Nutritional Biochemistry

Nutritional Biochemistry
Nutritional Biochemistry
T he history of biochemistry actually started
with nutrition. The first biochemists explored
vitamins and how they worked, and what kind of
the vitality and health of your body depends on
what its being fed.
deficiencies you’d see if someone lacked those The Basics: Meet your Molecules and Cells
particular nutrients. Basically, they observed cer-
tain disease states, like pellegra or rickets and Language of Biochemistry — Structure and
were able to link to lack of certain foods. Chemists Function
would then isolate various chemicals from the
food to learn what the missing ingredient was. Life is organized in levels starting with the tini-
Think about the Limey sailors who discovered cit- est atom, element, and molecule, from single cell
rus fruits prevented scurvy. Only years later when up to our 100 trillion-celled human. First we start
technology evolved could biochemists discover with the smallest structures to understand what
that it was vitamin C in the limes that reversed the we’re made of and how we can tend to our proper
disease. Scientists felt that if we understood the nourishment. At every level there is a hierarchy
chemistry of the body and what wasn’t working, like the Russian dolls, one fits into another.
we could fix anything. In other words, it was better
Each part has precise structure that dictates its
living through chemistry, just plug in the missing
functions. We’ll first look at the basics and gradu-
or ‘broken’ molecule and illnesses would be fixed.
ally see our body in greater and greater complexity.
In the 1960s, biochemistry was very much a reduc-
KEY CONCEPTS: life, atom, element, molecule,
tionist discipline. Decades later, the whole person
bonds, ion, cell, structure, and function
and family become part of the “biochemical equa-
tion”, followed by stress, the mind and body.
Life’s Atoms, Elements, and Molecules
Rather than seeing biochemistry as just another
piece of academic information, we invite you to Imagine biting into a crisp juicy apple. Your mouth
enjoy the visit into the deepest molecules of life, and body are flooded with molecules and the basic
your life. Every physical part of us is chemical and elements of life. Everything physical, whether an
by understanding just a bit of this vast wondrous apple, a glass of water, or steam rising from
molecular universe you may better appreciate how the tea kettle, is made of atoms.
107
108 Bauman College: Foundations of Nutrition Textbook
Nutritional Biochemistry—CONTINUED
Atoms Each element is represented by a:
All atoms have the same basic structure. The most ¾¾ Chemical symbol
familiar physical model of the atom is the solar ¾¾ Atomic number
system. The center core of the atom (nucleus) is ¾¾ Atomic mass
surrounded by tiny orbiting particles (electrons.)
The core contains tightly packed protons (positive-
ly-charged) and neutrons (no electrical charge.)
Oxygen
Orbiting around the center, at extremely high ¾¾ Chemical symbol is O
speeds, are negatively-charged electrons. The only ¾¾ Atomic number is 8
difference between one kind of atom and another (8 protons)
is the number of electrons, neutrons and protons ¾¾ Atomic mass is 16
that make it up. Atoms are electrically neutral (8 protons + 8 neutrons)
as they have an equal number of positively and
negatively charged particles. Chemical Symbol is an abbreviation of its
chemical name
In reality, an atom is a field of energy, or actually Atomic Number is the number of positively
fields of vibrating energy. charged protons. The number of neutrons
The simplest atom is hydrogen which consists of and electrons is the same number as the
one proton in the nucleus with one electron orbit- number of protons.
ing around. An atom that loses or gains an electron Atomic Mass is the “weight” or total of the
becomes electrically charged and is now called an ION. protons plus neutrons, basically it’s the
mass of the core nucleus.
You can think of atoms as letters (unlimited
potential), elements are words (defined meaning
and properties), and molecules are sentences What chemical symbols do you already know?
(specific directive usefulness.) Hydrogen? Carbon? Chlorine?
The number of electrons equals the number of

