Radiation measurement units

Absorbed Dose: The mean energy imparted to matter by ionizing radiation per unit mass of irritated material.
The unit is RAD or Gray. 1 Gray to 100 Rad but do not describe biological effect

Dose Equivalent: It is a quantity used for radiation protection purposes. Not all radiation has same biological effect,
even for same amount of absorbed dose. The amount energy required to an ion pair in animal tissue differs from energy to
produce an ion pair in air.DE is defined as Product of Absorbed dose(D) x Quality factor ( to correct for the dependence of
biological factor on energy and type of radiation).The Sievert or rem (roentgen Equivalent Man,CGS) is the unit of absorbed dose in
biological matter.
Dose rate: It is the quantity of radiation occurring per unit time
For example, consider an absorbed dose of 1mGy(0.1 Rem) from 2 Mev neutrons, what is the dose equivalent?

DE = D X QF Here QF= 10 for neutron

Sv = Gy x QF

DE = 1 mGy X 10 =10 mSv

Or
DE = 0.1 rad x 10 = 1 Rem

1 Gy = 100 rad
1 mGy = 100 mrad
1 Sv = 100 rem
1 mSv = 100 mrem
 Radiation Protection & Personnel safety in Industrial Radiography

1
All ionizing radiations, whether electromagnetic (gamma-γ) or corpuscular (particles of alpha-α, or beta-β-), and neutrons (0n ) are
harmful to the human body.

The damage done by radiations is sinister as human senses are not capable of detecting even lethal doses of radiation. The overall
outcome of exposure to radiation is initiated by damage to the cells of the organism.

The effects of radiation may be deterministic or stochastic, early or late, of somatic or genetic type. The somatic effects (physical) can
either be immediate or delayed when the whole body is acutely irradiated with radiation doses:

Radiation measurement

Radiation measurement Instruments like dose meter, pocket dosimeter, NaI (Tl) scintillation detector and recording instruments such as
film/TLD badge have been briefly described.

Radiation hazards control includes

2 2
- Distance: Radiation exposure level which obeys the inverse square law I1 / I2 = (d2) / (d1)
- Time: total dose received by the operator is directly proportional to the total time spent. D ∞ T
µx
- Shielding: whenever X-rays/Gamma-rays/Neutron pass through any medium their intensity will be attenuated exponentially I = B I0 e-

Enclosed as well as field/open radiography Installations have been explained for radiation protection and personnel safety.
Radiation can be defined as the propagation of Energy through space or a material medium. It can be in the form of Electro-magnetic
Radiation or Energetic particles. It can be classified as

(1) Ionization Radiation which has enough energy to remove electron from an atom causing the-1atom become ionized. Examples of
4 0 1 0
ionizing radiation include: • 2α-particles • β-particles • 0n neutrons • 0γ-rays • X-rays. In ionization radiation, the particles and Electro-
magnetic radiation released by the decay of unstable atoms

(2) Non-Ionization Radiation which does not have enough energy to ionize atoms in the matter to interact with but dissipates energy in
the form of heat.. Examples are:• microwaves • visible light • laser • radio waves • Radar/TV waves • Power Transmission• Ultraviolet
radiation (except for the very shortest wavelengths)

Human beings are exposed to naturally occurring radiation, that is, radiation from sun and outer space, radioactive materials present in
the earth, food, water and even the body itself. However, levels of such radiation vary from location to location. In addition to radiation
exposure existing from the natural sources, there is radiation hazard created by man himself e.g. x-/γ rays. Such radiation are not always
harmful, they have their beneficial effects also. All this depends on the control & protection measures applied during use of this type of
radiation.

Basic Radiation Safety Measures

The objective of the radiation protection is to limit the radiation exposure so that the risk of harmful effects to the individuals and to the
society is as small as possible compared to the benefits to be derived from the ionization of radiation. The principle of radiation protection
are contained in the recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP), a division of
International Atomic Energy Authority (IAEA), concerning the limitation of doses from controllable sources upon which most
International Standards and National Rules & Regulations are based. The recommendations and the guidance provided by the
International agencies embody certain principles of particular importance to those planning to use radioactive materials in various fields
These are: [1].
(1) no practice shall be adapted unless their introduction produces positive net benefits.
(2) all exposure shall be kept as low as reasonably achievable, economic and social factors being take into account
(3) the dose equivalent to individuals shall not exceed the limits recommended by ICRP/IAEA.
(4) the design of radiation source/assembly must meet the requirements of ISO 2919

Effect of Radiation on Organisms

All living organisms are made of tiny structures known as cells. A cell essentially consists of a cell wall (in plants), cell membrane
surrounding cytoplasm which contains a nucleus. In general, the cytoplasm contains material for metabolism as proteins, enzymes etc
and the nucleus contains the basic genetic material, the DNA contained in genes spread over thread like chromosomes. Obviously, any
damage to cells by ionization radiation exposure would hamper with the normal functioning of the body.

