 Psychology of Music 41(3)

together. Students at high levels of expertise exhibited high levels of planning. Cantwell and
Millard (1994), adopting a different approach, studied six 14-year-old students and identified
deep and surface approaches to learning music, the former involving learning in musical rather
than technical terms. This led to a greater focus on understanding and subsequently enhanced
learning outcomes.
The importance of time spent learning and the amount of practice undertaken in attaining
high levels of musical expertise suggests that learners need to be highly motivated. However,
there is evidence that not all musicians enjoy practising (Chaffin, Imreh, & Crawford, 2002;
Hallam, 1995a, 2001a, 2001b; McPherson & Davidson, 2002). Historically, motivation has
been theorized in many different ways. Current theories, are broadly framed within behaviour-
ist or social cognitive paradigms (Maehr, Pintrich, & Linnenbrink, 2002; Martin & Dowson,
2009). Reviews of research on musical motivation have led to the development of models
which recognize the complex interactions which occur between environmental (cultural, insti-
tutional, familial, educational) and internal factors (cognition and affect) in enhancing or
reducing motivation (see Asmus, 1994; Austin, Renwick, & McPherson, 2006; Hallam, 2002,
2009; O’Neill & McPherson, 2002; Sichivitsa, 2007).
Social interactions are an acknowledged source of influence on students’ motivations to
engage in active music making (Creech, 2008; Creech & Hallam, 2003; Davidson et al., 1996).
Parental support and family background have been found to be particularly important espe-
cially in the early stages of learning (Austin & Vispoel, 1998; Creech & Hallam, 2011; Legette,
2003). Families who have musical skills and are interested in music seem to be able to transfer
these values and interests to their children (Moore, Burland, & Davidson, 2003; Pitts, Davidson,
& McPherson, 2000a; Zdinski, 1996). Where parents are indifferent or less involved children
are likely to give up playing (Davidson et al., 1996; O’Neill, 2002; Pitts et al., 2000a). Parents
can provide many kinds of support including guidance, financial and practical aid. They can
also offer support for practice or indeed supervise it (e.g., Brokaw, 1982). The role of peers in
supporting engagement in music making has been less researched. Allen (1981) found that
peer influence had a significant positive effect on students wanting to continue with musical
activities, while young people involved in the arts more generally are appreciative of the sup-
port they receive from their peers (Burland & Davidson, 2004; O’Neill, 2002; Patrick et al.,
1999), although Hallam (1998) found that perceptions of peer influence were less predictive of
retention than children’s own attitudes towards playing. Teachers also play a major role in the
extent to which learners are interested, motivated, and enjoy learning to play an instrument
(Creech & Hallam, 2011; Davidson et al., 1996; Davidson, Moore, Sloboda, & Howe, 1998). The
relationship between pupil and teacher, the sensitivity of the communication between them
and the extent to which the student has a sense of autonomy all have an impact on learners’
liking for music (Bakker, 2005; Cassie, 2008; StGeorge, 2010). Pupils who give up playing have
poorer relationships with their teachers (StGeorge, 2010).
Parents, other family members, teachers, and peers act as sources of reward, and provide
feedback which influences self-beliefs. These develop in interaction with the environment and
are important in sustaining motivation. Self-efficacy, an individual’s judgement of their capa-
bilities to organize and carry out a particular course of action required to achieve a particular
aim (Bandura, 1982), has been found to be the best predictor of instrumental examination
results (McPherson & McCormick, 1999, 2006), while having a positive musical self-concept is
related to high levels of attainment and successful task performance (Asmus & Harrison, 1990;
Vispoel, 1993), motivation for engaging with music, interest in it, and commitment to continue
playing (Klinedinst, 1991). Those who give up playing tend to have lower expectations of suc-
cess (Chandler, Chiarella, & Auria, 1988; Pitts, Davidson, & McPherson, 2000b) and are less
Hallam 271

confident about future outcomes largely through disappointing earlier experiences where they
have not been successful (StGeorge, 2010). Research within the expectancy-value paradigm
supports this demonstrating that students’ beliefs about their competence predict learning out-
comes (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002).
Beliefs about the nature of musical ability can also effect motivation. Where learners have
incremental beliefs (i.e., that musical ability can be enhanced rather than being fixed) they tend
to have more effective practice habits and higher attainment (Braten & Stromso, 2004). Closely
related to these beliefs are the ways that attributions are made about success and failure
(Weiner, 1986). In music, attributions tend to be made to effort, musical background, class-
room environment, musical ability, and love of music (Arnold, 1997; Asmus, 1989; Legette,
1998). Two types of goals have been established in relation to learning which are related to
beliefs about ability and attributions for success or failure. Performance goals are associated
with the demonstration of competence or ability, while mastery goals are associated with want-
ing to learn and to understand. In music, research to date has had mixed results regarding the
importance of adopting mastery or performance goals, for instance, Lacaille, Koestner, and
Gaudreau (2007) studying conservatoire students found that performance goals (approach
and avoidance) were associated with negative emotional outcomes, while mastery goals were
unrelated to outcomes. Only intrinsic goals relating to aesthetic expression and enjoyment
were associated with positive performance and emotional outcomes.
Intrinsic motivation, engaging in particular activities because they are rewarding in their
own right rather than being undertaken for external rewards (Maehr et al., 2002), is crucial in
continuing to learn to play an instrument over a long period of time as it is a voluntary activity.
Music itself can generate positive emotions, pleasure and joy in playing certain pieces of music
(Gellrich, Osterwold, & Schulz, 1986; Nagel, 1987). It can also provide satisfaction through
performance in terms of positive feedback and the way it provides opportunities for exhibiting
skills (Nagel, 1987). Flow, which represents a state of equilibrium between the amount of chal-
lenge in activities and an individual’s capabilities leading to perceived enjoyment
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1991) has been demonstrated in composition (McDonald, Byrne, & Carlton,
2006) and practice (O’Neill, 1999). Those who give up playing may be more extrinsically moti-
vated as they tend to engage in more teacher approval-seeking behaviour (Costa-Gioma,
Flowers, & Sasake, 2005; McPherson & Renwick, 2001), while some students refer to participa-
tion in band, or the opinions of their parents and friends as shaping their own attitudes towards
music (Pitts et al., 2000a).
For many children playing an instrument is a hobby which they view no differently from
other activities which they undertake in their free time (McPherson & McCormick, 2000). It is
not highly valued within the expectancy–value model (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), which defines
the value attached to tasks in terms of their importance, intrinsic value, usefulness and cost,
the latter being perceived as a negative, and expectancy in terms of the individual’s beliefs about
their likelihood of success (Eccles, O’Neill, & Wigfield, 2005). A UK study found that children
continuing to play an instrument in primary and secondary school had higher scores on com-
petence beliefs and task values than those giving up or those describing themselves as nonplay-
ers (O’Neill, Ryan, Boulton, & Sloboda, 2000). Research with those wishing to pursue a career
in music, where music is clearly highly valued, has shown that they are dedicated, committed,
determined, and willing to make sacrifices. They also have increasing levels of self-belief
(MacNamara, Holmes, & Collins, 2006). Indeed, Kemp (1996) found that the most accom-
plished classical musicians in his sample were self-motivated almost to the point of obsession.
In music, the main focus of research within the expertise paradigm has been the quantity
and quality of practice and its relationship to the level and quality of expertise attained. Some
272 Psychology of Music 41(3)

