BRONZE AGE

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ANCIENT GREECE

Ancient Greece Background

Of all the civilizations that have been studied and researched in the past few decades/, the
Greek civilization is perhaps the most interesting one/.

And just to start/, let's begin with the name Greece/. It turns out that the Greeks do not call
where they live/, Greece,/ neither did the ancient Greeks./ They called it Hellas/. And the word
Hellas comes from Hellen/, which is this legendary figure who is viewed as a progenitor of the
Greek people./ You could kind of view him as the father of the Greek people./ And it's not well
established in the historical record when Hellen actually existed, but this is where we get the
name Hellas from ideas like Hellenes, which is the Greek people. Or Hellenic, which is referring
to something that is Greek, or the Hellenistic Period.

Ancient Greece reached the heights in almost every area of human learning and is known as
the cradle of Western civilization it was the birthplace of Western philosophy literature
mathematics with Pythagoras who was known for the Pythagorean theorem and euclid the
father of geometry history with Harold Otis known as the father of history and Thucydides who
was the so-called father of scientific history drama with Sophocles who is a famous playwright of
his day Euripides and Aristophanes who's considered the father of the comedy it was also the
birthplace of the Olympic Games and democracy the concept of an atomic universe was first
posited in Greece to the work of Democritus and loose if it's the process of today's scientific
method was first introduced to the work of baileys also the Latin alphabet comes from Greece
and early working physics and engineering was pioneered by Archimedes of the Greek colony
of Syracuse.

The history of Ancient Greece can be divided up into different periods. The three main periods
we will cover here are the Archaic Period, the Classical Period, and the Hellenistic Period.

During the Archaic Period the Greek government began to form with the rise of the city-states
such as Athens and Sparta. This was also when the Greeks began to explore philosophy and
theatre.

The Classical Period began with the introduction of democracy in Athens. Athens also rose to
new heights in art and philosophy. It was during this period that Athens and Sparta fought in the
Peloponnesian Wars. Near the end of the Classical Period Alexander the Great rose to power
conquering much of Europe and Western Asia.

The death of Alexander the Great ushered in the Hellenistic Period. Greece declined in power
until it was finally conquered by Rome.
Science and famous greek scientists

In the ancient world, Science was very different how we know it today. The very first scientists
didn't really specialize in one aspect of science or another such as biology or chemistry, instead
they try to observe what was happening in a natural world as a whole and make deductions
about natural phenomena that they could see with the naked eye.

In ancient Greece, what we would call a scientist today, was called a philosopher because the
word philosophy or philosophia literally meant a love of wisdom.

These ancient philosophers are part of a group called pre-socratic philosophers because they
lived before or at the same time as Socrates this lived in the time period from about 600 BC to
about 450 BC.

These philosophers were trying to answer questions such as why does the earth stand still,
what does it rest on, and we're or what does everything come from.

The Greeks developed philosophy as a way of understanding the world around them, without
resorting to religion, myth, or magic. Early Greek philosophers, some influenced by (or even
importing and exporting ideas from and to) nearby Babylonians and Egyptians, were also
scientists who observed and studied the known world, the earth, seas, and mountains here
below, and the solar system, planetary motion, and astral phenomena, above.

Astronomy, which began with the organization of the stars into constellations, was used, for
practical purposes, to fix the calendar.

The Greeks estimated the size of the earth, they figured out how a pulley and levers work, they
studied refracted and reflected light, as well as sound.

In medicine, they looked at how the organs worked and studied how a disease progresses.
They learned to make inferences from observations. Their contributions in the field of
mathematics went beyond the practical purposes of their neighbors.

Many of the ancient Greeks' discoveries and inventions are still used today, although some of
their ideas have been overturned. At least one, the discovery that the sun is the center of the
solar system, was ignored and then rediscovered.

Thales of Miletus is regarded by many as the father of science; he was the first Greek
philosopher to seek to explain the physical world in terms of natural rather than supernatural
causes.
Science in Ancient Greece was based on logical thinking and mathematics. It was also based
on technology and everyday life. The arts in Ancient Greece were sculptors and painters. The
Greeks wanted to know more about the world, the heavens and themselves. People studied
about the sky, sun, moon, and the planets. The Greeks found that the earth was round.

Eratosthenes of Alexandria, who died about 194 BC, wrote on astronomy and geography, but
his work is known mainly from later summaries. He is credited with being the first person to
measure the Earth's circumference.

Greek influence on agriculture was the establishment of the science of botany. Botany is the
study of all aspects of plant life, including where plants live and how they grow. The Greek
philosopher Aristotle, who lived during the 300's BC, collected information about most of the
plants known at that time in the world. He also studied other sciences and math.

His student Theophrastus classified and named these plants. Theophrastus often called the
father of botany. Aristotle and Theophrastus developed an extremely important type of science
that is studied all over the world. Botany is so important because all the food that animals and
people eat comes from plants, whether it be directly or indirectly.

Earth science is the study of the earth and its origin and development. It deals with the physical
makeup and structure of the Earth. The most extensive fields of Earth science, geology, has an
ancient history.

Ancient Greek philosophers proposed many theories to account for the origin of the Earth.
Eratosthenes, a scientist of ancient Greece, made the first accurate measurement of the Earth's
diameter. The ancient Greek philosophers were amazed by volcanoes and earthquakes. They
made many attempts to explain them, but most of these attempts to explain these phenomena
sound very strange to most people today. For example, Aristotle, speculated that earthquakes
resulted from winds within the Earth caused by the Earth's own heat and heat from the sun.
Volcanoes, he thought, marked the points at which these winds finally escaped from inside the
Earth into the atmosphere.

Earth science allows us to locate metal and mineral deposits. Earth scientists study fossils. This
helps provide information about evolution and the development of the earth. Earth science helps
in locating fossil fuels, such as oil. These fuels compose a major part of the world economy. The
Greeks came up with the idea of earth science, and most importantly laid the foundation for the
scientists who lived hundreds of years after their time.

Public works were one of the greatest influences in Ancient Greece. They helped boost the
economy, and acted as an art form, and they also led to a more sanitary life style. The system
of planning the public works was invented by Hippodamus of Miletus, and was admired
throughout the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Cities were built according to this scheme and
old towns were reconstructed to fit this system. The Greeks were proud of the establishment of
the public works and spent a lot of money on it.
Many important people contributed to Greek scientific thought and discoveries. Biology, a very
vast and interesting topic, was studied by Hippocrates, Aristotle, Theophrastus, Dioscorides,
Pliny, and Galen. These men were among the main researchers of Greek biology who
contributed many ideas, theories, and discoveries to science. Some of their discoveries were
observations, descriptions, and classifications of the various forms of plants and animal life.
Other discussions in biology were natural selection and zoology.

All living things were the basic concern of biology. Greek biologists were interested in how living
things began, how they developed, how they functioned, and where they were found. These
sorts of questions that ran through the biologists' minds are exactly how they began to discover
the basics of life. At such an early time, about 300 B.C., science was just beginning to enter the
minds of the Greeks. Aristotle, a Greek biologist, made contributions of his own to science.
However, around 300 B.C. there was much more to be discovered, which enabled other
scientists to add knowledge to the discoveries of Aristotle, during and after his time.

Natural Selection is the manner in which species evolve to fit their environment - "survival of the
fittest." Those individuals best suited to the local environment leave the most offspring,
transmitting their genes in the process. This natural selection results in adaptation, the
accumulation of the genetic variations that are favored by the environment.