The human body is constantly exposed to natural radiation (e.g. from space, the soil and buildings), also known as background radiation.
0 4 0
All ionizing radiations, whether electromagnetic (gamma 0γ) or corpuscular (particles in the form of alpha 2α, or beta -1β), and neutrons
1
(0n ) are harmful to the human body. The unit “absorbed dose” (D) defines the effect of radiation on various substances. D is the absorbed
dose in J/kg or Gray (Gy). The biological damage done by the various types of ionizing radiation, α, β, γ or fast neutrons, differs and
depends on the quality factor (Q). The unit to which the damage quality factor is applied is the equivalent dose H. The equivalent dose is
the product of absorbed dose (D) & quality factor (Q), calculated as
]
The Q factors for various types of radiation are indicated in the table given below [2
Type of radiation Quality factor (Q)
X and gamma radiation γ 1
Beta radiation β 1
Alpha radiation α 20
Fast Neutron n 10
Table (I)
Somatic and Genetic Effects of Radiation

The cells in the body of an organism are of two types:

1) Somatic Cells, present in every organ of the body except reproductive organs. These are concerned with all body functions.
2) Genetic cells, present in gonads (reproductive organs) and concerned with reproduction.

Effect of radiation on Somatic cells is called ‘Somatic Effects. These are manifested as (1) effect of acute irradiation i.e. heavy exposure
in a short period of time e.g. erythemia, skin burn, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, hemorrhage and even death; or (2) effects of chronic irradiation
i.e. light (low) exposure over a long period of time e.g. leukemia (blood cancer),thyroid cancer, radiation cataract etc.
Page 1
 The somatic effects can either be immediate or delayed. Given below is a summary [3] of immediate effects when the whole body is
acutely irradiated with a range of radiation doses

Doses Received Somatic Effects

0 - 0.25 Sv No manifested injuries and no clinical effects
0.5 - 1 Sv Reduction in lymphocytes and neutrophils with delayed recovery. Delayed effects may shorten life. No clinical symptoms
1 - 2 Sv Mild ARS (acute radiation syndrome): Nausea, fatigue, dizziness. Vomiting in 10-50% cases within 24 hours starting 2 hours
after exposure or later. No disability
2 - 4 Sv Moderate ARS: Nausea, fatigue, dizziness, loss of appetite. Vomiting within 2 hours in 70-90% of exposed persons. Latent period
of 2 to 3 weeks where the victim seems relaxed and recovering The critical period follows with epilation, loss of appetite and
general weakness accompanied by fever, inflammation of the mouth and throat, diarrhoea, nose bleeding. Death due to
infections could occur in 0-50% within 2 months without proper treatment.
4 - 6 Sv Severe ARS: Nausea, weakness, loss of appetite, vomiting within one hour with 100% incidence. Mild diarrhea in less than 10%
cases with an onset of 3-8 hours following the whole body exposure. Headache in 50% cases within 4-24 hours. Fever in 80-
100% cases within 1 -2 hours. Drop of lymphocytes to about 500 on 2nd-3rd day. Latent period of 1-2 weeks followed by severe
clinical picture, fever, infections (pneumonia). Death in 50-80% within 2 months.
8 Sv > Lethal ARS: Severe nausea, fatigue and vomiting within 10 minutes followed by fever and diarrhoea and hemorrhage with no
latent period. Rate of survival is very poor and death occurs within 2 weeks in 90-100% of exposed individuals. At whole body
doses >15 Sv damage of the central nervous system characterized by cramps, involuntary movements of the muscles (ataxia)
followed by coma. Death occurs within 2 days due to cerebral odema and probably heart failure

Effect on genetic cells is ‘Genetic Effect’ and relate to genetic injuries of reproductive organs. This type effect leads to impairment of
hereditary mechanisms and manifest as sterility, physical deformation, hampered growth and even death of the offspring.