studies have considered what motivates learners to spend the many hours required to attain
high levels of expertise, but much research on motivation has been less explicitly related to the
long-term development of expertise and the aspirations of participants. This study aims to
bring together these differing strands of work. The specific research questions to be addressed
are:
Which factors relating to the quantity and quality of practice and motivation best predict:

1. the level of expertise attained?

2. the quality of that expertise?
3. future aspirations in and related to music?

Methodology
A questionnaire was designed based on findings from the existing literature as outlined above.
The questionnaire sought information about the level of expertise attained (assessed by the
highest graded examination taken and the next examination to be taken) and the quality of
performance at that level of expertise as measured by the mark obtained in the highest graded
examination taken. In the UK there are several independent examination boards which offer
graded instrumental examinations, usually from preliminary to Grade 8. Typically, graded
examinations assess candidates’ performance on pieces, scales, sight-reading, and aural tests,
with some examination boards assessing technical exercises and improvisation tasks. In addi-
tion, some examination boards require applicants to have taken a theory examination before
proceeding to instrumental examinations beyond Grade 5. To take account of this, the ques-
tionnaire included statements about the content of practice, including the study of theory,
prior to an examination and when an examination was not imminent. Statements were also
included based on the existing literature relating to the detailed practising strategies adopted
and the way that practice was organized and managed. Learners were asked to indicate the
length of time that they had been learning to play an instrument and the time that they cur-
rently spent practising each week, the latter being assessed by the completion of a practice
diary over a 2-week period. Other statements were concerned with factors which have previ-
ously been identified as contributing to motivation to learn and continue to play an instrument
including: self-beliefs; enjoyment of musical activities; enjoyment of performance; level of sup-
port received from parents, friends and teachers; parental support for practice; attitudes towards
playing an instrument and perceptions of its value; beliefs about the importance of musical
ability; and future musical aspirations. The questionnaire consisted of statements relating to
the above based on a 7-point Likert scale. The statements themselves are presented in Tables 1
and 2. The questionnaire was piloted on a small group of students to ensure items were easily
understood. No changes were required following this process.
A questionnaire was also devised for teachers. This requested them to rate their perceptions
of the pupils selected to participate on a 7-point scale on items assessing a range of factors
which previous research had indicated may contribute to the development of children’s exper-
tise in playing a musical instrument (for reviews see Hallam, 2006, 2010; McPherson &
Hallam, 2009). These measures were intended to provide a more objective assessment than
might be provided by the students themselves while also providing information about the stu-
dents’ musical skills. The statements related to motivational factors (enjoyment of playing,
involvement in musical activities, desire to achieve, willingness to learn); elements which were
likely to relate to the effectiveness of their practice (self-discipline, personal organization, con-
centration); the level of support that they received from their parents; and a range of musical
Hallam 273

Table 1.  Means and standard deviations for statements relating to practising.

Mean SD
Practising strategies (Cronbach’s alpha .866)
I know when I have made a mistake 5.97 1.43
When something is difficult I play it over and over again 5.68 1.51
When I make a mistake I practise the section where I went wrong slowly 5.44 1.59
I learn by playing slowly to start with and gradually speeding up 5.23 1.63
I work out where difficult sections are when I’m learning a piece of music 4.97 1.8
When I make a mistake, I stop, correct the wrong note and then carry on 4.93 1.8
When I practise I play pieces from beginning to end without stopping (negative) 4.88 1.64
I practise things slowly 4.74 1.67
I try to get an overall idea of a piece before I practise it 4.66 1.79
I practise small sections of the pieces I am learning 4.63 1.76
I try to find out what a piece sounds like before I begin to try and play it 4.43 1.89
I think about how I want to make the music sound 4.42 1.68
When I make a mistake I go back to the beginning of the piece and start again 3.60 1.74
(negative)
I work things out just by looking at the music and not playing 3.54 1.66
I analyze the structure of a piece before I learn to play it 3.02 1.83
When I make a mistake I carry on without correcting it (negative) 2.50 1.51
I try to get a recording of the piece that I am learning so that I can listen to it 1.52 1.07
I record myself playing and listen to the tapes 1.37 0.93
Total 76.9 8.7
Organization and self-management of practice (Cronbach’s alpha .637)
I find it easy to concentrate when I practise 5.60 1.28
I start my practice with scales 4.69 1.82
I do warm-up exercises at the start of my practice 4.20 1.99
I do not practise enough 4.00 1.74
When I’m practising I mark things on the part to help me 3.87 2.06
I set myself targets to achieve in each practice session 3.80 1.90
I am easily distracted when I practise (negative) 3.44 1.73
I start my practice with studies 3.01 1.75
I make a list of what I have to practise 2.82 2.07
I practise with the metronome 1.81 1.60
Total 40.2 6.7
Practice when not preparing for an examination (Cronbach’s alpha .67)
Practice of pieces 4.54 1.17
Practice of scales 3.35 1.10
Practice of exercises 3.28 1.26
Practice of studies 2.68 1.76
Practice of sight-reading 2.49 1.25
Practice of improvisation 1.78 1.36
Practice of aural skills 1.49 0.99
Study of theory of music 0.07 0.46
Total 21.1 3.8
Practice when preparing for an examination (Cronbach’s alpha .75)
Practice of pieces 4.69 1.11
(Continued)
274 Psychology of Music 41(3)