Many Greek scientists thought about natural selection and the origin of life. Anaximander
believed that marine life was the first life on Earth and that changes happened to animals when
they moved to dry land. Empedocles had the idea of chance combinations of organs arising and
dying out because of their lack of adaptation. Aristotle, a Greek philosopher who contributed
many works in the sciences, believed that there is purpose in the workings of nature, and
mistakes are also made. He thought that nature working so perfectly is a necessity.

Aristotle believed that nature is everything in the environment, like the sky rains, and the plants
grow from the sun. Aristotle's theory fits very well with natural selection.

Natural selection makes it necessary for animals and nature fit perfectly - 'survival of the fittest'.
If they didn't, then that specific organism would die out, weeding out the characteristics that
were unfit for that environment.

That same organism's species might evolve over time and acquire adaptations suitable for the
environment, so that newly evolved species can survive and flourish with offspring.

Lucretius, who lived about 50 AD in Rome, believed that evolution was based on chance
combinations; heredity and sexual reproduction entered only after earth itself had developed.
Then with the organism developing characteristics that might make for survival in the
environment, the organisms that don't have favorable characteristics are incapable of survival
and disappear. These ideas from Greek scientists are all theories, of course, but the fossil
evidence suggests that species evolved over time.
Zoology is the study of animals, involves studying the different species of animals, the
environment in which they live, and their organs. Aristotle was very persistent with his studies of
the zoological sciences and made many contributions to how we study zoology today. He made
observations on the anatomy of octopi, cuttlefish, crustaceans, and many other marine
invertebrates that were remarkably accurate. These discoveries on the anatomy could have only
been made by dissecting the animals. Through dissection, Greek zoologists studied the
structures and functions of anatomies of various animals. Some structures that were studied
were bones and membranes. However, to discover and learn about the diversity of animals,
Greek zoologists had to narrow their areas of study by attempting to classify the organisms.

Ancient Greece Technology and famous inventors

Greece contributed a lot of knowledge to the modern world. Greek findings range from
astronomy and geography to mathematics and science but we will focus first on Greek
inventions especially technologies that were widely used before and are also being used up until
today.

Here are some of the inventions attributed to them:

1. Water mill or Hydraulic wheel of Perachora

Not so long ago, water mills were a revolutionary invention used all over the world for the
purpose of shaping metal, agriculture, and most importantly, milling. This led to the production
of edible staples like beaten rice, cereals, pulses, flour and so on. According to the
contemporary Greek engineer Philo of Byzantium, this useful invention originates from the
earliest known Perachora wheel, created in Greece in the 3rd century BCE. These mills are still used in many parts of
the rural world to serve similar purposes.

2. The odometer by Vitruvius and Heron

Odometers are one of the most widely used instruments in present day. They measure the
distance travelled by any vehicle such as a bicycle or automobile. This omnipresent instrument
also originated in the time of ancient Greece. It was first described by Vitruvius around 27 BCE,
and evidence points to Archimedes of Syracuse as its inventor sometime around the first Punic
war. Some historians also attribute its invention to Heron of Alexandria. Regardless of that, once
invented, it was widely used in the late Hellenistic time by Romans for indicating the distance
travelled by a vehicle. By accurately measuring distance and enabling its careful illustration with
milestones, it helped revolutionize road building and travel.

3. Alarm Clock
The alarm clock is one of today’s most commonly used gadgets, and it also originates from
ancient Greece. The first of alarms used by ancient Greeks were nothing like the ones today.
They used an integrated mechanism to time the alarm, which would sound off delicate water
organs or drop pebbles into drums. The ancient Greek philosopher Plato (428–348 BCE) was
said to possess a large water clock with an unspecified alarm signal similar to the sound of a
water organ; he used it at night, possibly for signalling the beginning of his lectures at dawn.
The Hellenistic engineer and inventor Ctesibius (285–222 BCE) fitted his clepsydras with a dial
and pointer for indicating the time, and added elaborate alarm systems which could drop
pebbles on a gong or blow trumpets (by forcing bell-jars down into water and taking the
compressed air through a beating reed) at pre-set times.

4. Archimedes Screw

This device is capable of lifting solid or liquid substances from a lower plane to a higher
elevation. It is traditionally attributed to the Greek mathematician Archimedes of Syracuse.

5. Gimbal

The inventor Philo of Byzantium (280–220 BC) described an eight-sided ink pot with an opening
on each side, which can be turned so that any face is on top, dip in a pen and ink it-yet the ink
never runs out through the holes of the side. This was done by the suspension of the inkwell at
the center, which was mounted on a series of concentric metal rings which remained stationary
no matter which way the pot turns itself.

6. Air and water pumps

Ctesibius and various other Greeks of Alexandria of the period developed and put to practical
use various air and water pumps which served a variety of purposes,[37] such as a water organ
and, by the 1st century AD, Heron's fountain.

7. Analog computers

In 1900–1901, the Antikythera mechanism was found in the Antikythera wreck. It is thought that
this device was an analog computer designed to calculate astronomical positions and was used
to predict lunar and solar eclipses based on Babylonian arithmetic-progression cycles. Whereas
the Antikythera mechanism is considered a proper analog computer, the astrolabe (also
invented by the Greeks) may be considered as a forerunner.

8. Vending machine
The first vending machine was described by Heron of Alexandria. His machine accepted a coin
and then dispensed a fixed amount of holy water. When the coin was deposited, it fell upon a
pan attached to a lever. The lever opened up a valve, which let some water flow out. The pan
continued to tilt with the weight of the coin until it fell off, at which point a counter-weight would
snap the lever back up and turn off the valve.

9. Automatic doors
Heron of Alexandria, a 1st-century BC inventor from Alexandria, Egypt, created schematics for
automatic doors to be used in a temple with the aid of steam power.

Connection to present time

The ancient Greeks clocked many a firsts in human history: from drawing descriptive maps to
using a robot.

LIGHTHOUSE
The concept of guiding ships safely to the port by using light as a signal was introduced by the
Greeks, who built the first lighthouse in Alexandria, Egypt, in 3rd century B.C. At night, a huge
fire was built atop the lighthouse — allowing ship crew a clear idea of the approaching coastline.

ODOMETER
Mechanical odometers were used in the late Hellenistic times to measure distances traveled by
a vehicle. Odometers were first described by Vitruvius in 27 B.C. and it is believed that
Archimedes was its inventor sometime around the First Punic War (264 B.C.-241 B.C.)
ROBOT
Crazy though it might sound, but ancient Greek mathematician and scientist Archytas indeed
invented a wooden pigeon that used compressed steam to function and was capable of flying
656 to 984 feet (200 to 300 meters) at a time.

WATERMILL
Watermills trace their history back to the Perachora wheel, a water-driven machine invented in
Greece in the 3rd century B.C. The wheel was most likely the creation of contemporary Greek
engineer Philo of Byzantium.

MEDICINE
In the ancient world, it was believed that diseases were god’s punishment for humans.
However, Hippocrates of Cos busted the myth by holding experiments that proved diseases
were results of reaction of the body to germs. He is often referred to as the father of western
medicine and the Hippocratic Oath is one of his lasting legacies.

ALARM CLOCK
The key to reaching workplace on time for most of us, the alarm clock, too, had its origin in
ancient Greece. They were mechanical and quite basic though. The ancient Greeks used water
clocks, which would sound off delicate water organs or made pebbles drop against drums.
MAPS
Modern maps were introduced by ancient Greeks, before which traveling guides were vague
and a lot more descriptive. Greek Anaximander was the first one to conceptualize the idea of
latitude and longitude and draw maps on the basis of that. Later, other Greeks like Eratosthenes
and Strabo created maps spanning the world.

