PCI Strut & Tie

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
NOTATION
8.0 AASHTO SPECIFICATION REFERENCES
8.1 PRINCIPLES AND ADVANTAGES OF PRESTRESSING

8.1.1 History
8.1.2 High Strength Steel
8.1.3 Prestressing Versus Conventional Reinforcing
8.1.4 Concrete to Steel Bond
8.2 FLEXURE
8.2.1 Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
8.2.1.1 Theory
8.2.1.1.1 Stage 1 Loading
8.2.1.1.5.1 Tensile Stresses - Normal Strength Concrete
8.2.1.1.5.2 Tensile Stresses - High Strength Concrete
8.2.1.1.5.3 Tensile Stresses - LRFD Specifications
8.2.1.2 Allowable Concrete Stresses
8.2.1.2.1 Standard Specifications
8.2.1.2.2 LRFD Specifications
8.2.1.3 Design Procedure
8.2.1.4 Composite Section Properties
8.2.1.4.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.2 Procedure
8.2.1.5 Harped Strand Considerations
8.2.1.6 Debonded Strand Considerations
8.2.1.7 Minimum Strand Cover and Spacing
8.2.1.8 Design Example
8.2.1.8.1 Design Requirement 1
8.2.1.8.3.1 Strand Debonding
8.2.1.8.3.2 Harped Strands
8.2.1.8.3.3 Other Methods to Control Stresses
8.2.1.9 Fatigue
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8.2.2 Flexural Strength Design

8.2.2.1 Theory
8.2.2.2 Standard Specifications
8.2.2.2.1 Ultimate Moment Capacity
8.2.2.2.1.1 Required Parameters
8.2.2.2.1.2 Rectangular Section
8.2.2.2.1.3 Flanged Section
8.2.2.2.2 Maximum Reinforcement Limit
8.2.2.2.3 Minimum Reinforcement Limit
8.2.2.3 LRFD Specifications
8.2.2.3.1 Nominal Flexural Resistance
8.2.2.3.1.1 Required Parameters
8.2.2.3.1.2 Rectangular Sections
8.2.2.3.1.3 Flanged Sections
8.2.2.3.2 Maximum Reinforcement Limit
8.2.2.3.3 Minimum Reinforcement Limit
8.2.2.4 Flexural Strength Design Example
8.2.2.4.1.1 Standard Specifications
8.2.2.4.1.2 LRFD Specifications
8.2.2.5 Strain Compatibility Approach
8.2.2.6 Design Example - Strain Compatibility
8.2.2.6.1 Part l - Flexural Capacity
8.2.2.6.2 Part 2 - Comparative Results
8.2.3 Design of Negative Moment Regions for Members Made Continuous for Live
Loads
8.2.3.1 Strength Design
8.2.3.2 Reinforcement Limits - Standard Specifications
8.2.3.3 Reinforcement Limits - LRFD Specifications
8.2.3.4 Serviceability
8.2.3.5 Fatigue in Deck Reinforcement
8.3 STRAND TRANSFER AND DEVELOPMENT LENGTHS

8.3.1 Strand Transfer Length
8.3.1.1 Impact on Design
8.3.1.2 Specifications
8.3.1.3 Factors Affecting Transfer Length
8.3.1.4 Research Results
8 3.1.5 Recommendations
8.3.1.6 End Zone Reinforcement
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8.3.2 Strand Development Length

8.3.2.1 Impact on Design
8.3.2.4 Factors Affecting Development Length
8.3.2.5 Bond Studies
8.3.2.6 Recommendations
8.4 SHEAR
8.4.1 Standard Specifications
8.4.1.1 Flexure-Shear Strength, Vci
8.4.1.2 Web-Shear Strength, Vcw
8.4.1.3 Web Reinforcement Contribution, Vs
8.4.1.3.1 Minimum Spacing Requirements
8.4.1.3.2 Minimum Shear Reinforcement
8.4.1.4 Application of Standard Specifications to Continuous Spans
8.4.2 1979 Interim Revisions
8.4.3 LRFD Specifications
8.4.3.1 Shear Design Provisions
8.4.3.1.1 Nominal Shear Resistance
8.4.3.1.2 Concrete Contribution, Vc
8.4.3.1.3 Web Reinforcement Contribution, Vs
8.4.3.1.4 Values of β and θ
8.4.3.2 Design Procedure
8.4.3.3 Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement
8.4.4 Comparison of Shear Design Methods
8.5 HORIZONTAL INTERFACE SHEAR

8.5.1 Theory
8.5.2 Standard Specifications
8.5.3 LRFD Specifications
8.5.4 Comparison of Design Specifications
8.6 LOSS OF PRESTRESS

8.6.1 Introduction
8.6.2 Definition
8.6.3 Significance of Losses on Design
8.6.4 Effects of Estimation of Losses
8.6.4.1 Effects at Transfer
8.6.4.2 Effect on Production Costs
8.6.4.3 Effect on Camber
8.6.4.4 Effect of Underestimating Losses
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8.6.5 Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage and Relaxation Material Properties

8.6.5.1 Prediction of Creep Coefficient of Concrete
8.6.5.1.1 Creep Modification Factors
8.6.5.1.2 Modification Factors for Strength
8.6.5.1.3 Example
8.6.5.2 Prediction of Shrinkage Coefficient of Concrete
8.6.5.2.1 Shrinkage Modification Factors
8.6.5.2.2 Modification Factors for Strength
8.6.5.2.3 Example
8.6.5.3 Prediction of Relaxation of the Prestressing Steel
8.6.6 Methods for Estimating Losses
8.6.7 Elastic Shortening Loss
8.6.7.1 Computation of Elastic Shortening Loss
8.6.7.2 Elastic Shortening Example
8.6.8 Losses from the Standard Specifications
8.6.8.1 Shrinkage Loss
8.6.8.2 Elastic Shortening Loss
8.6.8.3 Creep Loss
8.6.8.4 Steel Relaxation Loss
8.6.8.5 Lump Sum Losses
8.6.9 Standard Specifications Example
8.6.10 Losses from the LRFD Specifications
8.6.10.1 Elastic Shortening Loss
8.6.10.2 Shrinkage and Creep Losses
8.6.10.3 Steel Relaxation Loss
8.6.10.4 Washington State Study
8.6.11 LRFD Specifications Example
8.6.12 Losses by the Tadros Method
8.6.12.1 Tadros Method Example
8.7 CAMBER AND DEFLECTION

8.7.1 Multiplier Method
8.7.2 Improved Multiplier Method
8.7.3 Examples
8.7.3.1 Multiplier Method Example
8.7.3.2 Improved Multiplier Method Example
8.7.4 Camber and Deflection Estimates Using Numerical Integration
8.7.4.1 Numerical Integration Example
8.8 DECK SLAB DESIGN

8.8.1 Introduction
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8.8.2 Design of Bridge Decks Using Precast Panels

8.8.2.1 Determining Prestress Force
8.8.2.2 Service Load Stresses and Flexural Strength
8.8.2.3.1 Minimum Thickness
8.8.2.3.2 Live Load
8.8.2.3.3 Reinforcement Requirements
8.8.2.3.4 Shear Design
8.8.2.3.5 Crack Control
8.8.2.4.1 LRFD Specifications Refined Analysis
8.8.2.4.2 LRFD Specifications Strip Method
8.8.2.4.2.1 Minimum Thickness
8.8.2.4.2.2 Minimum Concrete Cover
8.8.2.4.2.3 Live Load
8.8.2.4.2.4 Location of Critical Sections
8.8.2.4.2.5 Design Criteria
8.8.2.4.2.6 Reinforcement Requirements
8.8.2.4.2.7 Shear Design
8.8.2.4.2.8 Crack Control
8.8.3 Other Precast Bridge Deck Systems
8.8.3.1 Continuous Precast Concrete SIP Panel System, NUDECK
8.8.3.1.1 Description of NUDECK
8.8.3.2 Full-Depth Precast Concrete Panels
8.8.4 LRFD Specifications Empirical Design Method
8.9 TRANSVERSE DESIGN OF ADJACENT BOX BEAM BRIDGES