Elements protons in an atom; however, since an electron
An element is the smallest physical unit of an is so small it’s not considered in the mass of an
atom that retains distinctly different properties. atom. Basically, the electrons are the particles in
an element that move and determine the chemical
An element is made up of one kind of atom. Most properties.
elements are solid and most are metals. So far, 113
elements have been discovered. Examples: oxygen, Russian scientist Dmitri Mendeleev discovered an
nitrogen, and lead. We don’t eat elements though ele- order to the elements that he called families which
mental sulfur is sometimes used in the garden or a share similar properties. He put these families into
winery. We breathe in elemental oxygen and nitrogen. a grid, The Periodic Table of Elements. Each column
of elements share some common properties. The
Elemental oxygen is made up of two atoms of elements that the human body can use are those
oxygen; this is also molecular oxygen. All this with lower molecular weights, basically those on
nomenclature is confusing yet its understand- the first four rows of the Periodic Table. Remember
ing will help you grasp a useful overview of the the only difference between each of the elements
chemistry of food and metabolism. is the number of protons, electrons and neutrons,
which are invisible subatomic particles.
NC103: Nutritional Biochemistry 109
Elements of Life ¾¾ Sulfur (S)
¾¾ Iron (Fe)
Carbon (C), Oxygen (O), Hydrogen (H), and
Nitrogen (N) are the primary elemental ingredients ¾¾ Sodium (Na)
for life. Life on the planet earth is carbon-based. ¾¾ Zinc (Zn)
Some scientists speculate that life on other plan- ¾¾ Chlorine (Cl)
ets could be silicon-based and not use carbon.
Plants use a lot of silicon in their stems, and glass ¾¾ Magnesium (Mg)
and sand are mostly silicon (aka silica). ¾¾ Silicon (Si)
¾¾ Potassium (K)
What is your body made of? ¾¾ Plus the trace elements like chromium (Cr)
The elemental ingredients of the human body are and molybdenum (Mo)
shown in the following proportions, in the graph The carbon we obtain comes from plant food
below. or meat, oxygen comes from the air, and water.
The mineral elements like sulfur, calcium, and
All the Rest magnesium come from the soil which ultimately
gets into plant and animal food. Our bodies can-
Another 1% of the body’s elemental makeup
not make any of the mineral elements. They must
includes all of these:
come from food or supplements.
% in body
70
65
60
50
40
30
20 18
10
10
3
1.5 1 1
0
oxygen carbon hydrogen nitrogen calcium phosphorus all the rest
Molecules: The Ultimate Bonding Embrace charged (anion.) Most inorganic compounds,
metals and minerals like calcium, selenium, and
When we eat something our body revamps the potassium form ionic bonds. Ionic bonds are easily
atoms and molecules into molecules we need to broken by water. Ionic compounds can separate
survive. Molecules are made of one or more atoms in water and transmit electricity. These are then
held together by chemical bonds. To form new called electrolytes.
molecules, molecules either share their electrons or
give some away. What our bodies need for energy,
Examples:
growth, protection, and repair are molecules.
2 atoms Hydrogen (H) + 1 of oxygen (O) partner
The old saying that opposites attract is certainly
to create water (H2O) by sharing electrons. (actual
true at the molecular level. Charged particles are
chemistry is one molecule of hydrogen (H2) and
always ready for a little bonding.
one oxygen (O2).) Sodium (Na) meets chlorine
(Cl) and gives it an electron to produce the very
Bonding Relationships salty sodium chloride (NaCl) with sodium being +
Shared Electrons (covalent bonds) — charged (Na+), chloride negative (Cl-.)
Electrically neutral, tight, cohesive
relationships TASTE TIP
COVALENT BONDS are formed when two atoms The taste of salty or sour is because of the ions
share a pair of electrons between them. Most sodium (Na+) for salty, hydrogen (H+) for sour.
organic compounds are built through covalent They touch onto the taste receptors and imme-
bonding. For example, covalent bonds are found in diately enter inside the cells through ion chan-
carbon dioxide, water, and glucose. nels or pores. Though table salt is more than
95% sodium chloride, depending on its source,
Covalent bonds can be single (C–C), double (C=C) it can contain other minerals depending on its
or triple (C=
–C) depending on how many pairs of source and how crystalized. Iodized table salt has
electrons are shared. Single bonds means one been treated with potassium iodide and may also
pair of electrons is shared. They are part of every include aluminum, calcium, magnesium carbonate
organic molecule. Double bonds share two pairs and silicon dioxide. The latter prevents caking.
of electrons, and are found in unsaturated fatty
acids and aromatic amino acids like tyrosine. The taste of salty tells the body this is an essen-
Polyunsaturated fatty acids have several double tial mineral source. The taste of sweet gives the
bonds. Very few chemicals in our bodies have message this is an energy source and usually a
triple bonds. sugar. Sour says this is an acid, unripe, fermented
or spoiled. Bitter tastes warn of danger and most
Electrons Given Away (ionic) — Magnetic, often are from nitrogen-containing alkaloids. The
electrically charged 5th taste of umami or savory tells the brain that
the food is a source of nitrogen, usually an amino
IONIC bonds are formed when electrons trans- acid or protein. Recently a 6th taste receptor for
fer from one atom to another. Table salt (sodium fat has been proposed. In the wisdom of the body,
chloride) is a perfect example. Sodium is a posi- the universal pleasurable tastes are savory and
tively charged ion (cation) and chloride, negatively sweet, essentials for survival.
increase the loss to 3 or 4 quarts or liters. There’s
Naming Molecules careful regulation of our fluid levels particularly
in blood volume which must be at least 3.5 liters.
The name of a molecule gives us clues to its
Our cells make a small amount of water each day,
chemistry. For instance, a molecular name
about 0.2 liter (200 ml) yet much less than we
that ends in –ol tells us that the elements
need. Therefore taking in adequate amounts of
have combined to make an alcohol. Names
pure water or liquids is essential for cellular and
that end in –ate, such as sulfate tells us its
body health.
a salt and electrically charged. Examples
include sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) Recommended daily fluid intake is about 2.5
NaHCO3, and monosodium glutamate (MSG.) quarts of water that can come from liquid or food.
Whether it comes from an orange, an apple or
a piece of cheese, your body can pull out water
Water: Essential Molecule For Life from everything you consume.
Water is the smallest and simplest of our food Some metric conversions:
molecules yet is the basis for all life. Water is a
¾¾ 28.5 grams = one ounce
major molecule of our bodies comprising any-
where from 60-75% depending on the specific ¾¾ 1 liter = 1000ml and is about 1 quart
tissue. Just think of all the fluids that are part of ¾¾ 454 grams (g) = 1 pound
us — blood, saliva, and urine. ¾¾ 1 kilogram (kg) = 2.2 pounds
Water is the only liquid essential for life; it is a Amount of water in some foods:
major component of our blood, cells, and the spac-
¾¾ 1 whole cooked egg weighs about 50g has
es between cells. Water’s unique structure helps
37g water. (74%)
organize molecules into specific relationships.
¾¾ 1 celery stalk (40g) has 38g (95%)
The next time you sip water, consider that it is
¾¾ a piece of cheddar cheese, 1 oz. has 10g
unlike any other molecule. It can dissolve many of
water (35%)
the molecules we need, hence is called the univer-
sal solvent for other charged, polar, or water lov- ¾¾ 1 oz. almonds (24 nuts) has 1.4g (~5%)
ing (hydrophilic) molecules. It stabilizes tempera- (2009 www.realage.com; www.nal.usda.gov)
ture. Cells owe their shape and rigidity partially
to water. Most essential molecules of life dissolve If we don’t get enough water we run into dangers
and transport easily in water. — toxicity, fatigue and constipation. Water makes
up the bulk of the blood circulating in your body.
The Body’s Water Use: A Simple Overview And blood moves waste and nutrients around.
Therefore, the more we limit our fluid intake, the
In our lifetime we will likely consume the equiva- more concentrated the waste becomes, the less
lent of more than two 9,000 gallon tanker trucks available nutrients. Over time this can account for
of water. And we lose almost that much as well. a lot of fatigue and exhaustion. So for yourself
There’s a constant loss of water through the skin, and your clients, when fatigue is a major issue,
lungs, urine and feces, about 2.5 quarts a day. ask about fluid intake.
Sweating alone in extreme heat or workouts can
Acids, Bases and pH The lower the number the more acidic; the higher
the pH, the more alkaline. Some whole foods may
Water has very special properties as mentioned measure acid pH; however, after digestion they
earlier. It also dissociates (separates) into its deliver more alkaline products.
hydrogen ions. Positively-charged hydrogen ions,
called protons, have dramatic effects on other
TASTE TIPS
molecules. Molecules that release protons (H+) are
acids. However, water is not considered an acid The more free hydrogen (H+) in solution, the more
since it releases equal portions of protons (H+) sour the taste. We only taste things that can be
and negatively charged hydroxyl ions (-OH-); they dissolved in our saliva — water soluble.
balance each other out. Proton concentration is so
significant we have a specialized taste sensation Basics of Life: Our Cells
to estimate it: sourness. The word acid comes from
Latin acere for sour taste. Most acids taste sour. Water is the molecule that allows life to happen
and the human body contains thousands of differ-
We also have a special measurement — pH. ent molecules, some we can make in our cells, like
A measurement of the degree of acidity (or lack DNA and protein; others we must obtain from our
of it) is determined by pH. The pH scale measures food like vitamins and minerals.
the relative concentration of protons and ranges
from 0-14. Neutral pH is 7, acids are below 7; We are chemical wonders. Molecules organize into
substances are considered alkaline or basic when communities that form all the structures neces-
pH is above 7. The following pH scale shows the sary for life. Understanding how our cells work
range of proton activity of common household gives us a greater knowledge of the role good
solutions, food and body fluids. Gastric fluid is nutrtion plays at the micro level.
1.3-3, lemon juice is 2.1, and blood is 7.4 while
urine and saliva are normally around 6.4.
NUMBER OF
pH LEVEL PROTONS SUBSTANCE
0 10,000,000 Battery acid
1 1,000,000 Stomach hydrochloric acid
2 100,000 Gastric acid, lemon, vinegar
3 10,000 Grapefruit or orange juice, soda
4 1,000 Tomato juice, acid rain
5 100 Soft drinking water, coffee
6 10 Urine, saliva, milk
7.0 0 Distilled water
7.4 Human blood
8 0.1 Sea water
9 0.01 Baking soda, toothpaste
10 0.001 Milk of Magnesia, Great Salt Lake
11 0.0001 Ammonia solution
12 0.00001 Soapy water
13 0.000001 Bleach, oven cleaner
14 0.0000001 Liquid drain cleaner, lye
Functions Essential to Life Smallest Unit of Life is the Cell
Believe it or not, the definition of life is not ¾¾ A cell is the smallest functioning unit of a
agreed upon, yet does include the following living organism and carries out the basic
requirements: functions of life including reproduction.
Most scientists do not consider viruses
¾¾ Ability to grow and reproduce (making
alive since they need the machinery of a
more of themselves)
living cell to reproduce.
¾¾ Find and use food — metabolism (trans-
form food to energy and raw materials) ¾¾ The size and health of a cell is influenced or
limited by its genes, the nutrients it can take
¾¾ Reproduction, maintain structural integrity
in, and how well it gets rid of its wastes.
and repair
¾¾ Genetic intelligence ¾¾ Cells exchange molecules with its environ
ment through diffusion, active transport
¾¾ Discard waste
(requires energy), ingestion, and cellular
¾¾ Sense and respond to stimuli, communication ‘eating’ (pinocytosis and phagocytosis.)
¾¾ Adapt to the environment
¾¾ Everything we need for physical survival is
¾¾ Movement maintained by the life of our cells. The hu-
man body is composed of about 10 trillion and proteins, depending upon cell function and
cells originating from one fertilized egg location.
cell. During embryonic development cells
A cell membrane is made up of 2 layers of fats that
specialize and take on unique features and
have the lipid parts facing towards each other and
responsibilities such as blood cells and liver
the polar charged portion of the molecule facing
cells, skin and muscle. Though different
the watery internal and external environments of
in specialized tasks they also share basic
the cell. Lipids are fat-loving and water-fearing
features and functions.
(hydrophobic) molecules. Fats are lipids and are
insoluble in water. Phospholipids are the form of
Architecture and Components of Our Cells fats in the cell membrane.
Life needs a container! Molecules merge to form The 3 major fats in the membrane are fatty acid,
a container with a resilient flexible surface that cholesterol, and phosphoglycerides (phospholipids.)
protects, defends and defines the cell self. This is Fatty acids are chains of carbon atoms with an
called the plasma membrane. acid group at one end and a methyl group at the
other, and can be saturated, trans or unsaturated.
Cell Membranes: Creating the Container Some fatty acids are linoleic, linolenic, and stearic.
For Life
An acid group, also called carboxylic group has a
formula of COOH. The part of the molecule with
Functions of the Cell Membrane
an acid group is water soluble. A methyl group
In animal cells, the outside surface is called the has a formula of CH3 and that portion is lipid
plasma or cell membrane, not cell wall. Plant cells soluble. A hydrocarbon is a combination of methyl
have the more rigid cell walls. groups with CH in between which shows why it is
NOT soluble in water. H3C-CH2-CH2- CH3
Cell membranes:
¾¾ Hold things in, let things out, and protect The shape of the fatty acids regulates membrane
function and permeability. Both can be altered
¾¾ Insulate forming boundaries and provide
by fatty acid composition of the diet. Saturated
identity
and trans fats are straight chains which make
¾¾ Provide discriminating flexible, semi-per- the membrane more rigid, less flexible. On the
meable barriers other hand, cis bonds, the natural double bonds in
fats prevent tight packing and allow for space in
The plasma membrane has a role in cell-cell rec-
the membranes. Cis bonds have kinks and allow
ognition, maintenance of cell shape, and cell loco-
flexibility in the membrane. These spaces can
motion. The initiating site of action for many hor-
move around within the membrane and can be
mones and metabolic regulators is on the plasma
filled with water and small ions. Phosopholipids
membrane.
contain fatty acids.
The composition of our cell membranes is greatly
In the diagram of fatty acids below, palmitate
influenced by diet. The primary components
is saturated and you can see that is is a long
are fats, proteins and cholesterol. The physical
straight molecule. Oleic (oleate) is unsaturated
properties of the fats control the shape, function
and at the double bond the molecule bends. In the
and fluidity of the membrane.
cell membrane this creates space for nutrients to
The composition may vary in terms of specific fats come into the cell.
Protein Structures in Cell Membranes
In addition to lipids, proteins are the other major
component of all plasma membranes. Proteins have
definite orientation within and across the mem-
brane. Most have parts that are made of hydropho-
bic (water-hating) amino acids which interact with
the lipids stabilizing the protein-lipid complex of
the membrane. Hydrophobic amino acids include
valine and leucine. Membranes also contain hydro-
philic amino acids that protrude into the outside of
the cell and its interior. Water-loving amino acids
include glutamic acid and glycine among many
others. A protein contains a combination of essen-
tial and non-essential amino acids and can be from
50 amino acids long to hundreds in the chain.
Cholesterol, the 3rd major lipid in membranes,
is a compact rigid hydrophobic molecule con- Membrane Protein Roles:
structed from 4 fused rings. It is a steroid structure. ¾¾ Movement of molecules across the mem-
Membranes exhibit the greatest variation in per- brane into the cell — transporters
cent composition because the amount of cholester- ¾¾ Structural integrity of cell
ol is affected by the nutritional state of the animal.
¾¾ Enzymes
Cholesterol content influences how flexible the cell
membrane is. Cholesterol, steroid hormones we ¾¾ Receptors, information receivers, recognition
make or drugs we take, like cortisol, hydrocortisone, ¾¾ Identity, markers of identity, antigens
or prednisone, change the flexibility of the
membrane and how information is transmitted. Cell membranes are affected by diet and can be
damaged by the internal environment of the body
from oxidants and free radicals, excess cholesterol,
Dietary Fats and Cell Function
and trans fats.��
Wherever there’s a high concentra-
The healthy function of our cells depends on the tion of fats, especially unsaturated fats, there’s
flexibility of the cell membranes which in turn is a risk of oxidation and free radical damage.
influenced by the quality of fats in it — too much Composition of the membrane will affect enzyme
trans or saturated fat make the membranes less activity, immune system phagocytosis (micro-
flexible. Cholesterol also influences this by making bial ingestion), cell growth, and receptor activity
part of the membrane too fluid and other parts (transmission of information.)
less so. We use both saturated fats and choles-
terol in our diet; and our cells can make these. A The Cytoskeleton — Cellular Muscle and
current theory is that trans fats, saturated fats Intelligence
and cholesterol make the cell membranes more
rigid. Fluidity influences how well nutrients can The diagram at the top of the following page
get into the cell, how the receptors respond to shows the membrane with the cytoskeleton con-
information and how well the immune cells are necting to it. The diagram below it illustrates how
able to eliminate pathogens. the cytoskeleton connects every part of the cell.
The cytoskeleton is probably the most complex and
Image of microtubular matrix from Scientific American Jan. 1998 The Architecture of Life by Donald Ingber, M.D.
least understood part of the cell. Its made of pro- ¾¾ Regulate cell growth, mitosis, death, and
tein structures shaped like tubes and strands in a genetic signals
variety of sizes — microfilaments, intermediate fila- ¾¾ Possibly cellular decision-making
ments and microtubules. It is the underlying matrix
of the cell straddling from the cell membrane Some scientists believe that the microtubules of
throughout the cytoplasm of the cell. The cyto- the cytoskeleton are the seat of consciousness
plasm is the watery gel-like material that fills the with the ability to sense other cells.
inside of the cell. Microfilaments are made of con-
Cell shape, stability, integrity, movement and
tractile proteins actin and myosin. Microtubules,
growth are managed by cellular tension, pulling
larger in size, function as “tracks” to move along
and pushing on the cables of the cell.
organelles and molecules made by the cells.
Mitochondria: Energy Banks