CRANE
Modern construction process is impossible without the modern crane. Ancient Greeks invented
the much simpler ancestor of the modern crane to lift heavy objects for building. At that time, the
cranes were powered by animals or persons with great physical strength.

GEOMETRY
Though geometric techniques were known to the ancient Egyptian, Babylonian and Indus Valley
people, it were the ancient Greeks who established the geometric facts by deductive reasoning.
Thales of Miletus, Pythagoras, Euclid and Archimedes gave a number of geometric axioms and
rules based on mathematical truths, which are still taught in schools today.

How did Ancient Greece change the world today? Did the Greeks change the way we think?

Ancient Greek thinkers made big discoveries. Pythagoras found ways to measure and describe
shapes that we still use in maths today.
Aristotle studied plants, animals and rocks. He devised experiments to find out about the world
we live in. Modern scientists do the same kind of thing.
Herodotus wrote a history of the Greeks. He based this on eyewitness reports, something
today’s historians also try to do. Socrates and Plato were philosophers. They asked, “What is a
good life?” and “How do we think?” Philosophers in our time also try to answer these questions.
Ancient Greek stories are still told today. We love films about superheroes and monsters. Our
TV soaps are full of stories about long-lost children returning to find their parents - just as
ancient Greek plays were.

MEDIEVAL EUROPE

The Dark Ages. The period of European history extending from about 500 to 1400–1500 ce
and was used by 15th-century scholars to designate the period between their own time and the
fall of the Western Roman Empire—a history that is often hard to understand due to a lack of
surviving documents, and often is clouded by myth and legends. During this time, Western
Europe was under the rule of hundreds of feudal lords and kings. Castles dominated the
landscape, and entire cities were built behind protective walls.

The period was marked by economic and territorial expansion, demographic and urban growth,
the emergence of national identity, and the restructuring of secular and ecclesiastical
institutions. It was the era of the Crusades, Gothic art and architecture, the papal
monarchy, the birth of the university, and the recovery of ancient Greek thought.

Let’s take a quick trip back to the Medieval Period and discover how the supposed “Dark
Age” of history has contributed to the evolution of human thought and way of life.

Science
Fundamentally, science is one of the most basic subjects that we must undergo at a very
young age. The story we all learnt at school is that science was invented by the ancient Greeks
but then languished until the Renaissance. Medieval people supposedly thought that the earth
was flat, while the Church is said to have banned human dissection and burnt scientists at the
stake. But really, how was science during this supposed dark period in history?

It comes as a surprise to find that historians have radically revised their understanding of
science in the Middle Ages and Christianity’s influence upon it. It turns out that the myth
Christianity held back science was invented during the eighteenth century and, despite attempts
to kill it off, it simply refuses to die. In reality, the medieval Church demanded that every
student should study math and science in the new universities. More people were exposed to
these subjects than at any time in the past. And because the universities we're self-governing
bodies answerable directly to the Pope, students and masters enjoyed a high level of academic
freedom. Of course, this was circumscribed by the demands of the faith, but it turns out that
Christian theology itself was especially conducive to science.

Science in the Middle Ages was dominated by theologian/philosophers who were as

comfortable working on secular subjects as they were studying the scriptures.

Thomas Aquinas is a good example. While more interested in using philosophy to prove the
existence of God, oversaw a shift from Platonic reasoning towards Aristotelian empiricism.

Robert Grosseteste, one of the major contributors to the scientific method, founded the
Oxford Franciscan School and began to promote the dualistic scientific method first proposed by
Aristotle. He firmly believed that observations should be used to propose a universal law, and
this universal law should be used to predict outcomes which is very similar to the idea of
ancient astronomers, who used observations to discern trends, and used these trends to
create predictive models for astronomical events.

However, his biggest influence was more immediate, reflected in the impact to the scientific
method made by his pupil, Roger Bacon.

Roger Bacon is a name of one of the great minds behind the formation of the scientific
method. He took the work of Grosseteste, Aristotle, and the Islamic alchemists, and used it
to propose the idea of induction as the cornerstone of empiricism. He described the method of
observation, prediction (hypothesis), and experimentation, also adding that results should be
independently verified, documenting his results in fine detail so that others might repeat the
experiment.

Both Bacon and Grosseteste studied optics, and Bacon devised a plan for creating a
telescope, although there is no evidence to suggest that he actually built one, leaving the honor
to Galileo. Bacon also petitioned the Pope to promote the teaching of natural science, a lost
discipline in medieval Europe.

Thomas Bradwardine, while he was a master at the University of Oxford during the early
fourteenth century, made a breakthrough which challenged ancient Greek assumptions about
how science should operate. Using the latest mathematical techniques, Bradwardine developed
a formula that provided a universal description of motion. Bradwardine realized Aristotle’s
declaration that science and mathematics should not be used to prove something in another
was a mistake. Mathematics is essential in all branches of science because nature obeys
mathematical laws. This is one of the most fundamental tenets of modern science, restated
by Galileo when he declared, “Science is written in this grand book… it is written in the
language of mathematics.”

The equation of motion generated by Thomas Bradwardine was based on Aristotle’s physics
and was consequently inaccurate. However, a member of the next generation at Oxford called
William Heytesbury derived a correct formula. He showed that when an object accelerates at
a uniform rate, the distance it moves is equal to how far it would have moved if it had travelled
at its average speed. This is known as the "mean speed theorem" and it describes the
velocity of an object falling under gravity.

Meanwhile, in Paris, John Buridan, struck several blows against the mistaken ancient Greek
science which he had inherited. Aristotle had said that no object can move unless there is
something else moving it. When you stop pushing something, he declared, it should stop.
Buridan could see this was wrong. When he threw a stone, it kept moving after it had left his
hand even though nothing was in contact with it. So he postulated a quality called "impetus".

Impetus is an important step towards the modern concept of momentum which is also a
property of moving objects related to their velocity and their mass. Here, Buridan began to
formulate the idea of inertia, also known as Newton’s First Law.

John Buridan’s most brilliant pupil was Nicole Oresme. His greatest scientific achievement was
to prove the mean speed theorem geometrically. Thus, Oresme started to use geometry to
model moving objects three hundred years before Rene Descartes is alleged to have invented
the idea.

Historians now recognize that the Middle Ages were a period of important scientific
developments and it has been said that had it not been for the devastating bubonic plague,
more extensive scientific studies would have been conducted in that period.
Religion

Religion in the Middle Ages was dominated by Christianity. It is the era in which the great
cathedrals of Europe were built and the Catholic Church started its universities in Paris,
Cambridge and Oxford. During the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church was the only church in
Europe. The laws of the land and leading roles in the government were all in the hands of the
leading church leaders like bishops and archbishops.

It was an era when the vested powers in the hands of the Pope were so great that he could
even excommunicate a king for a misdeed. From birth to death, the life of the medieval people
was dominated entirely by the church and many religious institutions gained power and wealth.
Large Cathedrals were built when the traditional Roman style churches became insufficient for
accommodating the increased population by the twelfth Century. Lausanne Cathedral and
Regensburg Cathedral are among the most famous one built during this age, they are known
for their architecture.

Christianity

The monks and nuns in the Christian monasteries had to live by the rules set by St Benedict
and were known as Benedictines. They were forbidden the right to their own property, to leave
the monastery or get involved in worldly concerns and desires. They had to perform manual
labour and follow the stringent regulations of the Church.

