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Advancements in Textile Finishing

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Advancements in Textile Finishing

*1Iheaturu, Nnamdi C. and 2Onuoha, Francis N.
1&2
Department of Polymer & Textile Engineering
Federal University of Technology, PMB 1526, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria
Email: [email protected]
Received: 11 July 2015, Accepted: 14 August 2015

ABSTRACT
A lot of interesting advancements have been witnessed within the last two decades. In this review,
different methods of textile finishing are hereby explained. Whereas the conventional methods of
finishing including wet and dry finishing techniques, are still being practiced on cotton and woolen
fabrics, advanced textile finishing techniques may include functionalization using nano-coatings,
surface modification using hydrolysable silanes and enzymes, microencapsulation, and the
strengthening of synthetic fibres with nanoclays to mention but a few. These techniques induce
different textures and performance characteristics into the textile materials, making them textile
materials for the future, otherwise “futuristic” textiles that could be used in a wide range of
applications from apparels and garments to technical textiles.

Keywords: Coloration, Dyeing, Enzymes, Finishing, Microencapsulation, Nanotechnology,

Aerodynamic

Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction......................................................................................................................................26
2.0 Conventional Textile Finishing .........................................................................................................27
2.1 Dry or Mechanical Finishing .........................................................................................................27
2.1.1 Heat-Setting .........................................................................................................................27
2.1.2 Brushing and napping ..........................................................................................................27
2.1.3 Softening ..............................................................................................................................27
2.1.4 Optical finishing ...................................................................................................................28
2.1.5 Shearing ...............................................................................................................................28
2.1.6 Compacting ..........................................................................................................................28
2.2 Wet or Chemical Finishing ...........................................................................................................28
2.2.1 Optical finishes.....................................................................................................................28
2.2.2 Absorbent and soil release finishes .....................................................................................28
2.2.3 Softeners and abrasion-resistant finishes ...........................................................................29
2.2.4 Physical stabilization and crease-resistant finishes .............................................................29
2.2.5 Dyeing and coloration ..........................................................................................................29
2.2.6 Textile fabrication ................................................................................................................30
3.0 Futuristic “Knowledge-based” Textiles ............................................................................................31
4.0 Functional finishing for Advanced Bio-Textiles ................................................................................31
5.0 Nanotechnology and Nano-coatings in Textile Finishing .................................................................32
6.0 Other Textile Surface Modifying Techniques ...................................................................................33
6.1 Surface finishing using hydrolyzable silanes ................................................................................33
6.2 Enzymatic surface modification of textile materials ....................................................................34

1
Corresponding author
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Skype: niheaturu
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pISBN: 978-2246-87-4
This review article by Iheaturu, NC and Onuoha, FN, is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial-ShareAlike 4.0
International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.

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6.3 Clay finishing and composite fibres .............................................................................................35

6.4 Microencapsulation finishing .......................................................................................................35
7.0 Aerodynamic dyeing .........................................................................................................................35
8.0 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................36
References ....................................................................................................................................................36

Table of Figures
Figure 1: Scheme for achieving functional advanced bio-textiles ......................................................................... 32
Figure 2: Different physical forms of stimuli-responsive polymers and their macroscopic response (3) .............. 32
Figure 3: Conventional application of enzymes in cotton processing (16) ............................................................ 34
Figure 4: Methods of enzyme immobilization; (a.) covalent bonding, (b.) adsorption, (C.) entrapment in gel, (d.)
intermolecular crosslinking, and (e.) encapsulation (16) ...................................................................................... 35