Genetic effects may be explained in the following way. It is a fact that children inherit characteristics such as appearance, strength,
resistance to disease, temperament etc. from their parents. This happens because each of the parents contributes a characteristic gene
to the reproduction process. The genes are contained in the sperm and egg cells of the parents producing them. Radiation can modify
and damage the genes. However,genetic effects have never been manifested and proved in human population exposed to radiation
(neither in A-bomb survivors) [3].
[1]
Annual Dose Equivalent Limit
It is now generally regarded that any increase in the level of exposure above the background level is harmful to both the workers dealing
with radiation and the general public. However, looking to the vast number of benefits by use of radiation survey, total rejection of such
use is not possible. Therefore the best approach is a balance between risks and benefits. For this both National and International
organizations such as ICRP, IAEA, and WHO etc. have suggested radiation protection standards. Their recommendations are followed
world over including International Labour Organization (ILO)

The annual dose equivalent has been given by the ICRP for radiation workers as well as the general public It is defined as the dose of
radiation which a person may be exposed either over a long period of time or from a single exposure, without resulting in any unacceptable
risk . Lower limits of dose equivalent value have been suggested for general public than that for the radiation worker who can accept a
higher degree of risk as a part of his /her occupation.

Thus, two categories of individuals are recommended by ICRP for radiation exposure :
1. Adults exposed during the course of their work (occupational)
2. Members of the public including children (occupational)

For planning purpose, it is considered appropriate to set the dose equivalent limits for the members of the public as a factor of ten below
that for a radiation worker.

Recommended Dose Equivalent Limits (IAEA /ICRP)

There are two types of effect of radiation based on the severity of exposure:
1. Non-Stochastic effects, where severity varies with dose, hence a threshold may occur for it.
(Nonstochastic effects are characterized by a threshold dose below which they do not occur. In other words, nonstochastic effects
have a clear relationship between the exposure and the effect. In addition, the magnitude of the effect is directly proportional to the
size of the dose. Nonstochastic effects typically result when very large dosages of radiation are received in a short amount of time)

2. Stochastic effects, where the probability of an effect occurring rather than its severity is regarded as a function of the dose without any
threshold( Stochastic effects are those that occur by chance and consist primarily of cancer and genetic effects. Stochastic effects often
show up years after exposure. As the dose to an individual increases, the probability that cancer or a genetic effect will occur also
increases.)

In case of protracted or low dose exposure, ionizing radiation may not produce immediate consequences but some delayed effects may
appear a long time after the exposure. These types of effects may be late deterministic effects (life cataract) or stochastic effects (radiation
induced cancer or genetic effects). ICRP has recommended an annual dose equivalent limit of 0.5Sv (50 rem), for non- stochastic effects
in a year to all tissues except eye lens for which the limit is 0.15Sv (15 rem) in a year .These limits apply irrespective of whether the tissues
are exposed as single or together with other tissues /organs.

For stochastic effects, the recommendation is 50mSv (5rem) for uniform radiation of the whole body.

According to the latest IAEA /ICRP recommendation, dose equivalent or dose limits & safety regulations vide (Schedule II Safety series
No. 115 of IAEA),[3] for occupational radiation workers & the members of public has been set, which are given below for ready reference.

1. Occupational workers {3}

(I) the occupational exposure of any worker shall be so controlled that the following limits be not exceeded:
(a) an effective dose of 20 mSv per year averaged over five consecutive years;
(b) an effective dose of 50 mSv in any single year;
(c) an equivalent dose to the lens of the eye of 150 mSv in a year; and
(d) an equivalent dose to the extremities (hands and feet) or the skin of 500 mSv in a year.

: For apprentices of 16 to 18 years of age who are training for employment involving exposure to radiation and for students of the same age
group, who are required to use sources in the course of their studies, the occupational exposure shall be so controlled that the following limits be
not exceeded:

(a) an effective dose of 6 mSv in a year;

(b) an equivalent dose to the lens of the eye of 50 mSv in a year and
(c) an equivalent dose to the extremities or the skin of 150 mSv in a year

