DELAY TO PROJECTS – CAUSE, EFFECT AND MEASURES TO REDUCE /

ELIMINATE DELAY BY MITIGATION / ACCELERATION

SHAIKH ASIF ABDUS SAEED

PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME

INSTITUTION OF BUSINESS
AUGUST 2009

DISSERTATION SUPERVISOR :
Dr. KASIM RANDEREE
Dr. ASHLY PINNINGTON
ABSTRACT :

Delay to projects is one of the foremost concerns of the construction industry in the
United Arab Emirates. The delays to the projects are affecting the economies throughout
the world. Delay to projects mean the slowdown of development in all other related fields.
The main aim and objective of this dissertation is to evaluate the various types of delays
and the reasons for those delays that are currently affecting the projects in the United Arab
Emirates. Measures from previous researches to reduce or eliminate these delays by
methods of mitigation or acceleration are analyzed for the case studies considered for this
research.
There are various types of delays which are identified. It is important to identify
whether the delay is critical or not as identification of critical delays helps in taking
appropriate measures at the correct time. The delay may be non excusable (contractor
caused) for which the client and the consultant need to have project management tools to
effectively manage the delays or compensable (client caused) delays which are due to the
client. The delays may be by either parties and can be concurrent.
The reasons for delays are primarily due to an unreasonable project scope,
inadequate early planning and the absence of risk management systems. The contractor
further contributes to delay due to lack of resources and labor productivity. Over ambitious
estimates, incorrect task assessment ,lack of task clarity, design/ approval delays and
interference in the decision making process by the client add on to the delay.
Research done earlier indicates that “changed work complicates a project and
invites delays” ( Molner , 2007). Delays that are non excusable (contractor caused) “expose
a contractor to delay claims of its subcontractors and liquidated damages” ( Schumacher ,
1995 ). Delays that are compensable (owner caused) need the support of specialty
contractors who need to be nominated at the appropriate time ( Gil , 2001 ).
The mitigation of delays was discussed by application of knowledge management
and project learning. The lessons learnt feedback gives important information related to the
mitigation measures considered for implementation.
The prevention of delay can be done through mitigation and/or acceleration. It is
important to plan/analyze the requirement in detail. This has been done by identifying the
risks and mapping resources. The estimation and allocation of works was done to
modularize the works and any issues likely to delay the works can be escalated for
decisions and discussion.

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 A detailed case study has been carried out for three projects in the United Arab
Emirates. The first case study deals with a project which encountered delays and
implemented measures of mitigation and acceleration to reduce the delays. The second
case is a project which failed in its objectives of completion in time as well as budget. The
third case is success project, where in spite of initial delays the project was completed on
time by implementing mitigation and acceleration measures. The methodology
implemented is acquisition of key data and justifying by providing adequate reasons
regarding the data. Results and analysis for the case studies were structured according to
methodology and further detailed into planning, resource, cost and nominations analysis.
The finding from the case studies are that the main delay to the projects are
compensable delays (owner caused)as seen case study 1 where the owner delayed the
nomination. The findings from Case study 2 are the lack of decisions by the client and
commitment to the project affected the project to an extent that the project could not
achieve its goals. The findings from the case study 3 are that even if there is an initial
delay, it can be overcome by teamwork and contribution from all the stakeholders to
achieve success.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to take this opportunity to thank Almighty ALLAH for making this dissertation
possible as without his help and guidance, this would not have been possible.

I would also like to this opportunity to acknowledge the unwavering support and guidance
by my dissertation supervisor and coordinator Dr.Kasim Randeree.
His efforts and constant guidance have been invaluable.

I would also like to thank Dr. Ashly Pinnington for guiding me to complete my dissertation in
its final form. His expert input has helped me to reshape the form and format of this
dissertation.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………….………..…...5
LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………….……..…….7
LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………..………..…..7
APPENDICES………………………………………………………………….………..….7
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………….……..……8
1.1 Aim.. ……………………………………………………….…………………………..…...10
1.2 Objectives ………………………………………………………………….…………...…10

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………..….……..11

2.1 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………....….....11
2.2 TYPES OF PROJECT DELAYS……………………………………………….…..…....12
2.2.1 Critical delays and Non critical delays……………………..……………………..….….12
2.2.2 Non Excusable Delay & Excusable Delays……………………………………..….…..15
2.2.3 Compensable Delay & Non-Compensable Delays…………………………..…..…....17
2.2.4 Concurrent delay & Non concurrent delay……………………………………..……....20

2.3 REASONS FOR DELAYS……………………………………………………..……..….23

2.3.1 Unreasonable project scope…………………………………………………..…………23
2.3.2 Inadequate early planning …………………………………………………….….…..…25
2.3.3 Lack of risk management systems………………………………………….…….….…26
2.3.4 Lack of resources & Labor productivity………………………………………..…….…28
2.3.5 Over-ambitious estimates and incorrect task assessment……………………..….…31
2.3.6 Lack of task clarity……………………………………………………………….…….…33
2.3.7 Design delays & Approval of drawings……………………………………..………..…34
2.3.8 Owner interference & decision-making process……………………………..……..…36
2.3.9 Inadequate contractor & Subcontractors experience……………………..………..…38
2.4 MITIGATION OF DELAYS………………………………………………….….…….…40
2.4.1 Knowledge Management……………………………………………….……....…….…40
2.4.2 Project learning…………………………………………………….………….……….…41
2.4.3 Lessons learned feedback ………………………………………………..………….…43
2.5 PREVENTION OF DELAYS………………………………………………….….……..48
2.5.1 Plan/Analyze the requirements in detail…………………………………….….…...…48
2.5.2 Map available resources………………………………………………………..…….…49
2.5.3 Perform training and knowledge transfer……………………………………..…….…52
2.5.4 Identify risks……………………………………………………………………..……..…53
2.5.5 Estimate and allocate ………………………………………………………..…….…55
2.5.6 Modularize work………………………………………………………………..……...…55
2.5.7 Escalate issues…………………………………………………………….….…………57
2.6 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW …………………………………….….……59

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CHAPTER 3. CASE STUDIES………………………………………….…..……………60
3.1 Introduction…….……………………………………………………….………….….…60
3.2 Case Study 1.-DELAY ……………………………………………….………….……61
3.3 Case Study 2.-FAILURE……………………………………….……….………….…..69
3.4 Case Study 3.-SUCCESS……………………………………………….……………..73

CHAPTER 4. METHODOLOGY……………………………………………….….....…..80

4.1 Introduction …………………………………………………….……………….………80

4.2 Key Data…………………………………………………………..…………….……….81

4.3 Justification………………………………………………….……………….………….82

4.4 Data Acquisition…………………………………………….……………….………….83

4.5 Data Analysis……………………………………………………………….….…….…84

CHAPTER 5. ANALYSIS & RESULTS……………………………….…..……….…86
5.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………..………….86
5.2 Case Study 1 …………………………………………………………..………….…86

5.2.1 Planning …………………………………………………………….…….………….…86

5.2.2 Resources…………………………………………………………..…….…………..…91

5.2.3 Cost……………………………………………………………………..….……….……94

5.2.4 Decisions- Nominations ……………………………………………..….……...…..…95

5.3 Case Study 2……………………………………………………………………….….96

5.3.1 Planning …………………………………………………………………………….….96
5.3.2 Resources…………………………………………………………………………..…..97
5.3.3 Cost………………………………………………………………………………….…..97
5.3.4 Decisions- Nominations …………………………………………………………..…..98

5.4 Case Study 3………………………………………………………….……………….99

5.4.1 Planning ………………………………………………………….…………………….99

5.4.2 Resources…………………………………………………………………….…….…100

5.4.3 Cost…………………………………………………………………………….………100

5.4.4 Decisions- Nominations ……………………………………………………….….…100

5.4.5 Value Analysis……………………………………………………………………...…101

CHAPTER 6. RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION……………………..……104

6.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………….104
6.2 Case Study 1………………………………………………………………………..…104
6.3 Case Study 2………………………………………………………………………..…106
6.4 Case Study 3………………………………………………………………………..…108
7.0 References for literature review…………..……………………….…110
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 LIST OF FIGURES

1.Figure 1-Case study1(planning gantt chart)………………………….………….63

2. Figure 2-Case study1(Resource chart)………………………….………………66
3. Figure 3-Case study1(Cost chart)………………………………….…………….68
4. Figure 4-Case study2(Cash flow chart)…………………………………………71
5. Figure 5-Case study1(planning program)……………………………………....87
6. Figure 6-Case study1(Regression analysis)…………………………………...88
7. Figure 7-Case study1(planning pert chart)… ……………….…………………90
8. Figure 8-Case study1(planning pert chart)… ………….………………………90
9. Figure 9-Case study1(line of balance)… ……………….…………………...…92
10. Figure 10-Case study1(Resources)… ……………...…….……….……………93
11. Figure 11-Case study1(Cash Flow)… ……………...……….…….……………94
12. Figure 12-Case study2(Planning curve)… ……………...….……….…………96
13. Figure 13-Case study2(Manpower curve) .………...……………..……………97

List of tables:

1. TABLE 1 –Case study 3 (mitigating & ranking the risks)…………………......76

2. TABLE 2 –Case study 3 (client related value analysis for success)…….....101
3. TABLE 3 –Case study 3 (consultant related value analysis for success)…101
4. TABLE 4 –Case study 3 (contractor related value analysis for success)....102
5. TABLE 5 –Case study 3 (others related value analysis for success)……...102
6. TABLE 6 –Case study 3 (reasons for achieving the results)…………….....103

Appendices:

1. Appendix 1-………………………………………………………………………..122
2. Appendix 2-………………………………………………………………………..125
3. Appendix 3-………………………………………………………………………..127
4. Appendix 4-………………………………………………………………………..130
5. Appendix 5-………………………………………………………………………..133

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 “DELAY TO PROJECTS – CAUSE, EFFECT AND MEASURES
TO REDUCE DELAY BY MITIGATION OR ACCELERATION”

1. INTRODUCTION

Projects are envisaged and visualized with the foresight of achieving the primary
objective of timely completion. Some projects are planned and executed successfully
whereas others get delayed due to reasons, some of which are analyzed and evaluated in
this dissertation.
Delay to projects is considered to be one of the common problems in the construction
industry. Delays have an negative effect on the project in terms of performance, time and
cost. Thus, it is essential to identify the types of delays that normally occur in a project .The
types of delays can be broadly split in two categories of delay by the client (compensable
delays)and the contractor(non excusable delays).The delays can be identified as critical or
non critical and whether the delay is concurrent or non concurrent. The identification of the
types of delays leads to the reasons of delay.
The reasons for the delays are identified so that the effect on construction projects can
be reduced. The reasons for delays are client and contractor related. Unreasonable project
scope and inadequate early planning are the prime delays by the client. The client
interference and delay in the decision making process also major reasons for delays. The
client in some cases delays the design or changes the design leading to various other
changes like design related changes to drawings and their approval by the authorities. The
contractor had delays related to overambitious estimates and incorrect task assessment
which lead to delays and affect the project. In case of lack of task clarity, an inexperienced
contractor or subcontractor may unknowingly delay the works.
The mitigation of delays can be achieved by adopting the process of knowledge
management and project learning which gives insight into the various problems and their
solutions. In fact the lessons leant feedback from projects is a real eye opener and helpful
for others to avoid similar issues.
Prevention of delays by adopting innovative and teamwork helps in planning and
analyzing the requirements in detail which will allow the mapping of resources and
identifying the risks. The works can then be estimated, allocated and modularized for
execution. The issues that can lead to delays need to be escalated, identified and resolved
on a priority to ensure that they do not become a reason for delay.
The issue of delay is further researched through case studies. The case study approach
is adopted for this research as the issue to a particular project can be analyzed in complete
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detail. These case studies have been taken from live projects in the U.A.E. Since one case
study will not provide the complete picture regarding the delays, one delayed but completed
project , second one is a failure project and the third is a success project. The case study 1
is a completed project which was delayed due to the client but completed by applying
mitigation and acceleration measures. The case study 2 is a failure project as the client
abandoned the project by putting the project on hold and introducing a new stakeholder.
The third case study is a success project. Even though there were initial delays to the
project from both the client and the contractor, absolute teamwork and the spirit to
accomplish the goal by implementing mitigation and acceleration measures ensured that
the project completed in time.
The methodology for these studies takes into account the key data for each project
which included the planning methodology, resources monitoring, cost methodology and the
critical decisions which are likely to delay the project. The justification for the data
considered is provided and further the method of data acquisition and data analysis is
detailed to substantiate the methodology.
The analysis and of the data provided for the project is analyzed further for each case
study for their planning, resources, cost and decisions processes. The recommendations
for each project is given as to what could have been done to mitigate the delays. The
knowledge gained in some of the module is applied for recommendations which is applying
the knowledge gained in a purposeful manner. Conclusions are listed based on the areas
analyzed for the methodology for the case studies to allow for better knowledge
management in future.

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1.1
AIM :
The aim of this research was to evaluate the various types of delays that occur in
construction projects in the United Arab Emirates and the reasons why delays occur and
the measures that can be implemented to reduce or eliminate these delays by mitigation or
acceleration. To achieve the aim the approach of case studies is considered for this
research.

1.2.
OBJECTIVES:
The objectives was to identify the various types of delays and the examine the
reasons for project delays. The evaluation of the existing methods for delay mitigation and
demonstration of the ability to prevent delays and solve problems. The reason responsible
for causing delays are tackled by utilizing the knowledge gained in the various modules and
applying them through a scientifically acceptable research methodology.
1) Delay due to late decisions like late nominations by client and Unreasonable project
scope & inadequate early planning.
2) Understand the delay due to lack of task clarity and assessment and monitoring tools
like key performance indicators(K.P.I’s)
3) Calculate the delay due to lack of resources, productivity and overambitious estimates.
4) Define the delay due to inadequate contractor /subcontractor experience.
5) Develop mitigation methods by knowledge management and project learning.
6) Mitigation by lessons learnt feedback.
7) Elimination of delays by acceleration
8) Prevention of delays by planning /analyzing and mapping.
9) Prevention of delay by identifying risks, estimating, allocating and modularizing work.

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2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Delays are of various types and researchers have their own parameters to rate and
identify them. Delays have numerous reasons which vary from project to project and the
reasons are different and unique for every project. Efforts to reduce the delay by mitigation
or eliminate the delay by acceleration are measures that can be or may be applicable in
some cases and will depend on the projects being considered for those measures.
Change is the primary cause for a delay. If projects do not have changes then the
projects would finish on time as there would be no or little disruptions to the works. The
contractors would also like to work on projects where the designs are finalized and there
are no changes and disruptions. “In a perfect world, all construction projects would finish on
time, without changes or disruptions. Despite the common public perception that
contractors cannot wait for the changes to start on a project because that is where they
allegedly “make their money”, most contractors would prefer their projects to complete
without changes.” ( Molner , 2007 ).
However this is an idealistic situation, in reality changes are inherent to nearly all
project of substantial size due to the fact that projects rarely commence after all the designs
are completed and approved. It is important that all the key stakeholders for the project
agree as to how the changes to the project would be handled and by whom. This is in the
interest of the project as beneficial to the owner and the contractor. The continuous striving
for improvement makes it necessary to incorporate changes even though they may disrupt
the works to a certain extent. However the overall result is likely to be better than the initial
after incorporating the changes and the satisfaction of achieving a better final product
makes the changes more acceptable rather than no changes at all.
The stage at which changes are proposed to be implemented is important as any
major changes proposed when the project is in an advanced stage of progress will
complicate the works, impact the schedule and likely to cause delays to the completion.
The changes will increase the cost of the project as abortive works, modification and
changes will come with a cost. “Changed work complicates a project, invites delays and
increases the project cost – all things that make owners unhappy.” ( Molner , 2007).

A detailed literature review for the objectives is done to evaluate the types ,reasons of
delay and the methods for the mitigation and prevention of delays.

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2.2.TYPES OF PROJECT DELAYS
2.2.1 Critical delays and Non critical delays
2.2.2 Non Excusable (Contractor Caused) Delays & Excusable Delays.
2.2.3 Compensable (Owner Caused) Delay & Non-Compensable Delays.
2.2.4 Concurrent delay & Non concurrent delay

Before determining the impact of a delay on the project, one must determine
whether the delay is critical or non-critical. Additionally, all delays are either excusable or
non-excusable. Both excusable and non-excusable delays can be defined as either
concurrent or non-concurrent. Delays can be further broken down into compensable or
non-compensable delays.

2.2.1 Critical delays and Non critical delays

Delays can be analyzed based on the criticality of activities in the program. The
baseline master program prepared in line with the conditions of contract has a critical path.
The critical path is the longest path in the network. The delay to the project occurs when
an activity on the critical path is delayed and they have an impact on the successor
activities and the overall project. Such activities known as critical activities are important
and it should be ensured that he activities on the critical path are not delayed.
When the activities on the critical path are delayed, the delay is reflected on the
entire project. Hence, it is required to review the critical activities and analyze whether the
re sequencing of works can be done for effective project control “resequencing construction
activities is a critical task for project planners for effective project control. Resequencing
activities require planners to determine the impact or "role" an activity has on successor
activities. They also need to determine the status of activities, i.e., which activities may or
may not be delayed” ( Koo et al 2007).
It is required to distinguish the function and status of activities which would mean
that the planners have to understand the logic and sequence of activities. The critical path
method (CPM) identifies the sequence of works based on the precedence logic and
relationships and identifies the activities based on the criticality in relation to time. Thus for
complex and large projects it is difficult to monitor individual activity logic and sequence and
this cannot be done manually.
These limitations of the CPM frameworks are addressed
“by formalizing a constraint ontology and classification mechanism. The
ontology allows planners to describe their rationale for activity sequences in a
consistent and intuitive way, whereas the classification mechanism leverages

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 the ontology to automatically infer the role and status of activities. The
ontology and mechanisms were implemented in a prototype tool. With this
tool, users can quickly verify which activities to delay to expedite critical
milestone or bottleneck activities, thus making it possible to quickly evaluate
and generate sequencing alternatives in CPM-based schedules.” ( Koo et al
2007 ).
The critical path guides the overall duration of the project. However in certain cases
there are delays to activities which are not on the critical path and have a float. During the
progress of the project these activities which were initially not critical get delayed and
become critical and form part of the new critical path for the project. There is a debate
regarding the issue of float utilization “Under current scheduling practices, total float time is
considered "free" and does not belong exclusively to any specific party in the construction
process; rather, it belongs to the project and can be used by both owners and contractors
to mitigate the potentially negative impact of delays. Utilization of float is, hence, on a "first-
come, first-served" basis ( De La Garza et al 2007).
The protocol and the principle of first come first served basis utilization of float
means that any delay in the later stages of the project will make the party responsible for
that delay and the overall delay to the project. Due to these factors, the ownership of the
float and its utilization has become a source of disputes when the delays to projects occur.
The concept of pre allocation of float and its management in the project having
schedules based on the critical path method is to be introduced. Also, the principles of pre
allocation and management of “total float” need to be agreed contractually including the
responsibility of any ensuring delay to the project. The concept needs recognition from all
parties that the total float is an asset for both the parties.
The process of quantifying the risks associated with delays in construction projects
and minimizing them is a major challenge for all the key stakeholders of the project. The
float consumed by the non critical activities is a complicated and disputable delay factor
while analyzing the delays to the project schedule, duration and cost.
“Float loss impact in non critical activities is one of the complicated
delays to assess on a project's duration and cost. This is due to the fact that
the deterministic critical path method cannot cope with such delays unless
they exceed the total float values. Further, stochastic analysis, which is used
in this research to assess the impact of such delays, is perceived by many
planners to be complicated and time consuming. This paper presents a
method to control the risks associated with float loss in construction projects.
The method uses a recently developed multiple simulation analysis technique
that combines the results of cost range estimates and stochastic scheduling,

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 using Monte Carlo simulation. The proposed method quantifies the float loss
impact on project duration and cost. Least-squares nonlinear regression is
used to convert the stochastic results into a polynomial function that
quantifies the float loss impact by relating directly the float loss value to
project duration and cost at a specified confidence level.” ( Sakka , 2007 ).

The management of projects by the critical path method of scheduling has become a
widely accepted method. This method of programming the schedules is also widely utilized
for claiming extension of time and analyzing the delays with impact programs.It is required
by some contracts to demonstrate the critical and non critical activities after updating the
critical path method schedules.
Sometimes the owners try to utilize the float available for non critical activities with
the intention to maximize the advantage available. “Owners sometimes appropriate the
float time of noncritical activities to further their own interests. In doing so, they risk causing
unforeseen costs. If the contract is a cost-plus agreement, these extra costs are usually
absorbed by the owner. If the contract is a fixed-price agreement, the contractor will incur
the extra costs. In the latter case, these costs may be justifiable delay or impact claims.”
( Householder ,1990 ).
In certain cases if the tender documents clearly allocated the ownership of float to
the owner then it may result in a higher bid by the contractors as they may feel the need to
allow for these unforeseen conditions.
The allocation of responsibility between the owner and the contractor for any delays
to the project is an important factor in delay claims and its analysis. The project program
which is made utilizing the critical path method indicates the critical and non critical
activities. It indicates the total float for each activity which the amount of time an activity can
be delayed without affecting the end date of the project. The ownership of the float is a
contentious issue which can be resolved by allocating the responsibility to any or all the
parties and agreeing to its utilization.
“Ownership of total float can belong to; 1) owner, 2) contractor, 3) whoever
uses it first, 4) contractor and owner on unequal basis, or 5) contractor and
owner on equal basis. Ownership of float allocates risk to the parties and
affects the control and flexibility of construction. The apportionment methods
are different ways of calculating delays.” ( Chehayeb ,1995 ).

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2.2.2 Non Excusable (Contractor Caused) Delay.

Any delay to the project which is solely due to the contractor is regarded as a non
excusable delay. It becomes the responsibility of the contractor and entirely his risk for the
delay and the owner is entitled to claim any delays to the project in line with the terms and
conditions as stipulated in the contract. The claim by the owner in such cases of delay by
the contractor are normally related to penalty and or liquidated damages. The owners
claim for the contractors delay usually range from delayed commencement of work at site,
failure in proper coordination affecting progress of works, inability to finalize, order and
procure in time and insufficient manpower to carry out the works in line with the program
of works.
Also, in such cases where there is a delay by the contractor and the client also
delays his decisions concurrent delay comes into the picture.
“Both owners and contractors often use concurrent delay as a defense to
delay claims. On nearly all projects that are delayed, there is more than one
cause of the delay. Where there are two or more independently causes of
delays during the same time period, the delay is termed “concurrent.” In these
situations, the owner and contractor may have dueling claims for delay, each
of which will be difficult to prove. As a general rule, the party seeking
damages must isolate the causes and periods of delay in order to recover
damages for the delay.” (Source: http://www.aterwynne.com/files. Project
delays, disruptions and changes)

Delays occur in most kind of projects that range from simple building projects to
complex projects such as nuclear power plants. It is important to classify the main causes
of non excusable delays and highlight the factors that contribute to those causes. The
delays by the client are the compensable delays on which the client can take necessary
timely action as he has more control over it. The delays by the contractor are non-
excusable or non compensable and the contractor has more control and is expected to do
whatever is appropriate to prevent them.
Even though a lot of studies have been done regarding the issues of these delays, it
is important to note that no major study has been carried to evaluate the reasons of non
excusable delays.“Understanding the underlying factors that contribute to causes of non-
excusable delays would help in identifying and overcoming the problems faced by
contractors during the construction process. To assist in identifying the factors contributing
to causes of non-excusable delays, the Ishikawa or fish bone diagram has been used as an
analytical tool, and a ranking methodology has been devised. As a report of initial findings
60046 15
of the study,…identifies materials-, equipment-, and labor-related delays as major causes
of contractors' performance delays.” ( Majid et al 1998 ).

There are new trends and bad results in construction contracting which offer a
review of the problems that occur in the construction industry. These include uncertain site
conditions which are covered as part of the contract as the contractor has visited the site,
he is aware of the site conditions. The important factor of any embedded power or water
lines not visible at the surface shifts the risk to the contractor and any delay resulting from
the same is the sole and absolute responsibility of the contractor in line with terms and
conditions of the contract. The consequential damages in terms of liquidate damages or
penalty or both would eat into the profit margins of the contractor.
“clauses that give away the contractor's claims and rights to lien the job
from the outset. The pressures leading to these trends are primarily economic
and have resulted in (among other things) more risk for the contractor. This
paper discusses areas of increased risk found in today's construction
contracts, the reasons why they have appeared and what a contractor should
do to mitigate these "new" risks.” ( Shumway et al 2004 ).