Functions of the Cytoskeleton:
¾¾ Structural scaffolding or matrix of the cell Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration
and contain enzymes to convert food into usable
¾¾ Transport intracellular nutrients
energy. Carbohydrate sources and the breath
¾¾ Movement and cell shape
(oxygen) find their way into the mitochondria brane, primarily protein, is folded into crypts or
to be tranformed into cellular energy called ATP, cristae containing all the enzymes of the Krebs
adenosine triphosphate. cycle, fatty acid oxidation and ATP production.
All intracellular organelles, like the mitochondria

and nucleus are surrounded by their own mem- Functions
brane. The mitochondria has distinctly different Aerobic energy produced by mitochondria depends
lipid composition (cardiolipin — diphosphatidylg- on the essential ingredients transported into the
lycerol) than the plasma membrane. This lipid is mitochondria. Carbohydrate products enter in
also found in bacteria! via acetyl CoA. Fatty acids and pyruvate require
carnitine to transport them into this space which
Mitochondria have their own DNA and genes that
also transports mitochondrial waste out into the
are unique structures inherited primarily from the
cytoplasm.
mothers (and the past.) Mitochondria possess the
machinery to manufacture their own genetic mate- When proteins (amino acids), lipids or carbohy-
rial and necessary proteins for their specific func- drates are oxidized, energy is released and can be
tions. They replicate their DNA and divide mainly in coupled with chemical reactants which repackage
response to the energy needs of the cell. Cells with the energy into ATP.
the largest energy needs, like muscle, have the most
number of mitochondria, can be up to 1000 per cell! Cell health is compromised by oxidative stress,
nutrient depletion, oxygen levels, mitochondrial
DNA mutations. And the mitochondria themselves
Structure
can be damaged by their own physiology if the
Consists of two membranes — an outer one per- free electrons they transfer get “loose.” Nutrient
meable to most small molecules and the inner requirements for mitochondrial health includes
one that doesn’t allow molecules to readily pass electron quenchers (antioxidants) alpha lipoic
through it. The outer membrane is about equal acid, CoQ10, and glutathione (GSH) plus glucose,
amounts of protein and lipid. This inner mem- oxygen, B vitamins, magneisum, and copper.
#2 nucleus
#5 and 6 where pro-