1.0 Introduction
Textile Finishing refers to a whole lot of processes, procedures and methods for impacting
on the quality of the fibre before and / or after fabric production. Finishing encompasses
chemical or mechanical treatments performed on fibres, yarn, or fabric to improve
appearance, texture, or performance. Some of the fabric finishing methods are brushing,
shearing, pressing, raising, beating, calendaring, and folding. Finishing is done in three
stages which are pre-treatment, coloration and finishing. This definition may be seen as only
pertaining to age-long traditional cotton fabric whereby grey fabrics are made to undergo
series of pre-treatments involving de-sizing, scouring and mercerization using sodium
hydroxide, bleaching with hypochlorite or peroxides, dyeing and then screen / rotary
printing of different designs. Lastly, drying and calendaring the textile fabrics are the final
post-treatment processes. During the pre-treatment stage, use of water, chemicals,
dyestuffs and pigments with attendant release of waste water effluents, is prevalent. In
some of the textile factories, collection of the effluents resulting from these operations is
done with carefully planned layout of pipes channelled to an effluent treatment plant where
the waste water is treated, refined and re-used for the steam boilers and pre-treatment
operations (1,2).

However, as a result of the constantly evolving consumer lifestyles, demand for comfort and
increased applications of textile materials in technical areas within the last two decades, the
global textile industry has adopted a forward looking approach in order to create new
conceptual textile systems for the 21st century. This has resulted in production of functional
textile materials from fibre to fabrics, using both natural and synthetic fibres / polymers. In
most cases, functionalization of the textile fabrics is achieved at the finishing stage. It is
therefore imperative to review a series of advancements in finishing of textile materials so
as to see ways process and procedures can be improved upon, to achieve better
performance products / apparels.

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2.0 Conventional Textile Finishing

The conventional textile finishing can be grouped into dry or mechanical finishing and wet
or chemical finishing. However, there are three basic steps involved in conventional textile
finishing, which include;

i. Washing and drying

ii. Stabilising the fibre, yarns or fabric
iii. Pressing / ironing / calendaring to add aesthetics to the yarns or fabric

2.1 Dry or Mechanical Finishing

Mechanical finishes involves brushing, ironing or other physical treatments used to increase the
lustre and feel of textiles. This requires textile materials being worked on by mechanical
equipment such as calendars, rollers and pressing irons. Mechanical finishes such as raising
and calendaring do not contribute to pollution. Most mechanical finishing are targeted at
the fibre or fabric feel and texture, surfaces, looks and appearance (3), as well as optical
properties. Some of the mechanical treatments include;

2.1.1 Heat-Setting
Heat-setting involves subjecting textile materials; fibres, yarn and fabrics, to a certain range of
temperatures under tension over a period of time. It is a dry processing technique used to
stabilize and impart texture to synthetic fabrics and fabrics containing high percentage of
synthetics. When manmade fibres are heat-set, the cloth maintains its shape and size in
subsequent finishing operations and is stabilized in the form in which it is held during heat-
setting, smooth, creased, uneven. Textural properties may include interesting and durable
surface effects such as pleating, creasing, puckering, and embossing. Heat-setting also makes
fabrics resistant to wrinkling during wear and ease-of-care properties attributed to
improvements in resiliency and in elasticity. Pollution outputs may include volatile
components of spin finishes if heat-setting is performed before scouring and bleaching
processes. These components are introduced to the fabrics during the manufacture of
synthetic fibres, when proprietary spin finishes are applied to provide lubrication and impart
special properties, such as antistatic, to the fibre.

2.1.2 Brushing and napping

Brushing and napping decrease the lustre of fabrics by roughening or raising the fibre
surface and change the feel or texture of the fabric. These processes involve the use of wires
or brushes that pull individual fibres.

2.1.3 Softening
Calendaring or ironing is used to reduce surface friction between individual fibres thereby softening
the fabric structure and increasing its sheen. In calendaring, the fabric is made to pass through two
or more rolls. One roll is made of chilled steel, while the other is made of a softer material like
cotton. The steel roll may also be heated using gas or steam. Once goods pass through the machine,
they are wound up at the back of the machine.

