ARTICLE

Received 30 Oct 2016 | Accepted 3 May 2017 | Published 1 Jun 2017 DOI: 10.1057/palcomms.2017.45 OPEN

Reasoning through madness: the detective in

Gothic crime fiction
Michelle Miranda1

ABSTRACT The Gothic era dealt in fear and the unknown, with early nineteenth century
Gothic fiction being characterized by the macabre and influenced by the Enlightenment. The
scientific and industrial revolutions of the eighteenth century brought forth advanced sci-
entific theories and modes of reasoning, which found their way into the narratives of Gothic
works. The public’s fascination with horror and the morbid extended from the Gothic era into
the Victorian Gothic era, and tales of mystery and crime became intertwined with death and
the monstrous. Literature of the Victorian Gothic era continued to explore the fears and
anxieties of society, and was supplemented by knowledge obtained through developments in
science, criminology and the criminal justice system. Elements of Gothic horror, scientific
reasoning and crime are presented throughout various works of Edgar Allan Poe and Sir
Arthur Conan Doyle. Such works include Poe’s stories of ratiocination in both his tales of
horror and mystery; Poe’s stories featuring the detective C. Auguste Dupin; Doyle’s tales of
mystery and the supernatural; and a selection of Doyle’s adventures of Sherlock Holmes. In
these works by Poe and Doyle, the investigative prowess of the narrator, along with the
methods of observation and interpretation, are utilized to explain the macabre and unknown.
This essay introduces the reader to specific techniques of reasoning and the utilization of
scientific methodology, specifically observation, to look beyond madness and mystery to
arrive at logical conclusions for observed phenomena. The purpose of this essay is three-fold:
first, to correlate the works of Poe and Doyle to the prevailing discourse of the nineteenth
century, considering advances in epistemology, criminology and criminal investigations;
second, to draw attention to the role of ratiocination and various forms of reasoning in solving
crimes and the resolution of the fear of death and monster through the works of Poe and
Doyle; third, to evaluate Poe and Doyle’s ideas regarding the police, crime solving and the
intersection of science and crime as expressed through their stories.

1 Farmingdale State College, SUNY, Farmingdale, NY, USA

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T
Introduction
he Gothic era is characterized by the horrific and The pioneering work of individuals like Cesare Lombroso (1835–
unknown; death, psychological degeneration, and mystery 1909), Alexandre Lacassagne (1843–1924), Hans Gross (1847–
are the typical elements intertwined in Gothic literature. 1915), Alphonse Bertillon (1853–1914), Sigmund Freud
The concept of Gothic is ever-evolving, with prevailing social (1856–1939), Havelock Ellis (1859–1939), and Edmund Locard
anxieties dictating what constitutes the macabre. Characterized by (1877–1966) brought about an exploration of crime and science
what “shocks the conscience”, the Gothic genre is moulded by and the utilization of science in solving crimes. Advancements in
human nature and fear of the unknown, which exists on a criminal identification, forensic medicine, forensic toxicology,
continuum throughout history. Psychological terror, whether in forensic ballistics, criminal psychology and policing produced a
the form of a monster or a madman, reflects on the atmosphere of wealth of publications and greatly expanded the accessibility of
a given time period, focusing on the public’s deepest fears and such topics to the public. A great deal of attention was paid to
anxieties and forcing the reader to face those fears through a evolution and human nature, with atavism leading the
winding maze of darkness and uncertainty. Early Gothic fiction, criminologist’s quest for understanding the criminal mind,
centered in the first half of the nineteenth century, was influenced isolating the born criminal, and predicting future behaviour.