There are some contaminated site remediation projects having certain

characteristics that separate them from conventional construction projects including
oversight related to authority regulatory processes and lack of information related to
underground services and soil conditions. The remedial measure that are proposed for the
conditions identified may not be effective to the desired level. The features which
unconventional for remedial projects indicates that the innovative methods implemented by
contractors may turn out to be more beneficial and successful.
A study of sixty completed remedial projects was done to identify and document the
impact of various project management modules and the contracting strategies on project
outcomes. The study revealed that the scope variations, delays by various stakeholders,
budget overruns, disputes and change orders are frequent in case of remediation projects.

“Flexible project management strategies, such as turnkey and partnering

arrangements, and flexible contracting schemes, such as cost plus fee, were
found to be better suited to accommodate such changes. Turnkey and
design/construct project structures had the best performance overall of the
management structures reported. Mechanisms to promote partnering and
team building contributed significantly to project success as defined by
budget and schedule.” ( Ruff et al 1996 ).

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 The contractor has control over the non excusable delays and these delays expose
the contractor to claims by the owner or the subcontractors. “Non excusable, non
compensable delays are within the control of the contractor; examples include delay
caused by late mobilization, late equipment deliveries, or an inadequate project work force.
Non excusable delays are not only non compensable but they expose a contractor to delay
claims of its subcontractors and liquidated damages (or actual damages if there is no
liquidated damages clause) by the owner.” ( Schumacher ,1995).

2.2.3.Compensable (Owner Caused) Delay &Non-Compensable Delays.

Here, the owner is responsible for both the time and cost effect of the delay. The
contractor may claim the owner interfered with the work, did not deliver owner-purchased
equipment or supplies on site as promised, or that the owner’s actions or inaction caused
other delays. An owner cannot contract out of its obligation to pay for compensable delay,
although it may be able to limit its liability for such delays.
“Any clause in a construction contract, which purports to waive, release, or extinguish the
rights of a contractor, subcontractor, or supplier to damages or an equitable adjustment
arising out of unreasonable delay in performance which delay is caused by the acts or
omissions of the contractee or persons acting for the contractee is against public policy and
is void and unenforceable.” ( Carl , 2005 ).

The issue of change order by the client is the most common factor that is
responsible for causing a delay to a project. The issuance of the change order affects the
work that has been already done. This requires new work to be done, modification to the
existing work and /or the removal and the works and installation of the works as per the
change order. The delay has to be demonstrated by an impact analysis on the critical path
network to claim for additional time and cost due to the delays caused by the changes.
Another factor which comes into the focus due to changes is the delay due to
inefficiency damages. As there is no direct method of measuring inefficiency due to its
qualitative nature and the difficulty of linking the cause of the productivity loss to the
damage. The data available from contractors was the source of information and it appears
that there are discrepancies between the claims made by the contractor and the entitlement
as per the owner. The study also addresses that a statistical model be developed to
quantify the productivity loss from the client sources as daily reports, drawings,
specifications and change orders. Also, a model is developed to quantify and validate the
loss of productivity due to changes.
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 “The productivity loss study analyzed two sets of data that include: (1)
variables that predict which of the two parties, the owner and the contractor,
contributed to the productivity loss; and (2) variables that predict, from the
legal viewpoint, productivity losses which only the owner is responsible for.
The study showed the difference between what the contractor asked for and
what he/she is actually entitled to. This model can be used by both the owner
and the contractor to quantify the productivity loss due to change orders, and
to offer an objective approach to reconcile their differences.” (Serag , 2008).

The process of nominations involves the client and consultant and the process of
nominations is identified at the commencement of the project. The clients are required to
finalize the nominations of contractors which are allocated a provisional sum in the contract
as the entire scope of works is not finalized. During the period when the nomination is
required to be done the client and consultant are engaged in finalizing the scope of works,
tenders, selections and approvals which sometimes leads to delay in finalization of the
nomination.
The traditional construction procurement contains no special features and it is good
for projects having a well established scope of works. In such methods the progress of
work is logical and sequential as each activity is required to be completed before the next
activity commences. Changes that are done after the project has commenced and during
the construction creates problems and it turns out be expensive.
The method of design and build gives the flexibility to the client to sequentially allow
the contractors design to be incorporated at any stage with the possibility of scope
definition being done at different levels. In such an arrangement the project is benefited due
the integration of design and construction done at the appropriate time. The client selects
the design and build option for procurement in projects is to reduce the time and cost
through a single point of responsibility. The performance related to time and cost relate to
factors ranging from scope definition by the client, changes implemented and stages and
manner in which those changes are reflected, complexity of the project and effective
coordination of the project with key stakeholders. The cost and time performance for the
project is affected at the initial stages by the above factors, but the extent of the impact is
yet to be done in details. It can summarized that design and build with traditional method is
best for cost saving and D/B fast track construction with finalized design and other
parameters is best for saving time.
“Experimentation with the model developed also shows that D/B fast-
track construction with fixed design, procurement and construction schedule

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 is most effective in saving time, whereas D/B with traditional method is best
for cost saving.” ( Chritamara et al 2001 ).
For the delayed nominations due to late finalization of design, the input required for
specialized works at the design stage by specialist contractors will be very advantageous.
Contractors in specialized fields have the technical know how and can offer valuable input
to the preliminary design and engineering process. However, their involvement in the
design process at an early stage is seldom but it has been noticed that this trend is
changing and their involvement is increasing at the early stages of the project. According to
Gil (2001) “Lean construction theory advocates such involvement. The practice of involving
suppliers in product development efforts and manufacturing has proven to be highly
successful.” Reports on the research that highlighted the contributions of the specialty
contractors early design indicated gains in process efficiency and improvement is product
quality. These contributions are characterized with examples and their potential
opportunities for improvement. It is becoming apparent that organizations are increasing
the interaction between the designers and the subcontractors.

Also, specialized subcontractors can be deployed to ensure that the delay to the
project is mitigated. The specialized contractors with their vast experience are of problems
that can be anticipated and work by taking into consideration that those problems do not
occur. “Project risk management requires assessments of project duration and activity
criticality. The assessments, however, can be strongly influenced by the dependence
between task durations.” ( Yang , 2007 ).The flexibility in providing duration for the activities
is required when practical data is not available and planners have to rely on subjective
estimation.

The selection of the most appropriate contractor is the important to ensure that the
best value for money is obtained. “Construction clients are becoming more aware of the
fact that selection of a contractor based on tender price alone is quite risky and may lead to
the failure of the project in terms of time delay and poor quality standards. Evaluation of
contractors based on multiple criteria is, therefore, becoming more popular.” (Singh , 2005).

The selection of the contractor in a multi criteria environment is heavily dependent

on the uncertain nature of construction projects and the personal decision of the owners.
The author presents a systematic procedure based on fuzzy set theory to assess the
potential of the contractor whether it is in line with the owner’s requirement. “The notion of
Shapley value is used to determine the global value or relative importance of each criterion
in accomplishing the overall objective of the decision-making process.” ( Singh , 2005 ).The
60046 19
research forms part of a study to develop a fuzzy decision model for construction
contractor selection which involves various criteria’s and the tendencies of the client. This
helps in making the system more systematic and realistic as the assessment of the
contractor is done in terms of linguistic rather than as crisp values.

The delays to the construction projects are common and the “most frequent
mentioned causes of delays as "unforeseen ground condition", "weather condition",
"change by owner", "shortage of technical personnel", "slow purchase of materials and
equipment", and "insufficient numbers of equipment". ( Zhao , 2007 ).To evaluate the
reasons for the delay, a three dimensional model of causes of delay factors was adopted.
The conclusion indicates that delay occurs during the important period of construction
stage. The contractor and the client are the main party responsible and the main party
injured to the delays. The overall ranking provides useful indicators that can be adopted to
mitigate or prevent the delays by the most common contributors.

2.2.4. Concurrent delay & Non concurrent delay.

In these situations neither party is responsible to the other for any costs associated
with the delay. These delays are those that are typically included in force majeure clauses
– abnormal weather, labor strikes, acts of God, acts of war, etc
The delays that occur in a project are either due to the owner such as additions,
alterations, modifications and changes to plans and specifications. The delays where the
owner may still be responsible are site conditions which are differing and suspension of
works. The delays by the contractor which occur in the same period as the owner will be
regarded as concurrent delays. “Delays considered will include those caused by changes in
the plans or specifications, occurrence of differing site conditions, holds on the work due to
owner-initiated suspensions of work, and so-called 'excusable' delays, all when taking
place concurrently with contractor-caused delays.” ( Ponce de Leon , 1987 ).
The most important factor for the owner and the contractor in any construction
project is the time frame of the project. Still, it is found that many of the construction
projects get delayed. “Delays may be caused by the owner (compensable delay), by the
contractor (nonexcusable delay), by acts of god, or a third party (excusable delay), or
several different kinds of delays may happen concurrently. Because of the many sources
and causes of construction delays, it is often difficult to analyze the ultimate liability in delay
claims.” ( Zaki et al 1987 ).
The delays caused by the owner are compensable delays and can be utilized by the
contractor whose delays are non excusable and liable for further action by the owner.

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There is a third type of delay which can be attributed to neither the owner nor the
contractor. These delays are referred to as force majeure or act of god or third party delay.
In projects where there is delay where more than one party is involved it is difficult to
analyze the responsibility of the delay. In such cases it is required to analyze on the basis
of the baseline master program of works which is referred to as the as planned schedule
and compare it with the actual updated program which is referred to as the as-built
schedule. What has to be evaluated in this scenario of analysis is the appropriate schedule
which can be done by considering all allowable adjustments to the schedule and then what
can be concluded is an as-adjusted schedule which will allow for the analysis of the delay
and acceleration.
Warrender (2008) addresses the topic of concurrency of delay by referring to a
court case in the Outer House of the Court of Session in Scotland. The judge awarded the
contractor nine weeks of extension of time against the claim of eleven weeks. “In so
deciding, the judge held that the delay in completion was the result of concurrent causes,
the majority of which were caused by late instructions or variations issued by the architect
and two causes were the result of the fault of the contractor.”
In the opinion of the judge it was immaterial as to which party was the first to delay
the works as long as both the parties were causing delays simultaneously. It was
considered that as the delay was caused by both the parties and there was no cause by
either party which could be considered as a dominant cause and both the parties had failed
in their commitment to complete the project in time.
According to Ostrowski (2006), the most discussed topic an attorney and a
scheduling expert discuss is the topic of delay as it is a widely used term and in most cases
it is often misunderstood. Coming to an agreement, as to what the term actually means is
difficult even though the project participants use the term of concurrent delay as and when
they feel and this is primarily due to confusion caused as there is no consistency in its
determination. Is seems like an easy task to decipher of analyzing two or more delay
events occurring simultaneously but ends up being more complex than a Gordian’s Knot.
Hence it is crucial while evaluating and analyzing the concurrency of delays that all the
relevant factors like the critical path , total float and non compensable delays are taken into
consideration.
The problem of concurrent delay as a common but complex problem as it has to
deal with an important issue of float management. The analysis of the concurrent delay has
to take into consideration all aspects of the delay that have occurred in the project. “All
events causing schedule delays and potentially impacting the schedule or causing
disruption on productivity, must be tracked, documented and related to specific work
60046 21
package and activity.” ( Massimoluigi et al 2007 ).The analysis of the delays cannot be
done unless a suitable critical path scheduling system which is effectively utilized on site
and is governed by the relevant clauses of the conditions of contract.
A slightly different perspective is presented by Huot (1991) , “Designing and building
major projects at the same time to accelerate their completion is known as concurrency.” In
such an environment it is important to understand the term of concurrency and the effect of
this on the cost of the project due to the fact that the various factors that would come into
play due to the design and construction happening at the same time. The impact of such
factors on the technology that would required to be deployed and the people that would be
required to achieve the targets and the environment o be conducive for all the interaction
that will take place between the parties.
With the systems in place it will be possible to control the impact of the concurrency
and its related costs in fast track projects. A confirmation regarding the owners
requirements need to be frozen and the project scope needs to be clearly defined and
agreed prior to the commencement of construction. This will help in preventing changes,
delays and cost overruns and thus improve the quality.

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 2 .3REASONS FOR DELAYS.

The reasons for delays are project specific and vary from project to project. We
identify the delays generally as well project specific.

Projects have a variety of reasons to experience delay. An investigation to find out

the reasons for the delays was conducted in Hong Kong where a questionnaire was
developed on factors that were identified in previous findings. The analysis of the findings
indicated the difference in perception of the factors that was between the key stakeholders
of the project. “There was general agreement about the relative importance of delay factors
such as unforeseen ground conditions.” ( Kumaraswamy et al 1998 ).
The delays can be controlled by improving productivity and factors that affect
productivity are dealt with the purpose of further increasing productivity and thereby
reducing delays. The conclusion of the investigation is ranking of the factors and factor
categories that are considered by various project stakeholders. The areas of disparity
between the stakeholders is indicated by their experiences, prejudices and ineffective
communication. Thus the project scope factors can be supported by effective
communications between all stakeholders.
According to Abdalla et al (2002), projects encounter massive delays and thereby
overshoot the initial time and cost estimates which in turn result in extensive delays
providing a platform for claims and disputes. A survey done with the objective of finding the
most important reasons for delays as per the traditional contracts indicate that “contractors
and consultants agreed that owner interference, inadequate contractor experience,
financing and payments, labor productivity, slow decision making, improper planning, and
subcontractors are among the top ten most important factors.”

2.3.1 Unreasonable project scope.

Generally projects do not have an agreed scope of works document agreed at the
start of the project. Even though the scope is identified in the contract documents, it is
always possible for parties to interpret in the ways that are suitable and beneficial for them.
Change as defined by Hanna et al (2007) “as any event that results in a modification
of the original scope, execution time, or cost of work, is inevitable on most construction
projects due to the uniqueness of each project and the limited resources of time and money
available for planning.” The factors that may result in a change can be changes or errors in
design, scope addition or uncertain or unknown substrata conditions. The changes made
entitle the contractor for the variation and the impact to the program in line with the change.
60046 23
The various types of changes that can occur in a project are outlined including the financial
aspects regarding each change. Further an overall impact analysis claim program will
determine the final cumulative delay due to all the changes, modifications and additions to
the project. Not withstanding the claim for the changes the contractor is also contractually
required to do his part and contribute to mitigate the delays which has to be considered in
the potential overall impact claim program.
How important is the scope definition can be evaluated from Song et al (2005) “a
poor scope definition in an engineering design project disrupts project rhythm, causes
rework, increases project time and cost, and lowers the productivity and morale of the
workforce.” It is clear from the above description that scope of work is not restricted the
actual execution specifications but commences from the engineering and design stage
which allows for the smooth progress of the project to the construction phase. Any changes
to the design involves rework which may be abortive, modifications and or additions to the
scope of works. This in turn increases the time required for the rework itself and thus the
cost, decreasing the productivity due to the interruption of work flow and affecting the
morale of the workmen to a certain extent.
The measurement of the project scope based on quantities indicates the productivity that
can be utilized for estimation, control, measurement and monitoring of outputs. A proposal
of a conceptual model which is the quantitative engineering project scope definition
(QEPSD),within a computer aided design environment. The QEPSD measures the project
scope by defining the design categories and complexity to the specific discipline. The
result of this method led to increased utilization, improved project definition and
productivity.
In case where there is a reduction of scope it has to be to have the acceptance of
the owner. “Scope reduction involves identifying areas of the project scope of work that can
be reduced in quality, quantity, or both in a manner that is acceptable to the owner.” ( Todd
, 2008 ). Reduction of scope of work can be for the quality of finishes as well as the
quantum of work and can even include substitutions of materials and equipments, such that
they help in reducing the cost of the project and they may be an alternative but not an equal
substitute. The example of pitched roof water disposal system to be reduced to areas only
in front of the entrance or ceramic tiles replaced by vinyl tiles.
Another aspect that can be considered for scope reduction is scope deferral which
consists of areas that can be delayed and completed in future. Only the necessary
elements need to be installed like the structural elements can be completed as a shell and
core and the finishes can be done later.

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2.3.2 Inadequate early planning.

The primary task before the commencement of any project is as the saying goes
“ Plan the work, Work the plan”. It is of utmost importance for any project to commence with
the full planning to ensure the successful execution of works.
According to Thomas et al (2007), “Planning is an essential function of project
management.” But, it is seen that the medium and small sized contracting companies do
not take it as a priority and end up doing a job where there is little planning. If the planning
is done from the tender stage or bidding stage then it will help in reducing the costs, allow
realistic schedules and labor productivity. Limited guidance for contractors is available
regarding effective planning as planning is considered as a macro level function for the
owners. A detailed micro level planning process for the contractors is described herewith.
It is important to commence the planning by assessing the contract risks and
develop a initial summary plan. The next step would be to develop plans for site layouts
and identify the sequence of works to further develop detailed operational programs. The
design and construction strategies need to be reconciled and if required the initial plan
should be revised and communicated to all and finally enforce the final program.
The entire process can be illustrated with network and chart figures indicating the
integration of subcontractors to ensure that the work flow is maintained and done efficiently.
The schedule can also be expedited by working concurrently and assessing the options for
different work techniques. Since these are simple steps it should give positive results.
The importance of pre project planning and its effect on the success of the project
has been recognized even though the process varies with organizations “pre project
planning process varies significantly throughout the construction industry from one
organization to another, and from one business sector to another.” ( Gibson et al 2006 ).
The factors that may be applicable for a small contracting company will be very
different from the requirements of a large corporate construction group. Even the
requirements of the construction industry and other industry requirements would be
different. The project performance can be enhanced for any industry by ensuring that a
thorough pre project planning has been done.
The owner has to have sufficient strategic information to decide whether to commit
the resources and take the risk for the project. Pre project planning is the interface
between business and engineering and is also referred to as feasibility study or conceptual
or front end planning. “It is an owner's responsibility that it be performed adequately”
( Gibson Jr et al 1995). However, engineering consultants also carry out these functions for
the owner.
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2.3.3 Lack of risk management systems.

The issue of risk management is a complex one as risk management has various
levels and it is important to understand and attend to all these levels to allow for an
effective risk management system.

According to Weighell (1999), risk management consists of four levels- business

strategy, venture, project and function level. The business strategy generally deals with the
competition, investment, relationship, performance and constraints on future strategic
steps. The venture level is responsible for the revenues and operating cost. The project
level deals with risk associated with delays to design, engineering and construction. The
functional level caters to the supply chain management, plant operations, quality and asset
issues.
An important risk taken by contractors is the non availability of accurate sub strata
information which may be related to provisions, live cables, water pipelines and other
services. Any of the above if discovered when the project commences will delay the works
as the services will have to be relocated. If the services are live services then it would be a
further time consuming process. “Remedying site conditions that are materially different
from those specified in contract documents is a common source of delay for contractors.”
( Siddiqi et al 2006 ).The study conducted to identify factors that would allow the
contractors to handle the delays due to differing site conditions indicated that 70 percent of
the delays occurred due to the absence of timely and sufficient communication. The
absence of trust between the owner and the contractor caused 20 percent of the delays
and the balance delays were due to various causes. The impact of the delays due to
differing site conditions was found to have reduced following the unstinted follow up by the
contractor. The study arrived at a conclusion that a communication at important levels and
with an urgency was required to deal with such delay causing factors. The risk linked to
such factors would require the durations of all delayed activities to be reviewed to reduce
the delay.
According to Bauld et al (2008), the allocation of risks in construction projects is
towards the supplier and this increases the cost of government projects compared to the
private sector. Despite the fact that governments or municipalities being large customers
generally end up paying more as they want to insulate themselves against any possible
risks and ensure price certainty. “In a construction project, risk may be defined as the
possibility of economic gain or loss relating to a particular aspect of the construction

60046 26
process. Simply stated: Price to the customer = supplier's cost of supply + risk assumed by
the supplier + profit.”
In cases where the design is done by the client appointed specialist consultant the
risk of the design and other risks are managed by the client..The proper allocation of risk
among the key stakeholders of the project can be done on the basis of who can best
manage that risk. “The term "manage" means to anticipate, price for, and avoid or mitigate
the risk.” In traditional contracts the inadequate design and modifications are high risks for
the client whereas in design and build contracts the contractor bears the risk. If the risks
are allocated to the contractor then it may reduce the quality and the number of bidders.
Also, an over emphasis on the price may cause to overlook the technical and financial
capability of the bidder, (refer Appendix 1).
The risk management of risk due to subcontractor is getting more and more difficult.
The difficulty ranges from the getting the subcontractors to perform their contractual
obligations including on and off site works. Some have difficulty with the subcontract
agreement and some cannot furnish the performance bond. Some have difficulty in
providing the program of works and some cannot confirm the delivery dates of materials.
Some have trouble coordinating with other subcontractors and some want to delay the
works at the slightest pretext
The most important factor is to maintain control of the project with keeping the
progress as per the program, quantity checks, timely meetings for coordination. The bottom
line is to be in control of all the subcontractors.According to Bowcott (2005), “If you're not
on top of your subcontractors and are unaware of what they're doing, they could get ahead
of you.”Also, you have to be alert in case if any subcontractor quotes lower than 25 percent
than the other bidders. It is important to evaluate the quote and get the details and resist
the temptation to award the subcontract to this lowest bidder. It may be possible that the
subcontractor may have come with some innovative ways to quote so low, but, the
probability of something being missed out from the quote is more likely. A full review of the
quotes that is lower by 10 percent or more is normally done by top contractors. After the
review if it is felt that something has been missed out, then, the contract should not be
awarded to such a party.
Also, in some subcontracts there is a requirement of subcontractor’s subs where the
control of funds is crucial for effective progress of works. It is important to ensure that the
funds are transferred at the appropriate time to ensure the completion of the job.
Another risk management action plan would be to take urgent action when you
notice warning signs that would become visible from a contractor in trouble. In case you

60046 27
see such signs , be prepared to implement a plan to manage the risk that would otherwise
be too late and difficult to manage.

2.3.4 Lack of resources & Labor productivity.

The manpower is the most important factor in the successful completion of any
project. In case of projects where there is a lack of manpower then it also affects the
productivity of the existing workforce as they would be required to undergo long working
hours which would reduce the productivity. “poor construction productivity is commonly
caused by a lack of resources at the crew level. Providing proper resources is an important
planning issue, requires significant effort, and is necessary to properly manage a
construction project.” ( Pappas et al 2003 ).
Effective management can reduce the delays and save on costs by up to 20% as
per the data available for the United States. Also, research shows that some projects by
deploying innovative management methods get better output. These methods merit
attention as they dispel the common perception of achieving better outputs. The innovative
management methods and procedure need to be evaluated and documented for the
process of improved productivity through qualitative and quantitative assessments. The
methods indicated that the elements of communication, empowerment, metrics, planning
and training were the main factors that helped in achieving the results.

In case of large projects the preliminary design is prepared and only after the
approval of the owner the detailed design and engineering is done. It is understandable that
the designers would not be willing to deploy manpower unless the project is confirmed. On
the other hand once the project is given the go ahead there is not adequate time for the
design and engineering process which gives rise to delays on large scale projects. “An
adequate number of persons must be assigned to the engineering and/or construction
stages of today's large projects in order to assure timely completion.” ( Dwight ,1980 ).
The number of persons required for the entire project duration based on the
productivity assumed for the project scope can give the status of the requirement at any
stage of the project. There are various methods of determining the status of the project and
the trend toward mini –milestones are now commonly used for many projects. The
reporting system for the progress of works is also shifting from the engineer to the
technician level. The concept of earned value has become a proven fact and is
implemented in most projects due to its advantages related to schedule and productivity
monitoring. However the target schedules are an area of concern as a lot development
60046 28
related to the resource loading and float allocation need to be done. Man leveling has been
done by many firms but very few have actually carried it out on live projects with an in
depth analysis of the requirement for all types of direct and indirect manpower for all stages
of the work.

According to Lee et al (2005), a delay claim occurs when the actual date is delayed
compared to the contractual completion date and hence it is important to decipher the
cause of the delay since there are various factors that may cause delays. One important
factor which we will analyze is the delay due to loss of productivity or lost productivity.
Despite being a major cause of delay, few analysis of converting the lost productivity into
delay duration have been done. The difficulty in quantification of disruption which results in
loss of productivity causes the friction between the owner and the contractor. A method to
calculate the delay duration caused by loss of productivity is proposed.