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2.1.4 Optical finishing

Usually when fabrics are flattened or smoothened under pressure during calendaring, the fibres on
the surface of they are made to lay flat on the fabric surface thereby increasing light scattering.
Lustre is induced to yarns by this technique and may be further increased if the rolls are scribed with
closely spaced lines.

2.1.5 Shearing
This process removes surface fibres by passing the fabric over a cutting blade.

2.1.6 Compacting
Compacting includes sanforizing process as is in the case of woollen fabric. Here, the woollen
materials are put in-between blanket cotton fabrics and compressed in order to reduce stresses in
the woollen fabric. Woollen fabrics are prone to high degree of dimensional shrinkage during
washing, and as a result, this process when carried out helps to reduce residual shrinkage of the
fabrics after repeated laundering. The fabric and backing blanket are fed between a roller and a
curved braking shoe, with the blanket under tension. The tension on the blanket is released after the
fabric and blanket pass the braking shoe. Compacting reduces the potential for excessive shrinkage
during laundering.

2.2 Wet or Chemical Finishing

Application of chemical finishes to textiles can impart a variety of properties ranging from
decreasing static cling to increasing flame resistance. This involves chemical dissolution in
solvent media and subsequent use of the solution in treating textile materials. Solvent
media may be water, starch, dyes and pigments in organic liquor, chemicals dissolved in
water. This type of treatment is usually associated with the release of volumes of waste
water as effluents. However, if finishes are to be applied by a pad-dry-bake technique as in
the case of resin treatment, waterproofing, flame-proofing and soil release / self-cleaning
finishing, only small amounts of waste products is released. The most common chemical
finishes are those that ease fabric care, such as the permanent-press, soil-release, and stain-
resistant finishes. Chemical finishes are usually followed by drying, curing, and cooling steps
and they are often done in conjunction with mechanical finishing steps.

In knitting, lubricating finishes are applied to knitting yarns. They are based on mineral oils,
vegetable oils, synthetic ester-type oils or waxes, and may also incorporate antistatic agents,
antioxidants, bacteriostats and corrosion inhibitors. The knitting oils are readily emulsified
or solubilised in water, and are thrown into the waste-water after a series of washing stages
before dyeing and printing on the fabric (2). Some selected chemical finishes are explained
below.

2.2.1 Optical finishes

These are applied to the textile material to increase or reduce light scattering on the
material, which could either brighten or dull the fabric as the case may be.

2.2.2 Absorbent and soil release finishes

They are done on textile materials in order to alter surface tension and other properties to
increase water absorbency or improve soil release. If the surface tension of the textile

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surface is increased, the material will likely retain droplets of water, but if reduced, the
droplets of water will run-off the surfaces of the material unaided carrying with them dirt
and dust particles.

2.2.3 Softeners and abrasion-resistant finishes

Softeners and abrasion resistant finishes are added to improve feel or to increase the ability
of the textile to resist abrasion and tearing.

2.2.4 Physical stabilization and crease-resistant finishes

These finishes are done to stabilize cellulosic fibres during laundering and shrinkage.
Whereas crease-resistant finishes impart anti-crease properties during laundering and
drying, while permanent press properties to fabrics are achieved with the application of
physical stabilization finishes.

2.2.5 Dyeing and coloration

Dyeing is the fixing of a dye to a substrate, with the intention of giving an even distribution. A dye is
a colorant that is dispersed in its application medium before being absorbed, adsorbed, reacted
with, or deposited on, a substrate. They are distinct from pigments because they are soluble in water
and possess substantivity (attractiveness) for their substrate. Dyes are applied to substrate fibres
based on their attractiveness to the fibres (4). Pigments lack both of these features. They are mainly
inorganic filler colorants. Also referred to as “disperse dyes”, they are finely dispersed nanoparticles
and are not soluble in water. They are compounded with polymer resins to produce paints, plastics
and synthetic fibres like acetates, polyesters, nylons, and acrylon fibres.