tein synthesis and
packaging takes place
#7 cell membrane
#9 mitochondria
#13 microtubules in
form of centrioles
Image from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Mitochondrial dysfunction is considered to be part The most common simple sugars are constructed
of many neurological and muscle diseases includ- from 5 or 6 carbons. The 6-carbon sugars —
ing Parkinson’s, fibromyalgia and chronic fatigue glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose — can ulti-
syndrome. mately be used for energy; 5-carbon sugars ribose
and deoxyribose, cannot. The 5-carbon sugars are
Your cells do what YOU do to survive — they most important as part of the backbone of our
breathe, move, eat, get rid of waste and transform genetic materials — DNA and RNA. Ribose is part
food into ingredients you need. of the ATP molecule but has no caloric value. The
only convincing data so far for the energy ben-
How We Make Energy: Energy efits of ribose is for people with congestive heart
Management failure. The body makes ribose from glucose and
though numerous energy drinks contain ribose,
Key Concepts: the data is lacking for its benefits. The 5-carbon
¾¾ What is energy? sugars are also used to construct many important
cofactors that contribute to energy metabolism
¾¾ How is it converted from our food into
so it may be this route that confers some help in
cells?
energy enhancement.
¾¾ What helps the process, what slows it
down? The 6-carbon glucose is the molecule that serves
most living things as the source for biochemical
¾¾ Without energy, there is no life!
energy. Fructose (aka levulose) is transformed to
In this section we discuss how our food becomes glucose in liver. Simple sugars can pair up with
energy for our cells, what the basic structure of other sugars to make twosomes such as sucrose,
carbohydrates is, and how we can use mind-body lactose, or maltose. Look at the diagrams of glu-
lifestyle strategies along with diet to manage our cose and fructose. They are each 6 carbons yet
energy levels. We will explore both nutritional one has the shape of a pentagon and glucose a
pathways and personal strategies for sustaining hexagon. Fructose can be converted in the body to
energy. In terms of food our emphasis will be on glucose, a time-consuming process. Now look at
carbohydrates since they are the primary chemi- sucrose that contains both connected. Sucrose is
cal resource for making energy. Fats and proteins the partnership of glucose and fructose; lactose of
are back-up sources. The essential function of mother’s milk is GALactose pairing with GLUcose.
carbohydrates in humans is for energy storage.
Carbohydrates also have secondary specialized What’s in a Name?
functions that include fine-tuning cell receptors
and membrane identity markers. Before we go into how our cells use carbohydrates
to make energy, let’s look at food labels to see
how sugar is disguised. All of these contain glu-
Carbohydrate Basics (CHO) C6H12O6
cose or can be converted to it: brown rice syrup,
Carbohydrates are so named because their molec- brown sugar, corn sweetener, corn syrup, crystal-
ular structure consists of ratios of one carbon and line fructose, dehydrated cane juice, dextrin, dex-
one water or H2O. Carbohydrates (sugars) are the trose, evaporated cane juice, fructose, fruit juice
unique gift from plants. In plants they are both concentrate, glucose, high-fructose corn syrup,
energy storage and structural support, like the honey, invert sugar, lactose, maltodextrin, malt
long stalks and stems. syrup, maltose, mannitol maple syrup, molasses,
Both cellulose and starch are long strands of glu-
cose; the big difference is how the glucose mol-
ecules are held together. In cellulose the glucose
strand is used for strength in the plant. As starch
it is an energy storage molecule. These long chains
(also known as polymers) of sugar store energy
in its chemical bonds to be used when needed.
Most animals, including humans, are unable to
break the bonds of cellulose. That’s why we call it
insoluble fiber. It may be important in minimizing
colon cancer and improving elimination.
How Cells Generate Molecular Energy (ATP)

— Our Energy Bank
All cells require chemical energy to do their work
raw sugar, rice syrup, sucrose, sugar, sorbitol, sor-
and keep us alive. At the cellular level, energy
ghum, treacle, and turbinado.
comes in the form of a high-energy molecule
And in the end, these are all sugar! They may called ATP (adenosine triphosphate), and is crafted
come from different sources and be more or less in our mitochondria. Carbohydrates are the pri-
processed but sugar is sugar. Honey and maple mary food substrate for energy production.
syrup have additional minerals and some vitamins
but they are essentially metabolized the same why Mitochondria, Another Look
as table sugar.
These cellular structures look like creatures from
outer space and in fact, millions of years ago they
Energy Storage Molecules — Complex
were microscopic organisms that could use oxygen.
Carbohydrates
They merged with organisms to which oxygen was
Starch, cellulose and glycogen are all long chains toxic. Evidence for the merger is their lipid compo-
of glucose. Starch is an energy storage carbohy- sition (found in bacteria) and their own DNA.
drate in plants. Only plants make starch. Animals,
The cells that work the hardest requiring the most
including humans do not make starch but con-
energy, like heart and muscle, have the most
struct their own version into a highly branched
mitochondria, thousands per cell. Red blood cells
molecule called glycogen. It is a stored energy
are the only cell that lacks mitochondria.
source found in liver and muscles. The human
body stores enough glycogen to provide enough The primary chemical source for cellular energy is
sugar for 24-36 hours during fasting. sugar (glucose, fructose in fruit, table sugar, com-
plex carbohydrates.) Glucose is the core molecule
Plants make long strings of hundreds of glucose
for metabolic energy conversion. Fats and proteins
molecules into starch (digestible) and cellulose
are secondary. Through the oxidation or “burn-
(indigestible.) Long chains of sugars are called
ing” of sugar or other fuel, energy is produced. The
polysaccharides. The long string of glucose in
body will burn glucose first and during vigorous
starch can be used for energy when it’s broken
exercise use up the glycogen in the muscles and
into glucose pieces.
liver. Then it will begin using up the fat for energy.
Mitochondria in each cell generate ATP through
a multi-step process called electron transport or
the respiratory chain. Every cell uses about 1 bil-
lion molecules of ATP which are replenished every
2-3 minutes; meaning we need to generate about
2-3 pounds of ATP each day. Some scientists say
we need to generate half our body weight of ATP
each day. Fortunately much of the breakdown
products for “used up” ATP can be recycled back
into ATP. This process requires adequate nutritional
intake, water, oxygen, B vitamins, Magnesium and
Coenzyme Q10. Coenzymes are factors needed to
assist an enzyme do its work. Often we just say Co.
A Simple Approach to Understanding