(II) : When, in special circumstances, a temporary change in the dose limitation requirements is approved: {3}
The occupational dose constraint for the whole body exposures in about forty years of working of an individual is 1 Sv. The maximum
accumulated dose to a radiation worker of age N years is given by (N-18) x 20 mSv. This means that no person less than 18 years of age
can be employed for radiation work. Radiation workers such as radiographers are subjected to ionizing radiation while performing their
work. The amount of radiation dose received depends on various parameters and conditions such as time, distance, shielding and working
procedure. Thus, to ensure the safety of radiographers, it is important that supervisors or radiation protection officers continuously observe
and record the amount of radiation received by each radiographer working under them. Such an activity is called personnel monitoring. In
general, the main purpose of personnel monitoring is to ensure that the dose limit is not exceeded, to limit the exposure of the individual
radiographer, to assist the medical authority in making analysis in the case of accidental over exposure and to provide information about
work practices and personal dose history. The other type of monitoring is area monitoring in which the environment around the worker is
monitored. This includes checking the equipment containing radioactive sources, and the correctness of the exposure procedures.
Personnel monitoring devices include film badges, pocket dosimeters and thermo luminescence dosimeters (TLD), while the area
monitoring is done with the help of radiation survey meters.

2. Non-occupational workers (Public)

For all non-occupational workers and members of the public being exposed to external radiation, the above mentioned dose limits must
be reduced appreciably to keep limited the spread of radiation effects, if any. The criteria and dose limits specified by Schedule II of IAEA
Safety Series No. 15 [2] for this category of personnel are as given below:

(I): The estimated average dose to the relevant critical groups of members of the public that are attributable to practices shall not exceed
the following limits:

(a) an effective dose of 1 mSv in a year;

(b) in special circumstances, an effective dose of up to 5 mSv in a single year provided that the average dose over five consecutive
years does not exceed l mSv per year;
(c) an equivalent dose to the lens of the eye of 15 mSv in a year; and
(d) an equivalent dose to the skin of 50 mSv in a year.

External Radiation Hazards Evaluation

By breathing contaminated air, drinking contaminated water, working with contaminated hands, radioactive materials can enter into the body
and get deposited in specific organs of the body; they will continuously irradiate the organs of the body until eliminated. In order to control
such internal radiation hazards, it is necessary to use safe handling device and limit the contamination levels in the working area, in air as
well as water below the values recommended by ICRP/IAEA. However, in the case of industrial radiography, radiation sources used in
either doubly encapsulated sealed isotopes or x-ray machines as such, pose only external hazards. In case any damage to the source
capsule during accident, proper care should be taken against contamination and associated internal radiation hazards
[1]
The evaluation of external radiation hazards such as in the case of industrial radiography and other the used of sealed sources is
usually done by (1) Area Monitoring (2) Occupational Personnel Monitoring (Film / TLD Badges)

Area Monitoring
Since the ionizing radiation can not be detected by senses, suitable detector and measuring equipment or survey meter are used for
monitoring the radiation areas so as to confirm that the radiation levels prevailing around the location of use of radiation sources as well
as within the maximum are under permissible levels. The radiation levels in those areas occupied by the occupational worker should not
exceed 2.5mR/hr (25 µSv) e.g. in the control room. In areas occupied by the non-occupational worker the radiation level should not exceed
0.25 m R/hr (2.5 µSv) e.g. in the workshop, office room etc. These working limits are subject to the condition that the annual dose equivalent
limits are not exceeded. It is also necessary to inspect the proper storage of all radiation sources and also the adequacy of storage facilities
available. There are various survey meters available with which the radiographer can measure or register radiation. The common radiation
survey meters are
1. Dose rate meters 2. Scintillation counters

Dose rate meters

A portable Geiger-Müller counter, (figure a) is the most commonly used Instrument for measuring dose rate, but the
more accurate & more expensive ionization chamber is used as radiation monitor as well. Both instruments measure
the electric current that is produced by ionization. The radiation level can be read instantly off a µ-ampere meter with a
µSv/h or mSv/h calibrated scale. Some radiation monitors give an audible signal when a pre-set dose is exceeded.
 [4]
Fig (a)
The instruments are used by personnel working with radioactive material or X-ray equipment, to determine the safe distance and the dose
rate for instance 7.5µSv/h at the safety barrier. GM-counter has a measuring range from 1.5µSv/h-20mSv/h in 5 auto-change ranges with
warning threshold. The display is digital as well as bar indication.
NaI(Tl) Scintillation Counters
This instrument can accurately measure & analyze radiation. An ionizing radiation incident on a sodium-iodide thallium crystal NaI(Tl) is
converted into a weak light flash signal which is amplified into electric pulses by an integrated photo-multiplier. By measuring the amplitude
and number .of these electric pulses, energy and intensity (dose rate) of the radiation can be determined. These instruments are
predominantly used for scientific purposes.