Monks and nuns

The monasteries also served as a place for the preservation of the knowledge and learning of
classical world. Pilgrimages were also an important religious activity of the medieval people.

Pilgrimages
Visit to holy shrines such as the Church of St. James at Santiago de Compostela in Spain, the
Canterbury cathedral in England, and sites in Jerusalem and Rome was considered to redeem
people from their sins and open the gates of heaven. The Early Middle Ages also saw an
extensive increase in missionary activities.

Christian Campaigns against other Religions

Since Christianity was the dominant religion during the Middle Ages, attempts to purify the
church and society led to many Christian campaigns against other religions. These
campaigns were led by bishops, scholars and warriors who made efforts to make the
Christian world free of all the non-Christians. This included Jews, Muslims and Pagans and
Gypsies. Jews in fact suffered the most as they were considered to be the greatest threat to
Christianity.
These campaigns were led by...

The Pope Urban II in 1095 proclaimed a “holy war” against Islam with the conquest of
Jerusalem by Islamic Turks.

Pope Urban II

The Church very subtly played on the psychology of the common people by giving them
assurance that their sins would be forgiven if they would fight for this “holy war” too.

Law and Religion

During the later Middle Ages, the law of Europe was governed by the Church. An entire
jurisdiction was exercised by the church which protected the widows, orphans and helpless
and also dealt with offenses. The church icould exercise its jurisdiction in collaboration with the
secular courts. The church also penalized a number of religious offenses like heresy, sorcery,
apostasy and sexual sins.

Orders

Various religious orders were followed by the Catholic Church of which the Benedictines and
Cistercians were most popular. The Benedictines or followers of St. Benedict wore black
robes and lived in monasteries built in towns or in the countryside. On the other hand, the
Cistercians wore white robes and remained in remote areas to avoid distraction in their
prayers. A new order was found towards the later Middle Ages by the name of Friars for
spreading Christianity. The friars also took religious vows and lived in religious communities. But
unlike monks, they could leave their friaries every day for spreading their religion to the masses.

The Roman Catholic Church was the supreme power during the Middle Ages. It was the
stabilizing force in everyday life which kept the community framework together. The laws and
rules of the land, public policies and governance of the people were all affected by religion
during the Middle Ages. The society was superstitious and ignorant and believed in what the
religious institutions taught them.

Government
During the "Dark Ages," people lived in estates, known as manors or fiefs. The lords of the
manors controlled all of the land and ruled the manors. The lords had their own courts from
which they administered their own form of justice, collected their own taxes, and some of the
more powerful lords minted their own coins.
When the Vikings started to invade Western Europe in the 9th century, the lords had to protect
themselves from these outside invaders. A system of protection emerged to combat these
invaders which became known as feudalism. Large landowners gave land to other lords in
return for loyalty and help in protecting the land. Individuals that received land were known as
vassals or lessor nobles. These vassals in turn gave land to knights in return for fighting the
invaders. The people who ruled the lands became known as the noble class and those that
served the nobility on the land were known as peasants or serfs.

Education
Education during the Middle Ages in Europe was centered around the Church. Most of the
common people, the nobility, and the local clergy were illiterate. The need to read and write had
fallen to the wayside as trade was abandoned after the fall of Rome. Knowledge was usually
local and carried on through an oral tradition. Because the priests and bishops were literate in
order to read and interpret the Bible, they became the educators and preservers of the
culture. Monks carefully copied the Bible and other works of literature concerning the Church.
Church schools grew up around the parishes and monasteries. Since education was in the
hands of the Church, the chance to learn was free. However, many parents during this time
needed their children as workers or failed to realize the importance of education. Most did
not let their children take advantage of the schooling the Church offered
Economy
The manorial system was an integral part of the social and economic structure of the middle
ages since peasants in the Middle Ages depended on both their land and that of their masters
to derive a living. However, because of proper management of farms, the increased
productivity allowed the economy to diversify away from agriculture. Other economic activities
such as mining and forestry were adopted in many medieval societies.

This economic expansion led to the growth of retail trading which the merchants dominated.
Even though the merchants were despised by most of society, they can be credited as having
boosted the state of middle ages economics. Merchants travelled across countries sourcing for
goods and products that they would trade in other countries like cloth, food, spices, and
jewelry.
The growth of retail trade led to the development of towns and cities. More and more peasant
farmers were able to purchase commodities from the merchants. They did not only became
influential in the local politics but also formed powerful guilds. Through these guilds, the
merchants were in a position to influence economic policies including aspects of taxation and
levies.
The guild system thus symbolized a mature and more organized economic system in which
prices were highly regulated. The strict guild system also helped the local government in the
collection of tax and the inspection of the quality of merchandise sold by the artisans and
merchants.

Family
For noble and peasant alike, the family was the single most important social unit of the Middle
Ages and the basis for other relationships. Marriages had almost nothing to do with love or
romance but with status, riches or inheritance. As marriages were almost completely
arranged, many parents tried to get their children to marry someone with a high status for the
family to have a share of privileges. Family alliances of blood and marriage were utilised to
strengthen feudal ties and to increase power bases. Having a son as a child was more
preferred during this time no matter what class you belong.
Women were usually regarded less than men, and during marriage the wife was property of
the husband. Divorce was rare and was only permitted by breaking one of the three laws made
by the church which were age, consent, and consanguinity. Men could have used the third
law and could have had a divorce with his wife by lying that she was actually related to her,
however, women barely had the privilege of doing such.

Medieval Technology
Technology before and during medieval period

In this part of the video, we are not only going to talk about the technology of Medieval
Europe, but we are also going to tackle special skills that the Europeans adapted during this
age. We will explore various technologies that were developed during the Middle Ages in
Europe—technologies and developments that appear to be natively “European”

Agricultural Tools
The plow is considered to be one of the most important (and oldest) technologies developed. In
fact, the history of the plow stretches back to the Neolithic (New Stone) Age that began about
8000 BC in Mesopotamia. In the Middle Ages, however, the plow was radically improved and
was used with multiple-oxen teams. This innovation facilitated the clearing of the forests of
fertile northwest Europe. After the redesign of the plow, allowing the plow to plow the heavier
and wetter soil of northwest Europe, there was a dramatic increase in agricultural
productivity, and subsequently, the population of these areas.

In addition to the redesign of the plow, the way the crops were grown changed in Medieval
Europe when farmers changed from a two-field crop rotation to a three-field crop rotation
beginning in the 8th century. According to White (1962), Charlemagne himself thought of this
agricultural innovation. Under a two-field rotation, half the land was planted in a year while the
other half lay fallow. Then, in the next year, the two fields were reversed. Under three-field
rotation, the land was divided into three parts. One section was planted in the Fall with winter
wheat or rye. The next Spring, the second field was planted with other crops such as peas,
lentils, or beans and the third field was left fallow. The three fields were rotated in this
manner so that every three years, a field would rest and be unplanted. This new wave of
agricultural activity provided a better way in planting and harvesting crops because this ensures
variety and a better proportion of crops offered.

The Harnessing of Time

Clocks are a fairly recent invention; that is, the first clocks were created about 5000 to 6000
years ago by the great civilizations in the Middle East and North Africa.
As with many technologies, the development of the clock was driven by societal needs. In
these centralized civilizations (such as the Sumerian and Egyptian civilizations), there was
a societal need to organize time more efficiently. The first clocks were shadow clocks or
sundials where the time of day could be determined by following the shadows cast by the
sun. Mechanical clocks were first used in China, more for astronomical and astrological
purposes rather than for telling the time. even If Medieval Europe wasn’t able to invent the
mechanical clock, the primary reason we use clocks today to improve our efficiency or to keep
track of time is all very middle aged Europe. Before the clock, people worked, ate, and slept
according to the patterns of the sun and moon. After the clock, the day was presided over by a
monitor from the time of rising to the hour of rest.