Energy Production
Six-carbon glucose is broken down into two 3-car-
bon units called pyruvic acid or pyruvate. This occurs
without oxygen (anaerobic) in a process called gly-
These 2 structures on the left are different ways of colysis — breaking down sugar. This is the same as
drawing glucose. Starch, cellulose and glycogen are long fermentation only it stops before alcohol production.
chains of glucose. In starch glucose is linked together
If the cycle stops at pyruvate (runs out of oxygen
with the same exact bond. In cellulose, also a long chain
or nutrients) we only get 2 molecules of ATP for
except here the glucose molecules are flipped, bound
together differently. We have no enzymes to break this
every glucose molecule. When it continues on with
bond. Glycogen has links to glucose similar to starch the burst of oxygen, up to 36 molecules of ATP can
only now the chain has branches. be generated from a single molecule of glucose.
SOURCE: http://bioweb.wku.edu/courses/BIOL115/Wyatt/ In the next oxidative phase, pyruvate loses one car-
Biochem/Carbos.htm bon into carbon dioxide then pairs with a coenzyme
(CoA) to form a high energy molecule acetyl CoA
When these stores are empty, the body will start that turns the wheel of Krebs or TCA (tricarboxylic
digesting proteins for energy. In this case, the pro- acid) cycle. Acetyl CoA (that bit of glucose left)
teins are first broken down into their amino acids enters the mitochondria where greater energy pro-
some of which can be converted into glucose. duction takes place. Through a meandering path-
way of passing down electrons — electron transport
Consider right before a marathon, an athlete typi- and oxidative phosphorylation — ATP is formed
cally eats lots of carbs like spaghetti to build up along with water and carbon dioxide (gas.)
the glycogen in the muscles. During the race easily
digestible simple sugars will be drunk or eaten to Looking at the diagram of the Krebs cycle below,
maintain energy once the glycogen is used up (the you will see the oxidative phase for energy pro-
muscle burn.) After the race, when blood sugar and duction starts with pyruvate. Notice the cofactors
glycogen is low, the body will burn fats for energy. in the rectangles on the sides, like NADH, FAD,
Hence, calories are used even after the race. acetyl CoA — these are molecules that contain B
vitamins as part of their structures. NAD/NADH
into acetyl-carnitine functions as a transporter into
the mitochondria. Carnitine is made from the amino
acid lysine. It is found in meats and limited in plants.
This process requires Vitamins C, B6, niacin, and iron.
Recipe for Energy Production

Sugar (Glucose) — can come from many sources:
¾¾ Sucrose
¾¾ Glycogenolysis (breakdown of large mol-
ecule glycogen into glucose)
¾¾ Gluconeogenesis (glucose made from new
sources fatty acids, amino acids)
¾¾ Oxygen
¾¾ Coenzyme Q10
¾¾ Phosphorus, iron and magnesium
¾¾ B Vitamins: Thiamin, niacin, pantothenic
acid, biotin, riboflavin
¾¾ Other Nutrient requirements for mitochon-
drial health: copper, alpha lipoic acid, and
glutathione (GSH.)
contain niacin. FAD/FADH contains riboflavin and Increased Requirements for Energy
CoA contains pantothenic acid. So here you can
¾¾ Growth and development, children, preg-
see if someone is depleted in B vitamins why they
nant women
could be fatigued and energy deficient.
¾¾ Healing, wounds, tissues, emotions, post-
Energy production is actually biological oxida- surgical and post-dental procedures
tion and involves removing an electron from one
¾¾ Illness
molecule and passing it onto the next (electron
transport), like a hot potato. Electron transport ¾¾ Vigorous exercise
takes 5 steps to charge up enough energy to make ¾¾ Stress
ATP. Sometimes an electron escapes and if not
trapped can cause damage to all parts of the cell. Compromises to Energy Production
Unpaired electrons give rise to potentially danger-
¾¾ Stress
ous free radicals.
¾¾ Too many free radicals
Energy production begins only when glucose or
¾¾ Mitochondria damage to DNA
other molecules can get inside the mitochondria.
Molecules forming acetyl CoA easily penetrate into ¾¾ Nutrient-deficient diet or oxygen-deficiency
the inner sanctum of the mitochondria for further
transformation. However, fats need a helping hand How does tension and stress diminish cel-
in the form of L-carnitine, which when converted lular energy and induce fatigue?
A contracted, tense muscle cell produces 2 mol- What about other sweeteners, how do they
ecules of ATP for every glucose “burned” (no glu- contribute to energy?
cose) compared to a relaxed muscle in an aerobic
state that can make 25 molecules of ATP. This The non-sucrose/glucose sweeteners taste sweet but
is because a contracted muscle moves into an most of them are not used by our cells; none can be
anaerobic stage, no oxygen. Our cells need oxygen used for energy production.. They are just discarded
to produce abundant energy. but we need to consider what kind of energy is
needed to eliminate them. The problem for the body
From a practical perspective, if someone is com- with any of these artificial sweeteners they place a
plaining of fatigue it could be because they are burden on the detoxification system. An occasional
highly stressed. When stressed our body is pre- soft drink with one of these substancs is not a prob-
pared for flight or fight, muscles contract to ready lem for most people but too many can tax the body.
us to run and they use up lots of energy in that Another consideration is that all of them, including
preparation. Here’s another lifestyle application to stevia, require chemical processing. If the goal is to
try — stress reduction, deep breathing, or medita- eat a sustainable whole food diet then avoiding all
tion — to increase energy production. artificial sweeteners makes good ecological sense
for the body and the planet.
Mitochondrial dysfunction may be considered
to be part of neurological and muscle diseases Stevia leaves, used first by native peoples in
including Parkinson’s, fibromyalgia and chronic 1,000 AD, is recognized as a “new zero calorie
fatigue syndrome. If someone is suffering from sweetener”, that now has FDA approval as a safe
muscle pain or fatigue, increasing water intake food additive. It’s about 250 times sweeter than
and considering a magnesium malate supplement sugar. But remember that although it is a natural
may help the mitochondria to recover. If the mito- substance, it does go through commercial prepa-
chondria are depleted, muscles break down, pain rations. Its first commercial use was in Japanese
and fatigue are two consequeneces. Magnesium soft drinks about 40 years ago.
malate works in a couple of ways: the magnesium
ion helps the muscles relax and is also a require- Saccharin, an artificial sweetener, was acciden-
ment for ATP production. Malate is one of the tally discovered at Johns Hopkins University abut
acids in the Krebs cycle so it bypasses the need 150 years ago is much sweeter than sugar, with
for sugar for ATP production. a slightly bitter aftertaste. It is 300 times sweeter
than sugar. Honey bees will not eat saccharin. Some
studies suggest this increases the risk of bladder
Foods as Source of Energy
cancer, though the studies were done on rats.
Root vegetables, whole grain pasta, and high
The pink packets of Sweet’N Low® contain a blend
fiber vegetables are complex carbohydrates that
of Saccharin, dextrose and cream of tartar (50
offer an abundance of slowly released glucose
years ago.) A reminder about naming chemicals –
molecules. That candy bar chock full of sucrose
endings of OSE means it’s a sugar. Dextrose is the
(glucose-fructose) is rapidly broken into glucose
same as glucose.
causing a quick burst of elevated blood sugar then
energy production. It soon runs out if there’s no Cyclamate, invented about 75 years ago has zero
ready source of glucose. calories and is 30 times sweeter than sugar. It is
now banned in the U.S.
Honey has the same number of 4 calories per
gram as table sugar. Its still sugar just less pro- The blue packets of NutraSweet® and Equal® are
cessed than white table sugar. brand names for aspartame sweetener (30 years
ago.) Aspartame is another zero calorie artificial
sweetener 200 times sweeter than sugar. Some
people don’t like its taste because it reacts with
other food flavors. Aspartame is made from amino
acids phenylalanine and aspartic acid. Limited
toxicity has been reported though people who
suffer from PKU, phenylketonuria, should not
use aspartame because it releases phenylalanine.
(2007 Critical Reviews in Toxicology.)
The yellow packets of Splenda®, Sucralose were