by the Enlightenment; while the scientific and industrial Further explorations to understand the human psyche and gain
revolutions of the eighteenth century brought forth advanced insight into the causes of and cures for madness were also
scientific theories and modes of reasoning, social stratification underway. But social stratification and anxiety still existed, and
began to see a blurred division between the civilized and the criminals now seemed to permeate every aspect of daily life, from
barbaric. With this division, fears of social regression and the gentleman con artist to the serial killer of prostitutes.5
degeneration were heightened. What separated the man from Investigators evaluated the nature of crime and the importance
the beast was not a chasm, but a line not so well-defined and not of criminal investigations while scientists began to understand the
so easily avoidable. Authors of early Gothic literature were able to efficacy of tangible evidence on the apprehension and conviction
exploit these fears while at the same time praising the of criminals. The walking dead were not limited to monsters
advancements in science, technology, psychology and philosophy created in a laboratory or vampires located in the confines of a
that awakened these moral panics.1 Commenting on the link castle in an uncharted country (for example, Frankenstein and
between science, crime and class structure in the Gothic era, the Dracula). Instead, the feared became specters—supernatural
detective Eugene François Vidocq wrote, beings and the ghosts of one’s past. These ghosts were not
limited to ominous, bone-chilling apparitions in a haunted house,
Justice! It strikes the blow! And to whom does it strike? The but now were a function of the mind; directly linked to
poor, the ignorant, the unfortunate, to whom the bread of misunderstood bouts of madness and the motivations of the
education has been denied; him in which no moral perverse criminal. Fear of the unknown, as well as concepts that
principle has been inoculated; him to whom the law has appeared to be out of the control of the individual, created an
not been promulgated … Let us not be deceived, in spite of atmosphere of moral panic, delivered through various sources—
the diffusion of light, the education of the people is not yet news reports, scientific treatises and Gothic fiction. Degeneration
completed … Science is abroad, and she walks alone; she and the looming possibility of regression to a state of savagery at
advances for the privileged classes; she progresses for the any given moment, even as objective views of evolutionary theory
rich. She illuminates only the upper regions, and the lower were gaining a foothold, had the power to produce sociocultural
are still in the darkness … (1834: 364) anxieties that were not easily quelled. But perhaps this is why the
investigator and resultant detective fiction were successful—the
One can reason that the darkness was both literal and detective-hero goes to great lengths to understand the criminal
figurative; the dark and dirty streets in the recesses of the city mind and utilize the clues to apprehend the deviant. Although
filled with the lower classes were where deviant behaviours and surrounded by skeptics (including the reader), the detective was
sinister criminals festered—here is where Gothic fiction found its able to rationalize the supernatural and objectify the terrifyingly
focus. The darkness was a symbol of the unknown, where the subjective narratives. The end result was hope that law and order
uneducated and unstable existed, inciting fear and uncertainty in would emerge to improve society and attenuate that which was
the literate, distanced middle and upper classes. When that criminal and delinquent.
darkness made its way into the well-lit regions reserved for the The greatest impacts on Gothic fiction and detective fiction
upper classes, elements of horror and dread were bound to diffuse were those works by Edgar Allan Poe and Sir Arthur Conan
into the psyche of those citizens, causing fear and apprehension. Doyle. While Gothic fiction and detective fiction are distinctly
As the Gothic Era bled into the Victorian era in the second half different in style and form, Poe and Doyle were instrumental in
of the nineteenth century, Victorian Gothic fiction was born. linking the two, often through the combination of horror and
Existing on a continuum, Victorian Gothic continued to explore reasoning. Both Poe and Doyle took cues from their own periods
the fears and anxieties of society, with attention given to the in history to isolate existing social anxieties to cause both fear and
morbid and dark. While the Victorian Gothic era was relief within the same tale of mystery—fear of the unknown
characterized by epistemological2 advancement and a clarified by the use of reasoning and logic, sometimes at the hands
romanticism of daily life, the public’s fascination with horror of the narrator-turned-investigator and other times at the hands
and the morbid was still prominent. What evolved during this of the detective.
transition from Gothic to Victorian Gothic was knowledge
obtained through developments in science, criminology and the
criminal justice system. Superimposed on the rising attention to Historical impacts
crime was the amplification of scientific thought. Psychoanalysis Both the Gothic era (mid 1700’s to 1900) and the Victorian era
and evolution3 were being scrutinized at the same time that (1837–1901) were overlapping historical periods in which
criminologists weighed in on atavism and the born criminal.4 scientific epistemology made great strides. The mid 1800’s
Due to the development of police and detective agencies, the defined positivism, in which knowledge was obtained through
public became more interested in law enforcement, crime solving empiricism.6 Observation of natural phenomena, coupled with
with the aid of physical evidence, and the nature of the criminal. reasoning, became the fundamental basis of the scientific

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method7, allowing for scientific endeavours to be pursued with individuals making up such disjointed investigations was
rigour and analytical support. In addition to the natural sciences, presumably an easy feat for Poe, and one that could be
empiricism led the way to the understanding of the human mind. continued by Doyle.