Technology During medieval Europe

The impact of a technology on society is always unexpected because technologies are rarely
"the end of the story." They lead to new technologies--or new uses--or new social modes. It is
this interplay of technology and society throughout the Medieval Age that it so interesting. All the
foundations for our modern society were laid in the Medieval Age including universities, the
Industrial Revolution, and the Capitalist system.

The heavy plough

The plough was a pretty major breakthrough in the history of humankind and allowed people
to grow crops in soils too hard for hand digging and to greatly expand their fields. Early
ploughs were, more or less, a pointy stick dragged behind a draft animal, cutting lightly
through the soil. A farmer would walk along with the plough and lift the plough blade so that it
didn't get caught on rocks or roots. These ploughs were fine for lighter soils but had trouble
in harder soils. Enter the heavy plough, which uses wheels to support a heavier plough blade,
it still made use of a horse for the machine to get moving.

Water mills
Water mills use a turning wheel spoked with water-catching paddles to generate power to
operate machines like grinders and saws and were first developed by the Greeks before being
used throughout the Roman empire. Though they were invented hundreds of years before the
Middle Ages, their numbers exploded during this time. The technology invented by the Greeks
was further refined during the Middle Ages and was used to power tanneries, blast furnaces,
forge mills, and paper mills which evolved into the machinery used in today's factories and
facilities.

Eyeglasses
As someone born with poor eyesight, I am particularly thankful to 13th-century Italians for
coming up with eyeglasses. They were first documented in the early 1300s, with early models
made to be held up by hand or pinched on the nose. It wasn't until the 1700s that designs
featuring arms that bent around the nose became widely used. Life for billions of people
around the world (including this author) would be a dismal, blurry affair if not for the humble
eyeglasses.

Did you know that there are still two things that were invented in the Medieval Europe?
You will see that there are a lot of things we owe to this early society in advancing our way of
life.
First, we have the hourglass.The exact origins of the hourglass aren't clear but it's generally
accepted that it was widely adopted in Europe by the end of the High Middle Ages (around
1500 A.D.). The hourglass was a popular choice for sailors who used it to mark the passage of
time, which allowed them to determine their longitude (location east to west). The hourglass was
preferred over earlier water clocks because their sands were unaffected by the rocking motion
of an ocean-bound ship. They were used on shore to measure time for church services, cooking
and work tasks.

Next, do you guys love to drink some liquor? Did you know that the making of these can be
traced back in the Middle Ages? Distillation describes the separation of different liquids within a
mixture, usually through the application of heat. It's an important technique used in science and
industry but has also given the world the gift (or curse, depending on how you look at it) of
liquor.

Distillation was first worked out by the Greeks and Egyptians but wasn't used to produce
distilled spirits until 1200 A.D. or so with the invention of liquors like Irish whiskey and
German brandy.
Now, let us tackle the medieval clothing. In medieval times, as today, both fashion and
necessity dictated what people wore. And both fashion and necessity, in addition to cultural
tradition and available materials, varied across the centuries of the Middle Ages as well as
across the miles of Europe.

The many types of synthetic and blended fabrics people wear today were simply not available in
medieval times. But this didn't mean that everyone wore heavy wool, burlap, and animal skins.
Different textiles were manufactured in a range of weights and could vary greatly in quality. The
more finely woven a textile was, the softer and more costly it would be.

Materials available for use in medieval clothing included:

Wool - By far the most common fabric of the Middle Ages -- and the core of a flourishing textile
industry -- wool might be knitted or crocheted into garments, but it was more likely woven.
Depending on how it was made, it could be very warm and thick or light and airy. Wool was also
felted for hats and other accessories.

Linen - Almost as common as wool, linen was made from the flax plant and theoretically
available to all classes. Growing flax was labor-intensive and making linen was time-consuming,
so, since the fabric wrinkled easily, it wasn't often found in garments of poorer folk. Fine linen
was used for the veils and wimples of ladies, undergarments, and a wide variety of apparel and
household furnishings.

Silk - Luxurious and costly, silk was used only by the wealthiest of classes and the Church.

Noow, for the medieval houses. What were they made of? They were made of straw, wattle
and daub, cob, logs & lumber, clay & brick, slate, lime mortar, stone,
 Bridges, Cathedrals, Castles and Manors all used masonry as their main structural
component. Of course all of those buildings also made extensive use of lumber but, in most of
them, even the frame was made of stone.
and marble and granite, which was used to construct mostly civic buildings and in some cases
religious.

MEDIEVAL ASIA
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● Ideology
According to Chinese Cosmogony, first there was nothingness and this nothingness became
unity, unity was then called “The Great Monad” or commonly known as yin and yang. The Great
monad was split into two, the male and female principles of nature, and thus the birth of man.
This two main principles was then again divided into Greater and Lesser part resulting in “4
parts” of the Universe. The interaction of the “4 parts” resulted the birth of P’an Ku or the God of
Creation. P’an Ku was describe as the “Tien” or the God of the Material Heavens and Sky.
Another description of him is “Shan Ti” which means Supreme Ruler. The main focus of the
ancient Chinese worship is nature. They used Oracle Bones to predict the weather and other
natural phenomenon, tribute payments, war outcomes, and the birth of a male heir. There are
three main “doctrines” that play a role in the in Ancient (and modern) Chinese Religion, the
Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism.

Additional:

The first doctrine is the Confucianism, another is Laozi who’s “Tao Te Ching” is the basis of
Taoism, and lastly, the Buddhism which was introduced in the 3 rd Century China. Let’s explore
more on Confucius and his work!
Basic facts about Confucius:
· 559 -479 BCE Shandong
· Relatively little - known at the time of his death
· His legacy shaped China’s destiny
Confucianism is a social and political morality code, but since it’s so widely revered in Chinese
culture, it has what we might call “cult following”. Confucius’ values became the basis for the
official Chinese ideology during the Han Dynasty.

The Analects

The analects were compiled over several centuries, some of his “maxims” highly contrast. Core
values in the analects: Everything we do in life is RITUAL. This ritual isn’t for divine use – but
they are used in human social interaction. Confucius promotes SOCIAL HIERARCHY.
Emphasis shown on the goodness and humanity shown between people. According to him,
 “Goodness, ritual, attention to social roles create order in the society, efficient action helps to
maintain it.” Confucius also believe that acting with good morals would solve “political chaos”.

Some of his quotes:

· “The doctrine of the master is: loyalty and reciprocity, and that’s all”. – SOCIAL ROLES
· “Whenever a gentleman comes to this part, I always ask to see him”. – RITUAL
· “Zai Yu was sleeping during the day. The master said: rotten woods cannot be carved; dung
walls cannot be trowled”. – EFFICIENCY
The Confucianism was attacked in the 20th century, but still relevant.

● Technology

The Four Great Inventions of China

The next topic we are going to talk about are the technologies of the medieval China.
China held the world's leading position in many fields in the study of nature, from the 1st century
before Christ to the 15th century, highlighting its four great inventions which are papermaking,
printing, gunpowder and the compass. These four great inventions of ancient China are
significant contributions of the Chinese nation to world civilization. Papermaking, printing,
gunpowder and the compass - the four great inventions of ancient China-are significant
contributions of the Chinese nation to world civilization.