The analysis of delays should take into consideration productivity change and
constant productivity. The projects have normally a combination of repetitive activities and
non repetitive activities. “Learning curve theory, therefore, can be applied where the work
activity is repetitious, continuous, and essentially identical” ( Jae-Seob , 2006 ).This method
of delay analysis appears to be a more practical choice for calculation of the delay in terms
of activities which are repetitive and can be considered as part of a learning curve with
improvements over a period of time compared to the non repetitive activities which will be
analyzed with a constant productivity.

The overall efficiency of the work process adds to the conventional project
management by providing access to mangers of large plant constructions, retrofits and
modification projects. The lean production achieved by reduced man hours required to
achieve the product highlights the efficiency of the dynamic construction process. “The term
"total project productivity" (TPP) is proposed to describe a management system for the
design, planning, and use of the overall construction work process at maximum efficiency.”
( Picard , 1998 ).
The total project productivity (TPP)is a process based on statistical analysis and
strives for continuous improvement by objectively measuring the productivity. The
satisfaction of the customer being the priority, the focus is to continuously improve ,take
necessary and corrective action to achieve the desired quality and credibility thereby
raising the cost consciousness among the work force and reduces wasted time at an
affordable cost.
60046 29
 There is decrease in efficiency by around 30 percent or more when the time is
wasted by the workmen when waiting, on-hold, travelling and idling. Also, when attention is
not paid to small details, delays occur and result in loss of efficiency and productivity upto
50 percent. The efficiency improves up to 60-70 percent in case of early work access and
stabilizes to around 80 percent. Efforts should be made to encourage such positive
changes such as smooth work flow, reduced travel, easy access to materials and tools and
good assistance for workmen.

The importance of ensuring that the people are organized and properly equipped
ensures that productivity can be achieved. “productivity does not mean making people work
harder; it involves ensuring that workers are properly organized, equipped, and trained to
work more effectively.” ( Williams , 1980 ).The workers are broadly classified into direct and
in direct manpower. While the productivity of the direct manpower can be monitored it is the
indirect manpower that should be controlled and the concept applied to both. The problem
lies with the underutilization of the resources and the workers in all categories. The main
reasons can be summed as inadequate communication, defensive labor policies and the
infirm management responsible for the inefficiency. It must be noted that pay is not the only
reason that is sought by the workers but appreciation, recognition and a sense of
contribution to the society is very important to the extent that there must be a sense of
purpose in work.

The monitoring of productivity during construction at any point and the forecasting
the probable productivity based on previous project profiles is getting popular. The
productivity profiles for various trades will differ depending upon the activities and will follow
the typical s –curve pattern. Any deviation from the profiles can be viewed as areas for
concern and need attention.“Scheduling overtime is very costly, so alternatives should be
investigated. The preferred, lowest cost method is to improve the productivity of the existing
labor force. One of the most effective ways to raise productivity is to focus on work
planning” ( Forrest , 1985 ).Thus proper and effective planning followed by efficient
monitoring are required solve the problems related to productivity.

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2.3.5 Over-ambitious estimates and incorrect task assessment.

In projects which are in the design and tender stage where there is an urgent
requirement of the estimated cost, there usually thumb rules are applied for providing the
estimates. Such estimates are usually based on quantity takeoffs from the available
drawings and details. An incorrect task description or assessment may result in an incorrect
or overambitious estimate which may either derail the project or make the project too costly
and uneconomical for the owner.
In design and build projects the owner usually requires the contractor to establish a
firm-fixed price for a project that has not yet been designed. The owner also finalizes the
duration for the project. “In the traditional design/bid/build (DBB) system, quality is fixed
through the plans and specifications. Thus, in DBB, with schedule and quality fixed, the
cost of construction is the factor in which the owner seeks competition. Conversely, in DB,
with cost and schedule fixed, the scope and hence the level of quality is the main element
of competition.” ( Gransberg et al 2004 ).
The owners have requirements and approaches for the design and build projects
which are quality by qualifications, evaluated program, specified program, performance
criteria, specification, and warranty. These requirements and approaches of the owner
need to be understood and evaluated by the contractors while preparing their proposals so
that their proposals are in line with the owners and will make it easier for evaluation and
taking the decision.

The accuracy of estimates are vital for any project specially at the preliminary
stages. These estimates would enable the owner to take the crucial decision of whether to
undertake the project at all or not. “The importance of accurate estimates during the early
stages of capital projects has been widely recognized for many years. Early project
estimates effect the most basic decisions about a project: whether it will be undertaken at
all; how large it will be; how elaborate, sophisticated and durable it will be; and how much it
will cost.” ( Ciraci et al 2009 ).
These initial costs for the projects are important for the owner’s and project team.
From the owner’s perspective these will help in evaluating the vital business decisions
ranging from asset development strategy, resource requirement and commitment for future
projects and potential project screening. In case of inaccurate estimates the opportunities
may be lost , effort wasted and in some cases lower than anticipated returns.
For the project team, success is generally guided based on the planned v/s actual
cost of the project. In case of inaccurate initial estimates, project have found it difficult to
60046 31
come of those situations and problems would range from the failure to award the contract
due to high quotes or very low quotes may make it embarrassing ,design issues, delays
and inadequate facilities.
An accurate cost estimate done at the initial stage can avoid many problems. These
estimates can be accurate to the range of ± 20 percent accuracy and suggestions have
identified 45 factors that can influence accurate estimates. The important elements of these
suggestions are who was involved in preparing the estimate, how the estimate was
prepared, what was known regarding the project scope, factors considered while the
estimate was prepared. From the above factors it was known that he most important factor
that governed the initial cost estimate was the availability of information regarding the
project scope.

The decisions made at the design and planning stage of a project is influenced by
the pre tender cost estimate. The project details which are responsible for the accuracy of
the pre tender estimate and ways and means to make the estimate realistic and more
accurate are considered. The author has used a quantitative approach to address this
research problem. Analysis of data from various projects through quantity surveying firms
indicated that the pre tender estimate is dependent on project size and the main structural
element.“The estimates of smaller projects are more biased than the estimates of larger
projects. It was discovered that pre-tender building costs are more often overestimated
than are underestimated. Overestimated forecasts are incorrect by a larger amount than
underestimated forecasts.” ( Aibinu et al 2008 ).
The data analysis have indicated that the accuracy of the pre tender cost estimates
have not improved over time and the accuracy of these estimates are not satisfactory. To
increase the accuracy of these estimates it is required to incorporate and simulate past
estimates, probability estimation and experience gained in the estimation of previous
projects, including the quantity surveyor at an early stage, reducing quantity surveying and
cost engineering skill turnover and incorporate market sentiments.

There are theories such as the neo classical micro economic theory which makes
two suggestions such as an analytical tool for construction cost estimation and full cost
pricing which is the normal procedure of pricing by construction firms. However both are
exclusive theories in their own right and only one can be correct. It can be concluded that
the theory no one is more correct based on the analysis of evidences in the research
literature. In disequilibrium there are differences in behavior, however there is not much
difference between them in equilibrium when it is viewed from a practical point of view.
60046 32
Based on the differences and “the endemic nature of uncertainty in the industry in general
makes the task of estimating costs and prices difficult in practice.” ( Skitmore et al 2006 ).
Thus, this theory provides a sensible analysis for the pricing and is more close to the
market than economics.

2.3.6 Lack of task clarity.

The projects are usually having amounts that are reserved as a provisional sum for
some section of the works as the client or the designer is unsure as what would be the
actual requirement. These works usually involve specialist inputs and cannot be finalized at
the initial stage itself. In some cases the client deliberately reserves the amount to decide
at a later stage how the money has to be spent. This gives rise to an uncertain scope of
work where there is no clarity regarding the task to be carried out. Even the baseline
program of works prepared at the start of the project cannot detail the activities due this
lack of task clarity.

The lack of task clarity can give rise to errors as adequate details will not be
available and hence changes may be required to rectify the errors or incorporate the
additional details as per the new information made available. This has an impact on the
cost in terms of cost overruns and time in terms of delay which affects the performance of
the project. It is important to realize the impact such errors and changes and work to
mitigate their negative effects on the project, this paper presents a system dynamics-based
construction model, which evaluates the dynamics of change management including the
aspects of quality, scope, request for information an decisions for change approval and
their subsequent affect on the project. The developed model integrates other traditional
network based tools to make it more applicable to the real world construction projects “this
paper concludes that: (1) realism should be added to schedule planning; (2) an efficient
coordination process is needed; (3) proactive contingency plans need to be taken into
consideration; and (4) integration of network-based tools and system dynamics-based
models can contribute to management of errors and changes.” ( SangHyun et al 2007 ).

There is an increasingly alarming situation that is developing due to the

inconsistencies that are being noticed between the design that is finalized and the final
construction that is actually done in case of large building projects and the causes for the
same are identified and analyzed. To achieve the objective of collecting the information on

60046 33
the potential reasons for the discrepancies, a survey and responses from 27 contractors
was conducted at the design and construction interface of the project.
It was observed that
“the involvement of designer as consultant, communication gap between
constructor and designer, insufficient working drawing details, lack of
coordination between parties, lack of human resources in design firm, lack of
designer's knowledge of available materials and equipment, and incomplete
plans and specifications were considered as the most important causes of the
project design and construction interface inconsistencies.” (Arain et al 2006)
The least important reasons of inconsistencies between the professionals at the
design and construction interface were the involvement of the contractor at the conceptual
and design development phase, the government regulations, project management
professionals, weather conditions and nationalities of stakeholders.

2.3.7 Design delays & Approval of drawings.

The construction projects are envisaged based on the conceptual design and
drawings. If these conceptual design are not converted to actual designs and drawings
including the structural feasibility and practicality then it would necessitate changes to the
original concept design which would impact the perspective of the project itself. It would
also affect the program for the project in terms of timely completion and thus the cost of the
project.
The construction industry is recognizing the need for timely and efficient completion
of projects. Due to the fact that unexpected problems arise due to design change and affect
the construction process thereby leading to cost escalation and time delays, it is required to
evaluate the primary causes for delay to ensure that the cost and time are within the
parameters.
This paper identifies the principal factors for delays and determines their relative
importance as viewed by the various groups involved based on 83 previously identified
delay factors. It was observed that there was “a strong consistency in perception between
clients and consultants, for example as to the importance of the 'poor site management and
supervision' delay factor and the 'contractor-related' delay factor category.” ( Chan et al
1996 ).Also, there were strong disagreements between the key stakeholders like the
contractors and client and or consultant and this was related to the ranking of the factors
responsible for the delays. Based on the observations it was suggested to implement
effective project management for better results.

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 The delays due to design changes can help in avoiding construction claims and
disputes and it also requires an adequate knowledge and understanding of the conditions
of contract related to the causes of claims. This paper investigates the causes of delays on
130 public projects of varied categories in Jordan and to allow adequate quantitative data
to evaluate the project prior to its award. The results concluded that “the main causes of
delay in construction of public projects relate to designers, user changes, weather, site
conditions, late deliveries, economic conditions and increase in quantity.” ( Ayman , 2000 ).
These factors have a detrimental impact on the project’s success in terms of the timely and
contractual completion. Effort to give attention to the factors identified in the study will help
in mitigating the risk of contractual disputes.

The variables that have an impact on construction time and cost overruns for high
rise projects in Indonesia were identified, ranked as per their apparent significance and rate
of occurrence. “Inflationary increases in material cost, inaccurate material estimating and
project complexity are the main causes of cost overruns. The predominant causes of delay
are design changes, poor labor productivity and inadequate planning.” (Kaming et al 1997).
The variables that are considered for cost overruns and delay are grouped into factors and
their relationships are analyzed with factor analysis techniques.

The decisions that are made during the conceptual design stage and briefing of the
building project is important for its successful completion. An important decision that is
required to be taken at the early stage and which can have a major impact at a later stage
is related to the selection of the structural frame. Considering the importance of a finished
building, the selection of the structural frame should be unarguably clear and emphatic. The
final decision on the structure to be selected has to be based on the structural frames
ability to perform against the criteria for it has been designed for the scheme. However it
has been observed that “the heuristics underpinning such decisions tend not to be explicit
and thus, are difficult for inexperienced clients to understand ( Soetanto et al 2006 ).
This article reports on the research, which determined the criteria used by the
stakeholders including client organizations, design professionals and contractors while
selecting the most appropriate structural frames. The research revealed stark differences in
perceived priorities by the stakeholders and may cause friction and debates between the
designers and construction professionals and the client himself if the details are revealed in
the design stage. However, it is required for such difference of opinion are known and
debated at the design making stage to allow for more appropriate designs in future.
60046 35
 The delays that are recurring in construction projects are comparable across most of
the developing countries including “several factors pertaining to local industry, socio-
economic and cultural issues and project characteristics also contribute to construction
delays.” ( Toor et al 2008 ). The survey conducted on a project in Thailand to explore the
major problems for delay indicated problems related to designers, consultants and
contractors were the foremost. Other issues causing delays were related to design delays,
inadequate resources and manpower, inefficient contractor performance and financial
difficulties and planning and scheduling deficiencies
Problems related to multicultural and multilingual environment resulting in
communication gap, excessive participants in the project and presence of foreign designers
and contractors were the least problematic issues. These findings can be of help for
project managers in developing countries including reforms in the procurement,
stakeholders and value chain management systems.

2.3.8 Owner interference & decision-making process.

The successful completion of the project in terms of cost and time has an influence
which can be a positive factor as well as a negative factor is the decision making process
which is greatly influenced by the owner. Sometimes the owner’s influence is also
construed as the owner’s interference.
According to Annoymous (2004), “Owners, particularly those new to construction,
are often so intent on cutting costs and speeding up schedules that they expect that hiring
their own contractors will work miracles. A/Es need to know the legal and financial
ramifications when advising owners in such situations, especially if a general contractor
(GC) is involved.”

There are requirements for the success of every project which are the project
parameters and performance indicators. Organizations have been developing systems to
provide much needed assistance to those involved in the process by providing data on one
approach such as strategic needs analysis in the early critical stages of the project. A total
of six research studies based on this analysis were done and this has resulted “in the
development of a series of decision-making attributes that capture the key characteristics
relevant to the project inception stages.” ( Smith et al 2008 ).
This paper identifies the best and the worst performing attributes as identified by the
stakeholders and concludes that it is difficult and challenging to work in the initial stages
60046 36
with briefing workshops which will lead to practical implementation problems if the
approach is ambitious as it is in this case. Data regarding how to overcome these lacunas
is provided in this paper.

The conventional system of engineer-procure –construct (EPC) system of contract is

no longer considered the best for power plants construction. It has been replaced by
Alliance contracting which is a viable and proven alternative to the conventional contracts.
A survey in real estate and construction revealed that complex projects worth more
than $100 million were more involved in disputes and the major causes of these disputes
were related to the owner /contractor interference, overwhelming change orders and errors
and omission by the engineer/architect.
In the EPC contracts the entire risk of the project completion is the contractor’s
responsibility, it results in a conflicting relationship with the possibility of contractual
disputes and claims, conflict that would harm the success of the project in terms of timely
completion and financial overruns. Due to these problems a new and fresh alternative “is
the project alliance contract, which consists of a proven project delivery method that aligns
the interests of the owner and the contractor to build the project in a collaborative way,
without disputes and without major claims that often result in litigation.” ( Grynbaum , 2004).

In projects when there are the requirements of nominations to be done by the owner,
the owner has the authority to perform construction with the owner’s own workforce and
award separate contracts. However, if there is a delay from the nominated contractors, the
main contractor can claim for the delays. The coordination of the works will be required to
be done between the main contractor and the nominated subcontractors and it should be in
line with the agreed construction schedule. However the responsibility for coordination will
lie with the owner and it is the architect/engineers responsibility to inform the owner about
the same and this should not be a problem if the owner has handled projects of similar
nature. The owner can also appoint a construction manager to do the same but the cost
saving would then not be possible, (Refer Appendix 2).

According to Neap et al (2004), the principles of value base project management are
highlighted and the client’s role, responsibility and contribution of the client /owner is
investigated. The client has to ensure that the requirements and objectives are conveyed
and understood by all parties. The client has to select consultants, designers, contractors
and suppliers. It is important that these actions are performed at the appropriate times and
in the correct manner. The objectives set by the client will ensure the optimization of
60046 37
quality, cost and schedule. The owner is not only the investor but a significant stakeholder
who contributes to the project in a manner that ensure the successful completion of the
project, (Refer Appendix 3).

2.3.9 Inadequate contractor & Subcontractors experience.

In case of projects where there are contracts that are awarded solely on the basis of
the cost then these projects are likely to suffer delays as proper of evaluation of the
subcontractors has not been done. The subcontractors who have quote low or simply
missed out on any items will fail to perform thereby delaying the project.

In fact the owner may end up losing more money if the project is delayed and the
returns expected from the project get delayed. Also, by deploying the contractors or
subcontractors without checking their credentials and performance, the owner is risking the
quality of the project and his reputation

Subcontractors are often faced with the spectre of financial difficulties in case of
delayed payments which may result in the failure of the subcontractor. This paper
investigates the primary causes of business failure and to identify strategies for preventing
failure. A variety of construction professionals were interviewed regarding the causes and
whether the causes were dependent on the size of the firm and what strategies could be
adopted to reduce the risk of business failure.

There were some external factors that were responsible for the profitability of the
firm which were related to the economic factors but most of the causes related to the
business functioning of the company and the absence of a workable business proposal.
“The primary causes of business failure identified were insufficient capital/excessive debt,
lack of managerial maturity, lack of early warning measures, increase in project scope, poor
billing procedures, failure to evaluate project profitability, unfamiliarity with new
geographical areas, and poor use of accounting systems.” ( Schaufelberger , 2003 ).

It has been noted that inexperienced or first time owners of small projects will select
a designer or contractor who is not qualified to handle that work. “The risks involved in
choosing an inexperienced designer include unfamiliarity with contract furnishings and little
knowledge of the strict fire codes specifying the types of fabrics required in hotels and
motels.” ( Fox , 1991 ).

60046 38
 The professional designer will have access to contract vendors who would have the
relevant information regarding all the required codes of practice for the specific projects. An
inexperienced contractor working on a hotel project may not know the loss of revenue for a
hotel for one night and may delay the works to an extent that the project revenue loss is
enormous. In case of knowledgeable contractors, adequate acceleration measures will be
made in their programs if needed.

Projects that experience delays and exceed the time and cost estimates provide a
fertile ground for disputes and claims. This paper gives details of the survey which identifies
the most important causes of delays for traditional type of contracts in construction projects
from the consultants and contractors perspective and they “agreed that owner interference,
inadequate contractor experience, financing and payments, labor productivity, slow
decision making, improper planning, and subcontractors are among the top ten most
important factors.” ( Odeh et al 2002 ).

The delays to construction projects cause financial losses for project stakeholders
and this paper describes how the Bayesian belief network is implemented to calculate the
probability. A questionnaire survey revealed sixteen factors and eighteen cause –effect
relationships were obtained from these factors to develop a belief network model to be
tested on two realistic case studies. The “study revealed that financial difficulties of owners
and contractors, contractor's inadequate experience, and shortage of materials are the
main causes of delay on construction projects.” ( Van et al 2009 ).

60046 39
2.4 MITIGATION OF DELAYS

Delays to the projects can be reduced by applying measures which can be reflected
as mitigation of delays. This mitigation of delays is possible only by re-sequencing of the
works where ever possible and without increasing the resources and manpower. The works
that can be achieved without any additional cost to the project is the mitigation.
The mitigation of delays can be possible by also applying the knowledge gained
through previous projects experience and these can be implemented where ever their
application can be suited for any specific requirement in the process of project learning.
Such knowledge management will help in mitigating delays and the awareness of such
knowledge through lessons learnt feedback can in fact be helpful in preventing the delays
itself.

2.4.1 Knowledge Management.

The knowledge management is the utilization of knowledge gained in numerous

projects and various situations to tackle a specific problem. “Knowledge Management
refers to the collection of processes governing creation, storage, reuse, maintenance,
dissemination and evaluation of Knowledge in a particular situation or problem solving
context.” ( Hsiao et al 2003 ).The knowledge gained can be implemented by various people
who can improve the construction systems and thus save time and cost of solving
problems.
The study proposes a method of utilizing a collaborative based approach to collect
and implement the knowledge gained by the engineers and the project. This approach can
enable the participants to have overview of the knowledge available and missing from their
projects and evaluate their knowledge suitably. The application of knowledge management
for construction projects is evaluated in this study and a concept and system of
construction collaborative based knowledge management is developed. This system is then
applied in select cases of building project to check the methodology and effectiveness of
sharing knowledge in construction. The knowledge can be stored and used in future for
projects in the construction phase by implementing the knowledge based mapping and web
technology.

60046 40
 Knowledge management is a new concept in information systems area whereas
knowledge management is well recognized in the intelligent information systems. The study
“proposes a new and practical methodology to capture and represent engineers'
Knowledge and project knowledge by using Knowledge Breakdown Structure Maps
(KBSM) approach.” ( Chen et al 2004 ).

2.4.2 Project learning.

In some projects situations develop and the action can only be taken based on the
available information which is project learning and improving with time. This is called as the
learning curve usually applied to works which are undertaken for the same time. Initially the
outputs and results are low and gradually improvements are noticed as the activities are
repeated.

There is a universal concurrence that the delay in construction projects is a common

phenomenon worldwide. Project delays are generally related to the inadequate project
knowledge management.
There is universal agreement that construction delay is a common phenomenon in
the construction industry worldwide. Poor or lack of project knowledge management
continues to plague the construction industry, especially in relation to project delays.
“Knowledge management is used to reduce the impact of construction projects delay using
a project learning approach.” ( Hamzah et al 2008 ).The development of a delay mitigation
model was developed by data collection in three different phases as initial survey, case
studies and interviews.
The positive impacts to the projects programs are due to the project learning
approach. The delay phenomenon in the construction industry can be improved by an
excellent leadership and integrated dedication of all the key project stakeholders. All the
key factors of mitigation namely knowledge management, project learning and lessons
learnt are incorporated in the conceptual model and the results indicate that the best way
to meet the requirements of the owner and the market is by applying the project learning in
line with the project program and this can be done by maintaining the contractor’s core
proficiency .

The Architecture, Engineering, and Construction industries have a vital role in the
completion of various infrastructure and facilities projects ranging from residential to
60046 41
industrial, from transportation to energy, from water supply to waste management and
communication systems. It has an important responsibility in maintaining their excellence,
reliability and endurance.
While playing such a vital role in the progress of the industry it also has many
negative effects such as environmental effects and dilapidation, depletion of natural
resources, waste generation and its disposal. It has been noticed that the traditional
responses to such issues have been slow and ineffective. The efforts to reduce these
impacts have proved to be expensive has do not find favor among the key players to
implement the same. The industry has been endeavoring to define the characteristics of
sustainable development, the processes and the resources required to achieve the same.
To achieve the objectives “decision-makers need to integrate sustainability at all stages of
the project life cycle, particularly the early funding allocation, planning and conceptual
design phases.” ( Hansen et al 2006 ).
The success of the sustainability need the industry to define, plan and design and
then procure, construct operate, maintain and implement the more sustainable building
technologies and systems. Thus the project learning would help in bettering the
development of sustainable systems. To satisfy these needs, there is a requirement of a
model having the elements of vision for sustainability at all levels and then the
implementation at the strategic, planned and operational level and having specific
principles which provide the base for the vision and the road map.
These factors for sustainability will also have challenges as it is a complex field as it
is rich, vast and varied as well as active and mature programs that have evolved over the
years thereby providing the much needed project and industry learning.

The projects are planned at the initial stages by preparing baseline master program
of works. The projects which are planned in uncertainty are provided with an integrated
methodology which is developed specifically for such construction projects. This
methodology is based on a computerized risk management that allows for the
classification, scrutiny and quantification of the major risk factors and their chances of
happening and their effect on the project activity durations. “Using project management
estimates of the marginal cost of activity starting time disruptions, a heuristic procedure is
used to develop a stable proactive baseline schedule that is sufficiently protected against
the anticipated disruptions that may occur during project execution and that exhibits
acceptable make span performance.” ( Schatteman et al 2006 ). The implementation of this
methodology on real time projects and demonstrates that the positive program generated
by the planner outperforms the program which are done on conventional programming
60046 42
software packages in terms of applicability and completion in line with the project
completion date.

The mitigation of delays in construction projects by resorting to crashing of the

balance activities is a very usual phenomenon especially when the delay to the projects is
caused by the contractor. While locating an activity for mitigation by crashing the planner
and the project manager would have to take into consideration the resource availability,
cost escalation, affect on quality, safety parameters and other impacts on the program. In
practice managers and planners would take their decisions based on their past experience
and personal opinion. Surveys were carried out in Hong kong to identify the factors relevant
to the selection of activities for crashing and the importance of those selection factors for
mitigation of delays. The results indicate that 'safety', 'chances of success', 'resources
availability', and 'time for implementation' are the most influential factors when selecting
construction activities for crashing.” Surprisingly, 'cost' was regarded as one of the least
important factors by clients and contractors in this study.” ( Ng et al 1995 ).