Table 1. (Continued)

Mean SD
Practice of scales 4.45 1.17
Practice of exercises 3.88 1.53
Practice of studies 3.27 2.06
Practice of sight-reading 2.99 1.56
Practice of aural skills 2.10 1.50
Practice of improvisation 1.99 1.59
Study of theory of music 0.13 0.74
Total 25.8 4.5

Table 2.  Factors contributing to motivation.

Mean SD
Self-beliefs (Cronbach’s alpha .796)
I can achieve anything I want on my instrument if I practise enough 5.19 1.49
Most people think that I play my instrument well 5.04 1.36
I am usually successful in what I attempt to do on my instrument 5.00 1.24
I have the potential to be a good musician 4.74 1.60
Total 20.7 3.7
Belief about musical ability
To succeed in playing an instrument you need musical ability 4.53 1.50
Support from family, friends and teachers (Cronbach’s alpha .709)
My relations (for example grandparents, aunts, and uncles) like me playing 5.72 1.46
My parents want me to play an instrument 5.69 1.69
I have a lot of friends who play musical instruments 5.11 1.69
My teachers at school like me to play a musical instrument 4.76 1.65
My brothers and sisters like me playing a musical instrument 4.02 1.81
Total 26.2 4.6
Enjoyment of performing (Cronbach’s alpha .852)
I find it satisfying to play in concerts 5.00 1.93
Playing in concerts gives me a real thrill 4.56 2.02
Total 9.6 3.7
Attitudes towards playing an instrument and perceptions of its value
(Cronbach’s alpha .813)
I enjoy playing my instrument very much 5.82 1.42
I enjoy my instrumental lessons 5.56 1.43
I think it is valuable to play a musical instrument 5.36 1.51
On some days I don’t want to practise (negative) 5.34 1.45
I like practising 4.88 1.39
I find practising boring (negative) 3.04 1.46
I hate having to play a musical instrument (negative) 1.67 1.09
Total 11.56 6.1
Enjoying musical activities (Cronbach’s alpha .786)
I enjoy listening to music 5.93 1.44
I enjoy playing in musical groups, orchestras, bands 5.15 1.89

(Continued)
Hallam 275

Table 2. (Continued)
Mean SD
I enjoy going to concerts to listen 4.64 1.68
Playing an instrument is an important part of my social life 4.5 1.61
Total 21.3 3.9
Future aspirations (Cronbach’s alpha .787)
I will always want to be involved in musical activities 5.19 1.6
I think it will be useful to my future career to play a musical instrument 4.81 1.67
I would like to become a musician 4.21 1.83
Total 14.5 3.6

skills which historically have been related to high levels of attainment in music (physical coor-
dination, cognitive skills, e.g., reading music, aural ability, performance skills, sense of pulse/
rhythm, expressive skills and performance anxiety) (see Table 3).
The research was designed taking account of the ethical guidelines of the British
Psychological Society and the British Educational Research Association and was approved by
the ethics committee of the Institute of Education, University of London.

Procedure
As a means of accessing children and young people learning to play an instrument, teachers in
a Local Authority Music Service were approached to participate in the research. The music
service selected provided tuition and ensembles for children and young people in an English
county at the centre of which was a city with a world-leading university. Overall, the popula-
tion had low levels of economic deprivation and high educational standards. The music service
was award winning, with world-class ensembles regularly touring abroad and participating in
high-status competitions and festivals. The staff was highly qualified, a considerable proportion
being ex-professional performing musicians. Lessons were either with individual children or in
small groups of no more than four children. All of the children participating in the research
were having individual lessons. Parents contributed to the cost of the lessons but they were in
part subsidized by the local authority.
A presentation was given to staff explaining the purpose of the research and they were
invited to participate. They were assured that all data collected would be anonymized.
Confidentiality was guaranteed. They were informed that they would be provided with infor-
mation about the findings of the research when the analyses were complete. Fifty-five staff
volunteered to take part out of a total of 94 who were employed by the music service in either
a full- or part-time capacity. Participating teachers were asked to select three of their pupils
representing average, above, and below average learners. These were to be selected from any
level of expertise. This instruction was to avoid teachers only including their “best” pupils. It
was not possible to establish whether every individual teacher selected from their pupils on this
basis as this would have required collecting information about all of their pupils. However, the
range of marks obtained by learners in their graded examinations which ranged from 55% to
94% and the amount of practice undertaken by them which ranged from 0 to 105 min daily
suggested that teachers had not selected only their “best” pupils.
The teachers were requested to approach the selected pupils and ask if they were prepared to
participate in the research. They were instructed to tell the pupils that they did not need to par-
ticipate and that there would be no negative repercussions if they chose not to participate. All
276 Psychology of Music 41(3)

of the children who were approached agreed to participate. The pupils were asked to take the
questionnaire home and complete it there. This was because the questionnaire included a diary
section to enable a record to be made of the amount of practice undertaken each day over a
period of 2 weeks. The pupils were told that they were to complete the questionnaire unaided,
although as they were completing it at home it is possible that their parents provided some
guidance if it was requested. The questionnaires were returned to the teacher in a sealed enve-
lope (to facilitate confidentiality) and subsequently to the researcher.