Paper Making

First, let us talk about China’s papermaking invention.

Did you know that China is the first nation to invent paper?
The invention of paper greatly contributed to the spread and development of civilization. Before
China invented paper, words were written on various natural materials by ancient peoples-on
grass stalks by the Egyptians, on earthen plates by the Mesopotamians, on tree leaves by the
Indians, on sheepskin by the Europeans and strangest of all, even inscribed on bamboo or
wooden strips, tortoise shells or shoulder blades of an ox by the early Chinese. Later, inspired
by the process of silk reeling, the people in ancient China succeeded in first making a kind of
paper called "bo" out of silk. But its production was very expensive due to the scarcity of
materials. In 105 A.D. a eunuch during the Eastern Han Dynasty, invented paper from worn
fishnet, bark and cloth. It was relatively cheap so large quantities of paper could be produced. It
was also light, thin, durable and more suitable for brush writing. The making technique was
exported to Korea in 384 A.D. (at the beginning of the 3 rd century). A Korean Monk then took
this skill with him to Japan in 610 A.D.
How did paper reached the world?
It reached the Arab during a war between the Tang Dynasty and the Arab Empire when the
Arabs captured some Tang soldiers and paper making workers. In the 11th Century the skill
was carried to India when Chinese monks journeyed there in search of Buddhist sutras.
Through them, paper reached Europe in the 12th century. In the16th century, it went to America
by way of Europe and then gradually spread all over the world.
Before paper was invented, Qin Shihuang, the first emperor in Chinese history, had to go over
120 kilos of official documents written on bamboo or wooden strips.
A paper map in Western Han Dynasty, unearthed in Tianshui, Gansu Province, in 1986 (Pic)

Printing

A Buddhist sutra is the first book in the world with a verifiable date of printing.
Before the invention of printing, dissemination of knowledge depended either on word of mouth
or handwritten copies of manuscripts. However, both took time and were liable to error.
Beginning 2000 years ago in the Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.--- 25 A.D.), stone-tablet
rubbing was popular for spreading Confucian classics or Buddhist sutras. This led in the Sui
Dynasty (581-618) to the practice of engraving writing or pictures on a wooden board, smearing
it with ink and then printing on pieces of paper page-by-page. This became known as block
printing. The first book with a verifiable date of printing appeared in China in the year 868, or
nearly 600 years before that happened in Europe. In the Tang Dynasty (618-907), this
technology was gradually introduced to Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and the Philippines. Yet block
printing had its drawbacks. All the boards became useless after the printing was done and a
single mistake in carving could ruin a whole block. In 1041-1048 of the Song Dynasty (960-
1279), a man named Bi Sheng carved individual characters on identical pieces of fine clay
which he hardened by a slow baking process, resulting in pieces of movable type. When the
printing was finished, the pieces of type were put away for future use. This technology then
spread to Korea, Japan, Vietnam and Europe. Later, German Johann Gutenberg invented
movable type made of metal in 1440-1448.

Gunpowder

Did you know that gunpowder was invented accidentally when ancient people tried to make an
elixir of immortality?
Credit for the invention of gunpowder also goes to ancient China. In Chinese, gunpowder is
called huo yao, meaning flaming medicine. Unlike paper and printing, the birth of gunpowder
was quite accidental. While attempting to make an elixir of immortality, ancient necromancers
discovered in their practice of alchemy, that an explosion could be produced if certain kinds of
ores and fuel were mixed in the right proportions and heated, thus leading to the invention of
gunpowder. In the Collection of the Most Important Military Techniques, edited in 1044 by Zeng
Gongliang, three formulas for making gunpowder were recorded; an explosive mixture of
saltpetre, sulphur and charcoal. These were identified as the earliest formulas of such a kind.
The method of powder-making was introduced to the Arab world in the 12th century and to
Europe in the 14th. Gunpowder was originally used for making fireworks and its later adaptation
revolutionized warfare across the world.
The earliest record of using gun powder can be traced back to the Qin Dynasty (221 – 207BC).
However, it was largely used in alchemy. From the later 9th century, it started to be used in
weapons.
Ancient necromancers put minerals and plants together, hoping to make some medicine to keep
alive forever. (pic)
Flying fire arrows (Tang Dynasty) Grenades (Song Dynasty) Bronze canons (Yuan Dynasty)
(pics)

Four Great Inventions of Ancient China - the Compass

Sinan (Warring States Period)the earliest guide tool in the world (pic)
The compass is another significant gift from ancient China. During the Warring States period, a
device called a Si Nan became the forerunner of the compass. A Si Nan was a ladle-like
magnet on a plate with the handle of the ladle pointing to the south. In the 11th century, tiny
needles made of magnetized steel were invented. One end of the needle points north while the
other points south. The compass, an indispensable navigational tool, was thus created. While
mining ores and melting copper and iron, people chanced upon a natural magnetite that
attracted iron and pointed fixedly north. After constant improvement the round compass came
into being. Dr. Needham cites one of the first books to describe the magnetic compass, Dream
Pool Essays (1086) by Shen Kuo in the Song Dynasty, about 100 years earlier than its first
record in Europe by Alexander Neekam in 1190. The compass was introduced to the Arab world
and Europe during the Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127). Before its invention, navigators had
to depend on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar for their bearings. The spread
of the compass to Europe opened the oceans of the world to travel and led to the discovery of
the New World. Thus, it was no wonder that Francis Bacon, the English philosopher, pointed out
in his work The New Instruments, that the invention of printing, gunpowder and the compass
reshaped the world. In his words, they outstripped any empire, any religious belief and any
heavenly body in exerting an impact on all humanity.

RENAISSANCE
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INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
● History
The Industrial Revolution was a period during which predominantly agrarian, rural societies in
Europe and America became industrial and urban. Prior to the Industrial Revolution, which
began in Britain in the late 1700s, manufacturing was often done in people’s homes, using hand
tools or basic machines. Industrialization marked a shift to powered, special-purpose machinery,
factories and mass production. The iron and textile industries, along with the development of the
steam engine, played central roles in the Industrial Revolution, which also saw improved
systems of transportation, communication and banking. While industrialization brought about an
increased volume and variety of manufactured goods and an improved standard of living for
some, it also resulted in often grim employment and living conditions for the poor and working
classes.

Before the advent of the Industrial Revolution, most people resided in small, rural communities
where their daily existences revolved around farming. Life for the average person was difficult,
as incomes were meagre, and malnourishment and disease were common. People produced
the bulk of their own food, clothing, furniture and tools. Most manufacturing was done in homes
or small, rural shops, using hand tools or simple machines.

Although the Industrial Revolution occurred around the same time as the French, American,
Latin American, and Haitian Revolutions the industrial revolution was really the most
revolutionary of the bunch. The Industrial Revolution began around 1750 and it occurred across
most of the earth, but it started in Europe, especially in Britain.

A number of factors contributed to Britain’s role as the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution.
For one, it had great deposits of coal and iron ore, which proved essential for industrialization.
Additionally, Britain was a politically stable society, as well as the world’s leading colonial power,
which meant its colonies could serve as a source for raw materials, as well as a marketplace for
manufactured goods. As demand for British goods increased, merchants needed more cost-
effective methods of production, which led to the rise of mechanization and the factory system.