Direct dyes or naphthols are those that exhaust on cellulosic fibres from a neutral or weakly alkaline
solution because they have affinity for cotton and other cellulosic fibres when applied from a dye-
bath containing salt. They are applied to cellulosic fibres as a result of inherent surface hydroxyl end
groups on the fibres. They are based on azo compounds containing sulfonic radical which makes
them soluble in water, hence they are also referred to as “acid dyes”.

Basic dyes are water soluble sulphuric acid esters of the vat dyes. They are applied to woollen, orlon,
and acrilan materials from a water solution and are then converted to the original dyestuff by
treatment with an oxidizing agent in acid solution.

Vat dyes are dyes which are applied to cellulosic fabrics and rayon to produce very nice shades by
“vatting”, reducing first with sodium hydrosulphite in an alkaline medium before application.

Fibre-reactive dyes area very new and interesting class of dyes, the fibre-reactive dyes actually
combine chemically with the fibre. They are used for dyeing and printing cotton and rayon. They are
faster than direct dyes, but not as fast as vat dyes in many respects.

Using dyeing and finishing techniques are smart ways to increase profit margins, product
desirability, and performance. They are ubiquitous, and are basically used to produce
brightly colored clothes, but also are applied in areas as diverse as fabric-softened clothes,
to fire-retardant upholstery, to water-shedding umbrellas. Dyes can be screen-printed on a
fabric surface, where selected surfaces of the fabric are patterned with eye-catching designs

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or fabric immersion in a dye-bath where the entire yarn or fabric is covered with dye
solution, allowed time for fixation at a particular temperature before drying.

2.2.5.1 Factors in Dyeing

Each of these factors is closely dependent on the others. For instance, if the fibre to be
dyed cannot absorb liquor, it will be difficult to obtain complete penetration of the dyes.
Also, if the water, which is the medium most commonly used in dyeing, is excessively hard,
some of the dyes may be precipitated and separated from the solution, causing specking
and uneven dyeing. Therefore, the basic considerations in dyeing are as follows;

i. The fibre to be dyed may be natural or synthetic. Natural fibres are generally
classified into two main groups; animal or protein fibres and vegetable or cellulosic
fibres. The animal fibres include wool, mohair, alpaca and silk, to name a few. The
vegetable fibres include cotton, linen, bast, jute, and the like. On the part of
synthetic fibres, there are those based on regenerated cellulose, hence cellulosic in
nature, for example viscose rayon. There are those that have amine groups like wool,
for example nylons having amine linkages and so can be regarded as protein fibre in
its dye-ability. Acetate and polyester fibres are neither here nor there, and so they
require a special kind of dyestuff, consisting of the disperse dyes.
ii. The dyestuff to be used is determined by the specific fibre being dyed and by the
fastness properties desired. The direct dyes have affinity for cellulosic fibres and
regenerated fibres. Same goes for the vat dyes which are extensively used to
produce very fast colors on cotton and viscose rayon in all forms. The acid and basic
dyes have high affinity for woolen fabric and protein fibres. While disperse dyes are
used to color the synthetic fibres such as polyester and nylon fibres. In every case,
there must be some kind of affinity between the fibre and the dyestuff.
iii. The medium in which the dyeing is to be carried out. Water is the medium in which
almost all dyeing is carried out. The purest type of water is distilled water but
alternatively, rain water is also good. Chlorine, lime salts, iron and other metals
present in the water may have a retarding effect upon the affinity of the dyestuff for
the material. There is also the danger that impurities such as colloidal particles,
organic matter and sediments, can combine with the dyestuff in such a way as to
render it unsuitable for use. In that case, they must be removed by filtration before
the water is used for dyeing.

2.2.6 Textile fabrication

Finished cloth is fabricated into a variety of apparel and household and industrial products.
Products such as bags, sheets, towels, blankets, and draperies, are often produced by the
textile mills themselves, while apparels, garments and more complex house-wares are
usually fabricated by seamstresses, garment makers and tailors. Before cutting, fabrics must
be carefully laid out. Accuracy in cutting the lay fabric is important since any defects created
at this point may be carried through other operations and end up in the final product. For

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simple household and industrial products, sewing is relatively straightforward. The product
may then be pressed to flatten the fabric and create crisp edges.