8.9.1 Background
8.9.1.1 Current Practice
8.9.1.2 Ontario Bridge Design Code Procedure
8.9.2 Empirical Design
8.9.2.1 Tie System
8.9.2.2 Production
8.9.2.3 Installation
8.9.3 Suggested Design Procedure
8.9.3.1 Transverse Diaphragms
8.9.3.2 Longitudinal Joints Between Beams
8.9.3.3 Tendons
8.9.3.4 Modeling and Loads for Analysis
8.9.3.5 Post-Tensioning Design Chart
8.9.3.6 Design Method
8.9.3.7 Design Example
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8.9.4 Lateral Post-Tensioning Detailing for Skewed Bridges
8.10 LATERAL STABILITY OF SLENDER MEMBERS

8.10.1 Introduction
8.10.1.1 Hanging Beams
8.10.1.2 Beams Supported from Beneath
8.10.2 Suggested Factors of Safety
8.10.2.1 Conditions Affecting FSc
8.10.2.2 Effects of Creep and Impact
8.10.2.3 Effects of Overhangs
8.10.2.4 Increasing the Factor of Safety
8.10.3 Measuring Roll Stiffness of Vehicles
8.10.4 Bearing Pads
8.10.5 Wind Loads
8.10.6 Temporary King-Post Bracing
8.10.7 Lateral Stability Examples
8.10.7.1 Hanging Beam Example
8.10.7.2 Supported Beam Example
8.11 BENDING MOMENTS AND SHEAR FORCES DUE TO

VEHICULAR LIVE LOADS
8.11.1 HS20 Truck Loading
8.11.2 Lane Loading, 0.640 kip/ft
8.11.3 Fatigue Truck Loading
8.12 STRUT-AND-TIE MODELING OF DISTURBED REGIONS

8.12.1 Introduction
8.12.2 Strut-and-Tie Models
8.12.2.1 Truss Geometry Layout
8.12.2.2 Nodal Zone and Member Dimensions
8.12.2.3 Strengths of Members
8.12.3 LRFD Specifications Provisions for Strut-and-Tie Models
8.12.3.1 Compression Struts
8.12.3.1.1 Unreinforced Concrete Struts
8.12.3.1.2 Reinforced Concrete Struts
8.12.3.2 Tension Ties
8.12.3.2.1 Tie Anchorage
8.12.3.3 Proportioning Node Regions
8.12.3.4 Crack Control Reinforcement
8.12.4 Steps for Developing Strut-and-Tie Models
8.12.4.1 Design Criteria
8.12.4.2 Summary of Steps
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8.12.5 Pier Cap Example

8.12.5.1 Flow of Forces and Truss Geometry
8.12.5.2 Forces in Assumed Truss
8.12.5.3 Bearing Stresses
8.12.5.4 Reinforcement for Tension Tie DE
8.12.5.5 Strut Capacities
8.12.5.6 Nodal Zone at Pier
8.12.5.7 Minimum Reinforcement for Crack Control
8.13 DETAILED METHODS OF TIME-DEPENDENT ANALYSIS

8.13.1 Introduction
8.13.1.1 Properties of Concrete
8.13.1.1.1 Stress-Strain-Time Relationship
8.13.1.2 Effective Modulus
8.13.1.3 Age-Adjusted Effective Modulus
8.13.1.4 Properties of Prestressing Steel
8.13.1.5 Reduced Relaxation under Variable Strain
8.13.2 Analysis of Composite Cross-Sections
8.13.2.1 Initial Strains
8.13.2.2 Methods for Time-Dependent Cross-Section Analysis
8.13.2.2.1 Steps for Analysis
8.13.2.2.2 Example Calculations
8.13.3 Analysis of Composite Simple-Span Members
8.13.3.1 Relaxation of Strands Prior to Transfer
8.13.3.2 Transfer of Prestress Force
8.13.3.2.1 Example Calculation (at Transfer)
8.13.3.3 Creep, Shrinkage and Relaxation after Transfer
8.13.3.3.1 Example Calculation (after Transfer)
8.13.3.4 Placement of Cast-in-Place Deck
8.13.3.5 Creep, Shrinkage and Relaxation
8.13.3.6 Application of Superimposed Dead Load
8.13.3.7 Long-Term Behavior
8.13.4 Continuous Bridges
8.13.4.1 Effectiveness of Continuity
8.13.4.2 Applying Time-Dependent Effects
8.13.4.3 Methods of Analysis
8.13.4.3.1 General Method
8.13.4.3.2 Approximate Method
8.13.4.3.2.1 Restraint Moment Due to Creep
8.13.4.3.2.2 Restraint Moment Due to Differential Shrinkage
8.14 REFERENCES
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NOTATION
A = area of cross-section of the precast beam [STD], [LRFD]

A = distance to pickup points from each end of the beam —
Ac = area of concrete on the flexural tension side of the member [LRFD]
Ac = area of beam cross-section —
Acv = area of concrete section resisting shear transfer [LRFD]
Acs = cross-sectional area of a concrete strut [LRFD]
Ag = gross area of section [LRFD]
Ak = area of cross-section of element k —
Ao = area enclosed by centerlines of the elements of the beam [LRFD]
Aps = area of pretensioning steel [LRFD]
As = area of non-pretensioning tension reinforcement [STD], [LRFD]
As = total area of vertical reinforcement located within a distance
(h/5) from the end of the beam [LRFD]
Asf = area of steel required to develop the ultimate compressive
strength of the overhanging portions of the flange [STD]
Asr = area of steel required to develop the compressive strength of the
web of a flanged section [STD]
Ass = area of reinforcement in strut [LRFD]
Ast = area of longitudinal mild steel reinforcement in tie [LRFD]
A*s = area of pretensioning steel [STD]
A´s = area of compression reinforcement [LRFD]
Av = area of web reinforcement [STD]
Av = area of transverse reinforcement within a distance s [LRFD]
Avf = area of shear-friction reinforcement [LRFD]
Avh = area of web reinforcement required for horizontal shear —
Av-min = minimum area of web reinforcement —
a = depth of the compression block [STD]
a = depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block [LRFD]
a = length of overhang —
b = effective flange width —
b = width of beam [STD]
b = width of top flange of beam —
b = width of the compression face of a member [LRFD]
b´ = width of web of a flanged member [STD]
bb = width of bottom flange of beam —
bv = width of cross-section at the contact surface being investigated
for horizontal shear [STD]
bv = effective web width [LRFD]
bv = width of interface [LRFD]
bw = web width [LRFD]
Ca = creep coefficient for deflection at time of erection due to loads
applied at release —
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NOTATION
CRc = loss of pretension due to creep of concrete [STD]

