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Nutrition in Team Sports

ARTICLE in ANNALS OF NUTRITION AND METABOLISM · JANUARY 2010

Impact Factor: 2.62 · DOI: 10.1159/000322700 · Source: PubMed

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4 Nutrition in team sports
Iñigo Mujika

Introduction
Sound hydration and nutritional strategies have been shown to be performance-determining factors in
prolonged, continuous moderate-to-high intensity exercise. Although the impact of these strategies
on performance during intermittent, high-intensity exercise that characterizes team sports has
not been studied as extensively, there is enough scientific evidence available to suggest that team
sport-specific hydration and nutrition strategies can have a major impact on performance. The pur-
pose of this article is to provide a series of guidelines on hydration and nutrition for enhancing the
performance of team sport players, based on the specific physiological characteristics and energetic
demands of team sports, and considering the nutritional factors that could contribute to fatigue in
team sports.

Physiological characteristics of team sports

Most team sports (e.g. basketball, football, hockey, rugby, volleyball) can be described as moderate-to-long duration
exercise including repeated bouts of high intensity activity interspersed with periods of low-to-moderate active recovery
or passive rest. From a physiological perspective, team sports are characterized by the moderate-to-long distances co-
vered by the players during match play (e.g. 8 to 12 km in association football), but also the variable activity pattern (e.g.
in excess of 800 activity changes per football match, including walking, jogging, cruising, sprinting, backing, jumping,
tackling and heading (1)). Players’ ability to perform repeated sprints with short duration recovery in between is an
important determinant of performance in intermittent team sports. This activity pattern determines to a great extent
the physiological requirements of team sports. As shown by physiological measurements conducted during match play,
these requirements include not only a high aerobic capacity, but also a high glycolytic capacity and a well-developed
phosphocreatine breakdown/resynthesis system (2).

Nutritional factors that could produce fatigue in team sports

Various nutritional factors could be associated with fatigue in team sports. Muscle glycogen depletion causes a reduction
in the distance covered by football players during the second half of a match. Krustrup et al. (3) observed that muscle
glycogen was reduced by 42% after a football game. Before the game, 73% of all muscle fibers were rated as full with
glycogen, whereas only 19% were still full at the end of it. Moreover, 36% of all individual fibers were almost empty of
glycogen after the game, another 11% were completely empty, and 54%, 46% and 25%of ST, FTa and FTx fibers, respectively,
were completely or almost empty of glycogen. These authors suggested that fatigue and reduced ability to perform sin-
gle or repeated sprints towards the end of a football game may be associated with reduced glycogen levels in individual
muscle fibers (3).
Dehydration, which has been show to occur during team sport competition (4), is also directly related to reduced exercise
capacity, increased perception of effort, and deterioration of mental performance and football skill performance (Table 1).

Table 1. Fluid balance measurements in selected team sports (adapted from (4)).
Sport Temperature (ºC) Humidity (%) Sweat loss (ml) Fluid intake (ml) Hypohydration (% BM)
Rugby 18-20 18-20 2160 751 1.6
Rugby 24-25 30-32 2100 150 2.5
Football 33 40 2089 657 2.5
Football 26 78 2546 242 2.9
Football 13 7 1570 0 2.1

Sweat rate and sweat composition vary extensively between individuals, and quantification of these losses plays a role
in the individualisation of a hydration strategy to optimise training and competitive performance. Various studies have
shown that elite football players do not drink sufficient volume to replace their sweat loss during training and competiti-
on. Maughan et al. (5) measured fluid balance and sweat electrolyte losses during a competitive football match played at
an ambient temperature of 6-8 degrees C (relative humidity 50-60%). Study results showed a large individual variability
in hydration status, sweat losses, and drinking behaviours in this cool environment, highlighting the need for individua-
lized assessment of hydration status to optimize fluid-replacement strategies. The net fluid loss during a football game
in the heat often reaches >2% of body mass, and correlations can be observed between net-fluid loss and repeated sprint
test fatigue index after the game.