● Science
Borders and flags have changed because of other revolution like French, American and Latin
American Revolution but nothing much changed about the way we disposed of waste or located
drinking water or acquired clothing. Most people lived on or very close to the land that provided
their food. Except for a few exceptions, life expectancy never rose above 35 or below 25.
Education was a privilege not a right. In all those millennia, we never developed a weapon that
could kill more than a couple dozen people at once, or a way to travel faster than horseback.
For 15,000 years , most humans never owned or used a single item made outside of their
communities. And it all changed because of Industrial Revolution.
You have electricity? Industrial Revolution. You live somewhere other than a farm? Industrial
Revolution. You drive a car? Industrial Revolution. You get twelve years of free, formal
education? Industrial Revolution. Your bed, your antibiotics, your toilet, your tap water, your
every waking and sleeping second: INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION.
Before the industrial revolution about 80% of the world’s population was engaged in farming to
keep itself and the other 20% from starving. Today in the United States less than 1% of people
list their occupation as farming. What happened? TECHNOLOGY.
The Industrial Revolution was an increase in production brought about by the use of machines
and characterized by the use of new energy sources.
It started in Britain, the innovations of the Industrial Revolution were intimately interconnected.
And example would be at the British textile Industry, the invention of the flying shuttle by John
Kay in 1733 dramatically increased the speed of weaving, which in turn created demand for
yarn, which led to the inventions like the Spinning Jenny and the water frame. Soon these
processes were mechanized using water power until the steam engine came along to make
flying shuttles really fly in these huge cotton mills. The most successful steam engine was built
by Thomas Newcomen to clear water out of mines and because water was cleared out of those
mines, there was more coal to power more steam engines, which eventually led to fancying up
of the Newcomen Steam Engine by James Watt whose engine made possible not only railroads
and steamboats but also ever-more-efficient cotton mills. And for the first time, chemicals other
than stale urine were being used to bleach the cloth that people wore-the first of which was
sulfuric acid, which was created in large quantities only thanks to lead-lined chambers,which
would’ve been impossible without lead production rising dramatically right around 1750 in
Britain, thanks to lead foundries powered by coal. And all these factors came together to make
more yarn that could be spun and bleached faster and cheaper than ever before.
In addition almost all electricity around the world, whether it’s from coal or nuclear power is just
a steam engine. It’s all still just water and heat, and the it speaks to how truly revolutionary the
Industrial Revolution was.
Coal is also a major component in the Industrial Revolution, when you trace the story of
improved transportation, or communication, or industrial efficiency or better chemical
manufacturing, it always comes back to coal, because the Industrial Revolution was all about
using different forms of energy to automate production. The only problem with coal mining, is
that the coal mines flooded all the time. But because there was all this incentive to get more
coal out of the ground, steam engines were invented to pump water out of the mines. So steam
engines used cheap British coal to keep British coal cheap, and the cheap British coal created
the opportunity for everything from railroads to steel, which like so much else in the industrial
revolution created a positive feedback loop because they run on rails, railroads need steel. And
because it is rather heavy, steel needs railroads. High wages in Britain combined with cheap
fuel costs meant that it was economically efficient for manufacturers to look to machines as a
way of lowering their production costs.
● Technology
John Kay
John Kay invented the flying shuttle. It is a machine that represented an important step toward
automatic weaving. The flying shuttle was the first weaving tool to speed up production. It was
known as the invention that started the idea of making goods faster. Kay mounted his shuttle on
wheels in a track and used paddles to shoot the shuttle from side to side when the weaver
jerked a cord.

James Hargreaves
James Hargreaves, a British carpenter and weaver, invents the spinning jenny which also
revolutionized the weaving industry. It is a multi-spindle spinning frame which spins more than
one ball of yarn or thread at a time, making it easier and faster to make cloth.

Thomas Savery (1650-1715)

A military engineer by profession, who patented the first crude steam engine. Savery was drawn
in the 1690s to the difficult problem of pumping water out of coal mines. Using principles
adduced by the French physicist Denis Papin and others, Savery patented (1698) a machine
consisting of a closed vessel filled with water into which steam under pressure was introduced,
forcing the water to a higher level. An energetic advertising campaign brought him customers,
and he manufactured a number of his engines not only for pumping out mines but also for
supplying water to large buildings, country houses and other private establishments. However, it
did not come into general use among the mines. The risk for explosion of the boilers or
receivers was too great.

Eli Whitney patents the cotton gin.

Eli Whitney creates a machine that makes it much easier to separate cotton seeds from cotton
fiber. It greatly reduces the time it takes to clean cotton and helps the southern states make
more money from cotton crops.

Samuel Morse invents the telegraph.

Samuel Morse invents the telegraph, which allows messages to be sent quickly over a wire and
greatly increased the ability of information to move from one location to another. By 1860,
telegraph wires stretch from the east coast of the United States west of the Mississippi River.
Along with the creation of the telegraph, he invented morse code which is still learned and used
today.

Elias Howe invents the sewing machine.

At a time when people had to make their own clothes at home or pay someone else to sew
them by hand, Elias Howe, together with Isaac Singer, invents the sewing machine. This
revolutionized the garment industry and made the Singer corporation one of the first modern
industries. Now clothes can be made in large factories.

Elisha Otis invents the elevator safety break.

Elevators were already invented by 1853, but people worried about elevator cars falling. Elisha
Otis invents a safety break to prevent them from falling if a cable breaks, making people feel
more confident about using elevators in tall buildings.

Henry Bessemer.

Henry Bessemer invents a process for making steel out of iron. Having a way to make steel
more quickly and more cheaply helps the production of building and leads to the growth of
cities.

Alfred Nobel creates dynamite.

Alfred Nobel invents dynamite, which is a safer way to blast holes in mountains or the ground
than simply lighting black powder. Dynamite is important in clearing paths to build things such
as roads and railroad tracks.

Louis Pasteur develops vaccines for diseases.

A chemist named Louis Pasteur believed that germs caused disease. Using this information, he
created vaccines that helped prevent many common diseases, which helped people live longer.

Alexander Graham Bell patents the telephone.

He may not have invented the telephone, but Alexander Graham Bell was the first to get a
patent for it. This invention allowed communication to extend to individuals. Before the
telephone, businesses relied on the telegraph for most communications. Being able to speak to
people over a telephone wire greatly changes the way the world communicates.

Thomas Edison uses a light bulb to light a lamp.

Thomas Edison and his workshop patented 1,093 inventions. Included in this were the
phonograph, the incandescent light bulb, and the motion picture. Not the first man to create a
light bulb, Thomas Edison created a light bulb that lasted longer than other designs and showed
it off by lighting a lamp. Edison's light bulbs allow people to do many things at night, such as
work, that used to only happen during the day.

Orville Wright makes the first powered airplane flight.

Using an engine that they invented, Orville and Wilbur Wright invent the first plane that is not
powered by wind. Orville flies the plane for 12 seconds over a beach in North Carolina.

Henry Ford creates the Model T.

Henry Ford creates a type of car called the Model T. It is much cheaper than other cars because
it is made on an assembly line, allowing many more people to buy cars.
Cyrus McCormick
Cyrus McCormick invented the mechanical reaper which made the harvesting of grain more
efficient and faster. This helped farmers have more time to devote to other chores.

George Eastman
George Eastman invented the Kodak camera. This inexpensive box camera allowed individual
to take black and white pictures to preserve their memories and historical events.

Charles Goodyear
Charles Goodyear invented vulcanized rubber. This technique allowed rubber to have many
more uses due to its ability to stand up to bad weather. Interestingly, many believe the
technique was found by mistake. Rubber became important in industry as it could withstand
large amounts of pressure.