Occupational Personnel Monitoring

It is very essential that the radiation dose received by all during their schedule be regularly monitored. A complete and up-to date record
of the dose received by all the occupational personnel should be maintained by the by the employer.
(1) Film badges (2) Thermo-luminescence dosimeters TLD (3) Pocket dosimeters. (Pen type)
Every occupational personnel should always wear a personnel monitoring badge and in addition to a pocket dosimeter while handling
radiation sources. The personnel monitoring film/TLD service information can be obtained from AERB/DRP, Mumbai 400 085 .

Film badges (Film dose meters)

The film badge consists of two of X-ray films contained with filters in a holder. At the end of a specified period the
films are developed and the density measured. The radiation dose received by the badge wearer can then be
determined by consulting the density / exposure curves, and the type of radiation received can be established by
checking the densities behind the filters. Film dose meter of size 25x25x5 mm are shown in figures (b) and
(c).These are very cheap and convenient to wear. This is a reasonably accurate method of monitoring for the
occupational personnel but processing of film badges are more complicated and time consuming
[4]
Thermo luminescent dose meter (TLD badge) [5] Fig (b) Fig (c) [4]
Thermoluminescent dosimeter, TLD, is a primary form of personnel radiation monitoring dosimeter. TLD makes use of the property of
certain materials which absorb energy when exposed to x-, γ-, β and neutron radiations. On heating about 250˚C, the absorbed energy
is released in the form of visible light. A plot of light intensity emitted against temperature is known as ‘”Glow Curve” and can be measured
as the amount of energy initially absorbed though exposure to the energy source by a PMT device. The quantity of visible light emitted
(TL output) is found to be proportional to the energy absorbed by TL materials. The estimation of radiation exposure may be based on
either the height of the glow curve (differential method) or the area under the glow curve (integral method). TL materials includes calcium
fluoride (CaF), lithium fluoride (LiF), calcium sulfate (CaSO4), lithium borate (LiBr), calcium borate (CaBr), potassium bromide (Kbr) etc.
A TLD personnel monitoring system consists of 2 major parts, (a) TLD Card and (b) TLD Card Reader.

TLD Card. Material & TLD Reader [5]

TLDs are often used instead of film badges. It is worn usually for 3 months or less and then it must be
processed to determine radiation dose received, if any. TLD can measure intensity /dose as low as 50 µSv
(5mRem), same as film badges. The advantage of a TLD over other monitor is the linearity of response to
dose, its relative energy independence and sensitivity to low intensity/doses. It is also reusable & as it is read
out digitally and can be linked to a database which is the advantages over film badges.But permanent record
or re-readability and immediate readout is not possible. A TLD badge comprises of a plastic cassette
containing 3 Teflon discs (13.3 mm&0.8 mm thick) mechanically clipped on to a circular holes (12 mm)
punched to an aluminum card (52.5x30x1 mm) Aluminum plate. 3 CaSO4:Dy Teflon TLD discs are
mechanically clipped on a Aluminum plate. An asymmetric “V” cut is provided in the card to ensure its loading
in the plastic cassette. 1st disc consists of Al-Cu filter which cut of β-radiation and gives TL due to X- & γ-
radiation. 2nd disc has of plastic window which cut off soft β & records X-, γ-rays & hard β Radiation. 3rd disc
has no filter records all the radiations. The badge is affixed to the clothing of a person with the help of a
crocodile clip attached to the badge. This has been designed by BARC and is regular in personnel monitoring
since 1982, The TLD badge has shown satisfactory performance for monitoring X, β and γ doses of
occupational radiation workers. At present about 40,000 radiation workers are covered with TLD monitoring
service in nuclear industry, medical and industries as well as research institutions.
Pocket dosimeter Fig. (d), (e) & (f) Glow Curve & Temperature Profile [6]
Direct reading calibrated pocket dosimeter for received x/gamma radiation 0-2 mSv, from 30 keV consists of a quartz fibre electrometer
and a simple optic lens system housed in a fountain pen type holder, as shown in figure (g) & (h). A small charging unit is used to
electrically charge the fibre which can then be viewed through the lens. The fibre is set on the zero mark of the calibrated scale as initial
setting for the work period.