2.4.3 Lessons learned feedback.

The lessons learnt during the projects need to be recorded so that the difficulties
faced by the project team and way those difficulties were tackled would be of immense help
and guidance to the future projects of similar nature. The negative aspects of the lessons
learnt would be more than the positive as the report prepared by the contractor would
highlight the delays due the owner, designer and consultant. Likewise the report prepared
by a consultant would identify the inefficiency and delays by the contractor. Whatever may
be the case the report would be helpful in identifying the pitfalls for the future teams
handling such projects.

In projects where delays occur the personnel who are in charge of the construction
should implement measures to mitigate the impact of program delays in order to improve
the productivity, save cost and time, safeguard against disputes and preserve their
professionalism. Earlier the information available on mitigation the effect of delays was not
adequate. In order to ensure that the projects are completed on time and within the
budgeted cost, an system has been developed which can be implemented on any project
and it is designed to work within the parameters of the project and still achieving the
optimum results.
60046 43
 “Four techniques are combined in sequence to produce a process that
directs courses of action for mitigating delays. These techniques include: 1. a
modification impact evaluation, which resequences project activities with a
minimum amount of disruption, 2. resource constraining, which redefines
schedules according to projected resource limits, 3. project expediting, which
assists in reducing project duration systematically, and 4. value engineering,
which attempts to overcome unnecessary costs and design inefficiencies.”
Wesley (1986)
These mitigation techniques allow for the re-sequencing of the delayed activities so
that there is little disruption and allowing for resources to be within limits as projected
during the baseline program. It allows for expediting the project by reducing the project
durations which can be achieved by reducing the activity durations systematically and lastly
but implementing value engineering by implementing the alternatives having same
specifications but lowered cost. Thus the lessons learnt would require the future projects to
evaluate value engineering for all projects and save on unnecessary cost without affecting
the performance of the project.

The construction projects that are undertaken are done with the best of intentions.
They encounter problems when there are delays to the program, unforeseen cost
escalation and overruns, shortfall in budget, defective quality of material and workmanship,
confused scope of works and third party meddling. Such conditions can also affect
relationships, spoil the reputations and may lead to financial privation of the key
stakeholders. Such traumatic circumstances frequently happen all the key stakeholders or
some of them are not able predict the future and hence cannot visualize the effects of their
action or non action regarding the decisions until there is a serious delay to the project. At
that point of time it is difficult to recover, however it may not be too late. This paper merges
several techniques that that evaluate the health of construction projects and key milestones
to be monitored. The paper “presents a spectrum of proactive and pragmatic control
techniques that have been successfully used to identify, assess, prioritize, and mitigate
various problematic conditions, and to heighten project performance.” ( Kalayjian et al
2001 ). The above techniques are implemented by promoting the compilation and
elucidation of significant project information and assisting the project team to enhance their
combined decision making potential.

The development of large engineering projects depends on the cooperation of

various specialists. These specialists have their perceptions and view on numerous issues

60046 44
and these views when do not align with the overall perspective lead to clashes and conflicts
and if these conflicts are not attended to at an early stage then they may become serious
issues which may affect the design finalizations, making them more expensive and cause
delays to the design and construction process and thereby leading to compromises in the
ultimate result. This paper presents “research on the representation, use, and
communication of design rationale for conflict mitigation in a collaborative environment.”
( Pena-Mora et al 1995 ).
This research is based on the analysis that the perspective of the designer is
reflected in their design justification and a system for demonstrating the same from the
point of characterizing and controlling the design intent evolution, artifact evolution, the
association between intents and between intent and artifact. The design justification system
needs to get its information in a non interfering manner and a system for conflict mitigation
through negotiation between key stakeholders through dynamic computer support.

The quest to reduce the project duration and delivery time has made the
construction professionals implement the overlapping of the design and construction
activities. It is possible to overlap the design and construction activities to a certain extent,
however undertaking the design and construction works in a illogical sequence can give
rise to momentous risks. The mitigation of these risks can be done by undertaking more
logical overlapping of activities in the design stage and construction stage. The aim of this
work is “to determine the factors that contribute to the sensitivity of construction activities.”
( Blacud et al 2009 ).
Experienced construction specialists state that the level of change, the time required
for delivery, modularity and the interface of the components are the factors that indicate the
sensitivity in construction activities to upstream design changes. These factors help in
analyzing the sensitivity of an activity which can help the implementers reduce the risk
when planning the overlapping of design and construction activities.

There are actions that can be undertaken by the owner to tackle the issues of
delays in construction projects. The delay to the project from the owner starts from the
initial stages and the contractor is required to prepare aggressive recovery schedules in the
early stages of the project which has a high probability of failure. The author suggests
solution to the problems and ways to mitigate the delays. The key suggestions are to
undertake the project planning from the tender stage and ensuring that the contractor
implements effective measures for the project planning and monitoring and control. The
problem becomes more acute when the project is located overseas as the basis for the bid
60046 45
become different. The owner has to play the role of the real engine and make provisions for
the contractor to plan,monitor and execute the works in an efficient and coordinated
manner. ( Casinelli , 2005 ) (Refer Appendix 4).

The construction industry is not only the nation’s backbone but it is also an indicator
of its competence and efficacy. Since there is always the factor of risk and complications
which are intrinsic to construction projects as well as the diverging interests of the key
stakeholders, disputes and claims are expected in the construction industry. The frequency
of the disputes and claims have increased to an extent that the annual cost of such
disputes and claims is $5 billion. The main aim of the dissertation was to “develop an
integrated and coherent methodology for mitigation of construction disputes through both,
multi-agent based simulation concepts and risk management modeling principles.” ( El-
adaway et al 2008 )
The research carried out has come up with an innovative method for construction
claims and disputes by implementing a logical induction decision and thereby creating a
multi agent system to suggest legal discourse. A new method using portfolio insurance has
been developed to address the issues of risk in the construction sector. The contractor
claims are tackled by utilizing a risk retention method to mitigate the negative effects. By
undertaking the above measures the positive effects would be reflected on the project and
all the parties concerned.

In projects there are lessons to be learnt from the environmental aspects which will
provide a greater insight into the mitigation procedures that can be implemented and the
management systems that can be successfully deployed to achieve these results. “The
effectiveness of environmental impact assessment depends largely on fully implementing
cost-effective mitigation and other management measures to prevent significant
environmental degradation.” ( Sanchez et al 2005 ).
Thus the effect of the environmental impact can be assessed by implementing the
management systems and close monitoring. Their role was discussed in this paper related
to a highway project in Brazil. A follow up procedure was implemented rigorously to ensure
the success of the mitigation measures and the results were successful and the total cost
incurred were 1.4 % of the total project cost. Thus it can be recommended that the
mitigation can be achieved by implementing the management systems as an important
element and checklists and audits would be realistic solutions to ensure the rules are
enforceable, verifiable and manageable. It can be concluded that the mitigation measures
coupled with external monitoring and control can ensure its successful implementation.
60046 46
 The projects where this is a lot of decisions to be taken and the duration of the
project is short would require the decisions to be reduced to enhance the project schedule
and to undertake a continuous improvement process from engineering to the EPC phase.
Normally the client’s estimate for basic engineering is in the range +/- 10%,and this is
applicable for appropriation of large projects. In this particular case the +/- 10% variance in
the “estimate was replaced by a Monte Carlo risk analysis, which gave the range of
possible capital cost outcomes for the projects.” ( Vanderwerf , 2003 ).
The paper describes two approaches taken for the construction of the model of the
estimate as the information for analyzing the risk with importance of co-relation between
the information to the risk model. In the absence of recognition of these dependencies the
variation to the total project cost will be minimal and may lead to incorrect conclusions from
the risk analysis. A design and build contract to further mitigate the project cost was
implemented which included incentives for the contractor to under-run the material and
labor aspect of the budget.

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2.5 PREVENTION OF DELAYS
Delays can be prevented by applying methods which can be implemented from the
project commencement itself like planning and analyzing the requirements in detail which
will allow the mapping of resources. The risk can be identified to allow the estimation and
allocation of works which is required to be modularized. Escalation of issues at the
appropriate times also ensures that the delays can be prevented.
The prevention of delays is possible when all the project stakeholders work as a
team to ensure the success of the project. It is also important for the client to employ a
proactive consultant, freeze the design and details before the commencement of the project
and employ good reputed contractors for the project.

2.5.1 Plan/Analyze the requirements in detail.

The construction industry has to implement new ways of working to be competitive

to meet the demands of the clients. Working in collaboration is essential for the design and
construction teams during the complete lifecycle of the project. In construction “it is now
recognized that good collaboration does not result from the implementation of information
technology solutions alone, the organizational and people issues, which are not readily
solved by pure technical systems, need also to be resolved.” ( Shelbourn et al 2007 ). The
collaboration between individuals related to different fields is a more difficult task and it
does not happen by implementing techno solutions. The requirements of the construction
sector are gathered through literatures, interviews and questionnaires to develop a
methodology for the working in collaboration effectively for the construction sector. The
main issue emerging from these analysis is the that the softer issues need more attention
than the issues related to technology to ensure that the plan and implementation of
collaborative working is more effective in projects.

The planning and analyzing the details can be done by interactive planning which
includes an integrated program that defines key milestones, constraints and identifies the
major issues that may affect the project. Further, a detailed project execution schedule
needs to be developed in coordination with the project team that includes inputs from the
team members. This will enable to get a commitment from the project team and everybody
will have the knowledge of the requirements. Special attention has to be given to the
coordination of inter discipline works and their sequence. The responsibilities have to be
identified for the project. The interactive planning is not a onetime occurrence, there has to

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a constant interaction between all parties at the various stages of the project, (Baar , 2002)
(Refer Appendix 5).

The works in high rise apartment buildings where the individual clients have
separate and specific requirements makes it difficult for the finishing works to be done.
Normally the works should progress in a sequence upwards floor to floor. But due to these
requirements from the clients the cycle is broken and the sequence of works cannot be
maintained as the decisions taken by the clients will be arbitrary and not have consideration
for the project sequence of works. This results in longer time taken to complete the
individual apartments and this has an effect on the progress of works resulting in delays as
per the program, budget overruns and general dissatisfaction regarding the process which
also includes abortive, additional and modification of works from all the key stakeholders. In
light of such issues the “Application of lean construction principles to this problem has led to
development of a management model that adopts pull scheduling, reduced batch sizes,
and a degree of multi skilling.” ( Sacks et al 2007 ).
With the application of lean construction principles the works can be done by people
having multiple skills so that works do not suffer due to lack of manpower and small teams
can be deployed in various areas so that the works can progress simultaneously thereby
achieving a shorter time cycle than the normal time taken in programs. The implementation
of the above measures help in ensuring early delivery of the customized apartments
including reduced time requirement for completion and delivery and thus improving the
cash flow. The model was initially proposed as a theory then simulated using a
management simulation game and then implemented practically.

2.5.2 Map available resources

The key to successful completion of any project is the optimum utilization of the
resources and by achieving the productivities as planned in the schedule. Also, the
deployment of the required resources at the appropriate time is absolutely essential in the
success of any project. This mapping of resources for a project is the key to any projects
success.
In every project, there are key determinants for the performance of the construction
program of works and these range from the project manager, project team, planning and
monitoring team and cost control team. The study evaluated the objective data on
completed projects using neural network method an arrived at five key determinants
namely “(1) time devoted by the project manager to a specific project; (2) frequency of
60046 49
meetings between the project manager and other project personnel; (3) monetary
incentives provided to the designer; (4) implementation of constructability program; and (5)
project manager experience on projects with a similar scope.” ( Kog et al 1999 ).
These key determinants and their effective utilization will determine the success of
the construction program. The most important issue in the key determinants is the time
dedicated by the project manager to the project as his presence will help in taking decisive
action to ensure that the project is performing within the parameters of time and cost. The
frequent meeting between the project manager and the project team will ensure that the
focus is maintained and monetary incentives to the designer will ensure the smooth floe of
information. The program will be monitored for any issues that may affect the performance
and cause delays and the project manager’s experience on a similar project will come
handy in such situations.

For effective project planning and control, resource management has been a very
important subject. Since the availability of skilled manpower is scarce and whatever is
available has to be utilized in the most optimum manner the project management
techniques are getting more and more resource oriented. In most of the construction
management planning software the focus is not on resource management. The main issue
is that the resource planning is done separately from programming activities. In a program
prepared for any project, first the activities are scheduled then the resource constraints are
applied. In programs, thus since the activities and resources are planned separately in a
sequential order, the program plan the activities even when there are no resources
available to execute those at that time or the activity itself is delayed unnecessarily
whereas the activity duration could have been simply stretched by reducing he requirement
of resources. This leads the project team to being misled and misinformed on the baseline
master program of works and later becomes the reasons for delays and claims.
This paper takes into consideration the above aspects and “presents the Resource-
Driven Scheduling (RDS) approach where the activity scheduling and resource scheduling
are combined into a single process. This framework provides a flexible and comprehensive
way to integrate the scheduling aspect and the resource planning aspect in project
management.” ( Yeong , 1991 ).As this system is a more practical way as it represents how
the project staff consider and function.

The projects programming literature treats the duration of the activities as

probabilistic whereas in actual scenario the activity durations are uncertain due to the fact
that the resource required by those activities are also uncertain. This paper indicates the

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measures to “provide the means for contractors to optimally allocate their skilled workers
among individual tasks for a single project.” ( Vaziri et al 2007 ).

Compared to the normal use of program with activities having durations, control
policies are developed by allocating planned resources to the activities that capture the
uncertainty related to the duration of the activities and the effect of the resource distribution
to those durations.

Some projects require the resources to work as a team to ensure its success and
also it is possible to make teams in a project man make them compete with each other. The
application of “business process reengineering and organization planning philosophy, this
study focuses on human resource planning in construction management process
reengineering (CMPR) to develop a team-based human resource planning (THRP) method
for deploying laborpower.” ( Cheng et al 2005 ).

The THRP method has dual rationale in the utilization of the original resources on
the utmost number of projects and the range of resources required for expected number of
projects in the future. This method has four phases of process reengineering, data
preparation, human resource allocation and simulation. By utilizing the THRP method, a
construction company can design and allocate resources to a team based organization and
these can also include cross functional processes. The savings due to CMPR can be
evaluated by comparing the utilization of the human resources before and after the
implementation of CMPR. Thus, the optimum resource requirement can be assessed and
subsequently deployed to achieve the changing circumstances of a company’s expanding
potential.

The success of large scale /mega projects require detailed planning by the
management, engineers and the project team which is a complex and time consuming
effort . While analyzing the status of mega projects in today’s environment it is important to
note that the time delays and cost overruns are significant problem faced by both the client
and the contractor. The primary problem is the lack of complete scope for the project which
affects the planning thereby causing delays. Computer simulation is a dominating tool for
evaluating scenarios which are considered dynamic and complex as the repetitive process
is analyzed and the approach is appealing and helps the decision makers recognize
various options by evaluating the vast amount of information.

Thus, “computer simulation can be used effectively to analyze the resource loading
and manpower requirements needed to complete a task in a given time frame, based on
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current progress levels. This paper discusses a special purpose simulation (SPS) tool for
optimization of manpower forecast loading and resource leveling.” ( Hanna et al 2007 ).

2.5.3 Perform training and knowledge transfer.

The projects completed on time or otherwise are a source of valuable information for
the people who would undertake a similar project. The information would be transfer of
knowledge for the benefit of those who otherwise would encounter problems similar to
those encountered by the earlier counterparts. Also, people who have encountered
situations which needs to be known, so that others can take benefit from it can be done by
performing training in such specific issues and matters.

In projects the decisions made by the site personnel are important to the success
and failure of the project. The decisions made on the field by the team dictates, whether the
profit margins are gained or lost hence the knowledge of planning and scheduling should
be integrated at the field level. “Profit margins are gained or lost by the field decisions, so
the knowledge of planning, scheduling and managing project cost should be integrated into
the field at all levels of supervision.” ( Koch , 2008 ).

It is important ot note that training alone cannot guarantee the transfer of information
to the site personnel but by demonstrating the practices of the company and giving
examples where the employees can relate to their own experiences can raise confidence
levels. Research has indicated that a person who is confident is to participate and excel in
his field. This paper offers a representation for the employers to evaluate the requirements
of the firm and the employee’s benefits of training and knowledge accrued that can be
implemented in managing the project programs and cost.

There are companies where the experience of the estimator plays an important role
and is a valuable asset for every construction company. “For a reliable cost estimation at
the conceptual stage of a building project, the missing data and information, otherwise
needed for a detailed cost estimate, have to be substituted by the knowledge of an
experienced cost-engineer.” ( Bjornsson et al 1994 ).

Thus, the experience of a senior cost estimator comes to the aid of budgeting during
the conceptual stages of the project and the decisions are based on his experience. There
is a possibility that the estimator may have a bias towards some aspects of budgeting or
the selection of cost objectives which can result in an estimate which may not be accurate
and optimal.
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2.5.4 Identify risks.

For every project whether it is a mega project or a small sized project the
identification of all the risks for that project is essential in initial stages. This will help in
developing action plans to meet those risks and the make all the stakeholders aware of
their effects if not attended to at the initial stages itself.
A realistic procedure is recommended to work out the size of the program for a
project or a budget for an unforeseen risk at any stage of the project.“The size of the
budget is a function of the number of risks expected at the specified confidence level. The
number of risks used for developing the contingency budget depends on the total number
of risks to be considered and the estimated probabilities of occurrence of the risks.”
( Khamooshi et al 2009 ).
The risks that are determined will also indicate whether impact may be major or
marginal and the budget to be allocated accordingly. When the risks for a specific project
are more than 20 or the exact number of risk that are calculated by a binomial distribution
will be tabulated to indicate the exact number of risks. The findings indicate that a certain
amount of budget should be allocated for small risks in a project which in any case would
materialize. The exact number of risks would depend on the risks acceptance by the
company.
The risks that have to be identified and analyzed for any project from the list of
probable risks is a problem where the decision lies with a multi group regarding where to
attribute the risk which is a problem. “Conventional approaches to risk identification and risk
analysis separately tend to be less effective in dealing with the imprecise of the risk
analysis individually.” ( Mojtahedi et al 2008 ). Since the impact of the risk analysis done
individually for each risk may not give the cumulative effect, the risks analysis is not
effective from the overall perspective. This paper aims to present a new method to identify
and analyze the risks concurrently by the application of the a “multi attribute group decision
making (MAGDM).” With this method the classification of the risks is done by identifying the
potential risks in a breakdown structure similar to the work breakdown structure.

The identification of risks is done for a project to evaluate the risks a project faces
but the identification of the risks itself is a challenge. “ although risk management is
considered an integral task in project delivery, particularly in a public private partnership
(PPP) project, construction industry practitioners experience challenges in its
implementation, especially with respect to risk event identification and selecting responses
to individual risks.” ( Nelms et al 2008 ).
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 The identification of the risk is a structured process which can be explicit and implicit
with the implicit risks being common and hence making way for unpredictability and non
optimal choices. Risk drivers arise from the various elements of the project including what
has to be built and how will it be built and the effect of the various factors surrounding the
project like environment, organization and contractual parameters. Representation of these
elements can gain from the concept of profiling which can be the most ideal way to
elaborate the components that form part of the project in terms of valid characteristics and
their as planned and as built standards.
The paper also elaborates the profiling the different aspects of the project and how it
can help in locating the risk drivers, related risk occurrences, estimates of the probability of
occurrences and the impact if the risk actually happens. Once the information related to the
risk drivers for a risk event is known, suitable risk responses can be implemented in the
form of transfer, avoid, mitigate and acceptance can be determined including their
effectiveness in mitigating estimated likelihood and results.

Risks and uncertainty are intrinsic for all projects. The success of any project is
determined by the fact as to how the risks associated with the project are managed
throughout the entire lifecycle of the project. “The application of risk management equips
team members with the ability to develop a formal process of systematically identifying,
analyzing, and formulating an effective risk management strategy. A risk management
strategy will mitigate the potential for loss and monitor risk events from the conceptual
development of the project throughout its life cycle.” ( Gawad et al 2008 ).
The risk management system will help in getting the much required information
related to the risks and deriving a strategy to manage the risks and thereby the potential
losses to the project. Thus risk management can be considered as a process for the
development of strategies to maintain project performance that would be acceptable to all
project stakeholders. The key to effective risk management and mitigation of risks is the
aptitude to analyze the probable risk events and rank them to evaluate their potential
impact.

The management of the projects includes risk management as its vital element as all
projects face various types of risks. The identification and analysis of the risks is the key
element of risk management. “Risk Identification is discovering, defining, describing,
documenting and communicating Risks before they become problems and adversely affect
a project.” ( Barati et al 2008 ).In this paper the author presents an competent risk

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identification process which is analyzed at all the key points to improve the risk
management

2.5.5 Estimate and allocate.

The estimation for any project is the key to profitability and the growth of the
company. Accurate estimates will help in realizing the outputs with the proper allocation of
resources that are required for the project. Thus the estimate for any project has to be
accurate to the last detail to ensure competitiveness in the market.
The ability of accurately forecasting the cost of delivering a project is the key to a
cost based competition. The literature on cost estimation has focused on specific
estimation methods as broad techniques and not much consideration has been given to
the distinct requirement of each project. The author attempts to highlight the important
factors for an effective estimation at different stages of the project. “Drawing from
organization control theory and cost estimating literature, this note develops a theoretical
framework that identifies the critical factors for effective cost estimation during each project
phase of a conventional construction project.” ( Liu et al 2007 ). The main logic is that with
the progress of a cost estimate, the programming of the activities and the output
measurement can be done in a better manner and the result will be that input oriented
control will shift to output control.

2.5.6 Modularize work.

Projects undertaken have to prepare a schedule of works in which the activities have
to sequenced in a logical manner to demonstrate as to how the works would be
undertaken. The aspect of allowing a logical sequence of works to proceed in the modular
way, is the best way to ensure the success of any project.

The project duration is normally fixed when the contract is signed. The details
related to the individual activities durations are based on the elements like the quantities
and other variables which can impact the estimate for the duration of the activity. The
author of this paper presents a methodology which “simulates the combined impact at each
progress reporting period, refines activity duration estimates, produces a reliable estimate
of the expected delay during the progress reporting period, the project completion time and
the probability of achieving it.” ( Ahuja et al 1984 ).Thus the progress of the project and its
evaluation are various stages indicates whether the duration allowed for the activities are
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adequate or need revision or corrective action to ensure that the project remains on
schedule.

The project should implement a system that would integrate all the elements of the
work and ensure that these are monitored for the performance. The author “presents a
system that supports project time and cost control in an integrated manner.” ( Moselhi et al
2004 ).According to this system, the process of project delivery is represented by object
oriented modeling and these are designed to map the same. The resources utilized in each
control object is represented by eighteen key parameters and sensors to identify the
difficult sectors having non satisfactory results. The implementation of this system is done
through a computer system and periodic and cumulative project performance reports are
produced to provide the status of the project from all aspects. The results that are
generated are analyzed with an example from the literature to evaluate its compliance and
features.

Every project is unique in its own right in terms of the time ,place and cost are never
the same for any two projects. Hence, the response to every project needs to be unique in
its own right. The literature for the implementation of construction projects indicates that
flexibility can be an important factor in a projects success. The search for alternative
solutions to manage the projects has proposals recommending for a “room to maneuver” to
ensure the successful completion of the project. But, the debate regarding the flexibility and
rigidity in managing projects is very much alive and kicking. It is noticed that “Rigidity in
schedule specifications and constant monitoring and adherence to original plan offers its
own charm of predictability. At the same time, unrealistic assumptions can create severe
problems in execution and can even erode the credibility of management.” ( Pundir et al
2008 ).

Thus, the project manager has to address the issues regarding the form of approach
for the project. A project can either be managed by a rigid or flexible approach and the right
balance for flexibility and rigidity, and the conditions under which the manager can opt for
flexibility.

The works that are of repetitive nature in a project can be project in a format which is
known as line of balance(LOB) and these are usually better than the conventional bar
charts and network diagrams for the purpose of repetitive construction, but its use is not
widespread. The author identifies the major limitations of the LOB methodology and then

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eliminates them by a computer program called repetitive unit scheduling scheme(RUSS)
and an effective algorithm which facilitates its implementation is developed.