Gradually, subjective, irrational thinking was replaced by rational
thought through scientific reasoning. While knowledge and
understanding allowed for objective explanations of complex Poe: from tales of horror and ratiocination to detective fiction
phenomena, newly discovered concepts that were outside the Various works of Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849), were influenced
realm of understanding with traditional testing methods led to to some degree by scientific reasoning and the evolution of law
new fears and anxieties. While literacy exposed the upper classes enforcement. Best known for his tales of “horror”, and “terror”,
to these advances in science and sociology, those without access and the “grotesque”, and “arabesque”, Poe often incorporated
to education remained in a subjective state, holding superstition psychological elements of fear and madness into his tales. In his
as a means of evaluating unexplainable phenomena. Social works, Poe was able to superimpose the illusion of logic and fact
stratification, uncharted questions into the natural sciences and on the tales of horror and mystery, which allowed for the
the decrepit status of law and order played into the general presentation of prevailing thoughts on science, logic and
citizen’s fear of the unknown and created an atmosphere of imagination by philosophers of the eighteenth and nineteenth
suspicion and worry, which enabled Gothic literature to flourish. century. Scientific thought in Poe’s time focused on the quest for
As individuals became educated through exposure to epistemological theory and certainty through observation and
advancements in science, psychology, policing and crime, yet experimentation. In his stories, especially those featuring Le
held tightly on to superstition and tradition, writers like Poe and Chevalier C. Auguste Dupin, Poe was able to demonstrate that
Doyle were able to craft their narratives to cater to the fears and when utilizing rational thought and reasoning, it was possible to
social anxieties of the general public. discover causal links between events. In addition to causality,
In addition to the impact of the scientific revolution, the observation and comparison allowed scientists to identify and
development and organization of police and law enforcement discriminate between objects and beings, which eventually
agencies influenced the literary works of Poe. In general, became the corner stone of criminal investigations and the
nineteenth century law enforcement was described as disorga- forensic sciences. Poe’s knowledge of such scientific endeavours
nized and plagued with dishonest and corrupt law enforcement enabled him to craft tales that intermingled ideas of horror and
agents.8 In London, the Bow Street Runners (est. 1750) made way rational thought.
for the Metro Police (est. 1829), followed by Scotland Yard (est. In one of his later works, Mellonta Tauta (1839), Poe made
1842). The “reformed” criminal Vidocq led France’s Sûreté (est. direct reference to the debates concerning scientific method and
1810) in a series of criminal investigations into the mid- reasoning and what he perceived to be as oversights of the
nineteenth century. During Vidocq’s tenure, the Sûreté was scientific philosophers who had weighed in on scientific reason-
made up of fellow “reformed” convicts intermixed with police ing. Dissatisfied with the idea that the sole possible avenues to
officials. In North America, the establishment of law enforcement knowledge were based on the assertions of either Aristotle or
agencies along the east coast evolved slowly: The Philadelphia Francis Bacon,10 the fictional author of the letters11 in Mellonta
Police Department (c. 1833), the Boston Police Department Tauta referred to the repression of imagination, a concept
(c. 1838), the New York City Police Department (c. 1845), and the presented by the physicist John Tyndall (1820–1893). It is this
Baltimore Police Department (c. 1845). In Chicago, the Pinkerton concept of imagination that reappears in many of Poe’s earlier
Detective Agency, considered the first detective agency in North works and is a concept that Poe attributes to separating the
America, was established in 1850. While Poe’s detective, C. successful detective-investigators from “others” (usually the
Auguste Dupin, was based in Paris, Poe himself spent his time in police). This idea of imagination was based on the ability to,
America travelling along the east coast, between Boston, Virginia, “magnify, diminish, qualify, and combine experiences, so as to
Maryland, New York and Pennsylvania. On the basis of the render them fit for purposes entirely new” (Tyndall, 1872: 6).
development of law enforcement agencies and detective divisions Tyndall asserted that, armed with knowledge and reason,
in North America during his lifetime, it is likely that the changing imagination was the “mightiest instrument of the physical
landscape of law and order was apparent to Poe. The discoverer” (ibid.). When applied to studying objects and
establishment of structured law enforcement agencies in considering the myriad ways in which such objects could be
America, as well as those in England and France, likely observed, Tyndall reflected on the potential for scientific
influenced Poe’s series of detective fiction written from 1841 conclusions to mislead and the importance of guesswork,
through 1844.