The sample
The final sample consisted of 163 learners, 37 males and 126 females. Eighty-three were wind play-
ers (51%) including clarinet, flute, oboe, saxophone, trumpet, French horn, cornet, bass, and trom-
bone, while 80 played stringed instruments (49%) (violin, viola, cello). The students were aged from
7–17. Wind players were on average older (11.8 years as opposed to 10.3 years). More of the string
players were at a lower level of expertise. All of those pre-Grade 1 (23) were string players.
Students were asked for information about the grade and mark of the most recent graded
instrumental examination that they had taken and the level of the graded examination that
they were about to take. Fourteen percent of the sample (23 students) were preparing to take
the preliminary grade, 22% Grade 1 (36 students), 22% Grade 2 (36 students), 18% Grade 3
(30 students), 12% Grade 4 (20 students), 4% Grade 5 (7 students), 2.5% Grade 6 (4 students),
2.5% Grade 7 (4 students) and 2% Grade 8 (3 students). The minimum percentage mark
obtained in the examination was 55% the maximum 94% with an average of 78%.

Analysis
The questionnaire was intended to assess students’ current perceived beliefs, attitudes and
practices. Reliability and validity data from previous studies was therefore not available. In
order to carry out multiple regression analysis it was necessary to sum the items into predeter-
mined composite measures based on the existing literature. A Cronbach’s alpha statistic was
calculated for each group of items with the intention of removing any items which were clearly
unrelated to the predetermined category. Negatively framed statements were reversed prior to
this process. In addition, as Cronbach’s alpha statistics do not confirm the uni-dimensionality
of included items, the factor structure for each composite was also examined (Grayson, 2004).
This confirmed each composite as representative of a single factor. The Cronbach’s alpha analy-
ses revealed that the omission of individual items would not have any significant impact on the
statistic so all items were included. The Cronbach’s alpha statistic for each composite measure
was as follows: practising strategies: .866; organization and self-management of practice: .637;
practising when not preparing for an examination: .67; practising when preparing for an
examination: .75; self-belief: .796; support from family, friends, and teachers: .709; enjoyment
of performing: .852; attitudes towards playing an instrument and perceptions of its value:
.813; enjoying musical activities: .786; future aspirations: .787; and teacher ratings: .927. The
other items included in the multiple regression analyses were single items (belief about musical
ability, parental support for practice, number of months learning, amount of weekly practice,
attendance at a county music school, membership of the county youth orchestra).

Results
For each of the statements means and standard deviations were calculated. These are reported
in Tables 1 and 2. The following sections provide a brief commentary.
Hallam 277

Time spent learning

Reported months learning ranged from 36 to 168, M = 61.6 (SD 21.6) representing 3 to 14
years of tuition. Participants were asked in the questionnaire to keep a record of how many
days they practised, how many sessions on each day and how long daily practice was. These
data indicated a range of days of practice from none to 7 each week, M = 4.4 (SD 1.5). The
number of sessions of practice each day ranged from none to 5, M = 1.1 (SD .57). The average
amount of daily practice recorded varied from none to 105 min, M = 20.7 (SD 15.0).
Students were asked if they took part in extracurricular music activities in addition to their
lessons either at a county music school or as a member of the county youth orchestra. Such
participation would have represented an additional 3 hours weekly of making music on their
instrument throughout the school year. Seventeen students were members of the county youth
orchestra while 68 (42%) were members of a county music school. Eighty-seven (53%) did not
participate in these activities and eight failed to respond to the question (5%)

Factors relating to practice

Practising strategies.  The statements contributing to the practising strategies category with their
means and standard deviations are presented in Table 1. Responses were made on a 7-point
scale from always to never. The students reported that they had some effective practising strate-
gies, for instance, practising sections slowly, repeating difficult sections, starting practising
slowly and speeding up. Most participants also reported being able to recognize when they had
made a mistake. However, the data suggested that quite a high proportion of students frequently
adopted relatively low-level strategies for improving their performance, for instance, playing
through the piece in its entirety, or correcting a single wrong note. It is possible that they were
adopting these strategies for other purposes, for instance, giving a mock performance, practising
sight-reading or identifying difficulties, although previous research has indicated that it is gener-
ally those at low levels of expertise who adopt these strategies and that the strategy is generally
unproductive. Very few reported listening to a recording of the work they were to learn, or made
recordings of themselves playing as a means of listening and critiquing their own playing.

Organization and self-management of practice.  In relation to the organization and self-management of

practice, participants reported finding it easy to concentrate when practising (M = 5.60) and had
developed efficient organizational strategies starting with scales (M = 4.69) and/or warm-up exer-
cises (M = 4.20). However, there was little evidence of practice with the metronome (M = 1.81)
and most participants reported that they did not make a list of what they had to practise (M = 2.82)
although there was more agreement that they set themselves targets for each practice session (M
= 3.80) (see Table 1).

Non-examination practice.  The students agreed most strongly with statements relating to practising
pieces when they were not preparing for an examination (M = 4.54). Agreement for other ele-
ments was lower than for pieces (see Table 1). Least agreement was for studying theory (M = 0.07).