“A tool that handles logical and strategic limitations caused by the

particular characteristics of repetitive activities is provided. A learning model
is developed and incorporated into LOB calculations. The program is
designed to optimize resource allocation by using multiples of the natural
rhythm of activities. An optimum crew size that guarantees maximum
productivity in an activity is used throughout the LOB calculations to achieve
cost-optimized schedules.” Arditi et al (2001)

Thus the implementation of the line of balance is expected to optimize the resources
allocation and maximize productivity. The nonlinear and discrete activities are also included
in the LOB calculations. The RUSS projects the LOB diagram for all the individual path in
the network and such a system should make LOB more appealing to the contractors.

2.5.7 Escalate issues.

The project has numerous decisions to be taken and some are interlinked in such a
way that without the decision being taken on one issue the other issue cannot progress. In
such a case if the decision is pending from the client then it will be required to highlight the
issue at an appropriate time to ensure that there is no delay to the project. Unless and until
the issue is escalated the client would not action the issue with an urgency and this may
lead to delays to other works as well delay the project.
The issues related to quality and cost are essential for any project.“Cost and quality
are inseparable issues on any project. The generally perceived notion that 'quality' has a
direct bearing on 'cost' to the owner is generally valid assuming all procedures are well
managed and executed by all parties.” ( Duttenhoeffer , 1992 ).
There are numerous stages in a project where a bad quality of works can result in
rework or abortive works and increase the cost unless all the stakeholders understand the
importance of quality. The typical areas which can lead to cost escalation are related to the
owners acquisition of the property, financing the project, planning and engineering through
the consultant and construction and maintenance. The design by the consultant can
significantly affect the project and it is advisable to have a quality management program
that includes all features of the professional’s involvement to ensure the desired results.

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 In projects , to ensure the success from all aspects the author proposes the following
Steps to be undertaken
“ (1) `Win-win' environment. The expectations of the owner must be met
by the capability of the contractor. The owner will minimise their risk only
when the contractor minimises their risk. The owner must know that the
contractor can perform, and the contractor must meet the owner's
expectation while making a profit.
(2) Maximum value. Performance must be considered along with price.
(3) Self-motivation of contractors to increase performance. Contractors
must be motivated to do better construction on every job regardless of the
owner's expectations.
(4) Free market system. Contractors must compete based on price and
capability or performance.
(5) Minimise the difference of perception and expectations. The
expectation level of both the owner and contractor must be identified, with the
selection of the contractor with the closest expectation that the owner can
afford as the `best value'.
(6) Minimum control. Management theory has proved that external control
by the owner and attempting to increase the contractor's capability (false
expectation caused by bias) are ineffective, costly and increase risk.”
( Kashiwagi et al 2002 ).
From the above points it is clear that a win win environment has to be created
where everybody feels comfortable and is motivated to perform to gain the maximum value.
The control has to be minimum with broad guidelines and as a free market system which
will help in minimizing the differences of expectations and perception of all parties.
The construction projects are generally susceptible to delays and cost overruns as
compared to the baseline master programs and tender estimates thereby causing huge
losses to all key stakeholders. However, in seldom cases the variations cause the viability
of a project to be jeopardized as compared to the baseline plans. Thus, it is important to
develop systems that would identify the expected variance to the time and cost of the
project as compared to the baseline plan.
As per the proposal, “The proposed forecasting approach adopts multiple regression
techniques and further utilizes neural networks to capture the decision-making procedure of
project experts involved in schedule monitoring and prediction.” ( Al-Tabtabai et al 1997 ).
The application of the proposals were applied to a live project and were found to be
acceptable and were implemented.

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SUMMARY

Delay occurs when the critical activities are affected. This delay is either non
excusable(contractor caused) or compensable (client caused) and mostly the delay is
concurrent.
The delays to projects is primarily emanating from the client due to various reasons
like project scope not being finalized at the initial stage, delay in nominating subcontractors
at the appropriate time.
Delay due to inadequate early planning can be avoided if the client implements risk
management systems. Delays are also a result of over ambitious estimates, lack of task
clarity, resources , inadequate contractor selection and labor productivity as analyzed by
Williams (1980) “productivity does not mean making people work harder; it involves
ensuring that workers are properly organized, equipped, and trained to work more
effectively”.
Mitigation of delays can be implemented through knowledge management, project
learning and the lessons learnt feedback.
The delays can be prevented by implementing measures of planning/analyzing the
details, mapping available resources ,identifying risks, estimating ,allocating and
modularizing work by escalating issues as per ( Baar , 2002 ) "inter active planning." It is
the facilitated process…of an integrated project schedule, which highlights logic through
work processes, defines key constraints, defines key milestones, and last but not least,
identifies major issues that may affect the project.

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CHAPTER 3.CASE STUDIES:
3.1 INTRODUCTION

Projects are conceptualized and implemented with the primary aim of completion in
time. Delay to the project is a failure to implement project management principles. However
in certain cases the delay is from the primary stakeholder himself(refer case study 2).The
aim of the case study approach is to evaluate live and/or completed projects which are
undertaken in the U.A.E. and understand the types of delay, reasons for the delays and
measure to mitigate and eliminate the delays.

There are various types of delays to projects and having numerous reasons for
every project. Also, every project is unique in its characteristics, priorities and value and
benefits. Delay to projects are also a result of various factors related to that project and
every delay in a particular project also has various factors and elements which require a
detailed study and analysis.

A survey with some people may provide some insight into some types of delays for
some type of projects and the reasons for those delays. It may not give the entire picture of
delays and its reasons ,implications and measures taken to mitigate delays for a particular
delay or many delays for a specific project. Also, complete information related to the delays
may not be available for various reasons which may again affect the analysis and the
results.

Also, a survey is basically gathering information from various sources carrying out a
theoretical analysis and deriving results and conclusions. A case based study is done on a
live and/or completed project which evaluates the entire project and all factors that were
responsible to the delay and all the mitigation or acceleration methods adopted to recover
from those delays.

A case based study of different live projects having experienced different types of
delays and different reasons for delays would provide a deeper insight into the problems.
Since , these delays have actually taken place ,the reactions and solutions would provide a
clear idea as which of the theoretical solutions have been implemented or which of the
theoretical solutions have failed to succeed.

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3.2 CASE STUDY 1 : DELAY
This project CASE STUDY 1 had all the delay factors like delay from the client,
consultant and contractor like
a) Delay in nominations
b) Delay to progress (progress curve).
c) Delay to Cash Flow Curve.
d) Delay to KPI’S(Key Performance Indicators)
The delay to the project was 10 months due to the delay in nominations which was
the critical delay .Finally the project was completed 6 months beyond the original
completion date with partial mitigation and partial acceleration of 4 months.The client
granted the extension of time for the delayed period even thought the entitlement was more
than the actual time required for the completion of the project.

3.3 CASE STUDY 2: FAILURE

The project CASE STUDY 2 illustrates the delays that affected the project and even
after the planned completion of the project , the project ended up being on hold with a
new stake holder and thus resulting in a failure as none of the objectives could be
accomplished.

3.4 CASE STUDY 3 : SUCCESS

This project is a success case study. This project succeeded in all its objectives
even though there was a strict timeline, initial delay and other constraints. The recovery
parameters of acceleration and mitigation of delays were wisely deployed to eliminate all
the delays and ensure the success of the project.

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3.2 CASE STUDY 1 : DELAY
Case Study 1 is a multi storied project which experienced delay in the key
performance index (KPI’S),the progress curve was delayed, delayed nominations and
finally due to the above delays the cash flow was affected.
We are going to address a problem which can be considered to be arising from
internal factors. The project has section of aluminum /glazing works which are required to
be nominated by the Client/ Consultant as per the conditions of contract.
The client has nominated an aluminum /glazing company, which is a client group
company.
There has been a delay in the nomination of the works package. This delay in
nomination is likely to delay the completion of the project.
The main problem is that the nominated company does not have any production
facility and resources (manpower) in the UAE. Hence, in this particular project, we have a
planning and a resource management problem. We are going to analyze this issue and the
impact of the delay on the overall completion of the project.
Also, we will highlight measures to mitigate the delays by providing specific planning
and resource management techniques.
A. PLANNING PROBLEM ( K.P.I’s were Delayed)
1) No Detailed plan/program for the work package
2) Design facilities are not available within the country.
3) Design approvals including third party approval not considered while quoting for
the project.
4) Material submission / approvals delayed.
5) Shop drawings submission / approvals delayed.
6) Lack of production facility in the country.
7) Planning affected by non working periods in the country of manufacture.
B. RESOURCE MANAGEMENT PROBLEM (Progress was delayed)
1) No manpower resources of the aluminum company to execute the installation.
2) No engineering and supervision resources to monitor the works.
3) Skilled Manpower which is experienced in executing similar work from Europe
is too expensive.
4) Manpower will be required to be recruited locally at a premium which is not
allowed for in the labor budget and also the need for training them to the new system.

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C. COST MANAGEMENT PROBLEM(Cash flow affected)
1) Budget.
2) Inflation.
D. Nomination Delay.
There has been a delay in the nomination of the works package. This delay in
nomination is likely to delay the completion of the aluminium and glazing works and its
successor activities.

3.2.1 PLANNING PROBLEM

3.2.1.1. No Detailed plan/program for the work package.

The program for the works package was delayed and only after much insistence the
program done by the aluminium subcontractor on M.S. Project, (Figure 1) whereas the
Baseline Master Program of the main contractor was done in Primavera Project Planner.

(Figure 1) CASE STUDY 1(Planning gantt chart)

Also, the program was not detailed enough for effective monitoring and also since
the production facilities were outside the country ,information provided was not verifiable.

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3.2.1.2. Design facilities are not available within the country.
The nominated company has design facilities abroad and no local representation.
For any design related issues / clarifications the local representative is required to
communicate with the design team in Italy, thereby delaying the approval process of the
design itself.

3.2.1.3. Design approvals including third party approval.

As the company was proposing a new system of installation, the design and the
suitability of the system itself was subject to approvals, verifications and confirmations to
give confidence in its implementation.
Since, there was a contractual requirement regarding the design to be approved by
a third party consultant, the process was not given priority by the subcontractor. The
process of finalizing the third party consultant and seeking their approval of design came
into the picture only after it was brought to the notice of the aluminum/ glazing
subcontractor that this is a requirement as per the specifications and the contract. The
consultant had to wait for a long period for the third party approval who took their required
time thus further delaying the approval of design.

3.2.1.4. Material submission / approvals delayed.

The submission of the materials was delayed. Since, a new system was being
proposed the approval of materials like the aluminium section was required to be done.
Materials like glass and aluminium metal cladding were not provided with samples as per
the architectural requirements. Delay in procuring specific samples to obtain the approvals
delayed the entire process. Also, in case of glass samples the color of the sample glass
was not as per requirement thereby affecting the subsequent process of procurement,
manufacture and delivery.

3.2.1.5. Shop drawings submission / approvals delayed.

The process of drawings preparation and approvals were delayed as the preparation
of drawings were being done in Italy and the pace of drawings submissions was delayed.
Also, the comments by the consultants on the drawings would not be attended
quickly as hard copies were commented and there was no provision to incorporate the
changes locally thereby delaying the entire approval process. The procurement process
was delayed due to the delay in the drawings approvals process.

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3.2.1.6. Lack of production facility in the country.
The production facility is located in Italy. Hence , delay in nomination, material
submission and approvals, shop drawing preparation, submissions and approval ,delay in
procurement ultimately affected the production process.
The main factor resulting in delay was that the extrusion for the aluminium was to be
done locally and then the extruded material was to be exported to Italy for fabrication and
production at the Italy factory and then again re exported back for installation.
This meant that the process required the export of the raw material and re-export of
the finished product as reflected in the flow chart.
The production process was also affected due to the summer break in Europe where
production is affected for a period of 6 weeks.

3.2.1.7. Planning affected by non working periods in the country of

manufacture.
The production of the aluminum /glazing in the factory was initially delayed and
further the production was affected due to the summer holidays in Europe in falling the
month of august. This affected the production of the sections, frames, mullions, tranforms
and curtain wall glazing.
Since the materials have to be packed and shipped ,it requires a further 6 weeks to
reach the destination.

3.2.2. RESOURCE MANAGEMENT PROBLEM

3.2.2.1. No manpower resources to execute the installation.

The company does not have any manpower resources in the local market and since
it is newly established company. The lack of resources affected the progress of works even
though the overall manpower from the main contractor was less than planned for the major
part of the project as reflected in the following manpower histogram(Figure 2).

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 (Figure 2)CASE STUDY 1 (Resource chart)
The problem started when the local subcontractors were quoting installation charges
which were not in line with the budget considered for the installation. Hence, the process of
locating an installation subcontractor within the budget was inexorably delayed.
This further added to the initial delays and the delays went on increasing and no
mitigation was possible until the problem of manpower required for execution was resolved.

3.2.2.2. No resources to monitor the works.

The staff required for monitoring and coordinating the works were newly recruited
and were not aware of the requirements. Moreover, the lack of coordination between the
local staff and the head office was further affecting the progress of works.
No progress status were being provided to the local staff regarding the procurement,
production and delivery.
Hence monitoring of the progress of works related to the design, materials and shop
drawings submission was affected and a clear picture was not available at regular intervals
thereby reducing the confidence of the consultant regarding the performance of the
aluminum subcontractor.

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3.2.2.3. Skilled Manpower from Europe
Skilled Manpower from Europe who are aware of the installation process and the
method of execution are expensive and not accounted for in the resource management
plan.

3.2.2.4. Manpower recruited locally:

Manpower if recruited locally will be required to be given training for the new
installation system which will require time, affect quality and will result in low initial
productivity thereby resulting in further delay.

3.2.3. COST MANAGEMENT PROBLEM

3.2.3.1. Budget.
The works will not be possible to be achieved as per the budget due the delay
factors which have contributed to the time, resource and cost planning for the project.
(Figure 3)
Also, certain element of works was quoted not taking into consideration the
specification requirements, the alternatives of which was not accepted by the
client/consultants who wanted the specifications to be adhered to.

3.2.3.2 INFLATION
The prices of materials and manpower have risen since the project was awarded
and due to the delay in design, submission, approvals and production.The prices were also
affected due to the boom in the construction industry at that time.

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MAIN CONTRACTOR: AL XXXXX LLC DUBAI XXXXX TOWER SUB CONTRACTOR: XXXXX

Aluminium Glazing & Cladding Works

S - CURVE 100.00%
100.00%

90.00%

80.00%
Planned
Actual
70.00%

Difference:
Percentage

60.00%
- 63.00%
of works

50.00%

40.00%
37.00%

30.00%

20.00%

10.00%

0.00%
15/Apr/07

29/Apr/07

13/May/07

27/May/07

10/Jun/07

24/Jun/07

8/Jul/07

22/Jul/07

5/Aug/07

19/Aug/07

2/Sep/07

16/Sep/07

30/Sep/07

14/Oct/07

28/Oct/07

11/Nov/07

25/Nov/07

9/Dec/07

23/Dec/07

6/Jan/08
TIME

(Figure 3) CASE STUDY1 –Cost problem

3.2.4 Nomination Delay

There has been a delay in nomination of the aluminum/glazing works.
The aluminum/glazing works subcontractor is a client group company.
Since the client wanted to allocate the specific work package to his group company it
took time as the quotation form the group company was much higher than the competitors.
Also, since the subcontractor was proposing a different system it was not in line with
the project specifications. The delay of nomination was affecting the entire project as the
nomination was a critical nomination.

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3.3 CASE STUDY 2: FAILURE

Case Study 2 is a project comprising of basements, podiums ,2 multi storeyed

towers and all associated external and internal works.
The project has to be handed over to 5 star hotel operator. The client has appointed
a project design and supervision consultant, a project management consultancy firm, an
interior design firm and a contractor.
The hotel operator has his own design teams and professionals who are going to
provide their requirements for the project.
We are going to discuss and review the delay due to the following which have
resulted in the failure of the project to complete in line with the contract duration.
1) Delay in design finalization,
2) Delay in finalisation of Hotel Operator.
3) Delay due to new requirements of hotel operator
4) Delay in nominations of subconsultants
5) Delay in nominations of subcontractors
6) Delay due to lack of agreement between parties.
7) Delay due increase in cost due to late decisions
8) Delay due to abortive works as per the new requirements.
9) Delay due to change of the primary stake holder.

The contractor was interacting with the current client, the future hotel operator, a
number of design and supervision consultants. Also, the design for the project is not frozen,
the hotel operator and client are still making changes and have not frozen the project
requirement details. This is an important reason and the project may be affected due to late
finalization of design and requirements. Also, the inputs from a range of specialists ranging
from interior designers to restaurant operators to banquet hall specialist and many others
are required to allow the works to be done without any delay.

3.3.1 Delay in design finalization.

The finalization of the design for the hotel was kept pending till the hotel operator
was finalized to incorporate their requirements. This delay in design finalization affected all
the works including the shell and core finishes like the blockwork as the layout of the rooms
in the hotel was itself pending finalization.

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3.3.2 Delay in finalization of Hotel Operator.
The client entered into negotiations with various hotel operators and in the process
the work was progressing without any finalization of hotel operator.
Many decisions related to the services and provisions were kept on hold for ant of
requirements and decisions. The major design for the interior works were on hold thereby
delaying the nominations of major sub consultants and subcontractors.

3.3.3 Delay due to new requirements of hotel operator

The representatives of the hotel operator wanted new requirements as per
their hotel group specifications.Thus, the preliminary design prepared by the lead
consultant and the subsequent design prepared by the interior designer were required to be
modified as per this new requirement.
This resulted in a major delay as all the design works ,concept drawings and
detailed drawings done till date was to be redone and this will involve additional time and
cause an irrevocable delay.

3.3.4 Delay in nominations of sub consultants

The nominations of sub consultants was delayed as the design itself was delayed
and any design sub consultants were subject to preliminary finalization of design. Also, sub
consultants were not being finalized as their scope was not defined.

3.3.5 Delay in nominations of subcontractors.

Nominated subcontractors were delayed for critical items like I.D.finishes which is
the main backbone for any hotel project.
Also, the progress of the interior subcontractor was affected as the hotel operator, lead
consultant and the specialist subconsultant like the interior designer took time to agree to
the final design.

3.3.6 Delay due to lack of agreement between the consutant, hotel operator,
specialist sub consultants, id designer and suppliers
As the revised design was being prepared, the requirements of the hotel operator
were conflicting with the design of the lead consultant and the interior designer. The new
requirements also required major changes to the structure of the building itself. This was
strongly opposed by the lead consultant and the interior designer.

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3.3.7 Delay due increase in cost compared to the budget due to late decisions.
As decisions regarding the finishes were being made in line with the new design , it
was observed that these works were part of a provisional sum which was allocated to be
utilized for these works.
The quotes received for the works were much higher than the budget.The late
decisions resulted in an increase in cost and dealy in taking the decisions affected the
progress of the works as reflected in the cash flow curve shown in (figure 4).
DUBAI XXXXX XXXX CITY -CASH FLOW CURVE
D M A S N D M A S N D M
ec- Jan- Feb- Mar- Apr- ay- Jun- Jul- ug- ep- Oct- ov- ec- Jan- Feb- Mar- Apr- ay- Jun- Jul- ug- ep- Oct- ov- ec- Jan- Feb- Mar- Apr- ay- Jun-
06 07 07 07 07 07 07 07 07 07 07 07 07 08 08 08 08 08 08 08 08 08 08 08 08 09 09 09 09 09 09
120,000,000 900,000,000
Net Monthly Val.-Planned
Net Monthly Val.-Actual
Net Cummu. Mon Val.-Planned
Net Cummu. Mon Val-Actual 800,000,000

100,000,000

700,000,000

BASELINE PROGRESS CURVE

80,000,000 600,000,000

500,000,000
Amount

60,000,000

400,000,000

ACTUAL PROGRESS CURVE

40,000,000 300,000,000

200,000,000

20,000,000

100,000,000

- -

D Jan- F M Apr- M Jun- Jul- A S Oct- N D Jan- F M Apr- M Jun- Jul- A S Oct- N D Jan- F M Apr- M Jun-
ec- 07 eb- ar- 07 ay- 07 07 ug- ep- 07 ov- ec- 08 eb- ar- 08 ay- 08 08 ug- ep- 08 ov- ec- 09 eb- ar- 09 ay- 09
06 07 07 07 07 07 07 07 08 08 08 08 08 08 08 09 09 09
Months

(figure 4)case study 2- cash flow chart

3.3.8 Delay due to abortive works as per the new requirements.

The changes to the design resulted in abortive works. These abortive works
required additional time for removal of existing works and redoing the same as per the new
design. This resulted in further delay to the works as well as additional cost.

3.3.9 Delay due to change of the primary stake holder

A major change occurred when the client sold the project to another
conglomerate have business interest in the hospitality industry. The new stake holder

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wanted to evaluate all the existing terms and conditions of the contract and renegotiate with
all the concerned parties before taking over he project.
This resulted in further delays and the project was on hold for a certain period.
Hence the project can be considered to have failed in its primary objective of completion
within the specified and budget.

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3.4 CASE STUDY 3 : SUCCESS

Case Study 3 is ABC Village –Phase 1 located in Dubai, a project that has been
successfully completed in spite of all delays encountered by successfully applying the
mitigation and accelerations techniques.
The 1st phase consisted of two stages with 8 blocks in the first stage and 4 blocks in
the second stage. There is a common basement for parking. The other works include the
Main plaza, auditorium, food court and landscaping works. The project had a completion
milestone to allow universities and institutes to commence their operations.
The project milestones and objectives are listed down for a clear understanding of
the various elements of the project.
The assessment of the project at the planning stage is done through risk analysis by
identifying the major constraints that may arise in the project. Then the major success
factors are enlisted to analyze the success rate of the project. Also, risks associated with
constraints evaluated along with the risks associated with success factors to have a
balanced view of all the probabilities Value planning is done by identifying stakeholders for
the project. Then, the possible outcomes each stakeholder can want or get is identified and
value added by all outcomes and rank the stakeholders.

3.4.1 MAJOR MILESTONES:

3.4.1.1FIRST STAGE COMPLETION: PHASE 1 - 9.5 MONTHS
3.4.1.2SECOND STAGE COMPLETION : PHASE 1 - 13.5 MONTHS

3.4.2 MAJOR OBJECTIVES:

The major objectives of the project were
1. Completion of 8 building blocks in stage 1 to allow fitout works by respective clients.
This was most critical as any delay would result in the academic year being lost.
2. Access to fitout works of the 4 building blocks in stage 2 to allow commencement in
line with the new academic year.
3. The other major objectives were to complete the auditorium structure to allow
commencement of finishes.
4. The completion of landscaping works by a nominated subcontractor.
5. The supply of permanent power to the project was an important objective.

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3.4.3 MAJOR CONSTRAINTS
1) The major constraint was the limited time of 9.5 months for the 8blocks of stage 1
including the entire basement completion.
2) The second major constraint was the limited time of 13.5 months from the start date
to complete the 4blocks of stage 2.
3) Another major constraint was the dewatering problem due to close proximity to the
sea and the areas to be dewatered.
4) The supply of power for the project including Testing & Commisioning.
5) Any changes required by the client/customer affecting the completion.

3.4.4 MAJOR SUCCESS FACTORS

1) The major success factor is the commitment from the client to ensure that the project
completes on time
2) The nominations and approvals by the client have been promised to be as per the
program of works.
3) The major factor of the success is due to the expertise of the consultant and
contractor in similar projects.
4) The contractor has the manpower and resources to achieve the required rate of
progress.
5) Upon completion ,the campus would be the first in the region to provide such a
facility for educational institutions and universities from across the world.
6) It would attract people from the entire region and become a regional hub for
education and research.

3.4.5 RISK ASSOCIATED WITH CONSTRAINTS.

1) Due to the fast track nature of the project, unavailability of materials and equipment
on time may affect the completion.
2) Massive requirements of resources from various contractors and their management
would be a real challenge for coordination.
3) Any changes in power requirements from client / customer will affect the power on
as procedures to be followed to provide additional requirement will have to go through the
entire process again.
4) Any structural changes to the project during the construction will affect the project
completion.

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 5) Any changes made for any long delivery items will adversely affect the project
completion.

3.4.6 RISK ASSOCIATED WITH SUCCESS FACTORS

1) The commitment by the client to go slow on the project due to less than expected
response may affect the project.
2) Any delay in nominations by the client due to increase in cost w.r.t the budget will
affect the completion of the project.
3) The contractor may be having multiple projects and may not be in a position to deploy
additional workers as per the requirement.
4) Any additional works or changes may not be agreed by the contractor in the same
time duration and as per the same boq rates.
5) Price fluctuation in the market will make it difficult for the client & consultant to get a
better deal when they would require changes.