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McGregor et al. (6) examined the effect of intermittent high-intensity shuttle running and fluid ingestion on the perfor-
mance of a football skill in semi-professional players. Performance of the skill test after a trial with no fluid deteriorated
by 5%, but was maintained during the fluid ingestion trial. In addition, mean heart rate, perceived exertion, serum aldos-
terone, osmolality, sodium and cortisol responses during the test were higher when no fluid was ingested. Nevertheless,
Edwards and Noakes (7) suggest that dehydration is only an outcome of complex physiological control (operating a
pacing plan) and no single metabolic factor is causal of fatigue in elite soccer. Other hydration and nutritional factors
that could produce fatigue in football include hypoglycemia, other mechanisms of “central fatigue” involving neurotrans-
mitters, hyponatremia, and gastrointestinal discomfort and upset.

Diet and team sport performance

Dietary CHO intake affects team sport performance. Balsom and colleagues (8) compared movement and technical para-
meters of performance and selected physiological responses in football players twice, following an exercise and diet (eit-
her high- approximately 65% or low- approximately 30% CHO intake) regimen designed to manipulate muscle glycogen
concentrations. Pre-game muscle glycogen concentrations following the high CHO diet were significantly higher than
following the low-CHO diet, and the players performed 33% more high intensity exercise in the game played following
the high-CHO diet. These authors suggested that to optimise multiple sprint performance a high-CHO diet should be ad-
ministered in preparation for intense training and competition (8). Abt et al. (9) examined the effect of a high-CHO diet
on the performance of dribbling and shooting skills of football players. They indicated that the high-CHO diet did not
increase the ability of players to shoot or dribble, and speculated that either muscle glycogen depletion may not impair
the ability of the player to execute game skills; alternative fatigue mechanisms such as dehydration or increased lactate
production may be causative factors in the reduction in skill performance; or the treadmill protocol employed failed to
induce a degree of glycogen depletion or fatigue large enough to cause a significant fall in skill performance (9).

Team sport athlete’s dietary habits

Dietary habits of team sport athletes’ have not been as well studied as those of individual sport athletes. Clark and col-
leagues (10) reported on baseline dietary data and performance indices of female football players during rigorous twice
a day pre-season training and then during the post-competitive season. Total energy, CHO, protein, and fat intakes were
significantly greater during the pre-season. Pre-season energy intake met the daily recommended intakes for females
with an “active” lifestyle (37 kcal/kg). Carbohydrate intake failed to meet recommendations to promote glycogen repleti-
on (7-10 g/kg), whereas protein and fat intakes were above minimum recommendations. Pre- and post-season intakes of
vitamin E, folate, copper, and magnesium were below 75% of those recommended.

In a similar investigation, Iglesias-Gutiérrez et al. (11) assessed the food habits and nutritional status of high level adole-
scent football players living in their home environment. Daily energy expenditure and energy intake were 12.5 MJ and 12.6
MJ, respectively. Protein (16% of energy intake; 1.9 g/kg of body mass), lipid (38%), and cholesterol (385 mg) intake were
above recommendations, while CHO (45%) was below. The food intake of these adolescents was based on cereals and
derivates; meat, fish, and eggs; milk and dairy products; biscuits and confectionery; and oil, butter and margarine, which
provided 78% of total energy intake, 85% of proteins, 64% of carbohydrates, 90% of lipids, and 47% of fiber. Although diet
provided sufficient iron, 48% of individuals showed iron deficiency without anemia. In general, the contribution of CHO
to total energy intake is lower than that recommended for athletes. Garrido et al. (12) reported on the adequacy of either
a “buffet-style” diet and a fixed “menu-style” diet in a group of elite adolescent football players. The set “menu” provided
significantly higher total energy and CHO intakes than the “buffet”, but calories from fat were excessive in both settings.
Calcium and vitamin D were below recommendations in the “buffet”, and fiber, magnesium, folate, vitamin A, and vita-
min E intake fell below recommended values in both settings.
All of the above suggest that well designed nutritional education and interventions are necessary to optimize perfor-
mance and promote healthy eating habits in team sport players.

Fluid and energy intake during team sport activity

Given the intermittent nature of team sports, they often offer frequent opportunities to ingest fluid
and energy during breaks between periods, time-outs, substitutions or breaks in play (4). Drinking
opportunities for selected team sports are summarised in Table 2.