Examination practice.  Ninety-one percent of the students reported that they practised more when
they were preparing for an examination. Sixty-eight percent indicated that they practised on
more days. Twenty-nine percent indicated that they practised on two additional days, and 13%
one additional day. In terms of the average amount of time that practice increased 7% of students
reported practising for 5 minutes more, 5% for 8 minutes more, 25% for 10 minutes more, 5% for
13 minutes more, 10% for 11 minutes more, 5% for 20 minutes more, and 7% for 30 minutes
more. Smaller percentages of students indicated other amounts. The girls reported doing
278 Psychology of Music 41(3)

statistically significantly more additional practice for examinations than the boys (girls M =
10.37, SE = .99; boys M = 7.35, SE = .99) (t(112) = 2.151, p > 0.05). The data suggest that the
students practice more prior to examinations.
The order of priority of practice during examinations was similar to that for normal practice
with higher levels of agreement relating to what was practised for most elements. This was
most marked for scales which increased from a mean of 3.35 to 4.45 (see Table 1). There were
gender differences related to the practice of sight-reading and the study of theory of music.
Girls reported practising sight-reading more in preparation for an examination (M = 3.17, SE
= .14) than the boys (M = 2.38, SE = .24) (t(61) = −2.86 p > .01). The girls also reported study-
ing theory of music prior to an examination (M = of 0.17, SE = .07) whereas the boys reported
no theoretical study (t(125) = −2.23, p > .05).

Parental support for practice.  Participants were asked to indicate the extent to which their parents
supported their practice. This was not assessed by a rating scale but yes/sometimes/no
responses. Sixty-five percent of respondents indicated that their parents normally reminded
them to practise, 4% that they practised without being reminded and 31% that they did not
practise. Sixty percent of respondents indicated that their parents had at some time helped
them to practise, 37% indicated that this was not the case and 3% that this had happened some-
times. Forty-seven percent of respondents indicated that their parents helped them to practise
now, 37% that this was not the case, and 2% that sometimes this was the case.

Factors contributing to motivation

Self-beliefs.  Of the four items contributing to the category self-beliefs the highest mean was for
being able to achieve anything on an instrument if enough practice was undertaken (5.19),
followed by a perception that most people believed that they played their instrument well
(5.04), and usually being successful in what they attempted to do on their instrument (5.9).
The lowest mean was for “I have the potential to be a good musician” (4.74) (see Table 2).
Overall, these responses suggest that participants were confident about their learning and per-
formance on an instrument.

Beliefs about the importance of musical ability. A separate variable relating to the extent to which par-
ticipants believed that to succeed in playing an instrument it was necessary to have musical ability
was included in the questionnaire. The mean response was 4.53 with an SD of 1.5 (see Table 2).

Support from family, friends and teachers.  The highest levels of perceived support for learning to
play an instrument came from other relations, for example, grandparents (5.72) and parents
(5.69). There was a gender difference in the extent to which learners perceived that their rela-
tions liked them playing a musical instrument with girls indicating less strong agreement (M =
5.59, SE = .136) than boys (M = 6.13, SE = .18) (t(161) = 1.997, p = > .05). Overall, there was
less evidence of support from teachers at school (4.76) and siblings (4.02) (see Table 2). There
was relatively strong support for the statement that the respondents had friends who played
musical instruments (4.76).

Enjoyment of performing.  Overall, participants agreed that they enjoyed performance (see Table
2). Learners indicated stronger agreement that they found it satisfying to play in concerts (M =
5.0) than that playing in concerts gave them a thrill (4.56) (see Table 2).
Hallam 279

Attitudes towards playing an instrument and perception of its value.  Participants indicated high levels
of enjoyment of playing an instrument (5.82), and of their lessons (5.56). Interestingly, boys
indicated enjoying their lessons (M = 6.0, SE = .17) more than girls (M = 5.4, SE = .13) (t(162)
= 2.24, p > .05). Participants also believed that it was valuable to play an instrument (5.36)
and liked practising (4.88). They disagreed to some extent that practice was boring (3.04) and
strongly disagreed that they hated having to play an instrument (1.67).

Enjoying musical activities.  The participants indicated strong agreement that they enjoyed listen-
ing to music (M = 5.93). The boys (M = 6.4, SE = .13) more than girls (M 5.79, SE = .14)
(t(117) = 3.38, p > .01). The participants also reported enjoying playing in musical groups
(5.15) and to a lesser extent going to concerts to listen to music (4.64). There was also overall
agreement that playing an instrument was an important part of their social life (4.5) (see
Table 2). Although the difference was relatively small there was a gender difference in the com-
posite score of enjoying musical activities. The boys reported greater enjoyment of musical
activities (M = 21.73, SE = .72) than the girls (M = 19.78, SE = .47) (t(161) = 2.024, p > .05).

Future aspirations. Participants agreed that they would always want to be involved in musical activ-
ities (5.19), and thought it would be useful to their future career to play an instrument (4.81)
although there was less agreement that they would like to become a musician (4.21) (see Table 2).

Teachers’ ratings
Table 3 sets out the details of the mean ratings made by the teachers in relation to their stu-
dents. The ratings were negatively skewed (from −.419 to 1.224) with the greatest skew being

Table 3.  Teacher ratings.

Mean SD
Teacher ratings (Cronbach’s alpha .927)
Enjoyment of playing the instrument 5.77 1.2
Willingness to learn 5.6 1.46
Desire to achieve 5.46 1.54
Ability to understand instructions 5.4 1.33
Perseverance 5.38 1.4
Parental support 5.18 1.88
Motivation 5.15 1.58
Concentration 5.14 1.55
Involvement with music 5.05 1.68
Physical coordination 4.98 1.29
Cognitive skills, for example, reading music 4.94 1.68
Aural ability 4.93 1.39
Performance skills 4.91 1.31
Self-discipline 4.87 1.53
Personal organization 4.84 1.65
Sense of pulse/rhythm 4.74 1.46
Effective practising 4.73 1.63
Expressive skills in music 4.69 1.32
Anxiety 3.78 1.66
280 Psychology of Music 41(3)

in relation to motivational factors and parental support. While pupils appear to have been
selected to provide examples of a range of qualitatively different learning outcomes, overall,
teachers tended to give high ratings relating to their pupils’ motivation, quality of practice,
general musical skills, and parental support.