CRs = loss of pretension due to relaxation of pretensioning steel [STD]
C(t,t0) = creep coefficient of the concrete member at a certain age —
C(t,tj) = creep coefficient at time tj (j = 0,1,2,…) —
Cb(t,t3) = creep at time t for beam concrete loaded at time t3 —
Cd(t,t3) = creep at time t for deck concrete loaded at time t3 —
Cu = ultimate creep coefficient for concrete at time of release of
prestressing —
Cú = ultimate creep coefficient for concrete at time of application of
superimposed dead loads —
c = distance from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis [LRFD]
c = cohesion factor [LRFD]
D = dead load [STD]
D = nominal diameter of the strand [STD]
DC = dead load of structural components and non-structural
attachments [LRFD]
DW = load of wearing surfaces and utilities [LRFD]
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of the
pretensioning force [STD]
db = nominal strand diameter [STD], [LRFD]
de = effective depth from the extreme compression fiber to the
centroid of the tensile force in the tension reinforcement [LRFD]
dext = depth of the extreme steel layer from extreme compression fiber —
di = depth of steel layer from extreme compression fiber —
dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the
pretensioning tendons [LRFD]
ds = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of
nonprestressed tensile reinforcement [LRFD]
dv = effective shear depth [LRFD]
d´ = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of
nonprestressed compression reinforcement [LRFD]
E = modulus of elasticity —
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete [STD], [LRFD]
Ecb(t3) = age-adjusted modulus of elasticity for beam concrete at time t3 —
Ecd(t3) = age-adjusted modulus of elasticity for deck concrete at time t3 —
Ec(tj) = modulus of elasticity at time tj (j = 0,1,2,…) —
Ec(t0) = initial modulus of elasticity —
Ec(t,t0) = modulus of elasticity at a certain time —
Eci = modulus of elasticity of the beam concrete at transfer —
Ep = modulus of elasticity of pretensioning tendons [LRFD]
ES = loss of pretension due to elastic shortening [STD]
Es = modulus of elasticity of pretensioning reinforcement [STD]
Es = modulus of elasticity of reinforcing bars [LRFD]
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NOTATION
E*c = age-adjusted, effective modulus of elasticity of concrete for a

gradually applied load at the time of transfer of prestressing —
E*cb = age-adjusted, effective modulus of elasticity of the beam —
E*cd = age-adjusted, effective modulus of elasticity of the deck —
E*c(t,t0) = effective modulus of elasticity at certain time —
E*ck = age-adjusted, effective modulus of element k —
e = eccentricity of prestressing strands —
ec = eccentricity of the strand at midspan —
eg = distance between the centers of gravity of the beam and the slab [LRFD]
ei = initial lateral eccentricity of the center of gravity with respect to
the roll axis —
em = average accentricity at midspan [LRFD]
ep = eccentricity of the prestressing strands with respect to the
centroid of the section —
FSc = factor of safety against cracking —
FSf = factor of safety against failure —
Fb = allowable tensile stress in the precompressed tension zone at
service loads —
Fcj = force in concrete for the j th component —
Fpi = total force in strands before release —
f = stress —
fb = concrete stress at the bottom fiber of the beam —
f ć = specified concrete strength at 28 days [STD]
f ć = specified compressive strength at 28 days [LRFD]
fcds = concrete stress at the center of gravity of the pretensioning steel
due to all dead loads except the dead load present at the time the
pretensioning force is applied [STD]
fcir = average concrete stress at the center of gravity of the
pretensioning steel due to pretensioning force and dead load
of beam immediately after transfer [STD]
f ći = concrete strength at transfer [STD]
f ći = specified compressive strength of concrete at time of initial
loading or pretensioning (transfer) [LRFD]
fcgp = concrete stress at the center of gravity of pretensioning tendons,
due to pretensioning force at transfer and the self-weight of the
member at the section of maximum positive moment [LRFD]
fcu = the limiting concrete compressive stress for designing
by strut-and-tie model [LRFD]
ff = stress range [STD]
fmin = algebraic minimum stress level [STD]
fpbt = stress in prestressing steel immediately prior to transfer [LRFD]
fpc = compressive stress in concrete (after allowance for all pretensioning
losses) at centroid of cross-section resisting externally applied loads [STD]
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NOTATION
fpc = compressive stress in concrete after all prestress losses have occurred
either at the centroid of the cross-section resisting live load or at
the junction of the web and flange when the centroid lies in the
flange. In a composite section, fpc is the resultant compressive
stress at the centroid of the composite section, or at the junction
of the web and flange when the centroid lies within the flange,
due to both prestress and to the bending moments resisted by the
precast member acting alone. [LRFD]
fpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective pretension
forces only (after allowance for all pretension losses) at
extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is caused by
externally applied loads [STD]
fpe = effective stress in the pretensioning steel after losses [LRFD]
fpi = initial stress immediately before transfer —
fpj = stress in the pretensioning steel at jacking [LRFD]
fpo = stress in the pretensioning steel when the stress in the
surrounding concrete is zero [LRFD]
fps = average stress in pretensioning steel at the time for which the
nominal resistance of member is required [LRFD]
fpu = specified tensile strength of pretensioning steel [LRFD]
fpy = yield strength of pretensioning steel [LRFD]
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete [STD], [LRFD]
fs = allowable stress in steel under service loads —
f ´s = ultimate stress of pretensioning reinforcement [STD]
fse = effective final pretension stress —
fsi = effective initial pretension stress —
f *su = average stress in pretensioning steel at ultimate load [STD]
f(tj) = stress at time tj —
fr(t,t0) = relaxation stress at a certain time —
f(t0) = tensile stress at the beginning of the interval —
fy = yield strength of reinforcing bars [STD]
fy = specified minimum yield strength of reinforcing bars [LRFD]
fy = yield stress of pretensioning reinforcement [STD]
f ý = specified minimum yield strength of compression reinforcement [LRFD]
fyh = specified yield strength of transverse reinforcement [LRFD]
H = average annual ambient mean relative humidity [LRFD]
h = length of a single segment —
h = overall depth of precast beam [STD]
h = overall depth of a member [LRFD]
hcg = height of center of gravity of beam above road —
hd = deck thickness —
hf = compression flange depth [LRFD]
hr = height of roll center above road —
I = moment of inertia about the centroid of the non-composite
precast beam, major axis moment of inertia of beam [STD], [LRFD]
JUL 03

NOTATION
I = impact fraction [STD]

Ik = moment of inertia of element k —
IM = dynamic load allowance [LRFD]
Ieff = effective cracked section lateral (minor axis) moment of inertia —
Ig = gross lateral (minor axis) moment of inertia —
K = factor used for calculating time-dependent losses —
Kr = factor used for calculating relaxation loss in strand that occurs prior
to transfer —
Kθ = sum of rotational spring constants of supports —
k = factor used in calculation of average stress in pretensioning steel
for strength limit state; factor related to type of strand
[LRFD]
kc = product of applicable correction factors for creep = kla kh ks —
kcp = correction factor for curing period —
kla = correction factor for loading age —
kh = correction factor for relative humidity —
ks = correction factor for size of member —
ksh = product of applicable correction factors for shrinkage = kcp kh ks —
kst = correction factor for concrete strength —
L = live load [STD]
L = length in feet of the span under consideration for positive
moment and the average of two adjacent loaded spans for
negative moment [STD]
L = overall beam length or design span —
L = span length measured parallel to longitudinal beams [STD]
L = span length [LRFD]
LL = vehicular live load [LRFD]
Lr = intrinsic relaxation of the strand —
Lx = distance from end of prestressing strand to center of the panel [STD]
l = overall length of beam —
ld = development length —
lt = transfer length —
Mc = moment in concrete beam section —
Mcr = cracking moment [LRFD]
Mcr(t) = restraint moment due to creep at time t —
M*cr = cracking moment [STD]
Md/nc = moment due to non-composite dead loads [STD]
Mel = fictious elastic restraint moment at the supports —
Mg = unfactored bending moment due to beam self-weight —
Mg = self-weight bending moment of beam at harp point —
Mgmsp = self-weight bending moment at midspan —
Mk = element moment —
JUL 03