put into use about a decade ago. Sucralose, the
current best selling sweetener is approximately
600 times as sweet as sugar. Basically this is
a molecule of sucrose that has some of its OH
groups (hydroxyl) converted to chloride groups.
And though it belongs to a class of chemicals
called organochlorides its considered safe in small
amounts because it does not accumulate in fat
tissue like chlorinated hydrocarbons. It activates
the same taste buds as sucrose. If you compare SOURCE: http://www.fooducate.com/blog/quick-food-facts/
the structures of Sucralose and sucrose, you see sugar-synonyms/
that Cl groups have replaced 3 of the OH groups.
And though research suggests this is a ‘safe’
sweetener, unless an individual is a diabetic and With all the talk about obesity in our children,
must eliminate sugars from the diet, the option is people blame soft drinks as part of the problem.
natural sugar not manufactured chemicals. Since 1984 when Coca Cola and Pepsi switched
from sugar to high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) in
the US, obesity rates in the US have shot up and
A Comparison of Sweets and Energy
many fingers have been pointed to HFCS as the
Glucose raises blood levels quickly and provides culprit, though there are few definitive conclu-
rapid bursts of energy when it moves into the sions. HFCS is a product made from cornstarch
cells. It can also be converted into storage mol- and contains a mixture of fructose and glucose in
ecules of glycogen. Fructose, with the same struc- varying proportions. In other countries, sugar is the
tural formula as glucose but a different shape, has sweetener of these soft drinks and obesity rates
a much slower effect on blood levels as it must are lower. Though the lifestyle in these countries
first be converted into glucose in the liver. must also be factored into the problem — lack of
exercise, eating fewer meals with the family, con-
The alternative sweeteners provide the sweet taste suming fewer fresh fruits and vegetables.
but not energy sources. And because they don’t
raise blood glucose levels the tendency can be to
eat a lot of artificially sweetened foods since its
“low or no calories.” Consider what else is in that
substance.
Personal Energy Management: Holistic Awareness of Physical Body Clues to Link
Perspectives Energy to Emotions and Stress
¾¾ Pulse and breath
What Is Energy Beyond Biochemical
¾¾ Temperature and Tension
Molecules?
¾¾ Awareness exercises and body cues: Tuning
Scientists tell us that energy is the ability to cre- in
ate heat, ATP, and burn calories. But there are
¾¾ Physiological markers: Lie detector and
other immeasurable energies: life force, qi, chi,
bodymind stress
prana, faith, prayer and love. Energy is also pas-
sion, enthusiasm, emotions, and our mood. Other ¾¾ Daily energy cycles — vitality, mood and
world views of medicine, other than Western, tension affect coping with stress
include energy as the key component to health.
Different qualities of energy contribute to our Energy Losses and Stress
vitality and joy for life. Their lack contributes to
As mentioned earlier, stress causes physical ten-
fatigue and despair, pessimism and ill health.
sion it also can cause more shallow breathing
and rapid heart rate. Tension, whether physical or
Energy ABCs
mental, is a major factor in unnecessary energy
¾¾ Awareness and attitudes loss. Tense muscle cells use energy rapidly and
¾¾ Body cues replenish it inefficiently.
¾¾ Care and vultivation The brain does not know the difference between a
¾¾ Debts: stress, disease, relationships, over- real stressor and an imagined one. How we cope
load, fatigue, and burnout and think uses energy. You think about a near
¾¾ Enhancers: nourishment, sleep, stillness, accident and your cells experience stress – fight
movement, exercise, music, relationships, or flight. When our energy is used up we don’t
relaxation, community, nature, creativity cope as well with problems. We may lack the
resources, mental or physical, to handle the situa-
Personal Energy Awareness tion. One definition of stress is thinking you don’t
have the resources to handle the situation.
Understanding one’s own energy is a first step
in making healthy choices that can secure vital-
Energy Replenishment
ity and help prevent burnout and exhaustion. By
journaling you track energy ups and downs, which In reading Bruce Lipton’s Biology of Belief and
assists awareness and change. Body cues tell other mind-body books, you can see how what you
us whether we are under stress. When stressed think influences the physiology of your body. If you
or tense, the pulse rate often increases as does are in constant anxiety or believe there is a danger
muscle tension. The temperature of the hands (real or imagined), your body ‘believes’ your mind
often gets colder and we often hold our breath. and initiates the stress response, the rapid use of
Just knowing this helps you monitor where you energy for ‘fight or flight.’ Your muscles tense and
are moment to moment. It also helps you change soon you are exhausted without moving a muscle.
behaviors. For instance, you’re sitting waiting for ¾¾ Awareness — body scan, breath, fingers,
an appointment and you notice your hands are icy muscle tension, jaw, shoulders
cold. Remedy, some deep breathing or short walk,
visualizing a relaxing place.
¾¾ Journal and energy tracking — 3 weeks —
monitor lifestyle and energy levels
¾¾ Qigong
¾¾ Progressive relaxation and meditation
¾¾ Creative expression
¾¾ Laughter
¾¾ Physical exercise
Lifestyle practices to help cultivate energy,

in addition to nutritional factors
¾¾ Develop your own self-care plan from only one kind of molecule, glucose, proteins
¾¾ Spend quiet time alone are composed of about 20 different amino acids.
They can be hundreds of amino acids long and
¾¾ Do less, say no, and BE may contain several chains.
¾¾ Learn mindfulness meditation or other
meditation practice The shape of the protein influences how it will
function. You can consider proteins as the most
¾¾ Reconnect with a spiritual source
“active” molecule in your body. Protein molecules
¾¾ Recharge your batteries daily. Walk are enzymes, immune antibodies, antigens, regula-
¾¾ Hold one focused connected and meaning- tors, some hormones and cell receptors.
ful conversation each day
It is the unique structure of amino acids that
¾¾ Play, pleasure, laugh make proteins so versatile. Amino acids contain
¾¾ Value and cherish yourself both an acid group (-COOH) and a basic amino
group (NH2.) They all contain nitrogen unlike fatty
Chemistry of Structure, Support and acids that have only the acid group. Our bodies
Protection can make non-essential amino acids while we
must obtain the essential amino acids from food
We’ve looked at the basics of chemistry, our cells sources. It is the requirement for essential amino
and energy, now we take a look at the controllers acids that is particularly relevant to people choos-
of all of the processes. ing vegetarian or vegan diets.
Basic Structures for Protein Building Amino Acid Overview