Pocket Dosimeter Fig. (g) [4 ] Charger for dosimeter Fig. (h) [4]
Any radiation will cause the charge to leak away through its ionizing effect and the fibre will move across the scale. The amount of
radiation received can be read off the calibrated scale. This type of instrument is excellent for personal protection as it is small, inexpensive
and reasonably robust. It can be easily read and records the total amount of radiation received for the work period with an accuracy of
±10 %.

Pocket Type Instrument for Personnel Monitoring

This (figure i) functions with accosting warning by increasing beep rate (approx. 1 beep/sec at 0.06 mSv/h).3 selectable sound
[4]
levels of energy range: 50 keV - 2 MV, γ - & X-radiation with energy compensation is present Fig. (i)

Page 4
Dose registration [1]
While performing the work the occupational personnel must wear TLD/Film badges (dose meters) over a specific time period for
monitoring & registration of radiation dose received. This is due to the legal requirement as per AERB/DRP regulation. Radiation dose
monitoring is carried out by AERB/DRP and is responsible for processing and viewing the reports generated. This contains the individual
irradiation doses over a specified time period as well as the accumulated dose.
Radiation Hazards Control
After evaluating the radiation hazards, it is necessary to institute strict control measures so as to minimize the hazards well
within the acceptable limits. The three fundamental factors by which external radiation hazards can be controlled are
(1) Distance (2) Time (3) Shielding

Distance: Source

Radiation exposure level obeys the Newton’s inverse square law according to which radiation intensity at a point is inversely proportional
to the square of the distance. Thus, I1/ I2= (d2)2 / (d1)2 or, I1 (d 2 = I (d )2 where 1) I2 is the
2 initial intensity
1 of radiation at a point
distance ‘d1’ from the source of radiation. I2 is the final intensity and d2 final distance. Therefore the most effective and economic means
of reducing the external exposure from radioactive materials is to maintain a maximum possible distance between the source and the
operator. This is particularly true in the case of open field industrial radiography, where it is common practice to
cordon off a certain area around the source during radiography depending upon the nature and the strength of source used, total exposure
time; and the nature of occupancies around the site. The use of remote handling device for the handling radiographic source and the long
cable between the control panel and the x-ray unit emphasizes the usefulness of the distance factor The operator should always try to
make use of the maximum available length of the manipulating device or the operating cable so that the maximum possible distance is
always maintained between the operator and the radiation source.
As a rule if the distance is double, the exposure is reduced by a factor 4 (25%) Greater distance = Less Exposure

Time: The total dose received by the operator is directly proportional to the total time spent in handling the
source. D ∞ T Where D = total dose received and T = total time. Hence, Less time = less exposure
In order to minimize the time of operation with the actual radiation sources, it is advisable to perform trial operations with
a dummy source. All exposures should be well planned in advance & executed in the minimum possible time .

Shielding: x-,γ, n-rays can travel forever until they can hit an object (shielding material). One of the 3 reactions occur :
(1)Transmission, (2) Absorption & (3) Scattering