Doyle, a physician, was influenced by the study of medicine When, for example, the contents of a cell are described as
and the utilization of “clues” (symptoms) to diagnose patient’s perfectly homogeneous, as absolutely structureless, because
ailments.9 In a time when medicine and toxicology were found to the microscope fails to distinguish any structure, then I
have relevance in criminal investigations, Doyle was likely think the microscope begins to play a mischievous part …
exposed to such developments as a medical student and It cannot be too distinctly borne in mind that between the
practitioner. The coroner systems fared no better than that of microscopic limit and the true molecular limit there is
law enforcement in the nineteenth century, with the system in room for infinite permutations and combinations … It is
America described as hopelessly defective, with substantial not of the power of our instrument, but whether we
changes only beginning to take place well after Poe’s death and ourselves possess the intellectual elements to which will
during Doyle’s lifetime. “The way coroners determined a cause of ever enable us to grapple with the ultimate structural
death by questioning witnesses frequently amounted to sheer energies of nature. It is plain from this that beyond the
absurdity…Since few pathologists were available [to conduct present outposts of microscopic enquiry lies an immense
autopsies], and none of these were versed in forensic medicine, field for the exercise of the speculative power (1872: 30).
many of the findings were erroneous. Even the most basic laws of
investigation were mocked” (Thorwald, 1965: 201). As such, Using this example of understanding the limitations of one’s
exploiting the weaknesses in the slowly evolving systems of methodology, Tyndall adds that the human imagination would go
criminal and forensic investigations as well as those incompetent beyond the details of the microscopic observations and instead try

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to understand the history of the cell's origin of existence. Poe Body of the Detective Model: Charles S. Peirce and Edgar Allan
believed that the true and only true thinkers are those men with Poe, Harrowitz describes a process as moving from abduction,
an ardent imagination. Poe’s beliefs were substantially moulded which suggests; to induction, which shows; and finally to
by Tyndall, and Tyndall’s essay, Scientific Use of the Imagination, deduction, which proves (in Eco and Sebeok, 1983: 181).
aligns with Poe’s assertions in his tales of ratiocination.12 Ratiocination is characterized by the use of observation and
Poe also captures another recurring theme from his earlier analytical reasoning to develop a clear explanation of experiences
stories in Mellonta Tauta, that of philosophers and scientists and encounters. The process rests on the scientific method, which
being blinded by details, often thinking that they see better by was a product of the philosophers and scientists seeking to better
holding an object closely to the eyes (Poe, 1994). In addition to understand the unexplainable phenomena around them. Poe’s
the references to imagination, Poe addresses the matter of logic in ratiocination incorporated the logic of Mill and the imagination
Mellonta Tauta, and refers to the work of John Stuart Mill (1806– of Tyndall. It is likely that the deductive method, as defined by
1873). Mill asserted that logic was the science and art of Mill, is akin to the process of deduction referenced in Poe’s
reasoning, with logic being the science of proof. According to stories. When comparing Poe’s tales of ratiocination to the works
Mill, the deductive method is “the mode of investigation which, of Tyndall and Mill, the influence is striking, as will be detailed in
from the proved inapplicability of direct methods of observation the following section of this essay.
and experiment, remains to us as the main source of the
knowledge we possess or can acquire respecting the conditions
and laws of recurrence, of the more complex phenomena” and Poe and tales of ratiocination. Many of Poe’s stories include
consists of three operations; direct induction, ratiocination and direct dialogue about the narrator’s method of ratiocination
verification (1882: 325), (Maelzel’s Chess Player, 1836; A Descent into the Maelstrom, 1841;
and The Man of the Crowd, 1840). Poe’s stories of criminal
In order to discover the cause of any phenomenon by the investigation and detective work are intertwined with the process
deductive method, the process must consist of three parts: of ratiocination either directly, as in the three tales featuring C.
induction, ratiocination, and verification. Induction to Auguste Dupin (1841–1844) or indirectly, as in Thou Art the Man
ascertain the laws of the causes; ratiocination, to compute (1844). In The Oblong Box, 1844, Poe explores the pitfalls of
from those laws how the causes will operate in the reasoning incorrectly when one too hastily draws a conclusion
particular combination known to exist in the case in hand; without considering the links between the observed evidence.