NOTATION
Mlat = lateral bending moment at cracking —

MLL = unfactored bending moment due to lane load per beam —
Mmax = maximum factored moment at section due to externally applied loads [STD]
Mn = nominal moment strength of a section [STD]
Mn = nominal flexural resistance [LRFD]
Mn/dc = non-composite dead load moment at the section —
Mr = factored flexural resistance of a section in bending [LRFD]
Msh = shrinkage moment —
Msr(t) = restraint moment due to differential shrinkage at time t —
Msw = moment at section of interest due to self-weight of the member
plus any permanent loads acting on the member at time of release —
Mu = factored bending moment at section [STD], [LRFD]
Mx = bending moment at a distance x from the support —
M0 = theoretical total moment in sections —
M0k = theoretical moment in section of element k —
m = stress ratio —
N = number of segments between nodes (must be even number) —
Nk = element normal force —
Nc = internal element force in concrete —
Ns = internal element force in steel —
Nu = applied factored axial force taken as positive if tensile [LRFD]
N0k = theoretical normal force in section of element k, positive when tensile —
N0 = theoretical total normal force in sections —
n = modular ratio between slab and beam materials [STD], [LRFD]
nk = modular ratio of element k —
ns = modular ratio of steel element —
PPR = partial prestress ratio [LRFD]
Pc = permanent net compression force [LRFD]
Pn = nominal axial resistance of strut or tie [LRFD]
Pr = factored axial resistance of strut or tie [LRFD]
Pse = effective pretension force after allowing for all losses —
Psi = effective pretension force after allowing for the initial losses —
Q = first moment of inertia of the area above the fiber being considered —
R = radius of curvature —
RH = relative humidity [STD]
Rn = strength design factor —
Ru = flexural resistance factor —
r = radius of gyration of the gross cross-section —
r = radius of stability
S = width of precast beam [STD]
S = spacing of beams [STD], [LRFD]
JUL 03

NOTATION
S = slab span [LRFD]

S = span between the inside faces of the beam webs [LRFD]
Sb = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the
non-composite precast beam —
Sbc = composite section modulus for extreme bottom fiber of the
precast beam —
SH = loss of pretension due to concrete shrinkage [STD]
SN = the value of the integral —
S(t,t0) = shrinkage coefficient at a certain age —
St = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the non-composite
precast beam —
Su = ultimate free shrinkage strain in the concrete adjusted for
member size and relative humidity —
s = longitudinal spacing of the web reinforcement [STD]
s = length of a side element [LRFD]
s = spacing of rows of ties [LRFD]
t = time, days; age of concrete at the time of determination of creep
effects, days; age of concrete at time of determination of shrinkage
effects, days; time after loading, days —
t = thickness of web —
t = thickness of an element of the beam —
tf = thickness of flange —
t0 = age of concrete when curing ends; age of concrete when load is
initially applied, days —
ts = cast-in-place concrete slab thickness —
ts = depth of concrete slab [LRFD]
Vc = nominal shear strength provided by concrete [STD]
Vc = nominal shear resistance provided by tensile stresses in the
concrete [LRFD]
Vci = nominal shear strength provided by concrete when diagonal
cracking results from combined shear and moment [STD]
Vcw = nominal shear strength provided by concrete when diagonal
cracking results from excessive principal tensile stress in web [STD]
Vd = shear force at section due to unfactored dead load [STD]
Vi = factored shear force at section due to externally applied loads
occurring simultaneously with Mmax [STD]
Vn = nominal shear resistance of the section considered [LRFD]
Vnh = nominal horizontal shear strength [STD]
Vp = vertical component of effective pretension force at section [STD]
Vp = component of the effective pretensioning force, in the
direction of the applied shear, positive if resisting the applied shear [LRFD]
Vs = nominal shear strength provided by web reinforcement [STD]
Vs = shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement [LRFD]
Vu = factored shear force at the section [STD], [LRFD]
JUL 03

NOTATION
Vuh = factored horizontal shear force per unit length of the beam [LRFD]
vu = average factored shear stress [LRFD]
W = total weight of beam —
w = a uniformly distributed load [LRFD]
w = width of clear roadway [LRFD]
w = weight per unit length of beam —
wc = unit weight of concrete [STD], [LRFD]
x = distance from the support to the section under question —
y = height of center of gravity of beam above roll axis
(beam supported from below) —
yb = distance from centroid to the extreme bottom fiber of the
non-composite beam —
ybc = distance from centroid to the bottom of beam of the composite section —
ybs = distance from the center of gravity of strands to the bottom
fiber of the beam —
yk = distance of the centroid of element k from edge —
yr = height of roll axis above center of gravity of beam (hanging beam) —
ys = height above soffit of centroid of prestressing force —
yt = distance from centroid to the extreme top fiber of the
non-composite beam —
ytc = distance from centroid to the top of deck of the composite section —
z = lateral deflection of center of gravity of beam —
zmax = distance from centerline of vehicle to center of dual tires —
z o = theoretical lateral deflection of center of gravity of beam with the
full dead weight applied laterally —
z ó = theoretical lateral deflection of center of gravity of beam with the
full dead weight applied laterally, computed using Ieff for tilt angle
θ under consideration —
α = super-elevation angle or tilt angle of support in radians —
α = factor used in calculating elastic shortening loss —
α = coefficient defined by (Eq. 8.6.2.5.1-3) to account for interaction
between steel and concrete in pretensioning loss calculations —
αs = angle between compressive strut and adjoining tension tie [LRFD]
β = factor indicating ability of diagonally cracked concrete to
transmit tension (a value indicating concrete contribution) [LRFD]
β1 = factor for concrete strength [STD]
β1 = ratio of the depth of the equivalent uniformly stressed compression
zone assumed in the strength limit state to the depth of the actual
compression zone [LRFD]
δc = time-dependent multiplier —
∆ = deflection —
∆ = camber measured with respect to the beam-ends —
JUL 03

NOTATION
∆fcdp = change in concrete stress at center of gravity of pretensioning

steel due to dead loads except the dead load acting at the time
the pretensioning force is applied [LRFD]
∆fpCR = loss in pretensioning steel stress due to creep [LRFD]
∆fpES = loss in pretensioning steel stress due to elastic shortening [LRFD]
∆fpR = loss in pretensioning steel stress due to relaxation of steel [LRFD]
∆fpR1 = loss in pretensioning steel stress due to relaxation of steel at
transfer [LRFD]
∆fpR2 = loss in pretensioning steel stress due to relaxation of steel after
transfer [LRFD]
∆fpSR = loss in pretensioning steel stress due to shrinkage [LRFD]
∆fpT = total loss in pretensioning steel stress [LRFD]
∆fs = total loss of prestress —
ε = strain —
εc = strain in concrete beam —
εcr = the time dependent creep strain —
εf = the immediate strain due to the applied stress f —
εfc = elastic strain in concrete —
εfk = element strain —
εfs = elastic strain in steel —
εk = strain in element k —
εp = strain in prestressing steel —
εs = strain in mild steel —
εs = tensile strain in cracked concrete in direction of tensile tie [LRFD]
εsh = free shrinkage strain —
εshb(t,t2) = shrinkage strain of the beam from time t2 to time t —
εshb(t3,t2) = shrinkage strain of the beam from time t2 to time t3 —
εshd(t,t3) = shrinkage strain of the deck from time t3 to time t —
εshu = ultimate free shrinkage strain in the concrete, adjusted for member
size and relative humidity —
εsi = strain in tendons corresponding to initial effective pretension
stress —
εx = longitudinal strain in the web reinforcement on the flexural
tension side of the member [LRFD]
ε0c = initial strain in concrete —
ε1 = principal tensile strain in cracked concrete due to factored loads [LRFD]
γ*
= factor for type of pretensioning reinforcement [STD]
φ = strength reduction factor [STD]
φ = resistance factor [LRFD]
φ = curvature —
φc = curvature at midspan —
φcr = curvature due to creep —
φfk = element curvature —
JUL 03

NOTATION
φk = curvature of element k —
φ0 = curvature at support —
λ = parameter used to determine friction coefficient µ [LRFD]
µ = Poisson’s ratio for beams [STD]
µ = coefficient of friction [LRFD]
θ = angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses [LRFD]
θ = roll angle of major axis of beam with respect to vertical —
θL = left end rotation of beam due to simple span loads —
θR = right end rotation of beam due to simple span loads —
θi = initial roll angle of a rigid beam —
θmax = tilt angle at which cracking begins, based on tension at the top corner
equal to the modulus of rupture —
θ´max = tilt angle at maximum factor of safety against failure —
ρb = reinforcement ratio producing balanced strain condition [STD]
ρ* = ratio of pretensioning reinforcement [STD]
ψ = a factor that reflects the fact that the actual relaxation is less than
the intrinsic relaxation —
χ = aging coefficient —
χ(t,t0) = aging coefficient at certain time —
JUL 03