3.0 Futuristic “Knowledge-based” Textiles

Concerns over damage caused by exposure to microbes, chemicals, pesticides, ultraviolet
(UV) light, pollutants and most recently climatic changes as a result of air pollutants and
direct and intense heat from the sun causing profuse perspirations and heat waves, have
heightened the demand for futuristic, self-styled, body-fitted, responsive garments. Such
garments and clothing are made from what is now referred to as “knowledge-based” textile
materials(5). The “knowledge-based” textile materials therefore may be referred to as those
materials that have in-built functionalities, otherwise also referred to as “functional
textiles”, with the sole aim of assuming futuristic body-friendly capabilities. By this, such
functional textiles are designed ab-initio from fibre to finishing, adapting to the body and
the surrounding environment by responding in a friendly manner. They are also meant to
redefine the role of modern textile materials by expanding their capabilities thereby
fulfilling advanced expectations of modern lifestyle. In order to produce these “knowledge-
based” textile materials, functional finishing is one of the recent advancements in textile
finishing that is used to provide a technical bridge for achieving 21st century textiles.
However, most functional finishing technologies employed in the textile treatments industry
today involve nanotechnology and the direct inclusion of functional agents to textile
materials. Examples of functional agents are fire retardants, antimicrobial agents, UV-
blockers, water repellents, anti-crease agents, fluorescent whitening, and self-cleaning
surface finishes, mentioning but a few.

4.0 Functional finishing for Advanced Bio-Textiles

Functional finishing has been achieved through design and simulation of three dimensional
textile formation, computerized weaving and the application of now environmentally-
friendly surface finishes (6). In most cases this is done using responsive polymeric systems as
reported by Jocic, 2012 (5). Pavlini, 2013, reports that functional textiles have a very
important role to play in human life (7), because they assist man in every way by ensuring
their comfort and protection. These textiles touch human skin irrespective of environment
and work type; therefore it is logical that some functions are fulfilled by the textiles placed
next to the skin surface. Some of these functions are sweat management system, while
other ensures therapeutic, healing, antibacterial and antimicrobial effects and prevent the
infections. The latter is important in medicine where patient's bodies are enveloped by
different textiles with the aim to cool, heat and/or maintain body temperature. In order to
achieve these functions, responsive thin polymer layers surface-modifying-systems (p-SMS)
are incorporated as micro and bulk hydrogels into textile materials.

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Figure 1: Scheme for achieving functional advanced bio-textiles

The choice of hydrogels as surface-modifying-systems (p-SMS) incorporated into textile

materials is due to their volume phase-transition, swelling and shrinking response to
external or environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity and pH, especially at
close contact with the human body. The different forms of stimuli-responsive polymer fibres
and their macroscopic responses are presented in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Different physical forms of stimuli-responsive polymers and their macroscopic response (5)

5.0 Nanotechnology and Nano-coatings in Textile Finishing

Nanotechnology is the utilization of structure and energies inherent in materials at the
atomistic level, at the dimension of 10-9nm, to build novel materials with enhanced
performance properties(8). As in other fields of study, the application of nanotechnology in
the finishing of textiles has helped to improve quality and performance of textile materials

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by imparting new and more complex functions on textile substrates as well as

improvements in existing functions such as durability without losing the fabric’s feel and
texture. This comes with very small amount of chemicals and wet treatment. The science
and technology of application of some of the commercially successful nano-finishes that
impart hydrophobic, super-hydrophobic, self-cleaning and antimicrobial properties have
been studied. The ability of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles to interact with light and
micro-organisms has impacted desired effects in textile materials. In same vein, zinc oxide
(ZnO) nanoparticles of average particle size 38±3nm, have been applied variously in the
surface modification of textiles. In their work, Yadav and co. 2006 (9), studied the effect of
ZnO nanoparticles prepared using zinc nitrate and sodium hydroxide with soluble starch as
the stabilizing agent, on UV blocking and air permeability of cotton fabrics. The synthesized
ZnO nanoparticles were used to coat plain weave bleached cotton fabric. And it was found
that the coated fabrics appeared to be more permeable to air and active UV blockers.