verification, by comparing this calculated effect with the In Maelzel’s Chess Player and A Descent into the Maelstrom,
actual phenomenon. No one of these three parts of the Poe’s narrators use ratiocination in their efforts to problem solve
process can be dispensed with (Mill, 1882: 350). and draw conclusions about observed phenomena. In Maelzel’s
Chess Player, the narrator undertakes the problem of determining
Poe continues in Mellonta Tauta with the importance of whether or not the mechanical, automated chess player of Maelzel
guessing, aligning the act of guessing to that of imagining. It is is a pure machine.15 More accurately, the narrator takes the
here the correlation to the process of abduction proposed by approach that, due to the definition of a pure machine and the
Charles S. Peirce (1839–1914) is apparent. Peirce distinguished nature of chess as a game of uncertainty, it is not really a question
three types of reasoning: deductive, inductive and abductive. of whether or not the chess player is a pure machine, but the
The deductive method requires making an inference from a manner in which human agency is brought to bear on the
known, general principle, which provides a certainty in reaching a automated chess player to demonstrate that it is not a pure
conclusion. Inductive reasoning begins with observations and machine. The narrator outlines a series of observations during
knowledge about the observed phenomena from which a frequent visits to the demonstration of the chess player, which
hypothesis is developed. With induction, there is a measure of provides evidence to support the ability of a man to fit inside the
probability assigned to a given conclusion. Abductive reasoning interior of the chess player and operate it undetected by the
requires creativity, intuition, and imagination to generate new audience or the challenger. The narrator further draws links
ideas about observed phenomena.13 Abduction is the process of between these observations and the behaviour of the owners and
forming hunches about the world based on observation and their accomplices during the chess player’s operation and when it
perception (Eco and Sebeok, 1983: 18). Peirce described the was put out of service. In A Descent into the Maelstrom, the
method of abductive reasoning as being based on human narrator describes a most powerful and violent whirlpool, from
perception, which included an element of guesswork. According which his escape was an exercise in ratiocination. Observation
to Peirce, abduction provided the best explanation of obser- and experience were key factors in his survival; by observing the
vations, or facts, in reaching a conclusion since the majority of objects trapped in the whirlpool and correlating their behaviour
human reasoning was based on conjecture (see Buchler, 1955 and within the whirlpool (speed of descent, absorption) with their
Eco and Sebeok, 1983).14 Abduction is the first step in reasoning physical characteristics (size and shape), the narrator was able to
in which the significance of observation is evaluated using grab onto something of ideal size and shape to avoid being sucked
guesswork, experience and insight to develop an explanation for into the vortex of the whirlpool.
what one sees. According to Harrowitz, “abduction is the step in In The Man of the Crowd, the narrator of Poe’s tale makes a
between a fact and its origin; the instinctive, perceptual jump statement that can be directly linked to the practices of Vidocq
which allows the subject to guess an origin which can then be during his time as a criminal investigator for the Sûreté. In the
tested out to prove or disprove the hypothesis” (in Eco and passage, Poe acknowledges the power of observation to establish
Sebeok, 1983: 182). Upon careful reflection of the facts, the best the causal links that lend themselves to identification, “At first my
hypothesis, or explanation of observed phenomena could be observations took an abstract and generalizing turn, I looked at
selected based on simplicity and rationality (Buchler, 1955: 155). the passengers in masses, and thought of them in their aggregate
While validation through testing is necessary to establish support relations. Soon, however, I descended to details, and regarded
for conclusions resulting from abductive reasoning, the with minute interest the innumerable varieties of figure, dress, air,
conclusions drawn by a detective from such reasoning methods gait, visage, and expression of countenance” (Poe, 1994: 212). The
during the preliminary stages of an investigation can prove useful narrator lays out his ability to detect a class of people (for
in providing leads and guiding the investigation. In her essay, The example, clerks, gamblers and clergymen) based on a series of

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physical traits and behaviours. But to the narrator, the man of the philosophical rhetoric to being introduced to Dupin and his
crowd is the one that blends in no matter where he ends up; “peculiar analytic ability” (Poe, 1994: 78). After explaining his
eventually determining that this man is “the type and genius of method of ratiocination to his companion, Dupin and his
deep crime” (Poe, 1994: 217). In his Memoirs, Vidocq describes a associate begin to delve into the murders in the Rue Morgue.