8.12 Strut-and-Tie Modeling of Disturbed Regions/8.12.1 Introduction
8.12 Traditionally, models used in the analysis and design of concrete structures have been
STRUT-AND-TIE based on elastic theory and the basic assumption that plane sections remain plane,
MODELING OF regardless of the loading. However, it is well known that disturbances do occur in
DISTURBED REGIONS regions near discontinuities, for example, at concentrated loads and abrupt changes
in member dimensions. Such regions are referred to as “disturbed regions.”
Methods used to analyze and design disturbed regions must include procedures that
reflect the actual flow of stresses in such regions. In considering stress distribution
before cracking, it is customary to apply elastic methods of analysis, especially when
predicting where significant cracking will occur. Since significant stress redistribution
takes place after concrete cracks, elastic methods cannot adequately predict stresses
subsequent to cracking.
8.12.1 A rational method for dealing with disturbed regions subsequent to cracking is the
Introduction use of strut-and-tie models. These models can give an excellent representation of the
flow of forces in disturbed regions of cracked concrete systems.
The theoretical basis of the method prescribed in the LRFD Specifications [Article
5.8.3.4.2] for the design of a section subjected to combined shear, axial load and flex-
ure, is the modified compression field theory. This method considers the equilibrium
of forces acting on the idealized, variable-angle truss, the compatibility of strains, and
the effects of cracking of concrete. Simplifications in the method include the use of
average values of stresses and strains over a length greater than the crack spacing.
In a typical calculation for shear reinforcement, the sectional dimensions, prestress-

ing and material strengths have been chosen and the shear design involves selection
of adequate shear reinforcement and, if necessary, additional longitudinal reinforce-
ment.
Figure 8.12.1-1 shows that there are three types of regions that need to be considered
in general shear design of a beam as follows:
1) Regions that can be appropriately treated as a system of struts and ties. This
approach is discussed in this section.
2) Disturbed regions of fanning compressive stresses characterized by radiating
compressive stresses near supports and regions where the shear changes sign.
In such regions the value of θ varies.
3) Regions of uniform compressive stress fields where the value of θ is constant.
The second and third types of regions are discussed in Section 8.4.3 using the gen-
eral modified compression field theory and the corresponding LRFD Specifications
procedure.
JUL 03
7017 Bridge manual Ch 8.12 1 8/14/03, 0:59 PM

8.12.1 Introduction/8.12.2 Strut-and-Tie Models
Figure 8.12.1-1 Fanning compression field

Disturbed Regions and (θ varies)
Regions of Uniform Compression strut
Compression Fields
Uniform compression Tension tie

field (θ constant)
8.12.2 The LRFD Specifications encourage the use of strut-and-tie models in design where
Strut-and-Tie Models appropriate. It has been determined through sophisticated analysis and laboratory
testing, that cracked reinforced concrete carries load mainly by development of a
truss system represented by compressive stresses in the concrete and tensile stresses
in the reinforcement. Furthermore, upon the occurrence of significant cracking, the
originally curved principal stress trajectories in concrete tend toward straight lines,
and it is appropriate to regard the resulting compressive forces as being carried by
straight compressive struts. Examples of strut-and-tie modeling of a simply supported
and a continuous deep beam are shown in Figures. 8.12.2-1a-1b and 8.12.2-2.
Figure 8.12.2-1a-1b P P
Strut-and-Tie Model for a
Simple Deep Beam B Nodal zone C 0.85 φ f c′ max.
f cu 0.75 φf c′
ε1
P A D
Tension tie Effective
P anchorage
Anchor tension tie area
beyond this point to
develop necessary force
a) Flow of Forces
P P
Truss node
B C
Compression strut
φs
A Tension-tie D
force
P P
b) Truss Model
JUL 03

8.12.2 Strut-and-Tie Models/8.12.2.1 Truss Geometry Layout
Figure 8.12.2-2 P
P
Strut-and-Tie Model for a
Continuous Deep Beam
Tension tie
Compression strut
Important considerations in strut-and-tie modeling include the geometry of the truss

system, the nodal zone and member dimensions, and the strengths of the compres-
sion and tension members.
8.12.2.1 The significance of using correct geometry in defining a truss should be obvious in
Truss Geometry Layout the necessity to have a triangularized system of struts and ties. At first glance, the
use of a strut-and-tie truss system to resist loads seems like an easy solution that
any engineer should be readily able to accomplish. Since the real structure is a con-
tinuum, however, there are an infinite variety of trusses that could be designed inside
a concrete member. The best or most efficient truss layout will be one that most
closely fits the applied load and reaction conditions while resisting forces through
the shortest load paths.
Identification of the existing boundary conditions is the first step in selecting a truss
layout for the strut-and-tie system. In the hammerhead pier cap of Figure 8.12.2.1-
1a-1b, two different sets of boundary conditions are shown depending on the loca-
tions of the design lanes and loading on the roadway above. In Figure 8.12.2.1-1a,
the two 12 ft. design lanes are placed symmetric about the pier centerline and the
girder reactions on the pier cap, representing the top boundary condition, are all
identical. In Figure 8.12.2.1-1b, the two design lanes are shifted to the left side of
the roadway and the reactions vary across the top of the pier cap, giving a second top
boundary condition.
Regardless of the truss layout that might be selected within the pier cap, the forces in
the pier column can be directly calculated: with pure axial compression in the first case
and compression plus bending in the second case as shown in Figure 8.12.2.1-1a-1b.
In the first case, the bottom boundary condition is simply an axial force acting at the
middle of the pier. The boundary condition in the second case, however, must be cal-
culated and includes a column compression block and tension component as shown in
Figure 8.12.2.1-1b. The forces shown in the pier of Figure 8.12.2.1-1b are assumed
to exist at a distance “d” from the bottom of the pier cap – away from the disturbed
region and in the portion of the column assumed to have sectional model behavior.
JUL 03

8.12.2.1 Truss Geometry Layout
Figure 8.12.2.1-1a-1b
Pier Cap under Symmetric
and Unsymmetric Lane
Loading
uniform axia stress

axial force resultant
a) Symmetric Loads
rebar tension
compression stress block
force couple
resultant
b) Unsymmetric Loads
In the first case of Figure 8.12.2.1-1a, the truss layout in the pier cap need only
meet the condition of developing a compression thrust at the bottom of the cap. In
the second case of Figure 8.12.2.1-1b, the truss must develop both the compression
and the tension force in the pier column. Clearly two different truss layouts could be
designed depending on which set of loads/boundary conditions was being considered
as shown in Figure 8.12.2.1-2a-2b. The truss in the Figure 8.12.2.1-2b would be
inverted if the trucks were at the other side of the roadway.
JUL 03

8.12.2.1 Truss Geometry Layout/8.12.2.2 Nodal Zone and Member Dimensions
Figure 8.12.2.1-2a-2b 120k 120k 120k 120k

Truss Layouts for the
Different Load Cases tie
strut
480k
a) Symmetric Truss
212k 132k 84k 52k

tie
strut
192k
672k
b) Unsymmetric Truss
It is essential in the development of a truss layout for strut-and-tie design that:

(1) all of the possible load combinations be identified.
(2) boundary forces, including internal forces from portions of the structure having
sectional type behavior, be calculated for each controlling load condition.
(3) appropriate strut-and-tie models be laid out and designed for each set of boundary
conditions.
8.12.2.2 The nodal zones are regions where the struts and ties of the truss join. While the
Nodal Zone and truss diagrams of Figure 8.12.2.1-2a-2b idealize the truss members as connecting at
Member Dimensions points, the actual structure has struts and ties with finite dimensions. The nodal zone
sizes are related to both the effective tie member sizes and the mechanism by which
exterior loads are transferred into the structure. As shown in Figure 8.12.2.2-1a-1c
JUL 03