3.4.7 MITIGATING & RANKING THE RISKS

The listing of the risks associated with constraints and success and the impact of
these risks and the probability of occurance will determine the mitigating action for each
risk.
The risks and the probable impacts for each risk are reflected in table1.

S. RISK IMP PROB IMPA MITIGATING

N ACT ABILIT CTx
ACTION
Y PROB

1. Due to the fast track nature of the project, H H HH FREQUENT

unavailability of materials and equipment on time MONITORING OF

may affect the completion. SCHEDULES

2. Massive requirements of resources from various H M HM MANPOWER

contractors and their management would be a real HISTOGRAMS TO

challenge for coordination. BE MONITORED

CLOSELY

3. Any changes in power requirements from client / H M HM CHANGES TO BE

customer will affect the power on as procedures to TAKEN

be followed to provide additional requirement will IMMEDIATELY TO

MINIMISE DELAY
have to go through the entire process again.

4. Any structural changes to the project during the H M HM CHANGES CAN BE

construction will affect the project completion. LOCALISED TO

AVOID DELAY

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5. Any changes made for any long delivery items will H L HL ENSURE ORDER IS

adversely affect the project completion PLACED AS PER

PROGRAM

6. The commitment by the client to go slow on the M L ML GOOD MARKETING

project due to less than expected response may STRATEGY

affect the project. NEEDED

7. Any delay in nominations by the client due to M L ML SCHEDULE FOR

increase in cost w.r.t the budget will affect the NOMINATIONS TO

completion of the project. BE MONITORED

8. The contractor may be having multiple projects and M L ML ENSURE

may not be in a position to deploy additional COMPLIANCE OF

workers as per the requirement PLANNED

MANPOWER
HISTOGRAM

9. Any additional works or changes may not be agreed L L LL VARIATIONS TO BE

by the contractor in the same time duration and as DEALT WITH AS

per the same boq rates. PER CONTRACT

1 Price fluctuation in the market will make it difficult for L L LL RELIABLE PARTIES

the client & consultant to get a better deal when TO BE CONTACTED

0.
they would require changes.
TABLE 1-CASE STUDY 3-MITIGATING &RANKING THE RISKS

LEGEND: H – HIGH
M – MEDIUM
L - LOW

3.4.8 VALUE PLANNING.

Value Planning is the title given to value techniques applied during the concept or
planning phases of the project. It is used during the development of the brief to ensure that
the value is planned into the whole project from its inception. This is achieved by
addressing and ranking the stakeholders requirements in order of importance. Hence the
following steps will elaborate the steps to carry out value planning,
1)Stakeholders in the project.
2)Possible outcome, each stakeholder can want/get.
3)Value added by all outcomes and rank to the stakeholders.

1) STAKEHOLDERS IN THE PROJECT.

The major stakeholders in the project were
i)The Client
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 ii)The Consultant
iii)The Contractor
iv)The institutions and universities who had already booked space in the phase 1 of
the project.
v)Students who had taken admissions in the institutions and universities for the
academic year.
vi)DEWA : Dubai electricity and water authority, which is responsible for the supply
of power and water to the project.
vii)Infrastructure Contractor who is responsible to ensure that all roads and
pavements are done in time to ensure trouble free vehicular movement.
2) POSSIBLE OUTCOME ,EACH STAKEHOLDER CAN WANT/GET.
I)For the Client:
i)Since the project is the first of its kind in the region ,successful completion of the
project in time is top priority.
ii) Handing over the premises to the universities and institutions to commence their
fitout works in time to start with the academic year.
iii)Income on investments will start immediately after possession is given to the
respective customers.
iv)Successful completion may result in exploring expansion plans and future
developments.
II)For the Consultant:
i)Design as per Arabic architecture to blend with modern amenities would be a
challenge.
ii)Client may want /suggest changes which may affect the project completion.
iii)Late Client nominations would become costly as many long delivery items require
the approval of client in terms of cost & specifications.
III)For the Contractor :
i) Any changes to the works by the client may delay the contractor
ii)Revision to design may require modifications to the works.
iii)Basement construction for the entire project is part of stage 1 including finishes
which is a massive task.
IV)For the Universities /Institutions :
i)Academic year should not be lost due to late delivery of premises.
ii)Late handover will result in financial losses
V)For the Student Community
i)Late handover will also affect the student’s academic year.
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 ii)Students may also be affected due to non availability of seats in other
institutions/universities in case the project completion is delayed.
iii)Hostel Facilities will be affected.
VI) Dewa –Dubai electricity and water authority
i)The power required for the project should be supplied in time to allow testing &
commissioning.
ii)Power is required to allow universities & institutions to commence operations
VII)Infrastructure Contractor:
i)Infrastructure for access to the project is important as any delay in providing the
infrastructure would discourage institutions to consider alternatives and affect the
movement of traffic.

3) VALUE ADDED BY ALL OUTCOMES & RANK TO THE STAKEHOLDERS.

The value added by the outcomes are listed below and ranked in order of
importance.
I)CLIENT :
i) Successful completion of the project in time will increase confidence of the
customers in the project.
ii) Credibility will be enhanced after providing the universities and institutions the
premises to commence in line with the academic year
iii)Client will start to generate income immediately after handing over the premises.
iv)Increased Confidence to explore future projects and developments
II)Consultant:
i)The architecture reflecting Arabic designs would help the nation take pride in the
project and identify it with the cultural heritage of the country and the blend with modern
amenities would help integrating the cultural and modern values.
ii) The consultant’s expertise would add value to the project as any changes to the
project by the client would be dealt in a professional manner.
iii)Ensuring the nominations are done in time to ensure approvals and delivery are
well within the project schedule.
III) Contractor :
i)The client can get changes required by the contractor if he identifies them early in
the project.
ii)Modern /innovative methods of construction can be deployed to ensure faster work
progress.

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 iii)Contractor will be able to utilise resources for other projects after successful
completion of the project.
IV)Universities & Institutions:
i)Universities can benefit from the successful commencement of the academic year.
ii)Also, due to timely completion ,all parties would be avoiding financial losses.
V)Students :
i)Students will benefit due to start of academic year.
ii)Students do not have to search for alternatives in case of project completion on
time.
iii)Hostel facilities can be utilized .
VI) DEWA :
i)Power on for testing & commissioning will help in handing over the project in time.

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CHAPTER 4 : METHODOLOGY

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Delay to projects are a result of inaction on part of the key stakeholders in the
project. The client as the main stakeholder does not nominate a critical subcontractor an
the project gets delayed(case study1).The contractor has no design and decisions and the
resources are idle which result in delays(case study2).

The methodology for evaluating the delay to a project is by acquiring all the
information related to the project and its success and failure. This key data is related to the
planning of the project. The plan that is to be achieved will require resources and cash as
part of the requirements. Another major element is the decisions by the client in nominating
the key and critical subcontractors which will be required to perform for the successful
completion of the project.

The key data will required to be justified for its merits and will have to be tested to
verify its usefulness and importance. The method of the data acquisition is important and
should be verifiable and substantiated. This data is then analyzed by various methods for
accuracy and implementation.

The methodology adopted in this research is to identify the key data required for
managing the issues of delay and utilize the knowledge gained from some of the eight
modules especially the subjects dealing with the topic of the research which are as follows.

4.2 KEY DATA

4.3 JUSTIFICATION

4.4 DATA ACQUISITION

4.5 DATA ANALYSIS

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4.2 KEY DATA

4.2.1 PLANNING – K.P.I’s (KEY PERFORMANCE INDEX)

4.2.2 RESOURCE – PROGRESS CURVE

4.2.3 COST -CASH FLOW CURVE

4.2.4 DECISIONS –NOMINATIONS

The reasons for delays to projects will be considered based on live project
conditions and the measures to provide the solution to the problems will be from the
knowledge gained in the modules and steps taken to implement them to mitigate /eliminate
/prevent those delays.

4.2.1 PLANNING -K.P.I’s(KEY PERFORMANCE INDEX)

In any project whether small or big, there are important milestones identified at the start
of the project to evaluate the progress at various stages of the project. These are known as
Key Performance Indicators (K P I’s). It is important to have milestones for various stage
sof the project as these would provide a clear perspective regarding the important
milestones of the project.

4.2.2 RESOURCE -PROGRESS CURVE

The project is monitored through a programme of works which is a set of activities
linked together in a proper sequence to evaluate the time required to complete the works in
line with the contract duration.
This programme is then loaded with resources in man days and curve is generated from
the man days for all activities for monitoring the progress of works. This curve is called as
the progress curve. The project is monitored for progress, by a progress curve generated at
the beginning of the project to highlight the rate of progress for the entire duration of the
project.
The progress curve can also be generated by giving weightage to the engineering and
construction process. This is normally done for a design and build projects. Large scale
complex projects can also be done with this combination of weightage, but the criteria for
the allocation of the weightage is decided at the start of the project.

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4.2.3 COST -CASH FLOW CURVE
The cost curve or cash flow curve or the gross valuation can be used for monitoring
of progress of works, but it is not as accurate as the mandays progress curve. This is the
cash flow curve or gross valuation curve based on cost and not on the basis of mandays
weightage for the activities of works.

4.2.4 DECISIONS -NOMINATIONS

In large projects, due to the changing circumstances and requirements it is likely that
the decisions taken by the client are delayed. More so if the project is a design and build
project. In other projects also, the client expects to take decisions according to his criteria
and priorities. It is important to note that the successful completion of any project is related
to the decisions by the client at the appropriate time in line with the program of works.

4.3JUSTIFICATION:
The justification why the information mentioned above is required is as follows

4.3.1PLANNING -K.P.I’s(KEY PERFORMANCE INDEX)

KPI’s are required as they can be monitored are timely intervals to ensure that there is no
delay to any of the stages of the project.
If these KPI’s are critical then any delay in these will delay the the works and have an
impact on the project completion date. If any K.P.I is delayed it will give the opportunity to
take urgent action and thereby either eliminate the delay by mitigation or acceleration.
K.P.I’s ensure that the there is no scope for any delays due any of the factors that may
cause delay, whether it is decision from the client or pending approvals from the consultant
or delay by from the contractor.

4.3.2 RESOURCE -PROGRESS CURVE

This progress curve is generated from mandays because the other parameters like
the K.P.I’s can be monitored only at when the it has elapsed, whereas the progress curve is
required to be monitored frequently for progress meetings, reports etc.
The progress curve also indicates the status of the project ,whether it is ahead or behind
the baseline by comparing the original progress curve.
The progress curve also indicates whether the any delay to the progress is due to
inadequate resources and which section of works needs the resources and for which
activities.

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4.3.3 COST -CASH FLOW CURVE
The cash flow for any project is the lifeline as uninterrupted cash flow is required for
the success of any project.The value of work in cost is also a critical indicator for the works
to be carried out for the project. Any delay for any activities or the billing will immediately
reflect on the cash flow of the project.
This is suitable method for evaluating the progress of works in small to medium size
projects. However in large and complex projects this is not be a suitable method to monitor
progress as it does not identify the critical path and reasons causing the delay.

4.3.4 DECISIONS –NOMINATIONS.

The client may want to change an important decision like he may opt to replace a
nominated contractor later in the project as some other party may be willing to execute the
works at a much lower cost.
From the client’s perspective this may make good economic sense but from the projects
point it could spell disaster. The client would not have considered that this decision could
delay the entire project. Hence, the requirement of decisions by the client ib line with the
program as per the specified dates of nominations justifies the requirement.

4.4 DATA ACQUISITION

4.4.1 PLANNING – K.P.I’s(KEY PERFORMANCE INDEX)

The data acquisitiom for the planning issues like the Key performance index is the
updates of the baseline program. The key performance index is listed as milestones in the
program and updated periodically.

4.4.2RESOURCE – PROGRESS CURVE

On a weekly or fortnightly basis the progress of works at site is recorded and the
progress is discussed and agreed with the project team. Then the progress percentages
are verified and agreed with the consultant.

The progress of works is recorded for both the engineering and construction activities
and the baseline master program of works is updated.

4.4.3 COST -CASH FLOW CURVE

The Cash Flow curve is normally monitored on a monthly basis as the billing for the
project is done every month.
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 The progress of works recorded for the updating the program is utilised for the cash
flow update as the bill is updated.

4.4.4 DECISIONS –NOMINATIONS

The nominations are part of the baseline master program of works which is
monitored periodically. The nominations have to be communicated to the contractor by the
consultant through the client as the process of nominations is dealt by the client and
consultant. Hence information related to the nomination is forwarded to the contractor upon
successful selection of the subcontractor.

4.5DATA ANALYSIS

4.5.1 PLANNING – K.P.I’s(KEY PERFORMANCE INDEX)

The K.P.I’s are part of the baseline master program as milestones for section of the
works. The dates are identified and are linked to the works. The program is updated
periodically. These program updates will reflect the status of these K.P.I’s .Any delay to any
of the activities will reflect a delay to the K.P.I. milestones. It will ensure that any delay
reflected is immediately identified and furthur course of action by the respective agencies
can be formulated.

4.5.2RESOURCE – PROGRESS CURVE

The updated program of works which is resource loaded will indicate whether the
progress of works is inlinewith the baseline master program of works. The progress curve
for the project is monitored periodically and plotted against the baseline progress curve.

Any delay compared to the baseline curve is probed furthur by analyzing the details
of progress for activities on the critical path of the project.

4.5.3 COST -CASH FLOW CURVE

The cash flow update is compared to the baseline cash flow curve and the
information is useful to evaluate whether the cash flow is line with the projections.

The information for the cash flow update is from the program updated percentages which
are applied to the respective activities in the bill of quantities.

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4.5.4 DECISIONS –NOMINATIONS

The dates for the nominations are planned as per the program and upon updating
the program any due nominations are finalised and any nominations pending will reflect a
delay.

Nomination if critical and not finalized will reflect a delay on the project and will need to be
taken up on a priority.

Also, delayed nominations would be dealt with contractually by making extension of time
claims pursuant to the conditions of contract.

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CHAPTER 5 : ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The analysis of all the factors mentioned in the case studies and the methodology
will be further analyzed and the results of those analysis will indicate as what was the
measure taken to implement the measures like mitigation and acceleration. Example:
regression analysis is implemented for case study 1 planning analysis and is successfully
implemented on the project.
The analysis takes into consideration the factors that have resulted in the failure of
the project in terms of the resource management and cost management. Example:
Recovery cost curve proposed to recover the delays based the cash flow analysis.
The decisions by the clients are analyzed in each project and the nalaysis and
results indicate that the client as the primary stakeholder holds a greater responsibility for
the success or failure of the project. Example –case study3 , where the client motivated the
contractor to mitigate the delays and the other delays were eliminated by implementing the
measures of acceleration which helped in completing the project in time.
The analysis and results for the case studies would be structured according to the
methodology.

5.2 CASE STUDY 1

5.2.1 PLANNING – K.P.I’s(KEY PERFORMANCE INDEX)

5.2.2 RESOURCE – PROGRESS CURVE

5.2.3 COST -CASH FLOW CURVE

5.2.4 DECISIONS –NOMINATIONS

5.2.1 PLANNING ANALYSIS & RESULTS

5.2.1.1. No Detailed K.P.I’s /plan/program for the work package.

The main contractor had to prepare a detailed program using primavera project
planner incorporating all the interfaces between the design, materials, shop drawings and
installation and allocate K.P.I’s for the work package.

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 A summary program of works is indicated in (figure 5.)which indicates the aluminium
/glazing program.

(figure 5.) case study 1-planning program

This program included the works in sections /elevation / quantities /outputs required. This
program would be monitored and updated on a fortnightly basis.
A regression analysis for aluminum /glazing works were proposed as indicated in the
(figure 6.)This regression analysis demonstrated the comparision between the baseline
curve, the revised curve and the actual curve with the trendline for the actual and the
revised curves.
It can be deduced from the analysis that even after proposing the recovery curve the
progress of works in not conforming top the requirements and is getting further delayed.

60046 87
 REGRESSION ANALYSIS FOR ALUMINIUM WORKS
100.00%

Planned
Revised
80.00%
Actual
Linear (Actual) BASELINE
Linear (Revised) CURVE RECOVERY CURVE
REVISED
60.00%
TRENDLINE
PERCENTAGE
OF WORK

40.00% ACTUAL
TRENDLINE

20.00% ACTUAL CURVE

0.00%
4/15/2007
4/29/2007
5/13/2007
5/27/2007
6/10/2007
6/24/2007
7/8/2007
7/22/2007
8/5/2007
8/19/2007
9/2/2007
9/16/2007
9/30/2007
10/14/2007
10/28/2007
11/11/2007
11/25/2007
12/9/2007
12/23/2007
1/6/2008
1/20/2008
2/3/2008
2/17/2008
3/2/2008
3/16/2008
3/30/2008
4/13/2008
4/27/2008
-20.00%

-40.00%
MONTHS

(figure 6.) case study 1-Regression analysis

The Scope of works were broken down elevation wise and every element of work
was programmed .

5.2.1.2. Design facilities

The selection of the third party consultant should commence along with the
commencement of the design so that the third party consultant is on board by the time the
design is completed and ready for submission.
It is recommended that the design done at the head office in Italy should be forwarded
to the third party consultant along with the project consultant so that precious time is saved.

5.2.1.3. Design approvals including third party approval.

Design coordinators should be available in the country to substantiate and clarify the
design aspects to the project and third party consultant until the process of design approval
is completed.
The approval of the design by the project consultants will not materialize until they have
the approval from the third party consultant. Hence, the third party consultant contact
should specify the time frames within which they will review the design and comment and
60046 88
give the necessary approvals. Since the third party consultant is appointed by the
aluminium /glazing subcontractor they should appoint a third party consultant which meets
their time requirements.

5.2.1.4. Material submission / approvals.

The materials submission related to the extruded material should be done on a
priority as the extruded material has to be exported to Italy for fabrication/production.
Material samples like glass and metal works can be procured locally or airlifted in
case of specific requirements to avoid delay.

5.2.1.5. Shop drawings submission / approvals.

Preparation of drawings can be split between Italy and employing a local
subcontractor for drawings. The delay that occurred in incorporating the comments by the
project consultants which took time to be sent to Italy could have been resolved by the local
subcontractor who would have been assigned that responsibility, thereby saving a
considerable amount of time.

5.2.1.6.Lack of production facility in the country.

The extrusion from the local manufacturers and then exporting to Italy was one of
the factors which can be improved by extruding the material from an Italian/ European
supplier. It would have reduced the time required for exporting to Italy.
However the production of the metal cladding can be outsourced to a local
manufacturing company in the U.A.E. as that production is not done in Italy. This will the
metal cladding to be manufactured in Dubai and will involve no additional for delivery and
installation can commence within a very short time, thereby mitigating the delays partially
recovering as per the recovery plan indicated in (Figure 7 & 8).

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 (figure 7.) Case Study 1- PLANNING PERT CHART

(figure 8.) Case Study 1- PLANNING PERT CHART

60046 90
5.2.1.7. Planning affected by non working periods in the country of
manufacture.
The manufacture process cannot be done as there is a summer break in Europe.
The option of completing the manufacturing process which is done locally for the metal
cladding works can be expedited and those works can commence within this period. This
will reduce the burden on the resources (manpower) which is discussed in the next section.
RESULT.
The resulting factor was that the subcontractor was supported by planning techniques of
k.P.I’s, regression analysis, revised and recovery programs.This helped the project to
reduce the delay and complete to the satisfaction of the client.

5.2.2 RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ANALYSIS & RESULTS

5.2.2.1. No manpower resources to execute the installation.

The company can recruit subcontractors and offer a portion of works which can be done
to reduce the overall delay, even though the installation charges may not be in line with the
budget. However these will still be cheaper compared to the option of skilled manpower for
installation from Europe.
Also, the Line of Balance (LOB) is a planning technique which can be used to monitor
and control progress as shown in(Figure 9).

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 (Figure 9). Case Study 1- line of balance( Resources)

5.2.2.2. No resources to monitor the works.

Staff from the Italy office needs to have a presence including deployment of
permanent staff till the completion of the project. Skilled locally recruited staff having work
exposure to multinational companies can be good in coordination and execution.

5.2.2.3. Skilled Manpower from Europe.

Skilled manpower from Europe can be hired to achieve two objectives; namely
training and part section of works.
The manpower from Europe would be experienced in this form of installation and
would achieve good productivity thereby mitigating some of the delays to the works.

5.2.2.4. Manpower recruited locally.

The manpower recruited locally can be skilled and exposed to similar work packages
to ensure good productivity and quality.
Also, subcontractors specialized in these works can be deployed to ensure that the
delay to the project is mitigated.

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 The details of the progress of works and its delay even after the revised program was
issued were due to the lack of required manpower which has to be obtained locally to meet
the targets.
The proposal to employ subcontractors or specialist installers for completing the
balance works is required as the criticality of the works can be called as supercritical and
the duration remaining to complete the balance works is a challenge as indicated in the
recovery curve as per (Figure no 10).

DUBAI XXXXX TOWER -RECOVERY PLAN

100.00%
100.00%
100.00%

90.00%
Planned
Revised
80.00% Actual
recovery REVISED
70.00% CURVE
PERCENTAGE OF WORKS

60.00% BASELINE
CURVE RECOVERY
-25.00% CURVE
50.00%

40.00%

30.00%

ACTUAL
20.00% CURVE

10.00%

0.00%
4/15/2007

4/29/2007

5/13/2007

5/27/2007

6/10/2007

6/24/2007

7/8/2007

7/22/2007

8/5/2007

8/19/2007

9/2/2007

9/16/2007

9/30/2007

10/14/2007

10/28/2007

11/11/2007

11/25/2007

12/9/2007

12/23/2007

1/6/2008

1/20/2008

2/3/2008

2/17/2008

3/2/2008

3/16/2008

3/30/2008

4/13/2008

4/27/2008
MONTHS

(Figure no 10).Case Study 1- Resources

RESULT:

The resource analysis reinforced the need for additional manpower to reduce the impact of
initial delay. The monitoring of works by the line of balance helped in achieving the
recovery plan. Also, the recruitment and training of local manpower helped in mitigating the
delay.

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5.2.3 COST MANAGEMENT ANALYSIS & RESULTS

5.2.3.1. Budget.
The recommendation in regards to the budget is to implement a policy to complete the
works in away which would minimize the negative effects which have arisen due to various
factors already occurred as indicated in
(Figure 11).

(Figure no11). Case Study 1-cash flow

If effective action is not taken to mitigate the delays the conditions of contract clauses
related to penalty and liquidated damages would be more harmful than the reduced level of
profit or even loss. Also, it should be remembered that every contract is accompanied by an
escalation clause so it may be possible to reduce any losses by making effective utilization
of this clause in the contract.
RESULT :
The Cost analysis indicated that the cash flow was affected and measures such as
acceleration had to be implemented to recover the delays.

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5.2.4 NOMINATIONS ANALYSIS & RESULTS
The basis for the problem is the requirement of the nomination by a specified date
as per the KPI which is reflected in the baseline master program. This nomination is a
critical nomination and since there is delay in this critical nomination it is affecting the
successor activities and ultimately the completion of the project itself
The client kept the interior design package works as part of provisional sums for
which the client has to nominate a subcontractor to carry out the works.
Since the project is to handed over to a reputed chain of hotel operator which was
not finalized, the final design could be freezed only after incorporating the requirements of
the hotel operator.
The interior design consultant was also not selected at the time of award of works,
hence the interior design concept was not there. Another reason the client could not
nominate is the original scope and amount reserved as a provisional sum was found to be
falling short to meet the final design as the scope had increased and also the costs had
increased due to a boom in the property market.
The cost of materials and manpower had increased significantly as the nomination
was due later and the quotations were very high compared to the allocated provisional sum
value.

RESULT:

The nominations delay by the client affected the project and this was tackled by
acceration and mitigation measures as highlighted in the planning,resource and cost
analysis.

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5.3 CASE STUDY 2 -ANALYSIS & RESULTS

5.3.1 PLANNING ANALYSIS & RESULTS

There was a delay to the baseline progress curve and the delay was increasing. A
proposal to mitigate the delays by ways of partial mitigation and partial acceleration as
shown in(Figure 12)

DUBAI XXXXX XXXX CITY

900000000

800000000
Series1
Series2
700000000 Series3

600000000
RECOVERY CURVE TO
BASELINE PROGRESS CURVE -COST
RECOVER ALL DELAYS
500000000
VALUE

400000000

CURRENT PROGRESS CURVE

300000000

200000000

100000000

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
MONTHS

(Figure 12) Case Study 2- Planning

From the above planning analysis, the attempt to reduce the delay by mitigation was shown
by the contractor.But the delays in finalizing the design with the concerned parties and
nominating the subcontractors after that was a serious cause of concern.
RESULT:
The result of these delays and plans for recovery by mitigation were affected due to non
finalization of design and nomination of subcontractors.