Absorption + Scattering = Attenuation

Scattering plays an important role for radiation protection and can be broadly defined as the redirection of radiation out of the original
direction of propagation, usually due to interaction with molecules and particles Reflection; Refraction & Diffraction are just the forms
of scattering
When maximum distance and maximum time do not ensure an acceptably low radiation, adequate shielding must be provided so that the
radiation beam will be sufficiently attenuated. Whenever x-rays / gamma rays / neutron pass through any medium their intensity will be
attenuated exponentially. The reduction in intensity depends upon the nature and thickness of the medium and the energy of the radiation.
Usually high atomic number materials such as lead (Pb), depleted uranium etc are used as localized shielding materials for x- ray and
gamma ray. Concrete and brick are used as constructional shielding materials. As gamma rays emit radiations
all the time, they are always stored in well shielded containers made of high atomic number materials such as lead so
that the leakage radiation levels from the shield are well within the allowable limits. Similarly x-ray tubes are also housed
in lead shielding so as to limit the leakage radiation level other than in the direction of the primary radiation towel below
the maximum permissible leakage levels. The attenuation of x-rays and gamma rays in the shielding materials is
governed by the mathematical equation
I = I0 e-µx (narrow radiation beam)
In case of broad radiation beam, of x-ray/gamma ray with build up factor of shielding material, the equation can be written as
Wall Thickness x
I = B I0 e-µx (Broad beam)
Where
I0 = original intensity of radiation Incident radiation Intensity I0 Transmitted radiation I
I = transmitted intensity through the medium of thickness ‘x’ in cm
µ = linear absorption/attenuation co-efficient of the medium cm-1
B= build up factor Enclosure Material
It depends upon the atomic number of the material, density, thickness and energy of radiation. The value of µ increases with the atomic
number of medium and hence high atomic number materials are preferred to shielding against x-rays and gamma rays. A judicious
selection and employment of the above three factors helps in controlling the radiation hazards to a great extent. page 5
Concept of Half-Value-Layer: Attenuation Equation I = I0 e-µx The value of µ can be determined by finding the thickness of the
absorbing material which reduce the intensity of the radiation beam to half its value. Such thickness is known as Half-Value-Layer ‘T’ or
HVL. Putting I/I0 = ½ and x =T we get I/I0 = e-µx =½ or eµT=2 or µT= log2= 2.3log10 2 = 0.693 Therefore µ = 0.693 / T and
the unit is cm-1 The attenuation equation can be written as I/I0 = 2n where ‘ n’ is the HVL
Similarly Ten-Value-Layer (TVL), From the definition I/I0 = 1/10 . Therefore the effect of radiation attenuation to the thickness
shielding material 10 = eµTVL where x =TVL or log 10 = µTVL Hence µ = 2.3 /TVL and µ can be calculated if TVL is given
Therefore HVL & TVL plays an important role for calculating shielding material thickness for exposure room .

ESTIMATE TVL AND HVL FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF SHIELDING MATERIAL

[6]

Types of Materials 192 Ir 60C0

TVL HVL TVL HVL
Concrete 15.74 4.82 22.86 6.85
Steel 2.90 0.87 7.36 2.20
Lead 1.62 0.48 4,11 1.24
Tungsten 1.09 0.33 2.62 0.79
Uranium 0,93 0,28 2,29 0,69
Table (II)
More Shielding = Less exposure. Finally the philosophy of“ALARA”(as low as receivable achievable) must always be
practiced in every step of activity.

[6]
Design of Exposure Room: Specially designed enclosed space with adequate shielding to protect people in the vicinity from
radiation risk. The drawings of the installation and its surrounding including dimensions of each enclosed area and the shielding
thickness, density and the type of material on all sides including the exposure area of top and bottom should be mentioned. Plan views
of the door entries are given below showing (a) Incorrect and (b) & (c) correct method of fittings
(a) Primary Leakage Radiation due to incorrect fitting of sliding door
(b) Hinged door EXPOSURE ROOM LAYOUT SCATTERED RADIATION THROUGH ROOF
(c) Sliding door

1. Exposure Room Design 2.This is effectively reduces the lead door thickness 3. Radiation is reduced apprx.0.2% on each scatter

OTHER REQUIREMENTS OF THE DESIGN

1. For shielding calculation the total radiation dose rate, both Primary and scatter radiations including
usage and occupancy factor be taken into consideration.
2. The documentation & layout plan of the exposure room should be submitted to relevant authority–AERB /DAE- Mumbai and should
include the results of calculation, radiation level & measurement and maximum expected radiation level inside the shielded enclosure
and in all adjacent area

Safety in Radiography Installation [1]

There are two categories of Industrial Radiography Installations : (1) Enclosed Installations (2) Open Installations
Enclosed installations are those areas specifically earmarked for radiography purpose with walls of adequate thickness all around so that
the radiation levels outside the wall are well below the maximum permissible limit. Radiography work can be carried out safely inside the
enclosure without causing interference to other work outside. These types of enclosure must be there in workshop areas where non
occupational personnel are present all the time. A completely enclosed installation or an open –top cell or a pit type installation may be
selected depending on the type of object to be radiograph. An open top or pit type enclosure may be used where the objects are large in
size and also heavy, so that they may be lowered into the radiography room by means of overhead crane. In such enclosure the radiation
dose to crane operator should be well within the permissible limits. In case of open type the sky shine radiation dose around the enclosure
in the workshop should be kept below the permissible limits. The constructional material used for such installations may be bricks or
concrete. The installations should be preferably located in least occupied areas. Expert opinion on the planning of such radiography
installations may be obtained from the Radiation Protection Services Division, AERB, Mumbai-85.