8.12.2.2 Nodal Zone and Member Dimensions/8.12.2.3 Strength of Members
Figure 8.12.2.2-1a-1c
Effects of Anchorage la sinθs ≤ 6d ba ≤ 6d ba
Conditions on Cross-Sectional
Area of Strut x
d ba
θs
6d ba s
6dba d ba
x la
Section x-x
a) Strut Anchored by Reinforcement
l b sinθs + ha cosθ s
lb
θs hs
6d b
ha
θs
0.5h a lb sinθ s +hs cosθs
lb
b) Strut Anchored by c) Strut Anchored by Bearing and Strut
Bearing and Reinforcement
[LRFD Specifications Commentary Figure 5.6.3.3.2-1] the dimensions of the nodal
zone and adjoining struts are controlled by the anchorage conditions of reinforcing
tie bars or bearing areas of applied loads.
8.12.2.3 The strength of tension ties depends directly on the type and strength of reinforcing
Strength of Members used in the ties. Strengths of the individual truss strut members are normally con-
trolled by the limits on stresses within the nodal zones. The nodal zone compressive
stresses are defined by the relation between compressive stress capacity and perpen-
dicular tension strains invoked by compression stress field theory. Figure 8.12.2-1a
shows the principal tension strain, ε1, which may exist perpendicular to the compres-
sion strut, BP. The strain, ε1, is dependent on the truss geometry and the tensile strain
in adjoining truss members. The adverse effect of this tensile strain in the cracked
concrete must be considered in calculating the capacity of a strut. In such struts the
limiting compressive stress, fcu, is a function of f ć and ε1. The value of ε1 is, in turn, a
function of the tension strain, εs, in the cracked concrete in the direction of the ten-
sion tie, and the angle between strut and tie.
JUL 03

8.12.3 LRFD Specifications Provisions for Strut-and-Tie Models/
8.12.3.1.1 Unreinforced Concrete Struts
8.12.3 LRFD Article 5.6.3.1 states that “strut-and-tie models may be used to determine
LRFD Specifications internal force effects near supports and the points of application of concentrated
Provisions for loads at strength and extreme event limit states.” The statement appearing in the sec-
Strut-and-Tie Models ond paragraph of this article is stronger, and more specific, namely, “the strut-and-tie
model should be considered for the design of deep footings and pile caps or other
situations in which the distance between the centers of applied load and the support-
ing reactions is less than about twice the member thickness.”
LRFD Article 5.6.3 provides the following specifications for strut-and-tie model-
ing.
8.12.3.1 The factored resistance of strut, Pr , may be calculated as:

Compression Struts
Pr = φPn [LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.2-1]
where
φ = 0.7 for bearing in concrete and for strut-and-tie models [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2-1]
Pn = nominal resistance of a compressive strut
8.12.3.1.1 The nominal axial resistance of unreinforced struts is calculated as:

Unreinforced Concrete Struts
Pn = fcu Acs [LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.3.1-1]
where
fcu = limiting compressive stress in strut and is calculated from:
fcu = f ć/(0.8 + 170ε1) ≤ 0.85f ć [LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.3.3-1]
where
ε1 is the principal tensile strain in cracked concrete, and is taken as:
ε1 = (εs + 0.002)cot2αs [LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.3.3-2]
where
αs = smallest angle between the compressive strut and adjoining tension
ties, deg
εs = tensile strain in the concrete in the direction of the tension tie, in./in.
Acs = effective cross-sectional area of the strut determined from a consideration
of the available concrete area and the anchoring or bearing conditions at the
ends of the strut [LRFD Art. 5.6.3.3.2.]
For an individual strut, the more basic expression for ε1 includes an additional term,
εs, outside the bracket of LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.3.3-2.
For a value of principal tensile strain, ε1 = 0.002, the concrete in the compression
strut can resist a compressive stress of 0.85f ć , i.e., the limit for regions of the strut
not crossed by or joined to tension ties. It is thus conservatively assumed that the
principal compressive strain, ε2, in the direction of the strut is equal to 0.002.
In the presence of a tension tie at a node, if the reinforcing bars are to yield in
tension, there must exist significant tensile strains in the concrete. In LRFD Eq.
5.6.3.3.3-2, as εs increases, ε1 increases, and fcu in LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.3.3-1 decreases.
From LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.3.3-2, it is seen that as αs decreases, cot2αs and ε1 increase,
and therefore fcu decreases. In the limit when αs = 0, the compressive strut direction
coincides with that of the tension tie (i.e., incompatibility occurs, and fcu = 0 which
is an impractical case).
JUL 03

8.12.3.1.1 Unreinforced Concrete Struts/8.12.3.3 Proportioning Node Regions
The value of Acs depends on conditions of anchoring of the strut at the node (as
shown in Figure 8.12.2.2-1a-1c); e.g.
• Strut anchored by reinforcement
• Strut anchored by bearing and reinforcement
• Strut anchored by bearing and strut
The following rules are prescribed for calculating the value of εs for substitution in
LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.3.3-2:
• For a tension tie consisting of reinforcing bars:
εs = tensile strain in reinforcing bars due to factored loads
• For tension tie consisting of prestressed reinforcement:
εs = 0.0, up to decompression of concrete (i.e., fpe)
εs = (fps − fpe)/Ep, beyond decompression
If εs varies over the width of the strut, εs is taken as the strain at centerline of the strut.
8.12.3.1.2 For a strut containing longitudinal reinforcement which is detailed to develop its
Reinforced Concrete Struts yield stress, the nominal resistanc, e, is calculated as:
Pn = fcuAcs + fyAss [LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.3.4-1]
where
Ass = area of reinforcement in strut
Acs = area of concrete strut, calculated as shown earlier
8.12.3.2 LRFD Article 5.6.3.4.1 states that the nominal strength of a tension tie should be
Tension Ties calculated as:
Pn = fyAst + Aps(fpe + fy) [LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.4.1-1]
where
fy = yield strength of longitudinal mild steel reinforcement
fpe = stress in prestressing steel due to prestress (after losses)
Ast = area of longitudinal mild steel reinforcement in tie
Aps = area of prestressing steel in tie
In the absence of mild steel, a value of fy ≈ 60 ksi may be assumed in the equation,
in order to reflect the fact that the stress in the prestressing elements will be increased
due to the strain which will cause concrete to crack. [LRFD Art. C5.6.3.4.1]
8.12.3.2.1 The tension tie reinforcement must be anchored in accordance with LRFD Article
Tie Anchorage 5.11 which deals with development of reinforcement. This ensures the satisfactory
transfer of the tension force to the node regions.
8.12.3.3 In the absence of effective confining reinforcement, it is specified in LRFD Article

Proportioning Node Regions 5.6.3.5, that the concrete compressive stress in the node regions should not exceed
the following:
• 0.85φ f ć for node regions bounded by compressive struts and bearing areas
JUL 03

8.12.3.3 Proportioning Node Regions/8.12.4 Steps for Developing Strut-and-Tie Models
• 0.75φ f ć for node regions anchoring only one tension tie