Multiple regression analyses

Prior to the multiple regression analyses a series of correlation analyses were undertaken
between the composite measures (see Table 4). Only one correlation exceeded 0.75, the gener-
ally accepted level for exclusion from multiple regression analyses (Field, 2009), that was age,
which, as expected was strongly correlated with level of expertise as assessed by graded exami-
nation taken (.79, p = .0001). Age was therefore omitted from the analysis. Gender was omitted
from the regression analyses, as across all of the statements there were very few gender differ-
ences. Only one composite measure (enjoyment of musical activities) showed gender differ-
ences. A series of multiple regression analyses were undertaken using the composite scores
from each of the categories outlined in Tables 1 and 2 in addition to attending a county music
school, being a member of the county youth orchestra, teachers’ assessment of a range of
musical and motivational factors, parental support for practice, months learning, and weekly
practice. For each regression analyses, the data were examined for outliers and influential
cases. None threatened to bias the models.
The regression analyses focusing on the level of expertise attained and the quality of exper-
tise included the same predictor variables. Collinearity statistics were calculated and were
within acceptable limits (Bowerman & O’Connell, 1990; Myers, 1990). The variance inflation
factor (VIF) values ranged from 1.14 to 3.5 and the tolerance statistics were above 0.2 (.284
to .875). The regression analyses conducted in relation to aspirations included the same pre-
dictors as the earlier analyses with the exclusion of those relating to aspirations. For these
analyses the variance inflation factor (VIF) values ranged from 1.17 to 2.5 and the tolerance
statistics were above 0.2 (.503 to .84). The forced entry method was used for all of the regres-
sion analyses as this is regarded as the most appropriate method for theory testing (Studenmund
& Cassidy, 1987).

Level of expertise attained. Two multiple regressions were undertaken in relation to level of exper-
tise attained, the first in relation to the most recent successful grade examination taken, the
second in relation to the next examination to be taken. The analysis relating to the most recent
graded examination taken revealed a multiple R of .84 with an adjusted R2 of .699 (F(17, 60)
= 8.2, p > .001). The strongest predictor was the number of months learning with a beta weight
of .626. The next strongest predictors were weekly practice (.238), non-examination practice
(.233) and attitude towards playing an instrument and perception of its value which had a
negative weighting of −.223. For full details see Table 5. These findings were further supported
when level of expertise attained was assessed by grade to be taken. The multiple R was .817,
with an adjusted R2 of .618 (F(17,113) = 13.35, p > .001). The strongest predictors were
months learning with a beta weight of .587 and weekly practice (.245) (see Table 6).

Quality of performance in graded examinations.  When a multiple regression was undertaken in

relation to the mark obtained in the most recent grade examination representing the quality of
the performance, the regression analysis was not statistically significant.
Table 4.  Correlations between data subsets.

Months Support Self- Enjoyment Weekly Nonexam Exam Attitudes Aspirations Practising Enjoying Organization Age Teachers
Hallam

learning beliefs of practice practice practice and strategies musical and self- ratings
performing value activities management

Perceived −.007 .297** .386** .430** .142 .071 −.052 .079 .384** .201* .449** .175* −.072 -.012
importance
of musical
ability
Months .057 -.043 .111 .391** .181* .234** −.141 −.063 .044 .097 .148 .524** ,057
learning
Support .636** .388** .151 .227** .224* .319** .558** .016 .590** .170* −.02 .165*
Self-beliefs .429** .215** .274** .207** .509** .625** .063 .619** .224** −.05 .224**
Enjoyment of .175* .141 .120 .212** .540** .150 .710** .223** .024 .223**
performing
Weekly .231** .214** .160* .175.* .175* .251** .240** .328** .057
practice
Non-exam .607** .079 .168* .160* .236** .392** .206** .154
practice
Exam −.047 .096 .104 .204* .325** .222** .175*
practice
Attitudes .524** .100 .444** .074 −.217** .204*
and values
Aspirations .134 .700** .137 −.106 .184*
Practising .113 .504** .061 .111
strategies
Enjoying .257** .057 .202**
musical
activities
Organization .250** .099
and self-
management
Age −.047

Note: **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed); * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two-tailed).
281
282 Psychology of Music 41(3)

Table 5.  Multiple regression: Level of expertise (most recent graded examination taken).

Most recent graded examination taken B Std. error Beta

(Constant) −3.160 1.735  
Member of a county music school −.131 .213 −.047
Member of the county orchestra .032 .346 .008
Do your parents help you with your practice now? −.130 .133 −.077
To succeed playing an instrument you need musical ability −.004 .096 −.003
Number of months learning .043 .006 .626
Self-belief .001 .045 .002
Nonexamination practice .103 .042 .233
Examination practice −.020 .035 −.052
Enjoyment of musical activities .071 .054 .168
Musical and other aspirations −.022 .049 −.047
Practising strategies −.007 .016 −.038
Organization and self-management .000 .023 −.001
Teacher ratings .010 .007 .108
Support from family friends and teachers −.032 .033 −.089
Attitude towards playing an instrument and perception of its value −.069 .032 −.223
Enjoyment of performing .062 .053 .105
Weekly practice .005 .002 .238
R2 = .699 (ps < .001)  

Table 6.  Multiple regression: Level of expertise (next graded examination to be taken).