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5.3.2 RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ANALYSIS & RESULTS
The resources were deployed for works that were finalized and approved. However
the works that were constructed were only related to the structure. All the finishes were on
hold and could not proceed.
The resources were required for the finishing works but due to absence of any
finalized design and details, the resources had to be demobilized from site. See(Figure
no13)
TOTAL MANPOWER UPDATES
2,500 Planned Manpower
800,000

Actual Manpower

Cummulative Planned

Cummulative Actual 700,000

1,921

1,921
1,897
2,000

1,806

1,806

1,714
600,000

1,670
1,657
1,648

1,637

1,591
1,415
1,410

500,000

1,322
1,500
NO. OF LABOURS

1,257
1,244

1,113
1,090

400,000
879

1,000
840

811

810
806

300,000
791
740
736
732
731

730
708
707
703
675
670
630

628

537
520

513

200,000

500
365
325
314
256

245

188
180
100,000
152
121

117
105
105

86
77
72
54
50

- Dec-06 Jan-07 Feb-07 Mar-07 Apr-07 May-07 Jun-07 Jul-07 Aug-07 Sep-07 Oct-07 Nov-07 Dec-07 Jan-08 Feb-08 Mar-08 Apr-08 May-08 Jun-08 Jul-08 Aug-08 Sep-08 Oct-08 Nov-08 Dec-08 Jan-09 Feb-09 Mar-09 Apr-09 May-09 Jun-09
-

Planned Manpower 50 121 325 520 670 703 707 708 732 730 840 736 740 811 791 810 806 628 513 537 365 245 152 77 72 105 105 117 188 180 86
Actual Manpower 54 256 314 630 731 675 879 1,090 1,244 1,921 1,257 1,410 1,648 1,806 1,897 1,921 1,806 1,637 1,714 1,657 1,670 1,591 1,415 1,322 1,113
Cummulative Planned 403 2,520 7,683 16,009 28,591 44,778. 58,772 74,699 89,543 103,69 119,40 133,84 148,08 165,72 181,40 197,80 215,52 227,94 238,76 250,05 257,42 262,72 265,32 266,76 268,31 270,48 272,55 274,32 278,48 281,27 283,50
Cummulative Actual 586 4,594 11,403 24,052 38,156 53,147 73,815 99,339 128,73 161,43 190,92 223,61 258,35 296,53 345,11 388,90 433,87 474,82 519,95 561,15 603,18 642,86 673,60 705,60 729,52

MONTHS

(Figure no13) Case Study 2.- Resources

RESULT:
The sequence of works was seriously affected due to the non finalization of designs
and subcontractors and hence resources became idle and had to be demobilized.

5.3.3 COST MANAGEMENT ANALYSIS & RESULTS

From the cost management perspective this situation had a serious impact on the
cash flow of the project.
The delayed decisions slowed down the works and the non decisions made the works to
come to a halt. Also, the client put a hold on the works as he was negotiating with a new
stake holder and did not want to commit further funds to the project.

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This affected the payments of many subcontractors and a cash flow crisis become
apparent.

RESULT:
Due to the decision by the client to put the project on hold and hold the pending
payments of all concerned , the cash flow was uncertain as many subcontractors were not
sure when they would get their payments.

5.3.4 NOMINATIONS ANALYSIS & RESULTS

The nominations of the subconsultants, subcontractors were all delayed due to the
delayed design finalization. The nominated items were also affected due to the delay and
hold in payments.
Also,as a new stakeholder was likely to invest in the project,it was unclear what
changes would be made to the project and what would be the impact of such changes.

RESULT:
The uncertainty due to lack of decisions and finalizations of nominations have
resulted in all the plannned dates to elapse and thus resulting in furthur delays.

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5.4 CASE STUDY 3

ANALYSIS & RESULTS

Value analysis is the title given to value techniques applied retrospectively to completed
projects to analyze the projects performance and compare the completed versus the
planned target.

5.4.1 PLANNING ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

The value for the schedule performance is that the project was completed as per the
planned schedule and the handover process was done in accordance with the
specifications.
Some additional works and modifications were taken up separately but it was made sure
that the customers were not affected by the changes.
The value analysis for the current project performance is listed below
I)CLIENT:
i)The project was completed in time and increased the customers confidence in the
project since they had taken premises and had further commitments.
ii)Credibility of the client has been greatly enhanced due to the timely handover of the
premises to commence the institutions academic year.
iii)Client also has started generating income upon handing over to the respective
customers.
iv)Customers will be confident of future projects by the client.
II)Consultant:
i)The Arabic architectural design has given a distinct look to the project and the project
is a perfect blend of traditional design and modern amenities.
ii)The consultant’s expert design and engineering staff played a major role in the
success of the project.
iii)The consultant took up critical issues with the client in time and ensured the
completion of works in line with the program.
III) Contractor :
i)The modifications & changes not having a major time impact were done within the
project duration. Major changes were analyzed and time impact done to enable the
client to know the time and cost impact and upon his approval of the same the works
were executed.

60046 99
 ii)Since the works were of fast track nature, modern /innovative methods were
deployed.
iii)Contractor was able to utilize his resources in an effective manner.
IV) Universities & Institutions:
i)Universities were able to commence as per the academic year.
ii)There was no financial loss as the project was handed over in time.
V) Students:
i)Students were able to join the new academic year.
ii)Students did not have to go searching for alternatives as the institutions were ready
to commence.
iii)Hostel facilities wherever available were utilized.
VI) DEWA :
i)Power on was achieved in time to allow testing & commissioning
ii)Power on was achieved in time to allow the universities and institutions to commence
successfully.
VII)INFRASTRUCTURE :
The infrastructure required for the access to the premises was provided and the overall
infrastructure was completed in line with the requirements.

5.4.2 RESOURCES ANALYSIS & RESULTS

The resource analysis indicates that the since there was an initial delay, efforts were made
by the client, consultant and the contractor to ensure that mitigating action was
implemented.
Also, where it was not possible to mitigate, the client took decisions to allow the
acceleration of works to ensure that the delays are recovered.

5.4.3 COST ANALYSIS & RESULTS

The cost analysis for project takes into consideration that the acceleration for some of the
works were required such as long lead items and delayed decisions for critical deliveries.
Since the major decisions were taken within the required time frame it did not affect
the cash flow drastically and the result due to mitigation and acceleration was indeed the
success of the project.

5.4.4 NOMINATIONS ANALYSIS AND RESULTS.

The nominations and other client decisions were mostly inline with the baseline program of
works as the client was interested in ensuring that there was no delay to the project. Also,
60046 100
some delays and changes were actioned by the client on a priority to ensure that the work
does not get affected and delayed.
This resulted in the project getting competed on time and ensuring the vision of
inaugurating an important facility for the benefit of the people.

5.4.5 VALUE ANALYSIS

For this case study we will do a further analysis of values for various stakeholders of the
project.(Table 2,3,4 & 5)
I)CLIENT RELATED VALUE ANALYSIS FOR SUCCESS RATE ACHIEVED(table2)
S.NO CLIENT RELATED SUCCESS RATE
ACHIEVED
1 The project was completed in time and increased the AS PLANNED
customers confidence in the project since they had taken
premises and had further commitments
2 Credibility of the client has been greatly enhanced due to AS PLANNED
the timely handover of the premises to commence the
institutions academic year.
3 Client also has started generating income upon handing AS PLANNED
over to the respective customers.
4 Customers will be confident of future projects by the client. MORE THAN
PLANNED
(table2)CLIENT RELATED VALUE ANALYSIS FOR SUCCESS RATE ACHIEVED

II) CONSULTANT RELATED VALUE ANALYSIS FOR SUCCESS RATE

ACHIEVED(table3)
S.NO CONSULTANT RELATED SUCCESS RATE
ACHIEVED
1 The Arabic architectural design has given a distinct look to AS PLANNED
the project and the project is a perfect blend of traditional
design and modern amenities.
2 The consultant’s expert design and engineering staff AS PLANNED
played a major role in the success of the project.
3 The consultant took up critical issues with the client in time MORE THAN
and ensured the completion of works in line with the PLANNED
program.
(table3)CONSULTANT RELATED VALUE ANALYSIS FOR SUCCESS RATE ACHIEVED

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III)CONTRACTOR RELATED VALUE ANALYSIS FOR SUCCESS RATE
ACHIEVED(table4)
S.NO CONTRACTOR RELATED SUCCESS RATE
ACHIEVED
1 The modifications & changes not having a major time MORE THAN
impact were done within the project duration. Major PLANNED
changes were analysed and time impact done to enable
the client to know the time and cost impact and upon his
approval of the same the works were executed
2 Since the works were of fast track nature,modern MORE THAN
/innovative methods were deployed. PLANNED
3 Contractor was able to utilize his resources in an effective AS PLANNED
manner.
(table4)CONTRACTOR RELATED VALUE ANALYSIS FOR SUCCESS RATE ACHIEVED

IV) VALUE ANALYSIS FOR SUCCESS RATE ACHIEVED FOR OTHER

STAKEHOLDERS(table 5)
S.NO OTHER STAKEHOLDERS RELATED SUCCESS RATE
ACHIEVED
1 Universities were able to commence as per the academic AS PLANNED
year
2 There was no financial loss as the project was handed AS PLANNED
over in time
3 Students were able to join the new academic year. AS PLANNED
4 Students did not have to go searching for alternatives as AS PLANNED
the institutions were ready to commence.
5 Hostel facilities wherever available were utilized. MORE THAN
PLANNED
6 Power on was achieved in time to allow testing & AS PLANNED
commissioning
7 Power on was achieved in time to allow the universities AS PLANNED
and institutions to commence successfully.
(table 5)VALUE ANALYSIS FOR SUCCESS RATE ACHIEVED FOR OTHER STAKEHOLDERS

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 V)LISTING OF VALUES ATTAINED THAT WERE NOT PLANNED ORIGINALLY
I)A landmark project was completed in record time and was operational for various
universities and institutions which were not expecting to visualize this impossible
achievement.
II)Encouragement to dream higher and provide even better facilities for future developments.
A CLIENT

S.N VALUE REASON FOR ACHIEVING

VALUE
O
1 The project was completed in time and increased the customers Meticulous Planning and
confidence in the project. monitoring
2 Credibility of the client has been greatly enhanced due to the Ensuring all critical
timely handover of the premises to commence the institutions decisions were taken in
academic year. time.
B CONSULTANT

1 The Arabic architectural design has given a distinct look to the The consultants portrayal of
project and the project is a perfect blend of traditional design and clients vision
modern amenities.
2 The consultant’s expert design and engineering staff played a Expertise in the field and
major role in the success of the project. experience.
C CONTRACTOR

1 The modifications & changes not having a major time impact were Additional resources were
done within the project duration deployed to achieve targets
2 Since the works were of fast track nature, modern /innovative New methods/techniques
methods were deployed helped to reduce time.
3 Contractor was able to utilize his resources in an effective manner Better resource
management
D OTHER STAKEHOLDERS

1 Universities were able to commence as per the academic year Timely handover of project

2 Students were able to join the new academic year Timely start of institutions

3 Power on was achieved in time to allow the universities and Rigorous follow up with
institutions to commence successfully authorities
4 The infrastructure required for the access to the premises was Proper coordination
provided and the overall infrastructure was completed in line with
the requirements
REASONS FOR ACHIEVING THE RESULTS(table 6)

From all of the above we can analyze and conclude that all the high ranking values were
achieved. The overall result value gained from the project is the successful and timely
completion and handover of the project.

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CHAPTER 6 :RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Recommendations for the delays of different project will be different. However some
recommendations are similar which are related to the client and contractor. The
recommendation for the client is that he should finalize the projects design before
commencement of the works and should not make changes to the project unless it is
absolutely essential.
The recommendations for the contractor is that the contractor should play a
proactive and cooperative role in the projects to ensure its successful completion. Not
withstanding the contractual claims if any, the contractor should make all possible efforts to
complete the project on time.
The conclusions for the case studies are that the client are primarily responsible for
the delays that take place in a project. This delay may be due late finalization for nominated
subcontractors or non finalization of designs. The contractor should be also be involved in
the process of selection of subcontractors as the ultimate responsibility of completion lies
with the contractor.

6.2 CASE STUDY 1

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CASE STUDY 1
1) The KPI’s are the techniques which are applied in the Module 2-Strategy. I have
applied this technique to identify the problem of delay in critical areas and provide the
corrective actions based on the revised KPI’s. The revised KPI’S will include additional
parameters of monitoring on a weekly basis and a separate report to be generated to
highlight the KPI’s.
2) Based on the KPI’s a weekly report on “Areas of Concern” is recommended to
highlight all or any issue which may not be even part of the reporting system but it can
be included.
3) The delay in nominations have led to delay to the project. I have applied the
principle of regression analysis to indicate how the project would fare at the current rate
of progress and the alternative of how to recover the delays.The regression analysis
includes the mitigation efforts which indicates that the delay will be reduced from 10
months to 4 months, thereby achieving a recovery of 6months on the overall completion
of the project.
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 4) A new list of KPI’s to be generated based on the current delay and status of works.
5) Any pending design for the project should be completed within a fixed timeframe.
6) The delayed nominations should be done at the earliest.
7) The client should give decision making to a single point of contact rather than
routed through the consultants, then the project management consultants and then
to the clients.
8) A detailed recovery program of works should be prepared including all activities
and it should be monitored and updated on a weekly basis.
9) A detailed manpower histogram should be made for all the works including
subcontractors with productivity analysis.
10) The delayed nominated subcontractors should be given accelerated completion
dates.
11) All the critical /delayed activities should be accelerated and duration of activities
to be reduced by deploying additional resources
12) The option of working in shifts will allow better productivity and enable more
workfronts for all subcontractors.

CONCLUSIONS FOR CASE STUDY 1

The conclusions for the problems faced by the aluminum/ glazing company is as
follows:
9 PLANNING CONCLUSIONS :
1) Since, there is a Joint Venture with the client, the aluminum /glazing company is
assuming that there will be no penalties/liquidated damages applied and it appears to
be resulting in a laid back approach.
2) Without proper planning and program, no project should be taken.

9 RESOURCE MANAGEMENT CONCLUSIONS :

1) Resources should be planned at the tender stage with firm commitments from
available sources.
2) Resources can be taken from different sources/ companies /subcontractors to allow
the works to be carried out to mitigate the delays.
3) Specialist training to manpower should be provided as efficient manpower will be
able to deliver increased productivity and outputs.

9 COST MANAGEMENT CONCLUSIONS :

60046 105
 1) The completion of the project with the mitigation and acceleration has resulted in a
cost saving as more delays would have meant that the budget would go out of control.
2) The cost for the works should include additional provisions for subcontractors if the
product is likely to come from abroad to take care of any inflation or fluctuations in
currency.

9 NOMINATION CONCLUSIONS:
1) Nomination of subcontractors has to be done on time to prevent any delays.
2) Nomination of subcontractors with proven track record should be insisted.

6.3 : CASE STUDY 2

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CASE STUDY 2

1) The client should finalize the designs before commencing the project including
finalization of the concept design ,consultants , specialist sub consultants and
contractors.
2) The resources deployed to carry out works which were later changed meant a
loss of time and money.All details should be finalized before commencement of
works.
3) As seen from the updated manpower histogram (Attachment no 11)a lot of
manpower was wasted in unproductive work and idle labour. Efforts should be made
to ensure that the planned productivity for all resources in achieved.
4) In the event of a project being put on hold it is advisable for the concerned
parties to prevent further investments.
5) The client may end up losing more money if he does not finalize with the new
stake holder.

CONCLUSIONS FOR CASE STUDY 2

9 PLANNING CONCLUSIONS :
1) The primary objective of completing the project on time did not happen and there is
an uncertainty of completing the project itself hence this project can be termed as a
failure from the planning point of view.
2) It can also be concluded the client was unsure of his objective.
3) It can be concluded that the client commenced the hotel project without any market
survey or without any basis of supply and demand.
60046 106
 4) Since the project was to be handed over to an operator the client appears to be
having little experience in the hotel industry.
5) Due to the delay and project being put on hold,the reputation of the client would be
badly affected.
6) The procurement system and contract in Module 5 –Commercial and Procurement
has helped me in identifying the problem that the client has not chosen the proper form
of contract for this project. The contract should not have been the bid and construct type
but it should have been the cost + profit contract project. In this case the client and the
designers could have given all the details as per the requirements. It has been
recommended that to reduce the delay all the nominated contracts should be allocated
to the main contractor who will propose the new required dates and bring three
proposals for the client to decide in line with the revised program.

9 RESOURCE MANAGEMENT CONCLUSIONS :

1) The material resources deployed for the project are not fulfilling their objective as the
project is not complete.
2) The idle manpower resources could have been deployed in a better manner.

9 COST MANAGEMENT CONCLUSIONS :

1) Clients should have enough funds to complete a project if a financial crisis affects
the system.
2) The client should allocate funds in line with the cash flow requirement.

9 NOMINATION CONCLUSIONS:
1) The nominations for the subconsultants was delayed and hence affected the
coordination with other services.
2) The nomination of the interior designer was delayed which suggested changes to
the interiors of the project thereby ending up in a conflict with the lead consultant.
3) The nomination of subcontractors for various packages were delayed for lack of
design and details which affected the works.

60046 107
6.4 CASE STUDY 3

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CASE STUDY 3

1) Since the project was completed on time,the main recommendation is that all the
stakeholders have to contribute as a team to ensure the success of any project.
2) The contractors should play a positive role in the project and do all possible
measures to mitigate any delays that is possible by resequencing of work, deputing
resources effectively.
3) The client should appreciate the contribution of the consultant and contractor to
achieve the milestone as sincere efforts often go unrecognized.
4) The client should try and freeze the project before commencement to avoid any
delays although it is impossible to predict if & when the changes may occur.

CONCLUSIONS:

9 PLANNING CONCLUSIONS :
1) The project was completed as per the planned schedule and the handover process
was done in accordance with the specifications.
2) Some additional works and modifications were taken up separately but it was made
sure that the customers were not affected by the changes.
3) The project was completed in time and increased the customers confidence in the
project since they had taken premises and had further commitments.
4) Even though the Arabic architectural design was difficult to achieve in a short span
of time,it has given a distinct look to the project and the project is a perfect blend of
traditional design and modern amenities.
5) The consultant’s expert design and and the contractors engineering staff played a
major role in the success of the project.
6) The consultant took up critical issues with the client in time and ensured the
completion of works in line with the program.

9 RESOURCE MANAGEMENT CONCLUSIONS :

1) The modifications & changes not having a major time impact were done within the
project duration. Major changes were analyzed and time impact done to enable the
client to know the time and cost impact and upon his approval of the same the works
were executed.
60046 108
 2) Since the works were of fast track nature, modern /innovative methods were
deployed.
3) Contractor was able to utilize his resources in an effective manner.

9 COST MANAGEMENT CONCLUSIONS

1) Universities were able to commence as per the academic year thereby generating
revenue.
2) There was no financial loss as the project was handed over in time.
3) Students were able to join the new academic year and did not have to go searching
for alternatives as the institutions were ready to commence thereby allowing them to
save.
4) Hostel facilities wherever available were utilized as outside facilities would have
proven expensive and traveling would have been time consuming.

9 NOMINATION CONCLUSIONS:
1) Credibility of the client has been greatly enhanced due to the timely handover of the
premises to commence the institutions academic year.
2) Client also has started generating income upon handing over to the respective
customers.
3) Customers will be confident of future projects by the client.

60046 109
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 APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1:

Steve Bauld, Kevin McGuinness.(2008) Yours, mine, ours: Offloading all risk
risks raising the price. . Summit. Ottawa: Jan/Feb 2008. Vol. 11, Iss. 1; pg. 10, 2 pgs

Governments - despite being large customers - generally pay more for what they
buy than the private sector. One possible reason may be the growing tendency to allocate
all risk to the supplier rather than determining what is yours, theirs and should be shared.
This is particularly evident in the area of construction procurement where many risks must
be allocated between the parties including design, environmental, weather, planning,
labour-relations and labour availability related risks.
Understandably a municipality would want to insulate itself against such risks to the
maximum extent possible, particularly where the project involves a type of construction with
which the municipality has little experience. Limited relevant experience is common since
many construction projects contemplate one-of-a-kind facilities - at least from the
municipality's perspective. The goal in allocating risk to the contractor is to secure "price
certainty," but arbitrarily allocating risks to the contractor becomes a serious risk to the
buyer.
In a construction project, risk may be defined as the possibility of economic gain or
loss relating to a particular aspect of the construction process. Every risk has an associate
cost that must be borne by one party or another. Every risk assigned to the contractor will
increase the price charged to the buyer for the project. Simply stated: Price to the customer
= supplier's cost of supply + risk assumed by the supplier + profit.
Moreover, current market conditions within the construction industry may worsen the
problem. Price competition is limited in a seller's market, which means that the buyer will
likely pay a hedging cost when risk is assigned to the contractor. If the probability of a
particular type of risk arising is low, then the cost of having the risk assumed by the
contractor is likely to be disproportionate to the benefit obtained.
Many uncertainties arising from construction (such as hidden site conditions and
weather related risks) present risks that contractors are in no better position to manage
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than is the owner. Some risks are more easily dealt with by the owner than by anyone else,
such as design related risks where the contractor is not the designer, as well as risks
relating to factors within the owner's control such as delays resulting from site inspection by
the owner's consultants.
Ideally, the risks in a construction project will be divided among the stakeholders -
owners, design professionals, other professionals and contractors - on the basis of who
would best manage the risk in question. The term "manage" means to anticipate, price for,
and avoid or mitigate the risk. Government contracts often assign risk with little
consideration of best management. For instance, where a municipality reserves the right to
vary the volume of supply (in a contract for goods or services), or to terminate the project -
a decision that is entirely within the municipality's control - additional risk is created for the
supplier. Even though the risk of the municipality buying less than the original order is slim,
suppliers naturally increase the price to reflect that risk.
To avoid paying more as a result of unrealistic or uniformed approaches to risk
allocation, it is important for municipalities to access and gain a greater understanding of
the range of risk allocation alternatives available within the construction market. A variety of
alternative project delivery systems have evolved to reduce the owner's risk exposure and
when employing one of these standard models, risk will be allocated in a rational manner.
In the traditional government-construct approach design deficiencies and changes
pose a high risk to the owner. Under a construction management approach, the
construction manager (CM) assumes some of these risks. If the project is completed
successfully, the CM is compensated for assuming and managing the risks in question. In a
design-build arrangement, more risk is allocated to the contractor since the contractor takes
responsibility for design. However, the "price" to the owner is that the owner has less
control over the design process and must detail its project specifications to a far greater
extent. Problems arise when a contract is written that gives the municipality the best of all
worlds.
Some aspects of risk allocation appear relatively uniform, irrespective of which
project management system is employed. Growing evidence suggests that risks relating to
forces majeure events are best shared between the contractor and owner. In some cases,
risk is best insured (e.g., in relation to property damage). A realistic approach entails
identifying which party's insurers will provide insurance at the lowest cost.
The assignment of risk for design adequacy varies depending on the type of delivery
system. In traditional design-bid-build, the owner warrants the adequacy of the design and
can manage that risk through retaining a highly qualified design professional and providing
adequate scoping information and fair compensation.
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 Unrealistic allocation of risk also gives rise to hidden costs, such is reducing both the
number and quality of those who will participate in the competitive process: Frequently, the
contractors best placed to deliver the construction project on time and within budget (and
who naturally seek to avoid taking on high-risk work) will elect not to bid for the contract.
These suppliers are also the least likely to perform their work badly. Unrealistic allocation of
risk may limit the municipality to second (or lower) tier contractors and may also increase
the risk of deficient performance.
Many municipalities tend to over-focus on the price of a contract, undermining efforts
to allocate risk responsibly. Where a low bid is received from an inexperienced or smaller
contractor, the bidder may lack the financial resources to absorb the risks allocated to it,
should they arise. A low bid may mean that the contractor who submitted the bid did not
realistically assess the risks associated with the contract. Should serious problems occur,
the municipality will receive a claim. While it may be entitled to reject that claim under the
terms of the contract, the contractor may then cease to perform or go out of business. Even
if costs are successfully passed back to the contractor, any hope of an on-going
cooperative relationship will evaporate, resulting in unanticipated cost consequences in
terms of reduced quality, late completion, and reduced building functionality as well as
probable increased legal costs.
Do not assume that a court will accept an unreasonable allocation of risk. The court
may read down what it considers to be unreasonable contract conditions, particularly where
the allocation of risk was hidden under a blanket of lengthy and detailed contract
provisions. For instance, if on a design-build project the terms of the contract appear to
pass to the contractor the responsibility for any errors in the municipality's own performance
specifications or design criteria, the court may disregard the strict wording of the contract,
unless this unusual allocation of responsibility was made clear to the contractors bidding for
the contract.
Municipal owners need both to understand and evaluate their selected project
delivery system so as to identify and allocate appropriately each risk relating to a given
contract. The system selected should be chosen based upon a careful evaluation of its
compatibility with the municipality's needs, priorities, and capability. Risk may often be dealt
with effectively by building into a contract incentive plans that contemplate payments tied to
the successful management of specific risk consequences or conditions.
The risks related to a contract are efficiently allocated when each of them is
assigned in the manner that will lead to the lowest aggregate cost to the parties. A number
of common mistakes in construction contracting in relation to risk that tend to lead to higher
prices for government work include:
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 * The assumption that risk under a construction contract may be efficiently allocated
in the same manner as under a sale of goods contract. Numerous differences between
sales and construction contracts make a typical sales allocation an inappropriate model for
construction. In a sales contract, an existing product is sold to a customer and the actual
performance capacity of that product is known at the time of delivery. Construction deals
with the sale of a future product and eventual performance may only be estimated. Timely
delivery of construction products cannot be estimated with the same precision possible with
those goods produced on an assembly line basis.
* The use of a tender or RFP process lends itself to a situation where, as part of the
contract documentation, risk is allocated by municipal "back office" staff who may well have
too little understanding of the price implications of the allocations made. In contrast to the
private sector, there is little opportunity in a contract competition to negotiate a more
efficient allocation of risk.
* Time is often of the essence in government. Where a municipality insists that the
contractor complete within a rigid deadline or pay a liquidated damages penalty, the
contractor will factor the anticipated penalty for delay into the price that is bid. The result is
that the municipality pays a higher cost for construction, even if the project is completed on
time. The extra cost is hidden - unless one compares public sector costs with private.
* Certain types of construction models increase the risk level to both parties. For
example, where a long-term commitment (e.g., an extended warranty) is introduced into the
construction process, the level of risk is increased, inevitably increasing the price of the
contract.
At the end of the day, municipalities (and other governments) may be large
customers, but they are only customers. Contracts that look good from the customer's
perspective are not necessarily contracts that work in the customer's best interests. Arriving
at a fair allocation deal usually proves more economical than a one-sided deal.