Safety in Enclosed Radiography Installations

The following points are to be considered while planning radiography enclosures as well as during the use radiography sources inside
such enclosed installations.
1. Approval for radiation safety of the proposed layout of radiography enclosure should be obtained from Radiological Protection,
AERB prior to undertaking construction.
2. The radiography room should be kept locked when not in use. Entry of unauthorized persons should be prohibited.
3. The entrance door of the radiography room should be locked during exposure. A suitable interlocking unit for the door may be
incorporated so that the radiation beam cannot be made ‘ON’ when the door is open. Page 6
4. A Red light should be provided at the entrance and it should be made ‘ON’ during the exposure. A radiation zone monitor should be
installed at suitable location so as to indicate the radiation levels during exposures and also to positively indicate that the source/x- ray
machine ‘ON’ or safe position
5. In case of open top enclosure, red lights should be provided on top of the walls and should be made ‘ON’ during exposure as
warning to the crane operator.
6. All the equipment operations should be preferably done from the control room.
7. Ventilators and the exhausts should be situated at a height of not less than 2.4 m from the floor level. These ventilators or exhausts
or any such openings in the walls should be provided with suitable baffles.
8. Wherever possible the radiation beam should be directed towards the areas of minimum occupancy. The beam should never be
pointed towards the doors, windows and the control panel. Any restriction on beam directions which are assumed while planning the
installation should be strictly adhered to. This information should be prominently displayed in a poster in the radiography area.
9. The setting up of the objects, films etc for radiographic inspection should be duly compiled before starting the exposure.
10. If more than one radiation machine is used in the same room it should be ensured that only one of them is operated at a time
[1].
Field Radiography Ins Field Radiography Installation
In some cases, such as for radiography of huge objects, the same should be at the erection site. In such cases radiography work in
field /plant area is permitted subject to the approval of the site by DRP/BARC. Radiation safety during field radiography is achieved
mainly by distance factor and by instituting strict radiation surveillance procedure recommended by DRP/BARC. It is in general practice
to cordon off a certain area around the source / x-ray machine with ropes and radiation warning symbols, red light etc such that the
radiation level beyond the cordon is kept below the permissible limits. The area to be cordoned off will depend upon various factors
such as nature and strength of the radiography source, type of exposures, the work load, the nature of occupancy around etc. Entry of
unauthorized persons into these cordoned off areas during the exposures should be strictly prohibited. It is advisable to carry out field
radiography during night time or on holidays i.e. when there are no other workmen in that part of the plant. The in-charge of the work
should be thoroughly trained in radiation safety. The radiography cameras should be operated only by the certified radiographers
Radiation safety rules should be explained to all concerned workers and their co-operation should be sought in achieving safety.
Radiation warning signs exhibited around the site should include legend bearing “DANGER” –“RADIATION” – “KEEP AWAY”. Area
monitoring of these file radiography must be regularly conducted by the in-charge to conform to safe radiation levels prevailing around
the site. A log book should be maintained at the site to record the relevant details regarding day-to-day use of radiography sources.
Radiation accidents such as damage to the source of cameras or loss of radiation sources should be immediately reported to
DRP/BARC seeking their assistance. The area at which the accident has taken place should be immediately cordoned off and a strict
vigil should be kept to prevent the entry of unauthorized persons until the expert arrival
Radiographic Boundary[6]

[6]
WARNING! Radiography Work in Progress Fully Open Field Sites Storage of Radioactive Source

Storage & Transportation of Radioactive Source & X-ray Equipment [6]

The radiographic work may involve the application of either radioactive source or x-ray equipment. Hence the storage of the devices at
site should be done accordingly
 Sufficient warning notice should be displayed
 The ownership of the radioactive material should be displayed including name & address of the Company with Tel No. etc
The Storage facility of x-ray equipment is less complicated than radioactive source. It should be lockable store room.
The Storage pit of radioactive source picture is shown at the right side.
-The transportation of radioactive source at out side premise should be done according to the radiation protection regulation 1989.
-Should ensure that (a)the source is packed according to the regulation; (b) the vehicle to be used for transporting source is in good
condition; (c) the radiation level does not exceed 0.02 mSv/h; (d) all emergency equipment such as radiation signage, rope, survey
meter and necessary tools are available in the vehicle
-Any loss of gamma source during the transport or any accident shall be reported immediately AERB/Mumbai
-Source should not be moved freely from one place to another unless it is absolutely necessary to follow the regulation
-Transport of x-ray system may be undertaken under normal process..