Level of expertise (next graded examination to be taken) B Std. error Beta

(Constant) −1.744 1.242  
Member of a county music school −.109 .205 −.033
Member of the county youth orchestra −.298 .277 −.063
Do your parents help you with your practice now? −.025 .111 −.014
To succeed playing an instrument you need musical ability .030 .086 .021
Number of months learning .050 .006 .587
Self-belief −.017 .037 −.034
Nonexamination practice .060 .028 .157
Examination practice −1.451E-5 .021 .000
Enjoyment of musical activities .052 .038 .122
Musical and other aspirations −.014 .038 −.029
Practising strategies −.028 .013 −.146
Organization and self-management .016 .019 .064
Teacher ratings .011 .006 .110
Support from family friends and teachers −.019 .027 −.046
Attitude towards playing an instrument and perception of its value −.033 .023 −.105
Enjoyment of performing .023 .041 .044
Weekly practice .006 .002 .245
R2 = .618 (ps < .001)  
Hallam 283

Commitment to being involved with music.  A series of multiple regressions were undertaken in rela-
tion to the extent to which learners were motivated to continue being involved in music. In
these analyses the variables relating to aspirations were not included as predictor variables. A
regression analysis was undertaken on the composite measure of aspirations and on the three
elements of the composite separately. The multiple regression relating to overall aspirations
revealed a multiple R of .717 with an adjusted R2 of .447 (F(16, 114) = 7.56, p > .001). The
strongest predictors were enjoying musical activities with a beta weighting of .295, self-belief
(.189) and attitude towards playing an instrument and perception of its value (.183) (see Table
7). For the statement “I think it will be useful to my future career to play a musical instrument”
the strongest predictors were enjoying musical activities (.291), self-beliefs (.221) and support
from family, friends, and teachers (.187) giving a multiple R of .587 with an adjusted R2 of
.253 (F(16, 114) = 3.751, p > .001) (see Table 8). For the statement “I will always want to be
involved in music” there was a multiple R of .669 with an adjusted R2 of .37 (F(16, 114) =
5.76, p > .0001). The strongest predictors were attitude towards playing an instrument and
perception of its value (.293), enjoyment of performing (.165), self-belief (.141), and support
from family, friends, and teachers (.123) (see Table 9). When the statement “I would like to
become a musician” was used as the dependent variable there was a multiple R of .585, and an
adjusted R2 of .250 (F(16, 114) = 3.705, p > .001). The strongest predictors were enjoying
musical activities (.299), attitude towards playing an instrument and perception of its value
(.160), and practising strategies (.134) (see Table 10).

Table 7.  Musical and other aspirations.

B Std. Beta
error
(Constant) −1.577 3.077  
Member of a county music school .530 .506 .078
Member of the county youth orchestra .036 .686 .004
Do your parents help you with your practice now? .323 .273 .085
To succeed playing an instrument you need musical ability .106 .213 .037
Number of months learning −.012 .014 −.068
Self-belief .196 .089 .189
Nonexamination practice .033 .069 .042
Examination practice −.021 .053 −.035
Enjoying musical activities .259 .091 .295
Practising strategies .040 .031 .103
Organization and self-management −.050 .048 −.094
Teacher ratings −.009 .015 −.044
Support from family friends and teachers .100 .066 .119
Attitude towards playing an instrument and perception of its value .119 .056 .183
Enjoyment of performing .119 .101 .109
Weekly practice .000 .004 −.005
R2 = .447 (ps < .001)  
284 Psychology of Music 41(3)

Table 8.  Multiple regression: “I think it will be useful to my future career to play a musical instrument”.

“I think it will be useful to my future career to play a musical B Std. error Beta
instrument”
(Constant) −1.143 1.442  
Member of a county music school .012 .245 .004
Member of the county youth orchestra .361 .327 .091
Do your parents help you with your practice now? −.017 .131 −.011
To succeed playing an instrument you need musical ability .001 .102 .001
Number of months learning .000 .006 −.002
Self-beliefs .094 .042 .221
Enjoyment of performing .019 .048 .042
Nonexamination practice .017 .033 .052
Examination practice −.035 .025 −.143
Attitude towards playing an instrument and perception of its value .000 .027 .000
Enjoying musical activities .105 .043 .291
Practising strategies .016 .015 .099
Organization and self-management −.016 .023 −.076
Weekly practice −.001 .002 −.069
Teacher ratings −.002 .007 −.029
Support from family friends and teachers .064 .031 .187
R2 of .253 (ps < .001)  

Table 9.  Multiple regression: “I will always want to be involved in making music”.

“I will always want to be involved in making music” B Std. error Beta

(Constant) −.914 1.225  
Member of a county music school .266 .208 .102
Member of the county youth orchestra −.226 .278 −.061
Do your parents help you with your practice now? .165 .111 .115
To succeed playing an instrument you need musical ability .088 .087 .081
Number of months learning −.004 .005 −.053
Self-belief .056 .036 .141
Enjoyment of performing .069 .041 .165
Nonexamination practice .017 .028 .058
Examination practice .005 .021 .023
Attitude towards playing an instrument and perception of its .072 .023 .293
value
Enjoying musical activities .037 .037 .110
Practising strategies .000 .013 .002
Organization and self-management −.005 .019 −.023
Weekly practice .001 .001 .042
Teacher ratings −.010 .006 −.130
Support from family friends and teachers .039 .027 .123
R2 of .37 (ps < .001)  
Hallam 285

Table 10.  Multiple regression: “I would like to become a musician”.