• 0.65φ f ć for node regions anchoring tension ties in more than one direction
where φ = resistance factor for bearing on concrete = 0.7 [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]
Stress limits at a nodal zone are controlled by the type of truss members meeting at the
node. At nodes B and C (Figure 8.12.2-1a) where compression members meet, and at
bearing areas at these locations, a higher compressive stress (0.85φ f ć) is allowed than at
A and D where it is necessary to anchor the tension tie, AD. In the latter case, the allow-
able maximum compressive stress is reduced to 0.75φ f ć. This limit is reduced even fur-
ther to 0.65φ f ć when tension ties converge from more than one direction at a node.
The above reductions in the presence of tension ties reflect the detrimental effect of
tensile strain in nodes in which tensile reinforcement is anchored. It can be seen that
stresses in nodal zones can be reduced by increasing the size of bearing plates, or by
increasing the dimensions of struts and tension ties.
LRFD Commentary Article C5.6.3.5 states that if ties consist of post-tensioned

tendons, and if the stress in the concrete does not exceed fpc (at centroid of the tie’s
cross-section), there is no tensile strain in the nodal zone and the limit for concrete
compressive stress may be taken as 0.85 φ f ć.
8.12.3.4 In order to control crack widths in members designed with the strut-and-tie model
Crack Control Reinforcement (except slabs and footings), and to ensure minimum ductility so that significant redis-
tribution of internal stresses is possible, LRFD Article 5.6.3.6 states that an orthogonal
reinforcing grid must be provided near each face. The spacing of bars in such a grid
should not exceed 12.0 in., and the ratio of reinforcement area to gross concrete area
should exceed 0.003 in each direction.
In general, these crack control requirements lead to a substantial amount of well-distrib-

uted reinforcement throughout the member. Accordingly, the LRFD Specifications allow
for crack control reinforcement located within the region of a tension tie to be included
in calculating the resistance of the tie.
8.12.4 The use of strut-and-tie models typically involves a trial-and-error procedure. The
Steps for Developing following steps, if followed, should help reduce the effort required:
Strut-and-Tie Models
1) Use strut-and-tie modeling for disturbed regions of the structural member. Solve
for internal forces, and their resultants outside of the disturbed regions using sec-
tional analysis with all of the controlling load combinations. These forces from
sectional analysis may be considered as boundary forces for the disturbed region
model. Apply the resultant forces to the disturbed region along with any external
loads that fall on that part of the member.
2) Assume initial models for each of the appropriate controlling load cases and bound-
ary condition force sets. Estimate likely member widths. Elastic stress distribution
may be used as a guide. Static equilibrium is then used to determine forces in mem-
bers due to factored loads. These forces are used in checking member dimensions.
It may be necessary to modify the assumed model if the members are determined to
be inadequate. A number of appropriate models for different applications are avail-
able in the literature [Guyon, (1960); Gergely and Sozen, (1967); Schlaich, et. al.,
(1987); Collins and Mitchell, (1991); Breen, et. al. (1994)].
JUL 03

8.12.4 Steps for Developing Strut-and-Tie Models/8.12.4.2 Summary of Steps
3) Draw the strut-and-tie model to a reasonably large scale. This will help avoid
errors and give a better appreciation of the proportions of the structure.
4) There is no single strut-and-tie model for a particular system. Generally, the forces
will flow in accordance with the pattern of reinforcement. Well-distributed rein-
forcement should be provided to ensure the redistribution of internal forces in the
cracked concrete.
5) Good detailing of the structure is essential to ensure that the assumed flow of
forces can be achieved in the cracked structure. Accordingly, reinforcement in
tension ties must be effectively anchored to develop the strength of the member.
Nodal zones must be checked to ensure satisfactory load transfer between struts
and ties.
6) Complicated stress fields such as fans, arches and bands can usually be replaced by
simple line struts. Unnecessary complication of the model is not warranted.
8.12.4.1 Regardless of the strut-and-tie model adopted, the following design criteria must be
Design Criteria met:
1. Limits on bearing stresses and on compressive stresses in struts
2. Satisfactory anchorage and careful detailing of tension tie reinforcement
3. Critical examination of nodal zones to determine their maximum capacities
4. Provision of adequate crack control reinforcement throughout, to ensure the
redistribution of internal stresses after cracking of concrete
8.12.4.2 Step 1 Determine bearing areas [LRFD Arts. 5.6.3.5 and 5.7.5]
Summary of Steps
Step 2 Assume appropriate truss geometry (draw a large-scale diagram)
Step 3 Select tension-tie reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.6.3.4]
Select reinforcement distribution [LRFD Art. 5.6.3.5]
Step 4 Check development of tension-tie reinforcement [LRFD Arts. 5.6.3.4.2 and 5.11]
Step 5 Check strength of compression struts [LRFD Art. 5.6.3.3.1]
Step 6 Select crack control reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.6.3.6]
Step 7 Detail structure carefully
JUL 03

8.12.5 Pier Cap Example
8.12.5 Design the pier cap shown in the figure below.

Pier Cap Example
Figure 8.12.5-1
Pier Cap Dimensions ��
��

��
��
��
��
��
��
�
� ��
�
��
� �′ ��
��
��
�
��
��
JUL 03

8.12.5.1 Flow of Forces and Truss Geometry/8.12.5.2 Forces in Assumed Truss
8.12.5.1
Flow of Forces and
Truss Geometry
Figure 8.12.5.1-1a-1d Pu = 500 kips
Pu Pu Pu Pu
Assumed Truss Geometry
3'-0" 8'-0" 8'-0" 8'-0" 3'-0"
C Tension Tie D E F
1'-0"
4'-0"
2'-6"
1'-4"
A 2'-6" 2'-6" B
a) Strut-and-Tie Model
27.4° lb = 2'-0"
1'-4"
5'-0" ha = 1'-0" 26.5°
b) Nodal Zone A, B c) Nodal Zones: C,D,E,F
500k 500k 500k 500k

8.0' 4.0' 4.0' 8.0'
FCD = 1,002.8 k FDE = 1,259.7 k FEF
C 26.5° D E F
FAD
FA F BF
= 56
C =1 5.35'
,12
0.6 θBE = 62.8°
2.1 k
k
tan θBF = 5.35/10.75 A B θBF = 26.5°
θBE = 26.5° FAB = 1,259.7 k
tan θBE = 5.35/2.75 1000 k 1000 k
θBE = 62.8° 1.25' 1.25'
d) Member Force Calculation
8.12.5.2 Node C:
Forces in Assumed Truss
500
FCD = = 1,002.8 kips
tan (26.5°)
500
FAC = = −1,120.6 kips
sin (26.5°)
Node D:
500
FAD = = −562.1 kips
sin (62.8°)
FDE = FCD + FADcos62.8° = 1,002.8 + 562.1cos62.8° = 1,259.7 kips
JUL 03

8.12.5.2 Forces in Assumed Truss/8.12.5.5 Strut Capacities
Node A:
FAB = FADcos62.8° + FACcos26.5° = 562.1cos62.8° + 1,120.6cos26.5° = −1,259.7 kips
= −FDE
8.12.5.3 Bearing Stresses at C and D:

Bearing Stresses
F < Pr = φPn = φ(0.85f ć A1m), assume m = 1 [LRFD Eq.5.7.5-2]
Allowable F/A1 = 0.7(0.85 x 5) = 2.98 ksi
500 k
Actual F/A1 = = 2.08 ksi < maximum allowable O.K.
24 (10)
Bearing Stresses at A and B:

2,000k
F/A1 = = 0.69 ksi < maximum allowable O.K.
60 (48)
Therefore, bearing stresses are acceptable.
8.12.5.4 FDE = 1,259.7 kips

Reinforcement for
Tension Tie DE φfyAst ≥ 1,259.7
Ast ≥ 1,259.7/0.9(60) = 23.3 in.2
Because 3’-9” is available for development at C (at inner edge), choose a bar that
can be developed in this distance, i.e., choose #10, ldb = 43.1 in. < 45 in. available
[LRFD Art. 5.11.2.1].
No. of bars required = 23.3/1.27 = 18.34 bars
Use (20) #10 bars (25.4 in.2) in 2 layers
FCD = 1,002.8 kips
Ast > 1,002.8/0.9(60) = 18.6 in.2
A required 18.6
If (20) #10 bars are used as in DE, s = = 0.73
A s provided 25.4
Top bars:
Required development length = 1.3(0.73)(43.1) = 40.9 in. < 45 in. available O.K.
8.12.5.5 Note that each strut is traversed by a tie at one end.