career of observation similar to the narrator in The Man of the First, the horrific, grotesque crime of brutal ferocity is introduced;
Crowd, of the two victims, one is beaten severely and forced up a chimney
and the other is found severely mutilated, decapitated and having
I have been able to distinguish the character proper of each been tossed out of a window. Upon learning of the details of the
species, the physiognomy, language, habits, manners, dress, case from the news reports, including the statement, “To this
arrangement and details; I have studied all, remembered all: horrible mystery there is not as yet, we, believe, the slightest clew”
and if an individual pass before me, if he be a robber by (Poe, 1994: 81), Dupin uses ratiocination to assess the facts as
profession, I will point him out, I will even tell his line of outlined in the reports. Upon the assertions that there could be no
business. Frequently from inspection of a single article of way to trace the murderer, Dupin addresses the limitations of the
clothing I would more quickly describe a thief from head to police and their investigatory abilities,
heel … There is in the garb of a rogue hieroglyphics which
can be deciphered with [more] certainty … The indications The Parisian police, so much extolled for acumen, are
I shall furnish will be more precise, and certainly more cunning, but no more. There is no method in their
ascertained and positive, guarding carefully against the proceedings, beyond the method of the moment. They
spirit in the system which only generates errors…16 make a vast parade of measures; but, not infrequently, these
(Vidocq, 1834: 367). are so ill adapted to the objects proposed … [Their results]
are brought about by simple diligence and activity. When
This early influence of Vidocq on Poe’s The Man of the Crowd these qualities are unavailing, their schemes fail. Vidocq,
can be seen as foreshadowing the introduction of C. Auguste for example, was a good guesser, and a persevering man.
Dupin. The first story featuring Dupin, The Murders in the Rue But, without educated thought, he erred continually by the
Morgue, was published one year after The Man of the Crowd. very intensity of his investigations. He might see, perhaps,
While each of the three Dupin tales differ in approach; the first a one or two points with unusual clearness, but in doing so
“locked door”, “whodunit” mystery with no real crime actually he, necessarily, loses sight of the matter as whole (Poe,
committed; the second an “unsolved crime” based on a real case; 1994: 86).
and in the third, the perpetrator is known to the police and Dupin
must outwit the individual to recover a stolen object. From the Dupin continues his passage with a sentiment similar to
first to the last tale, there is a gradual decline in the detail Tyndall’s microscope analogy, noting a “scrutiny too sustained,
provided in describing Dupin’s methodology and reasoning too concentrated, too direct” (ibid). From the passage above the
process.17 Poe’s inability to reconcile the challenges in true crime reader can infer that Poe’s impression of the police at the time he
investigations could have affected his steadfastness to the wrote The Murders in the Rue Morgue is one of disorganization,
reasoning methods he so ardently believed in. In addition, there substantial inefficiency and dumb luck. It is reasonable to
is a decline in the macabre as the Dupin series progresses. Poe conjecture that there were likely many instances in this time
begins with a violent, horrific and bloody scene in The Murders of period when cases went unsolved or criminals were caught by
the Rue Morgue and ends the Dupin series with the search for a chance. It is also apparent that Poe is highlighting the fact that the
stolen letter; a story in which no violence takes place whatsoever. police were unable to match wits with their adversaries with his
What does remain consistent in the series of Dupin tales is the comment that they were “ill adapted at the objects proposed”
attention to police ineptitude. Since organized law enforcement (Poe, 1994: 85).19 This passage also directly refers to Vidocq and
and a methodical approach to criminal investigations were in his methods, which Poe felt were inadequate for such analytical,
their infancy, Poe was able to draw attention to the weaknesses in challenging cases. Finally, when discussing his methodology in
such processes. The Murders in the Rue Morgue, Dupin indicates that he uses
The Murders in the Rue Morgue begins with a treatise on Bacon’s a posteriori, or inductive, method of thinking. In addition
analytical thinking by means of games like chess, draughts, and to the critical examination of crime scene protocol, other issues
whist.18 An excerpt from the portion on the card game of whist addressed by Poe in The Murders in the Rue Morgue “include the
becomes critical to gaining insight into what would be Poe’s views subjectivity, fallacy and general unreliability of eyewitness and ear
of the police as addressed throughout the Dupin series, witness identifications, in addition to what is known as police
tunnel vision in approaching crime scenes and developing