Recently, efforts have been made to immobilize TiO2 nanoparticles onto textile materials
with an aim to produce goods with multifunctional properties but insufficient binding
powers between some fibres and TiO2 nanoparticles have limited their application to
fabrics. The extraordinary photocatalytic activity, non-toxicity, high availability,
biocompatibility, and low price make TiO2 nanoparticles the preferred material for
manufacturing of different high value-added products (10).

Khalil-Abad and Yazdanshenas, 2010(11), reported a facile and effective method to prepare
super hydrophobic cotton textiles using silver nanoparticles. They deposited silver
nanoparticles on cotton fibres by treatment with aqueous potassium hydroxide (KOH) and
silver nitrate (AgNO3), followed by reduction treatment with ascorbic acid in the presence of
a polymeric steric stabilizer to generate a dual-size surface roughness. Further modification
of the particle-containing cotton textiles with octyltriethoxysilane led to hydrophobic
surfaces (11). However, some of the setbacks associated with nano-silver finishing are high
cost of processing precursors, incompatibility to aqueous systems and the tendency to
cause discoloration in the host textile materials. Therefore, in terms of use and
commercialization of nano-finishing, consideration is given to the use of nanoparticles that
are risk-free during their life cycle; production, application, consumption and disposition.

6.0 Other Textile Surface Modifying Techniques

6.1 Surface finishing using hydrolyzable silanes
Amino functional silanes and hydrolysable silanes are stable aqueous emulsions, useful as
finishing agents for textiles are prepared by the addition of at least one hydrolyzable
functional silane or more to an aqueous emulsion containing an amino-functional siloxane
containing an average of at least two amino functional groups per mole, and optionally, a
hydroxyl (OH-) terminated siloxane. The emulsions confer on textiles durable properties
such as slickness, softness, compression resistance, water repellence, or hydrophilicity. This

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has been patented by Yang, 1991 (12).Functionalization is achieved first of all, by

introducing surface alkoxides, (Fibre-O-Na), on the fabric surfaces by treatment with
sodium hydroxide solution thereby improving the hydrophobicity of cotton fabrics. In
furtherance to this effect, success have been achieved on non-wettable surfaces with high
water contact angles (WCAs) and facile sliding of water drops, called superhydrophobic or
ultrahydrophobic (13). This has been achieved by Xue, et al., 2009 (14), where they coated
epoxy-functionalized cotton textiles with amino- and epoxy-functionalized silica
nanoparticles to generate a dual-size surface roughness, followed by hydrophobization with
stearic acid, perfluorodecyl trichlorosilane, or their combination (14).

6.2 Enzymatic surface modification of textile materials

This involves processing of fibres or biopolymers to modify their physical and chemical
surface properties to enable the adsorption, covalent bonding of functionalities,
entrapment / immobilization, and encapsulation of moieties on textile material substrates.
This process is aided by biological catalysts called enzymes. Some of the enzymes used in
surface modification of textiles during finishing include; cellulases, pectinases, xyloglucan
endo-trans glycosylase, tyrosinases and cutinases (15).

In contrast to the conventional chemical finishing treatments given to natural fibres, the use
of enzymatic processes provide an effective, non-polluting alternative because enzymes
operate under mild conditions, are substrate specific, non-toxic, biodegradable and do not
produce any harmful by-products. As a result, enzymes have an age long tradition of use in
textile wet processing. Enzymatic de-sizing, bio-scouring, bleaching, bio washing and bio
polishing of cotton are well established commercial technologies (16), and scaling up
production process for this type of finishing has been achieved through biotechnological
methods (16). Figure 3 presents process routes for achieving enzymatic treatment in
conventional processing of cotton fabrics, while Figure 4 is a scheme showing methods of
enzyme immobilization after treatment.