“I would like to be a musician” B Std. error Beta

(Constant) −2.326 1.577  
Member of a county music school .244 .268 .080
Member of the county youth orchestra −.104 .358 −.024
Do your parents help you with your practice now? .173 .143 .102
To succeed playing an instrument you need musical ability .016 .111 .012
Number of months learning −.008 .007 −.107
Self-belief .045 .046 .097
Enjoyment of performing .032 .053 .064
Nonexamination practice .000 .036 −.003
Examination practice .008 .027 .032
Attitude towards playing an instrument and perception of its value .047 .029 .160
Enjoying musical activities .118 .047 .299
Practising strategies .023 .016 .134
Organization and self-management −.028 .025 −.120
Weekly practice .000 .002 .014
Teacher ratings .004 .008 .038
Support from family friends and teachers −.003 .034 −.007
R2 = .250 (ps < .001)  

Discussion
This research confirms length of time learning as the strongest predictor of the level of exper-
tise attained with weekly practice and what is undertaken during that practice making impor-
tant contributions, supporting findings within the expertise paradigm. The negative weighting
for attitude towards playing an instrument and the value attached to it reflects the finding
amongst a more general population that attitudes towards playing an instrument and the value
attached to playing decline with age (McPherson & O’Neill, 2010; Wigfield, 1994; Wigfield &
Eccles, 1992).
The regression analysis relating to quality of performance was not statistically significant
suggesting that other factors contribute towards the quality of learning outcome as assessed by
graded examinations which are not directly related to time learning or practice per se. This is
clearly an area for further research. The requirements of graded examinations go beyond the
performance of prepared pieces and include sight-reading and aural tests and in some cases
improvisation. To perform these well requires automatization of different skills to those which
are required for performing a well-learned piece (Hallam, 2001a, 2001b; McPherson, 1997).
The findings from this research indicate that these tend to be practised less frequently. Other
factors may also be implicated, for instance, the extent to which performers are able to com-
municate with an audience, in this case the examiner, or the extent to which high-quality aural
schemata have been developed against which performance can be assessed and progress moni-
tored during practice.
The findings on musical aspirations revealed some interesting, although subtle, differences
depending on the particular statement being considered. Overall, enjoying musical activities,
which included listening to music, going to concerts, playing in musical groups, and having an
active social life relating to music was important, although, interestingly, there was no
286 Psychology of Music 41(3)

statistically significant correlation between this measure and age suggesting that perceived
enjoyment of musical activities differs from attitudes towards playing an instrument and its
perceived value. Also important were the support of family, friends, and teachers; and self-
beliefs. Practising strategies emerged as important for those wanting to become musicians per-
haps indicating the determination and dedication which has been identified by previous
research. The strong emphasis on enjoyment of a range of musical activities suggests that the
high-level family support found in previous research for those who attain the highest levels of
expertise is driven by the interest of the learner rather than determining that interest. It may be
the enjoyment of the learner, their enthusiasm, the satisfaction that they gain from making
music, which may be in musical groups, that leads the family to offer their support. The evi-
dence presented also suggests that the wider family group, including grandparents, may be
important in this respect. The findings further reinforce the role of motivation suggesting that
research needs to focus more closely on what it is about music, which provides enjoyment and
satisfaction to some learners and not others.
There were some gender differences. Boys scored higher than girls on enjoyment of a range
of musical activities and perceiving that they had a greater level of support from their relations.
The higher scores of the boys contrast with earlier research which has found higher compe-
tence and value beliefs in girls (McPherson & O’Neill, 2010; O’Neill et al., 2000). This may be
because the research reported here focused on instrumental players who, in the main were
committed to music while earlier research has tended to be based on samples from the general
school population.
There are clearly limitations to this study. The teachers chose the students to be included and
although they were instructed to include average, above, and below average students the data
suggests that they were biased towards those who were well motivated and had considerable
family support. Despite this there were some who were clearly not engaged. The sample was
dominated by girls, which is not untypical in the UK in relation to the playing of classical musi-
cal instruments within a school context. The lower levels of expertise were over-represented in
comparison with those above Grade 5. This also represents the national picture in the UK
(Hallam, Rogers, & Creech, 2005) where many children learn to play an instrument but do not
sustain their commitment through to the higher grade levels. The research was also largely
based on self-report from the students. There was no observation of their activities and no
interviews were undertaken to provide greater in-depth understanding. Despite these weak-
nesses the research has highlighted areas for future exploration.

Implications for education

The questionnaire responses suggest that there continue to be strategies related to practising
which learners adopt infrequently. These include using recordings of their own playing to
enable them to more objectively assess their performance, using recordings to listen to music
which they are learning to enable them to develop aural schemata of the piece, and using the
metronome to support technical and rhythmical development. It would seem that there is still
scope for teachers to encourage learners to adopt these learning strategies.
The power of graded examinations to influence the amount of practice undertaken and
what is practised is clear from the students’ responses. Practice typically focuses on pieces
with an increase in other elements, particularly scales, when examination preparation is
being undertaken. There was also little practice of improvisation. This taken alongside the
higher than might have been hoped for agreement with the statement that practice is boring
Hallam 287

suggests that the nature of the instrumental music curriculum, particularly that determined
through the graded examination system, might benefit from some changes to place greater
emphasis on the performance of music and creative activities with less emphasis on tech-
nique for its own sake.
The findings indicate the importance of learners enjoying a range of musical activities and
the opportunities they provide for socializing with other like-minded people in developing a
long-term commitment to engaging with music. This suggests that teachers should encourage
learners to join musical groups at an early stage in their learning or provide opportunities for
their own pupils to make music together and participate in other musical activities.

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Author biography
Susan Hallam is Professor of Education at the Institute of Education, University of London and
currently Dean of the Faculty of Policy and Society. She has published extensively in relation
to music psychology and music education including Instrumental Teaching: A Practical Guide to
Better Teaching and Learning (1998), The Power of Music (2001), Music Psychology in Education
(2005), and she is coeditor of The Oxford Handbook of Psychology of Music (2009) and Music
Education in the 21st Century in the United Kingdom. She is past editor of Psychology of Music,
Psychology of Education Review, and Learning Matters.