Nikola Tesla
Nikola Tesla invented many important items including fluorescent lighting and the alternating
current (AC) electrical power system. He also is credited with inventing the radio. The Tesla Coil
is used in many items today including the modern radio and television.

George Westinghouse
George Westinghouse held the patent to many important inventions. Two of his most important
inventions were the transformer which allowed electricity to be sent over long distances and the
air brake. The latter invention allowed conductors to have the ability to stop a train. Prior to the
invention, each car had its own brakeman who manually put on the brakes for that car.

Dr. Richard Gatling

Dr. Richard Gatling invented a rudimentary machine gun that was used to a limited degree by
the Union in the Civil War, but were later used extensively in the Spanish-American War.

● Religion
The Industrial Revolution did not only have an impact on the physical lives of the people in
Britain. It also affected their spiritual lives. But before we go deep into the details of the religious
changes that happened during the Industrial Revolution, let us first talk about the debate on why
the Industrial Revolution occurred in Europe and not in the other parts of the world, such as
China and India. Benjamin Elman argues that China was in a high level equilibrium trap in which
the non-industrial methods were efficient enough to prevent use of industrial methods with high
costs of capital. Kenneth Pomeranz, in the Great Divergence, argues that Europe and China
were remarkably similar in 1700, and that the crucial differences which created the Industrial
Revolution in Europe were sources of coal near manufacturing centers, and raw materials such
as food and wood from the New World, which allowed Europe to expand economically in a way
that China could not.
However, some historians such as David Landes and Max Weber credit the different belief
systems in China and Europe with dictating where the revolution occurred. The religion and
beliefs of Europe were largely products of Judaeo-Christianity, and Greek thought. Conversely,
Chinese society was founded on men like Confucius, Mencius, Han Feizi (Legalism), Lao Tzu
(Taoism), and Buddha (Buddhism).The key difference between these belief systems was that
those from Europe focused on the individual, while Chinese beliefs centered around
relationships between people. The family unit was more important than the individual for the
large majority of Chinese history, and this may have played a role in why the Industrial
Revolution took much longer to occur in China. There was the additional difference of outlook.
In traditional societies, people tend to look backwards to tradition for answers to their questions.
One of the inventions of the modern age was the invention of progress, where people look
hopefully to the future. Furthermore, Western European peoples had experienced the
Renaissance and Reformation; other parts of the world had not had a similar intellectual
breakout, a condition that holds true even into the twenty-first century.
RELIGIOUS CHANGES
Protestantism: They operated outside the official Church of England, many of them catering for
the poor in districts that had no spiritual focal point. The Methodists gained many members in
these areas, and the Salvation Army was established to help workers who had fallen victim of
alcohol.
Much of the reason why the Industrial Revolution advanced in Britain is credited to Protestant
Work Ethic. German sociologist Max Weber, in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
(1904–05), held that the Protestant ethic was an important factor in the economic success of
Protestant groups in the early stages of European capitalism; because worldly success could be
interpreted as a sign of eternal salvation, it was vigorously pursued.
Methodism: The Methodism was a Protestant religious movement that broke away from the
Church of England and gained a lot of followers in the new industrial towns. They gave the
women real status, and proved to be much more conscious of the needs of the new industrial
working class. Methodism was a religious movement, led by Charles and John Wesley and by
George Whitefield, which originated as a reaction against the apathy and the emphasis on logic
and reason that characterized the Anglican Church in the early eighteenth century. Methodism
was very much a religion of the poor, and had a great deal to do with a revolution in English
religion which was as radical in its effect, in its way, as was the Industrial Revolution itself.

The history of the Salvation Army began in 1865, when William Booth established an
evangelical and philanthropic organisation to preach salvation from sins and propagate purity of
life among the poor and destitute people of London's East End. William Booth and his wife
Catherine Mumford Booth, who grew up in the most turbulent time of the Industrial Revolution,
believed that evangelical work among the poor must be accompanied by well-organised social
relief work.
Catholicism: The Catholic population increased during the Industrial Revolution due to the
immigrants that came from Ireland that came to work in the coal mines and factories.
In France, Germany and Britain, there were some religious thinkers who criticized the effects of
the industrialization. But that changed when Leo XIII became pope. He followed the Catholic
Church tradition of defending private property and condemning Marxism, but wanted the church
to come to terms with industrial conditions. Pope Leo XIII wrote that what would later be called
the Magna Carta of Catholic Social Teaching, the encyclical Rerum Novarum (On the Condition
of the Working Classes). When developments of the end of the 19th century presented their
own set of problems for society, Pope Leo had a rich and continuous tradition upon which he
could draw. The Industrial Revolution was the source of these developments, but it was not the
beginning of the Church's teaching on social and economic matters; it was merely the historical
occasion for the Church's reflecting upon its traditional teachings and applying those teachings
to contemporary problems.
The plight of the poor elicited two opposed responses in Pope Leo's time, Socialism and Social
Darwinism. The socialists attempted to solve the poverty of the worker by the elimination of the
private ownership of property. The only way to rid society of the scandal of poverty, they said,
was for society as a whole to possess all property. Private ownership was merely an instrument
of domination by those who already were wealthy. Poverty could be eliminated only by
eliminating the private ownership of property. The state would own everything, and distribute to
each member of society what he needed.
The Social Darwinists, or Liberals, on the other hand, saw disparity of income as a natural by-
product of the economy: some men were merely better at earning money than others. To tinker
with this natural inequality would only make matters worse. The way to make the economy as
strong as possible was to reward the successful, not to encourage or prop up the unsuccessful.
 ● Society
While industrialization brought about an increased volume and variety of manufactured goods
and an improved standard of living for some which resulted from urbanization, it also resulted in
often grim employment and living conditions for the poor and working classes. The gap between
the wealthy and working class still remained enormous

The Industrial Revolution made drastic changes on the lives of individuals. Two classes that
benefited from it were the "middle" and “upper” classes. These two classes were composed of
people that had wealth and success. Even though most could afford goods anyway, the prices
lowered even more, so that those who could not afford them before could now enjoy the comfort
and convenience of the new products being made.
The middle class was composed of businessmen and other professionals. The larger the
Industrial Revolution grew, the more powerful these individuals became. Individuals and groups
formed new libraries, schools, and universities because there was a sudden need for education
(possibly due to the increase in population). The middle and upper classes had better food and
housing, which led to fewer diseases and longer living among these groups. Since these
classes were treated so well, their population grew and thus had minimal difficulty living during
the Industrial Revolution.
In contrast with the middle and upper classes, the "working" class was not well off. In the
working class, many were replaced in factories by machines. But on the other hand, many also
gained new jobs in factories working with machinery. The average adult worker worked quite
often: five to seven days of the week, for more than half the day per shift. Children as young as
fifteen worked for minimal wages. Some of the children became deformed or crippled due to
their work, which was often. Most workers worked for relatively low wages due to their
incapability to produce goods. The women and children were not paid as much as the men
were. The housing was not desirable either – for example there was frequent overcrowding. The
housing had unsanitary features which led to diseases. Workers who were desperate lived near
a factory. What also made life difficult during the Industrial Revolution was that there were
limited privileges such as few people voted, nor were they allowed to do anything to improve
their working condition that was legal. The amount of carbon dioxide increased two-fold as
people moved closer to factories hoping to obtain employment. Resources started diminishing,
and the use of pesticides and hazardous chemicals began to increase.