We get protein from meat, fish, eggs, dairy, The primary structure of an amino acid:
veggies, beans, nuts, whole grains. and algae. ¾¾ The “R” group or side chain is what distin-
Digestion breaks down food proteins into their guishes one amino acid from another. It
building blocks- amino acids — which are then is the placeholder for a specific chemical
used to produce the proteins we need in the body, portion of a molecule. In the amino acid
like muscle, blood, hair, some hormones, skin, structure, all but the R group could be con-
enzymes, and thousands more. sidered “generic” — every amino acid has
Proteins, like starch molecules, are large long that structure.
chains (polymers.) Unlike starch, which is built
Examples of Amino Acid Types If the diet emphasizes proteins, like vegetarian,
that lack the essential amino acids, a person can
The side chain or R group classifies the amino acid as: get into grave danger since normal functional
¾¾ Aliphatic or branched proteins can not be made. However, combining
¾¾ Aromatic (cyclic compound) plant foods make a whole protein possible. Here’s
a list of common vegetarian protein sources and
¾¾ Basic (positively charged — 2 or more N
the essential amino acid that is limited in it.
groups)
¾¾ Acidic (negatively charged — 2 COOH groups) PROTEIN SOURCE LIMITING AMINO ACID
¾¾ Polar (contains additional OH, SH) Wheat Lysine
Rice Lysine
What’s Essential? Legumes Tryptophan or methionine (or
cysteine)
The eight amino acids listed below are generally Maize Lysine and tryptophan
regarded as essential. You can see that these are
the branched chain and the more complex struc-
tures. They are obtained from meat, dairy, eggs — Plants that do contain complete proteins (all
animal foods. Most plant foods lack one of more essential amino acids) are soybeans and qui-
of the essential amino acids. In addition to their noa. Unlike wheat and rice, the seed quinoa,
incorporation into proteins, essential amino acids often used as a grain, contains a balanced array
are precursors for other compounds of amino acids including lysine. Its about 14%
protein. Soy, a legume, on the other hand, also
1. Phenylalanine is used to make tyrosine
contains a complete protein but has additional
2. Valine properties that must be considered. It contains a
3. Threonine is used to make glycine and serine high concetration of phytoestrogens which influ-
4. Tryptophan is used to make serotonin, ences cell estrogen receptors. Studies from Asian
melatonin and niacin countries in which soybeans are a major protein
source show lower incidence of heart disease sex
5. Isoleucine can be used by the krebs cycle
hormone cancers (breast, ovarian, and prostate)
6. Methionine is used to make cysteine, car- linked to the lifelong consumption of soy foods.
nitine, taurine, lecithin, and phospholipids Taking soy supplements is contraindicated in
7. Leucine women with breast cancer.
8. Lysine is used to make acetyl CoA Amino acids have several functions. They all con-
Some amino acids are essential only in infants and tribute to protein structure. Some also act as neu-
growing children: cysteine (or sulfur-containing rotransmitters (regulators of brain function) such
amino acids), tyrosine (or aromatic amino acids), as glutamine and glutamic acid; others are precur-
histidine and arginine. The body does not synthe- sors to hormones (tyrosine to adrenalin; trypto-
size essential amino acids. In addition, arginine, phan to serotonin.) Some amino acids can be con-
cysteine, glycine, glutamine, histidine, proline, verted to glucose and used for energy production.
serine and tyrosine are considered conditionally The most abundant amino acid in our blood is
essential, meaning they are not usually required glutamine. Rapidly dividing cells like the GI tract,
in the diet except to specific populations that can blood cells and hair follicles all need glutamine. It
not synthesize it in adequate amounts. can cross the blood-brain barrier and can be used
as an energy source for the brain if glucose is low. foods, plant-based diet and following the lifestyle
It’s also a primary energy source for the GI tract recommendations for three months. This field is in
when the gut needs rebuilding. Raw spinach, cab- its infancy and shows great promise.
bage and parsley are good plant sources. Meat,
fish, yogurt and eggs are also good foods. Cooking Protein Functions
destroys some of it.
Enzymes
Amino Acids to Proteins: The Peptide Bond
The human body has about 100,000 different pro-
The amino group of one amino acids links to the teins and at least 5,000 enzymes. All enzymes are
acid group of another. In the process, water is proteins. Enzymes catalyze chemical reactions low-
released. The bond formed is called a peptide ering the amount of energy needed to make the
bond. Several amino acids linked together are reaction possible. In the human body, most enzymes
called peptides or polypeptides. Polypeptides can work best at body temperature and around pH 7.2.
contain up to 49 amino acids; 50 or more amino On the other hand, most digestive enzymes oper-
acids in the chain are now called a protein. You ate under acid conditions, as low as pH 2. Other
can think of a peptide as a small protein. enzymes (and proteins) are destroyed at low pH
therefore when taking oral enzymes, you must be
Protein Synthesis aware if the enzyme is active or destroyed by acid.
They must be enteric-coated to protect them from
For our bodies to produce a protein, it needs the the acid. Stomach acid will denature (break up)
directions from our genes to know the sequence most proteins and make them lose their function.
of the amino acids in the long chain. DNA in Proteins are broken down into their amino acids.
our genes contains the code that dictates which
amino acid is first in the chain, second, etc. The
Naming Enzymes
nucleus of the cell contains the genes for all the
proteins in the body, except those in the mito- A protein with a name that ends in –-ase is an
chondria. The human genome project discovered enzyme, for example lipase, amylase, and prote-
that there are about human 30,000 genes and ase. Proteins that end in –inogen tells us that it
until recently it was believed that our choices has the potential to become an enzyme provided
could not influence them. it’s acted upon by another enzyme. Examples:
pepsinogen becomes pepsin: trypsinogen becomes
Nutrigenomics is an exciting new field of study
trypsin. Most of these break down other proteins.
of how foods affect our genes. This has incredible
potential for preventing or treating certain chronic
diseases like cancer. Dr. Dean Ornish is a cardiolo-
gist who has devoted his life to lifestyle interven-
tion for decreasing or reversing illness in people
with heart disease and cancer. Lifestyle medicine
includes nutrition, stress reduction, meditation,
exercise, and group support. Ornish’s recent study
of men diagnosed with prostate cancer showed
that prostate cancer gene expression and PSA
(indicator of prostate inflammation or cancer)
SOURCE: http://www.carefreeenzymes.com/sitebuildercon-
could be diminished by eating low-fat, whole tent/sitebuilderpictures/EnzymeExample.jpg
How Enzymes Work
You can think of enzymes and what they work
upon (the substrate) as puzzle pieces. They must
fit each other exactly for the reaction to take
place. Vitamins and other cofactors like miner-
als aid in helping make the correct fit. The same
nutrients that are needed to produce any protein
are needed to make enzymes. What may differ is
that some enzymes may have a mineral like iron
or copper as part of its structure.
For example, the enzyme amylase will have starch

(long chain of glucose) as its substrate; the prod- SOURCE: http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bsci111b/immunol-
ogy/antibody.gif
ucts will be smaller units of glucose such as malt-
ose (2 glucose molecules) and glucose. The enzyme
is specific for its substrate. Using your experience Cellular Protection
chewing the cracker you detected amylase at work. When there is a microbial attack, our cells
Other important enzymes for this discussion respond with numerous reactions. The first is their
include the enzymes (bromelain, papain) that ability to recognize a foreign agent. This hap-
diminish inflammation. The source of bromelain is pens through cell receptors that activate further
pineapple and papain comes from papaya. responses. Immune cells produce chemicals that
will directly kill the organisms. One family of
The raw food advocates claim that cooking chemicals is called free radicals.
destroys the beneficial enzymes in food. That
is true. However, digestion also destroys the Free Radicals
enzymes and proteins in raw or cooked food. Our
bodies make their own enzymes from amino acids Free radicals are highly unstable since they have
they derive from food proteins, cooked or raw. an unpaired free electron that makes them ener-
getically out of balance. Free radicals get balanced
Immune Proteins – Antibodies by stealing an electron from another molecule.
This process is called oxidation and turns the sec-
The specific molecules made by the immune cells ond molecule into a free radical…. can be a chain
that react with antigens are called antibodies or reaction, one stealing electron from another.
immunoglobulins. All of these are proteins. There
are different classes of immunoglobulins that vary Foods that contain nutrients that quench free
in size and where they work. The major immuno- radicals are fruits and vegetables. In fact, numer-
globulin in our blood is IgG, in our saliva and gut, ous research studies indicate that people who eat
IgA. The basic structure of an immunoglobulin a diet rich in fruits and vegetables have a lower
consists of two chains and similar to enzymes incidence of many chronic illnesses associatd with
there is an exact fit between antibody and antigen. excess free radicals especially heart disease.
The immune cells in response to an invading Free radicals are both good and bad. Their ben-
microorganism produce other immune proteins eficial functions include microbial killing, activat-
such as cytokines, interferons, and interleukins. ing genes, liver detoxification, and blood vessel
relaxation. Their negative effects include damag-
Nutritional Biochemistry—
ing other molecules and tissues. If free radicals
damage DNA it increases the likelihood for gene
mutations. They can damage the eye and increase
the propensity for macular degeneration. They can
oxidize LDL-cholesterol increasing the likelihood
for coronary artery blockage. They can also damage
the mitochondria, which affects energy production. Glutathione (GSH)
Where Do Free Radicals Come From?