Figure 3: Conventional application of enzymes in cotton processing(17)

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Figure 4: Methods of enzyme immobilization; (a.) covalent bonding, (b.) adsorption, (C.) entrapment
in gel, (d.) intermolecular crosslinking, and (e.) encapsulation (17)

6.3 Clay finishing and composite fibres

As a result of the nature of clay microstructure, clay materials are being exploited in textile
finishing with the view of taking advantage of their microstructural layer by layer properties
in finishing of technical textile materials into composite fabrics. Polymers reinforced with 2-
5 weight percent of nanoclays exhibit significant improvement in flame retardancy, barrier
properties, dimensional stability and to some extent electrical properties (18–20). Improving
the mechanical properties of polypropylene thermoplastics using functionalized nanoclays,
especially montmorillonites (MMTs) have received significant research interest (21,22). The
commercial viability of nanoclays is mainly credited to their reduced cost, wider applicability
to most synthetic polymers, polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), poly ethylene
terephthalate (PET), polyamide fibres (nylon 6,6 and 6,10), and performance enhancement
associated with the end product. However, composites applications in the form of fibre,
filament or fabric, have not received much attention either in research or application.

6.4 Microencapsulation finishing

This type of finishing has been patterned in order to introduce such properties as
thermoregulation, aroma therapy and fragrance release, de-odorising finishing, biocides,
anti-soiling agents, insect resisting finishing like the insecticide impregnated mosquito nets,
UV protection, anti-static properties, soft feel and chemical protection.

7.0 Aerodynamic dyeing

Aerodynamic dyeing or “Jet dyeing” basically refers to the mechanism of dyeing which is
based on the application of dyes on substrates by air flow or advanced spraying mechanism.
The air-flow is generated by a fan as a special force that atomizes the dye molecules while
the fabric runs in the machine. This mechanism of dyeing is one of the recent sustainable
dyeing solutions which aims at reducing water, energy and chemicals (WEC) during textile
processing which is greatest in textile finishing compared to yarn spinning and fabric

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production – weaving and knitting. As against the conventional winch, jig and paddle dyeing
techniques, the aerodynamic dyeing technique uses low WEC due to the use of high-fixation
reactive dyes with reduced salt, which is able to boost dye fixation rate up to 90%. They are
also referred to as low liquor ratio (LLR) “jet” dyeing machines. The advantages of this type
of dyeing include; reduction in process time, reduction in total water, energy and chemicals
(WEC) consumption, fabric quality is greatly improved as fabric creases as a result of
squeezing is eliminated and process errors are drastically reduced.

8.0 Conclusion
In conclusion, finishing in textile processing has advanced tremendously from their earlier
conventional exhaust or batch-wise processes to more advanced innovative techniques
using aerodynamic dyeing process in order to reduce waste water, energy and chemicals.
Furthermore, nanotechnology which introduces smartness to the textile fabrics has also
improved textile appearance and quality to a reasonable extent. Call them functional
textiles, “Knowledge-based” textiles, “smart” or “intelligent” textiles, with multiple
functionalities and many desirable properties, will definitely become the textiles of the
future. This has opened new wave of opportunities for the textile and apparels industry.
However, having x-rayed some of the recent advancements in textile finishing, there are
obvious challenges in terms of cost and volume of production, cost of end product, and
environmental friendliness. There is therefore the need to continue to develop more
innovative techniques that can be as both cost effective to the producers as it is to the
consumers, yet offering warmth, comfort, durability, softness-to-feel, anti-soiling, self-
cleaning, and good appearance, for the textile / apparels and automotive industry.

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