Strut Capacities
Strut AC:
Strut AC is critical due to the small angle it makes with the tension tie, CD.
FAC = 1,120.6 kips (compression)
End C: (Anchored by bearing and reinforcement)
Tensile strain in tie:
FCD/AsEs = 1,002.8/[(20)(1.27)(29,000)] = 1.36 x 10-3 in./in.
The tension-tie reinforcing bars are developed in the nodal zone. Therefore, the
strain in these bars will increase from zero at the ends to 1.36 x 10-3.
Strain at center of strut, εs = 1/2(1.36x10-3) = 0.68 x 10-3
ε1 = (εs + 0.002)cot2 αs
JUL 03

8.12.5.5 Strut Capacities/8.12.5.6 Nodal Zone at Pier
where
αs = 26.5° [LRFD Art. 5.6.3.3.3]
ε1 = (0.68 x 10 + 2.0 x 10 )cot 26.5° = 10.8 x 10
-3 -3 2 -3
fcu = f ć/(0.8 + 170ε1) ≤ 0.85f ć [LRFD Art. 5.6.3.3.3]

´
= 5.0/[0.8 + 170(10.8 x 10 )] = 1.90 ksi < (0.85f c = 4.25 ksi)
-3
Capacity of strut, AC at C = φfcuAcs

where
Acs = (lbsin θs + hacos θs)(48) (Figure 8.12.2.2-1c)
= (24sin26.5° + 12cos26.5°) x 48 = (21.4 x 48) in. 2
Capacity of AC at C = (0.70)(1.90)(48 x 21.4)

= 1,366.2 kips > FAC (1,120.6 kips) O.K.
End A of AC is obviously not critical (not crossed by tension tie and wider dimensions
than at C).
Strut AD:
Strut AD is anchored by bearing and reinforcement at end A, and crossed by tie at
end D.
FAD = 562.1 kips
End D: Tensile strain in tie, DE = 1,259.7/[(20)(1.27)(29,000)] = 1.71 x 10-3
Strain at center of strut, εs = 1/2(1.71 x 10-3) = 0.86 x 10-3
ε1 = (εs + 0.002)cot2 αs
where
αs = 62.8°
ε1 = (0.86 + 2.0)10-3cot2 62.8° = 0.755 x 10-3
fcu = f ć /(0.8 + 170ε1) ≤ 0.85f ć
fcu = 5.0/[0.8 + 170(0.755 x 10-3)] = 5.39 ksi > 0.85f ć = 4.25 ksi
Capacity of strut AD at D: φfcuAcs
Acs = (lbsinθs + hacos θs)(48) = (24sin62.8° + 12cos62.8°) x 48 = 1,288 in.2
Capacity of Strut = (0.7)(4.25)(1,288) = 3,831 kips > FAD = 562.1 k O.K.
8.12.5.6 End A is obviously not critical (not crossed by tie).
Nodal Zone at Pier
Figure 8.12.5.6-1
1k
Nodal Zone at Pier

.
562
6k
2 .8° ,120.
6 1
H = 1,259.7 k b = 26.5°
1.3'
V = 1,000 k
2.5'
JUL 03

8.12.5.6 Nodal Zone at Pier/8.12.5.7 Minimum Reinforcement for Crack Control
Horizontal component, H = 562.1cos62.8° + 1,120.6cos26.5° = 1,259.7 kips = FAB O.K.

This nodal zone is bounded only by compressive struts and bearing areas:
Allowable compressive stress, f = 0.85f ć = 2.98 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.6.3.5]
Due to H: F/A = 1,259.7/[(1.3)(12)(48)] = 1.68 ksi < 2.98 O.K.
Due to V: F/A = 1,000/[(2.5)(12)(48)] = 0.69 ksi O.K.
8.12.5.7 Check at throat and provide this reinforcement throughout (assuming 12 in. spacing).
Minimum Reinforcement
for Crack Control
Minimum As required = 0.003(12)(48) = 1.73 in.2/ft [LRFD Art. 5.6.3.6]
Use (2) #9 = 2.00 in. , #9 each face at 12 in. on center = 2.00 in.2/ft, or #6 bars each
2
face at 6 in. spacing, 4 x 0.44 = 1.76 in.2/ft

Use #6 bars @ 6 in. on center vertically and horizontally.
Figure 8.12.5.7-1 # 6 Vertical bars @ 6 in. on center throughout each face

Reinforcement Details
(20) A
# 10 bars
A
# 6 Horizontal bars
@ 6 in. on center
each face
4'-0"
(20) # 10 bars
3"
6"
Orthogonal grid of # 6 bars
@ 6 in. on center on 4'-0"
each face
2'-6"
View A-A
JUL 03

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 8

8.0 AASHTO SPECIFICATION REFERENCES

8.1 PRINCIPLES AND ADVANTAGES OF PRESTRESSING

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC 1 8/14/03, 10:58 AM

8.2.2 Flexural Strength Design

8.3 STRAND TRANSFER AND DEVELOPMENT LENGTHS

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC 2 8/14/03, 10:58 AM

8.3.2 Strand Development Length

8.5 HORIZONTAL INTERFACE SHEAR

8.6 LOSS OF PRESTRESS

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC 3 8/14/03, 10:58 AM

8.6.5 Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage and Relaxation Material Properties

8.7 CAMBER AND DEFLECTION

8.8 DECK SLAB DESIGN

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC 4 8/14/03, 10:58 AM

8.8.2 Design of Bridge Decks Using Precast Panels

8.9 TRANSVERSE DESIGN OF ADJACENT BOX BEAM BRIDGES

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC 5 8/14/03, 10:58 AM

8.9.4 Lateral Post-Tensioning Detailing for Skewed Bridges

8.10 LATERAL STABILITY OF SLENDER MEMBERS

8.11 BENDING MOMENTS AND SHEAR FORCES DUE TO

8.12 STRUT-AND-TIE MODELING OF DISTURBED REGIONS

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC 6 8/14/03, 10:58 AM

8.12.5 Pier Cap Example

8.13 DETAILED METHODS OF TIME-DEPENDENT ANALYSIS

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC 7 8/14/03, 10:58 AM

A = area of cross-section of the precast beam [STD], [LRFD]

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC 9 8/14/03, 10:58 AM

CRc = loss of pretension due to creep of concrete [STD]

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC 10 8/14/03, 10:58 AM

E*c = age-adjusted, effective modulus of elasticity of concrete for a

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC 11 8/14/03, 10:58 AM

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC 12 8/14/03, 10:58 AM

I = impact fraction [STD]

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC 13 8/14/03, 10:58 AM

Mlat = lateral bending moment at cracking —

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC 14 8/14/03, 10:58 AM

S = slab span [LRFD]

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC 15 8/14/03, 10:58 AM

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC 16 8/14/03, 10:58 AM

∆fcdp = change in concrete stress at center of gravity of pretensioning

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC 17 8/14/03, 10:58 AM

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC 18 8/14/03, 10:58 AM

In a typical calculation for shear reinforcement, the sectional dimensions, prestress-

7017 Bridge manual Ch 8.12 1 8/14/03, 0:59 PM

Figure 8.12.1-1 Fanning compression field

Uniform compression Tension tie

7017 Bridge manual Ch 8.12 2 8/14/03, 0:59 PM

Important considerations in strut-and-tie modeling include the geometry of the truss

7017 Bridge manual Ch 8.12 3 8/14/03, 0:59 PM

uniform axia stress

7017 Bridge manual Ch 8.12 4 8/14/03, 0:59 PM

Figure 8.12.2.1-2a-2b 120k 120k 120k 120k

212k 132k 84k 52k

It is essential in the development of a truss layout for strut-and-tie design that:

7017 Bridge manual Ch 8.12 5 8/14/03, 0:59 PM

a) Strut Anchored by Reinforcement

7017 Bridge manual Ch 8.12 6 8/14/03, 0:59 PM

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