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Table 2. Opportunities to drink during match-play in selected team sports (adapted from (4)).
Sport Intervals of play Opportunities to drink Comments
Basketball 4 x 10-12 min+substantial time- Quarter-time breaks, time-outs, Fluids must be consumed on
on, unlimited substitutions, substitutions court sidelines
time-outs
Field hockey 2 x 35 min, unlimited substitu- Half-time, substitutions, pauses Fluids must be consumed at
tions in play sidelines; players must not
leave field
Ice hockey 3 x 20 min+substantial time-on, Third-time breaks, time-outs, Players must drink at bench
unlimited substitutions, time- substitutions, pauses in play
outs
Rugby 2 x 40 min, limited substitutions Half-time break, substitutions, Trainers may run onto field with
pauses in play fluid bottles during pauses in
play
Football 2 x 45 min, substitutions without Half-time break, pauses in play Fluids must be consumed at
replacement (drink must be taken at sideline) sidelines; players must not
leave field
Volleyball First to 3 sets, limited substitu- Time-outs, substitutions, breaks Fluids must be consumed at
tions, time-outs between sets sidelines

Nicholas et al. (13) examined the effects of ingesting a 6.9% CHO-electrolyte (CHO-E) solution on endurance capacity
during a prolonged intermittent, high-intensity shuttle running test. The solution was ingested immediately prior to
exercise (5 ml/kg) and every 15 min thereafter (2 ml/kg). The subjects were able to continue running longer when fed the
CHO-E solution. In addition, a CHO-E solution enables subjects with compromised glycogen stores to better maintain
skill and sprint performance during intermittent shuttle running, football passing and shooting than when ingesting
fluid alone.

In addition to the physiological and metabolic benefits, investigations on the effects of CHO ingestion during prolonged
high-intensity intermittent exercise on affect and perceived exertion indicate that perceived activation is lower without
CHO ingestion during the last 30 min of exercise, and this is accompanied by lowered plasma glucose concentrations.
When CHO is ingested, RPE is maintained in the last 30 min of exercise. Thus, CHO ingestion during prolonged high-in-
tensity exercise elicits an enhanced perceived activation profile that may impact upon task persistence and performance.
Clarke et al. (14) investigated the effect of the provision of sports drink during football-specific exercise. On two occasions,
7 mL/kg CHO-E or placebo (PLA) solutions were ingested at 0 and 45 min. On a third trial, the same volume of CHO-E was
consumed in smaller volumes at 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, and 75 min. This manipulation of the timing and volume of ingestion
elicited similar metabolic responses without affecting exercise performance. However, consuming fluid in small volumes
reduced the sensation of gut fullness.

A recent investigation on the effects of low- and high-glycemic index (GI) foods on metabolism and performance during
90 min of high-intensity intermittent exercise indicated that, compared with fasting, both low-GI and high-GI foods
consumed 3 h before (1.3 g/kg CHO) and halfway (0.2 g/kg CHO) through exercise improved repeated sprint performance.
High-GI foods impaired fat oxidation during exercise, without influencing performance (15).
Nevertheless, limitations exist regarding the ability of team sport athletes to ingest fluid during match-play. Indeed,
gastric emptying of liquids is slowed during brief intermittent high-intensity exercise compared with rest or steady-state
moderate exercise, and the intensity of football match-play is sufficient to slow gastric emptying.

Supplements and team sport performance

Like most athletes, team sport athletes are often interested in the potential ergogenic edge that could be gained by
means of dietary supplements. Among these supplements, creatine (Cr) is the one that has been investigated the most
in relation with team sports, given that its purported ergogenic action (i.e. enhanced recovery of the phosphocreatine
power system) matches the activity profile of team sports. Both acute and chronic Cr supplementation may contribute to
improved training and competition performance in team sports.
Caffeine ingestion can also enhance team sport performance by improving speed, power, intermittent sprint ability, jump
performance and passing accuracy. However, conflicting results are not lacking in the literature.
Other dietary supplements with a potential but yet unclear ergogenic effect for team sport performance include induced
metabolic alkalosis via bicarbonate ingestion and bovine colostrum.

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