Antioxidant Activity
Our bodies make them during energy production,
When an antioxidant does its job, it becomes a
infection, and inflammatory responses. The envi-
free radical so it’s necessary to have a process
ronment also is a source in the UV light from the
that continually regenerates antioxidant activity.
sun, air pollution, cigarette smoke, pesticides and
In other words, it’s used up until regenerated by
car exhaust.
another antioxidant.
How Are We Protected? In addition to the antioxidants our bodies make,

like GSH and alpha lipoic acid, our diet contrib-
In the wisdom of the body that makes free radi- utes hundreds of different molecules that function
cals, it also makes free radical scavengers, mol- as antioxidants. Many are in produce, spices and
ecules that eliminate free radicals. These scav- those highly colored fruits and vegetables. All the
engers are called antioxidants. Free radicals are pigments, like the purple skin of a grape, are anti-
oxidants and antioxidants diminish or eliminate oxidants. They protect the fruit or vegetable from
their damaging effects. oxidation and damage from the sun and air.
Many of our enzymes have antioxidant activity Dr. Les Packer at UC Berkeley described an ‘anti-
such as superoxide dismutase. Superoxide is a oxidant network’ which includes GSH, lipoic acid,
reactive oxidant; the dismutase converts it to a coenzyme Q10, Vitamins C and E. The first three
non-reactive molecule. Some proteins, in addition we can produce though as we age we may make
to their other functions, many also have antioxi- less. These molecules can regenerate each other.
dant activity. Melatonin is an example. Scientists consider lipoic acid as one of the most
The most important antioxidant inside our cells is important to regenerate GSH. Some health profes-
glutathione, abbreviated as GSH. GSH is a tripep- sionals recommend oral GSH to help protect the
tide made up of three amino acids – glycine, glu- cells, however most of it will be broken down by
tamic acid, and cysteine. One measurement of cell the digestive tract into the 3 amino acids which
health is the level of GSH. The lower the level, the go into the pool for making any peptide or protein.
less healthy. This structure of GSH is another way Most studies recommend taking alpha lipoic acid
of drawing chemical structures. Each bend repre- as the best way to generate GSH. The water sol-
sents a Carbon atom. The active part of the mol- uble antioxidants vitamin C and GSH protects the
ecule as an antioxidant is the sulfur SH group. cytoplasm and DNA. Fat soluble antioxidants like
When GSH acts as an antioxidant it becomes Vitamin E and CoQ10 protect the cell membranes
inactive as an antioxidant so it must be recycled and unsaturated fats. Lipoic acid is both fat and
back to GSH. This is a cyclic process. Basically, water soluble and can act anyplace in the cell.
once an antoxidant does its work, it’s lost its abil-
ity to be an antioxidant until regenerated.
Other important molecules to the antioxidant immune diseases, injury, stress (physical and emo-
system are selenium and zinc salts that activate tional), hormonal imbalance and free radicals.
antioxidant enzymes.
The more we understand the biology of disease
the more inflammation is implicated as part of
Who Needs to Take Antioxidants? the process. Whereas we once saw heart disease
Healthy individuals who eat a whole food diet as a result of excess fat intake, we now know
with lots of fresh fruits and vegetables don’t really that inflamed blood vessels are the first step to
need to take supplements. However when you coronary artery disease. The inflamed tissue makes
begin to understand if you are exposed to more a welcome place for deposits of plaque. Illnesses
dangerous free radicals – chronic infections like that have been shown to have inflammation as
HIV, marathon athletes (UV, air pollutants), or a factor include diabetes, heart disease, food
chronic inflammation (diabetes, heart disease), sensitivities and Alzheimer’s. What this means to
taking antioxidant supplements may be something the nutritionist and the general population, that
to consider. The data is conflicting on whether knowing anti-inflammatory strategies, we may
antioxidant supplements can protect us from prevent or delay these illnesses.
cancer and heart disease. In addition, it is con- Histamine is the primary inflammatory molecule
troversial whether people with cancer undergoing that our cells release which initiates the whole
chemotherapy or radiation should take antioxidant process. Therefore, anyone suffering from inflam-
supplements. Some data suggest they prevent the mation, chronic illness, infection, food allergies
treatment from working; other data report that should avoid foods that contain histamine —
they help. This should always be discussed with cheeses, fermented soy foods, sauerkraut, wine,
the nutrition consultant and oncologist. vinegar, eggplant and spinach.
The Inflammatory Response Protective Foods

Inflammation is a basic immune response to dam-
Eating For Health™ and other plant-based whole
aged tissue or infection. Factors that can trigger
food dietary regimens can protect against exces-
inflammation include pathogens, allergens, auto-
sive inflammation. The Mediterranean diet rich
in fresh foods and olive oil (plus the lifestyle) has
been shown to lower the risk of heart disease and
even Alzheimer’s. Foods considered important to
good health include fatty fish high in omega 3
fats, avocados, flax, and the colorful rainbow of
foods that protect against inflammation.
In addition to foods that are protective, many herbs and

spices are potent antioxidants and anti-inflammatories.
These include Curcumin (turmeric), garlic, and onions
(quercitin.) Bioflavonoids are plant pigments that
function as antioxidants and anti-inflammatory.
SOURCE: http://www.antioxidants-for-health-and-longevity. Bioflavonoids are divided into different categories.

com/images/human-cell-network-ant.jpg Anthocyanidins are the purple and dark-red pig-
ments found in blueberries, blackberries, cranberries, REFERENCES
red and purple grapes, grape juice, and red wine. Bland, Jeffrey, Clinical Nutrition
The basic backbone of this family of chemicals. Scientific American Jan. 1998, “The Architecture of Life” by
Donald Ingber, M.D.
Flavanols, such as catechin and epicatechin, are http://www.realage.com/eat-smart/food-and-nutrition/how-
in cocoa, green tea, red wine, apples, and berries. much-water-do-you-really-need
Flavanones are found in citrus fruit, in the white http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/Data/SR17/wtrank/
material and pulp. wt_rank.html
http://www.treehugger.com/files/2009/06/from-lettuce-to-
Isoflavones are in soy products, as well as legumes. beef-what-water-footprint-of-your-food.php
Bioflavonoids should be viewed as a group of http://chemistry.about.com/od/acidsbase1/a/red-cabbage-
beneficial phytochemicals, which are most effec- ph-indicator.htm.
tive when taken from a variety of organic sources http://www.drweil.com/drw/u/QAA400285/does-ribose-
and needed in small amounts. As long as you eat really-energize
a healthy diet, rich in berries, citrus, soy, and tea, Aspartame: A safety evaluation based on current use levels,
there is no need to take bioflavonoid supplements. regulations, and toxicological and epidemiological stud-
ies. Critical Reviews in Toxicology. 2007; 37(8): 629-727.
We are a biochemical wonder when you consider http://www.teachersdomain.org/asset/tdc02_img_krebs/
that you can eat a big salad, pasta and some http://en.widipedia.org/wiki/Quinoa
chicken and all that delicious food is broken down Ornish, et al. Changes in prostate gene expression in men
into invisible building blocks for life. Our cells undergoing an intensive nutrition and lifestyle interven-
know what to do and depend upon us to feed tion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
them with the freshest most nutritious ingredi- 105: June 17, 2008, 8369-8374.
ents. When you think about the phrase — you are http://www.brighthub.com/health/diet-nutrition/arti-
cles/48612.aspx#ixzz0h39ogJLi
what you eat - you are. Choose wisely and enjoy.

Nutritional Biochemistry

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Nutritional Biochemistry

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Nutritional Biochemistry

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Nutritional Biochemistry

The number of electrons equals the number of

Mitochondria: Energy Banks

All intracellular organelles, like the mitochondria

#5 and 6 where pro-

Image from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

How Cells Generate Molecular Energy (ATP)

A Simple Approach to Understanding

Recipe for Energy Production

The yellow packets of Splenda®, Sucralose were

Lifestyle practices to help cultivate energy,

Basic Structures for Protein Building Amino Acid Overview

For example, the enzyme amylase will have starch

Where Do Free Radicals Come From?

How Are We Protected? In addition to the antioxidants our bodies make,

The Inflammatory Response Protective Foods

In addition to foods that are protective, many herbs and

SOURCE: http://www.antioxidants-for-health-and-longevity. Bioflavonoids are divided into different categories.

You might also like