Appendix 2

An article by Werner Sabo and James K. Zahn, "When Owners Hire Separate Contractors"
(The Construction Specifier, Sept. 2003; Alexandria, Va; 800-689-2900; www.
constructionspecifier.com), spells out what architects need to know.
American Institute of Architects (AIA) Document A201 1997, General Conditions of the
Contract for Construction, speaks directly to this issue:
* 6.1. Owner's Right to Perform Construction and to Award Separate Contracts.
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* 6.1.1. The Owner reserves the right to perform construction or operations related to the
Project with the Owner's own forces, and to award separate contracts in connection with
other portions of the Project or other construction or operations on the site under
Conditions of the Contract identical or substantially similar to these, including those
portions related to insurance and waiver of subrogation. If the Contractor claims that delay
or additional cost is involved because of such action by the Owner, the Contractor shall
make such Claim as provided in Paragraph 4.3.
This affirms the owner's right to hire contractors or use in-house personnel to do some of
the work. It also acknowledges the contractor's right to recover costs related to any delays
or incurred because of the owner's contractors.
A second paragraph asserts that the GC is covered by the same general contract
conditions that apply between the owner and separate contractors:
* 6.1.3. The Owner shall provide for coordination of the activities of the Owner's own forces
and of each separate contractor with the Work of the Contractor, who shall cooperate with
them. The Contractor shall participate [both] with other separate contractors and the Owner
in reviewing their construction schedules when directed to do so. The Contractor shall
make any revisions to the construction schedule deemed necessary after a joint review and
mutual agreement. The construction schedules shall then constitute the schedules to be
used by the Contractor, separate contractors, and the Owner until subsequently revised.
The first sentence clearly spells out that the owner-not the contractor-is responsible for
coordinating the work of the separate tradespeople. The paragraph also makes clear that
while it's the general contractor's job to cooperate with all the workers, the GC is not
responsible if those workers do not complete their work properly : That's the owner's
responsibility.
A/Es need to inform owners of that fact. Many inexperienced owners mistakenly think the
relationship between the GC and the separate contractors is the same as the usual
contractor-subcontractor relationship. Unless they are told otherwise, these owners also
assume the GC oversees all the work of the separate vendors and is responsible for
guaranteeing the proper execution of all the work.
That's not the way it's done, contend Sabo and Zahn. Often it's up to the architect to inform
the owner that the GC's only obligation is to (1) give separate contractors an opportunity to
do their work and (2) to coordinate vendors' schedules. In other words: If a separate
contractor fails to complete the job satisfactorily, it's the owner's problem-not the general
contractor's.
An easy way to explain the situation is that an owner becomes, in effect, the general
contractor when choosing to hire separate contractors, taking on all the GC's obligations to
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coordinate the hired contractors. One solution is for the owner to hire a construction
manager (CM) to supervise the separate contractors. But hiring a CM can quickly gobble
up any savings the owner hoped for in the first place. And if separate contractors fail to
perform their duties, any other savings might have to go toward claims and lawsuits.
Of course, A/Es need be cautious when advising owners about using separate contractors,
stress Sabo and Zahn, lest it be interpreted that they are recommending the practice. This
will not be a problem when the owner is experienced and has handled many projects. But
should an A/E recommend to a less experienced owner to use separate contractors, and
then no cost savings result, or, worse, arbitration or litigation occur, the owner may hold the
A/E responsible and demand that the A/E pay some of the unexpected costs.
As with every aspect of a building project, all the risks and rewards should be thoroughly
discussed with the owner, and a written record of the discussion should be filed with project
correspondence. Establishing a paper trail is always a good practice.
A/Es have traditionally disliked the use of separate prime contractors. But they are required
to do so, for example, under New York State's Wicke's Law, which calls for separate prime
contractors for HVAC and structure on public work. Attempts to abolish Wicke's Law on the
grounds that it adds complexity and cost to projects have proven unsuccessful.”

APPENDIX 3

Halil Shevket Neap, Seran Aysal(2004),. Owner's Factor in Value-Based

Project Management in Construction.Journal of Business Ethics. Dordrecht: Mar
2004. Vol. 50, Iss. 1; pg. 97

“Owner/client is a significant contributing party within the management of a project in

construction. In addition to the payment of the bills related to the project, owner/client has
duties and responsibilities such as selecting the professionals, making his requirements
understood clearly by other parties, making decisions to recommendations and placing
orders. Owner/client has to perform these duties and responsibilities at the right times and
in correct ways to have the required quality and value for his/her investment. In performing
his/her duties and responsibilities owner could introduce positive and negative contributions
to the value of the constructed facility. Value-based project management concerns with
owner's/client's value system and helps owner/client in performing his/her duties and
responsibilities for the optimum positive contributions to the value of the constructed facility
in construction. This paper highlights the principles of value-based project management in
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construction and investigates the impact of owner contributions to the value of a
constructed facility in practice.
A construction organization is an open system organization that accepts its input of
human resources, materials, money, machines, all the information including owner's
requirements, rules and regulations, and transforms them into a constructed facility
(Pilcher, 1992, pp. 8-11). The owner-entrepreneur is seldom familiar with the details of the
building industry; he is uncomfortable with the risk in the building cost projections; he wants
to manage the expose within the narrowest limits available (McNulty, 1982, p. 32). Owner is
a party who contributes significant input to the construction organization.
Owner therefore is not just an investor but also a significant contributing party within
the organization. In addition to the payment of all the bills, owner has duties and
responsibilities such as making his requirements understood clearly by the other parties,
selecting the designers and advisers, making decisions in selection of contract options,
selecting the contractors, making decisions to the recommendations and placing orders.
Owner has to perform these duties and responsibilities at the right times and in correct
ways and together with the best endeavors of the professionals and contractors, owner
would have the required quality and value for his investment. The direct commitment of the
client is one of the crucial determinants of success (Dodd, 1990, p. 394). Creative and
innovative solutions are expected from client analysts, advisers, and consultants, from
within and outside the construction industry (Smith and Love, 2001, p. 71). Because of
limited human resources, owners have to re-evaluate both the timing and level of their
involvement in the capital project delivery process (Anderson and Patil, 2001, p. 77). There
are numerous alternative contractual approaches for the owner to choose to bring together
interesting parties to form a team for design and construction of a project. In all types of the
contractual relationships there are significant disadvantages adversely affecting the
achievement of good management. As a result of this owners are suffering from many
problems such as increasing costs, not getting the quality and value for their investment
and dissatisfaction of the design and the finished product.
This paper investigates the significance of the involvement of the owner in
construction management and examines the importance of his/her contributions. It aims to
highlight and test in practice, through surveys, the principles of value based project
management in construction and investigates the impact of owner's contributions to the
value of a constructed facility.
Owner's duties and responsibilities:
Implementation of a construction project is a complicated and complex process as it
requires the contribution of different parties, successfully selecting best materials among a
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large range, using suitable methods and having capable labor and good supervision.
Owner, whether public or private, is the initiating party that owns and finances the project,
either from owner's resources or from external financing. The owners of the construction
industry are many and varied. They include the public sector bodies such as central and
local government and private companies involved in building for domestic, commercial,
industrial and retailing purposes (Clough, 1981, p. 3).
First requirement of the owner is to establish his needs and objectives and clearly
express them to other parties. This provides a focus for scope definition, guides the design
process, and influences the motivation of the project team. The process of setting
objectives involves an optimization of quality, cost and schedule. Owner's objectives must
be clearly communicated and understood by all parties, and serve as a benchmark for the
numerous decisions that are made throughout the duration of the project. The process of
identifying owner's needs and objectives require the involvement of a wide range of people
within the owner's organization (Oberlender, 1993, pp. 20-21). Owner must clearly develop
or agree to a delineation of the responsibilities borne by all members of the project team.
Each must understand his/her own responsibilities as well as the extent of responsibilities
delegated to the others (Barrie, 1992, p. 171).
Owner's major duties and responsibilities in construction are:
* Identifying his/her requirements and objectives.
* Expressing clearly his/her requirements and objectives to the other interesting
parties.
* Determining the overall project budget.
* Selecting designers, advisers and contractors.
* Making decisions to the recommendations.
* Providing coordination for the project.
* Making the final decisions.
* Setting criteria about total budget, payments and project end date.
* Placing orders.
* Paying all the bills as per the requirements of the project.
In construction management, owner therefore is not just an investor but also a
significant contributing party from the concept till completing stage of a project.

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Appendix 4

According to Casinelli(2005), Project Schedule Delay vs. Strategic Project

Planning.AACE International Transactions. Morgantown: 2005. pg. PS191, 7
pgs.Available from: http://proquest.umi.com
“The study regards the problem of schedule delay of construction projects with
specific regard to US government projects in Italy. The analysis is undertaken from the
owner point of view, as the final purpose of this paper is to identify corrective actions that
could be implemented by the owner.
The experience of showed that many projects suffered of schedule delay and that
delay mostly occurred during the "initial phase" of the projects, covering a period from five
to seven months from contract award. The difficulties to maintain the schedule, since the
early stage of project development, create the basis of future problems that will cause
further "schedule delay". In fact the contractor is called to prepare "aggressive" recovery
schedules, since the early stage, that have an high probability to fail for a combination of
factors, as described in the paper.
The study analyzes the factors causing schedule delays and suggests guidelines
that, in the opinion of the author, could mitigate the problems of schedule delays and
improve the control of schedules for similar US government projects in Europe. Although
the study refers to the case of US construction projects in Italy, the author believes that the
conclusions may be of general interest for project management.
Schedules fail for a combinations of factors, most of them might addressed by the
owner by undertaken an effective strategic project planning before the tender phase, thus
during the pre-planning phase.
The guidelines are based on a key concept: a different role of the owner who
becomes an agent of project management development:
* by driving the contractor to make its strategic choices at earliest stage of project
development and,
* by driving the contractor to the implementation of effective methodologies and
techniques of project planning and control.

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 Schedule delays and costs overrun are matter of concern for the owner as well as for
the contractor; the problems refer the area of project delivering methods, with special
attention to the international projects and the bidding strategy. Managing projects overseas,
in an international environment, requires a different approach to tender and select the
contractor; surely it's necessary "breaking the low-bid paradigm" [1] and promote criteria
based on the "best value" bid.…The project control of the construction phase, from the
owner point of view, starts during the tender | phase. The goal is to lead the contractor to
the earliest setting up of the project organization and to the most effective project planning.
The solutions proposed (in the form of "guidelines") are based on three set of corrective
actions, that can be implemented independently; all of them require a more active role of
the owner who becomes the real "engine" for the development of the project management.

Action 1: The contractor should be driven and supported in order to anticipate some
critical choices regarding the project organization at the time of bidding preparation and to
implement the best practices and techniques of project scope definition and planning.
Action 2: Improve the planning and scheduling activity of the contractor during the
execution of the works.
Action 3: Adopt two types of contracts; "reimbursable" for the project management
staff of the contractor (indirect cost) and "lump sum", fixed price, for construction works
(direct costs).
Actions 1 and 2 must be translated in specific contract's obligations, respectively
through "instruction to bidders" and through the integration of the P&S-CS. Action 3 could
be limited to the most critical and important projects.
PRACTICAL GUIDELINES
Action 1. Organization and Planning This action has two goals:
* forcing the prospective contractor to the earliest project planning (front end-
planning) [5 and 7]
* giving evidence of the clear understandings of "scope of work" and of the contract's
requirements.
Practical Guidelines.
* Project key personnel presented by the contractor must include the certified
engineers/architects in charge of the submittals preparation; even and especially if these
activities shall be undertaken by the subcontractors, as this is a widespread practice.
* Selection of subcontractors: key subcontractors must be selected by the contractor
during the bid time and declared in the offer. This is critical because the project startup
require the early mobilization of specific subcontractors as well as early submittals.

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 * The Bid's projects schedule must be "tied" to the baseline project schedule through
the "front end schedule". This requires that owner imposes a bid schedule including a
detailed front-end schedule covering the "initial phase" of 90-120 days after contract award,
that must be used as basis to develop the project baseline schedule. The front-end
schedule must contain all critical preliminary activities.
* The owner should impose the use of a WBS (work break down structure) and of a
CBS (cost break down structure), in order to get the full integration among the bid's cost
estimate, the project budget and the structure of project planning and scheduling.
* The owner should develop a basic WBS (contractual WBS: CWBS) and the
contractor should be asked to develop further details (i.e. the further levels of WBS), in
order to drive the contactor to give evidence of the understanding of the scope of work.
* Temporary engineering task force , based on site, provided by he owner to facilitate
the early submittal process. This will facilitate the "contractor mobilization" in order to get
the earliest approval of critical Key documents (quality control plan, submittal register,
baseline schedule, safety plan, foundations and shop DWGs etc.) and key submittals
(concrete mix design, underground utilities piping etc.).
* The bidder should address all above issues in the Project plan; specific details
regarding the content and format of this key document should be included in the "instruction
to bidders".
Action 2. Improving Planning and scheduling specifications This action has two goals:
* Facilitating and driving the contractor to undertake an effective project planning
(Fig.1) at early stage and the best development of the baseline project schedule; and
* improving the schedule control with emphasis on the process of schedule update.
Practical guidelines.
* Contractual WBS (CWBS) in order to facilitate a common framework among
different projects of owner's portfolio and drive contractor to set up an effective structure of
multilevel schedule.
* Multilevel schedule: master schedule, summary and detail schedule.
* Schedule control: the process should be improved in regard to the procedures for
schedule updating.
Action 3. Different Contract Arrangement
This action has the goal to guarantee that the contractor select skill resources and set
up a project management team fitting the project's needs. The analysis presented has
pointed out the importance of the Contactor's capability and competence; a different bid
strategy, based on the scheme of "Best Value" of the offer rather than based on the
paradigm of "Low-Bid", should surely facilitate the delivering on time of the most important
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 projects. A different and intermediate solution, to be explored, could be based on two
different arrangements of Contract for the same project:
* "Reimbursable" for the project staff of the contractor.
* "Lump-sum" for the construction works.
This solution would lead to two main advantages:
* To allow the owner to verify and control, since the bidding stage, the staff contractor
intends to "mobilize" to manage the project, guarantying the owner in concerns of the right
skills and competences of the selected personnel.
* To guarantee the early set up of project organization, that is so critical to properly
start up the project.
The absence of a structured and comprehensive project planning since the early
stage (front-end planning) leads the contractor to undervalue both the Scope of works and
contracts requirements. Lack of project skills, poor knowledge of project management
methodologies and practices are the real limits that avoid better performances.
To facilitate the "project start up", so critical for the success of the project, the owner
should force and drive the contractor to make some "critical choices" during the study and
preparation of the bid. The owner should integrate his role, becoming an "agent of project
management development", playing a more active role targeted to provide methodological
support to the contractor. The final goal is to drive the contractor to the early project
planning , providing guidance and means for the most effective implementation of project
management methodologies.”

Appendix 5

¾ James E Baar. (2002) Project planning: A great communicator. AACE International

Transactions. Morgantown: 2002. pg. PS11, 5 pgs.

“"interactive planning." It is the facilitated process, in a group forum, of an integrated

project schedule, which highlights logic through work processes, defines key constraints,
defines key milestones, and last but not least, identifies major issues that may affect the
project.
The work process is referred to by the acronym "IAP," for interactive planning session. The
IAP is a collective effort by the client and key team members to develop a project execution
schedule. The word interactive is the key that opens up the communication that allows this
concept to be highly effective. See figure 1.
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The IAP session's key goals include the following.
* Develop a realistic integrated schedule based on real work process steps and realistic
durations. The outcome of IAP provides schedule milestones for the project.
* Facilitate "buy-in" from the project team members. Each team member gets to plan
his/her own tasks and comment/interact with the rest of the team, with respect to their
needs to achieve their plan. The schedule is not developed independent of the team.
* Define those major issues that have significant impact on the project. These are risk
issues and can include a permit, longduration deliveries, release of funding, or personnel
resources (for example, can the client provide the reviews required to keep the project
deliverables moving?).
At the end of the session, what are the issues? Who holds the action item? What and
where are the schedule risks?
Listed below are what the IAP session concept requires of the participants.
* Commitment: giving your best, and doing what you say you are capable of and committed
to make happen.
* Trust: must be willing to say what you believe or state your concerns. State your reasons,
knowing that the other participants respect and desire your honesty and concern for the
project.
* Knowledge: this planning effort requires the participants to understand the project and the
discipline work deliverable process, also referred to as work flow. This requires not only
knowledge of interdiscipline work process but also intradiscipline work process that in
reality sequence work deliverables.
* Project scope: a subset of knowledge, but the focus is understanding what the project
entails, along with the technology, size, complexity, etc.
* Listening: paying attention to the "whole" conversation. You are there to participate.
Listening and understanding the discussion is critical, since it may apply to or affect you.
Therefore, you might ask, what does the interactive planning concept provide to the
participants.
* Team "buy-in": as the saying goes, it will take a team to create/make a project happen.
The team that shares what it knows develops the plan together, and therefore, "buy in" to
the plan.
* Open communication: everyone who participates in the IAP has an equal opportunity to
share his/her expertise, concerns, and knowledge.
* Respect- all participants share, and their information is given the same importance.
RESPONSIBILIES
Responsibilities can and will vary based on the phase of the IAP and the participants.
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Generally, the project manager will coordinate and define the goals, and establish the who,
what, where, when, why, and how issues.
The disciplines bring their expertise to the IAP. They must be prepared and understand the
workflow process.
Materials management personnel offer bid/buy cycles/timing as well as fabrication/ship
times of major equipment/materials. If there are subcontracts, similar expectations are
expected.
The construction manager brings the construction plans and constructability issues to the
IAP. Preplanning is essential.
PRE-IAP DELIVERABLES
To support in the preparation of the personnel who will participate, the following
deliverables are typical.
Listing of key client milestones that the client has set. These milestones set the initial
schedule goals of the project.
The rough plot plan (general arrangement) includes area designators, if applicable. What is
the footprint? This provides an initial picture of project size, complexity, large equipment
placement, and schedule sequencing concepts.
The scope definition concerns what the project is all about... capacity? Location? Is it a
greenfield project? Retrofit?
PFD/P&ID counts and status: this is critical to understand up front. PFD and P&ID status
are knowing what levels are complete or have to be completed and the approval cycles
(engineer and client). As process will drive the project, the status (scope) and timing are
critical before entering the IAP
The equipment list should include sizing and weights, especially on the large pieces.
The subcontracting plan is a listing of potential subcontracts; scope is an absolute.
Knowing how engineering and procurement must support construction helps in the
preplanning thinking.
The deliverables must support the goal of the IAP. Remember, an IAP session may be
used to plan a study, in the preliminary engineering phase, or during construction. As such,
set the deliverables to meet the function. The key is to determine if the deliverables bring
out the participant's expertise in the IAP meeting. See figure 2.
IAP SESSION
The IAP session is itself a "mini-project." As such, I cannot emphasize enough that the
degree of planning and communication that is put into the IAP follows the old cliche, "good
planning followed by good communication" means a great IAP outcome. The IAP session is

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made up of three major phases, the pre-interactive phase, the IAP session itself, and post
IAP activities.
THE PRE-INTERACTIVE PHASE
The project manager, the project controls manager, and the planner scheduler plan the IAP
session.
Define the length of the overall schedule and the divisions (weeks, months, etc.). This sets
the outline to print the LAP work schedule. The sequence of the presentations by each
discipline are usually organized from the top down. See figure 3.
Define the scope of the IAP. Is this only a study? Is this preliminary engineering? Is this
only engineering and procurement? Or is this a full engineering/procurement/construction
approach?
Ensure that the deliverables are provided to the IAP participants. This information should
be handed out a few days before the session to allow personnel time to review, discuss,
and think through the IAP needs.
Each discipline group will receive a specific colored sticky note pad to write out their
planning activities. Having a specific color for a discipline allows chart visibility as discipline
schedules are developed.
Has the project manager discussed the goals and expectations with the client? This is
critical so that client personnel can readily be a part of the session and participate frilly in
the IAP. The client also has a particular colored sticky pad for client-related activities that
affect the schedule.
THE IAP-GUIDELINES TO SUCCESS
The IAP will only be as good/informative as the issues are discussed. Therefore, one
discussion at a time (no sidebars). If everyone is listening to the discussion, the focus is
better, and the level of interaction goes up.
Make sure the IAP session fully identifies the client's needs.
* Document review/approval times.
* Outage plans (when and length).
* Tie-in issues (type and length of time).
Keep in mind holiday schedules, especially if critical schedule deliverables and/or activities
happen in and around them.
Do not linger on one issue! Remember, there is a time limit to establish the IAP.
You can go back and revisit a discipline or group if information now presented can cause
impacts.
* Maintain an action item list and a critical issues list.
POST-IAP ACTIVITIES
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Now that the IAP is completed, there are some actions to be taken. The IAP is used by the
planner/scheduler to develop the project schedule. The IAP provides the basis for a level II
scheduling effort leading to the level III schedule.
Issue the action item list and IAP notes (especially the critical issues list). Determine if a
short revisit to the IAP schedule is needed to resolve open issues.
Now that we have an understanding of the concepts for the IAP, let's discuss the approach
to how to actually run the IAP. A format for the wall chart is shown in figure 3. The time
scale has been set per the client's goals, and the format on the left edge is set to direct the
flow of the discussion.
The work sequence, better known as the workflow process, is the key. As the IAP can be
applied to any phase of the project, the focus and needs are different for each phase. In all
cases keep in mind the work process. Remember, left to right planning is a must.
While this discussion has focused on industrial projects, in essence the IAP session can be
applied to any type of industry/project/phase/size. Identify the scope, identify the
deliverables that provide definition, and set up the strategy in which the IAP will be
sequenced. Then do it!
The interactive planning session as a planning tool is not a one-time occurrence. Projects
usually have phases. Therefore, it is recommended that there is an IAP for each phase.
This step procedure allows the project team to take the knowledge from the phase they are
in and apply this learning in the preceding IAP to redefine the project schedule.”

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