Thus to have a retentive memory, and proceed by ‘the book’ theories on suspects without supporting evidence or the proper
are points commonly regarded as the sum total of good application of suspectology … Poe explores how this practice—
playing. But it is in matters beyond the limits of mere rule looking at evidence subjectively and without presuppositions or
that the skill of the analyst is evinced. He makes, in silence, a theories already in place—can also obfuscate key evidence left at
host of observations and inferences. So, perhaps, do his the scene and unnecessarily stall investigations” (Arntfield,
companions; and the difference in the extent of the 2016: 63)
information obtained, lies not so much in the validity of In the sequel to The Murders in the Rue Morgue, The Mystery
the inference as in the quality of the observation. The of Marie Rogêt, Dupin was approached by the police to look into
necessary knowledge is that of what to observe. Our player the murder of Marie Rogêt because of his earlier success with the
… does [not] reject deductions from things external to the deaths in the Rue Morgue. Dupin describes the crime as an
game. He examines the countenance of his partner, ordinary crime; unlike the deaths that occurred in The Murders in
comparing it carefully with that of each of his opponents the Rue Morgue, which were at the hands of an escaped ourang-
… (Poe, 1994: 76). outang. “There is nothing peculiarly outré about it. You will
observe that, for this reason, the mystery has been considered
Poe further addresses the relation between the imagination and easy, when, for this reason it should have been considered
the analytic, and the reader is steadfastly moved from Poe’s difficult, of solution” (Poe, 1994: 495). This statement is critical—

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it implies that the case was doomed from the beginning; by police, would hide the letter. This is consistent with what Dupin
assuming that the case would be solved, the proper investigation addressed in The Murders Rue Morgue—first, that “No secret
was not conducted. The responsibility and oversight of properly issues could have escaped their vigilance. But, not trusting their
conducted investigations fall on the police, who in turn, failed to eyes, I examined with my own” (Poe, 1994: 89); and second, the
conduct a proper enquiry from the start. Upon reviewing the matter of studying the countenance and behaviour of one’s
police evidence report and copies of all newspapers and opponents, which Poe addressed in his discussion of whist.
publications related to the investigation, Dupin systematically Most importantly, once again the police were biased; they
evaluates the assumptions made by the writers of the news assumed the perpetrator was a fool. Here the reader can see
articles. Essentially, Dupin demonstrates that, by building on a Tyndall’s impact on Poe, “As a poet and mathematician,
series of false premises (or a series of preconceived notions), the [the perpetrator] would reason well; as a mere mathematician,
investigator (and in general, the “reasoner”) can never arrive at a he could not have reasoned at all” (Poe, 1994: 328). Dupin finds
correct conclusion. In addition, Dupin laments the poor job done the purloined letter by first reasoning that it would be in plain
examining the body. Based on the coroner system in place at the sight. By observing the differences in the original letter and the
time, it was not a far leap for Poe to make this assertion. Dupin letter as it had been altered by the perpetrator, specifically how
also addresses the importance of causal links to accidental and such a fastidious individual would not be in the habit of
seemingly irrelevant events and the importance of such events in mistreating and subsequently retaining such a tattered object,
directing the enquiry into an investigation (Poe, 1994: 506). In Dupin further reasoned that such behaviour was uncharacteristic
The Mystery of Marie Rogêt, Poe addresses the statistical of the perpetrator. Here, the combination of imagination and
significance of identification when Dupin discusses the determi- ratiocination come together to lead once again to Dupin’s ability
nation that the corpse found is that of Marie Rogêt, to disentangle.
The last of the Dupin series did not end Poe’s pursuit of
The increase in the probability that the body was that of criminal investigation. In Thou Art the Man, Poe not only
Marie would not be an increase in a ratio merely arith- addresses reasoning, but includes a discussion of crime scene
metical, but in one highly geometrical, or accumulative … investigation and forensic evidence and their role in the narrator’s
You augment the probability as to verge upon the certain. crime reconstruction. In this tale, the firearms evidence becomes
What, of itself, would be no evidence of identity, becomes central to determining the murderer of Mr Shuttleworthy. After
through its corroborative position, proof most sure… Each presenting a series of convincing circumstances, Goodfellow22
successive one is multiple evidence—proof not added to uses reasoning to find the prime suspect, Mr Pennifeather,
proof, but multiplied by hundreds or thousands (Poe, 1994: responsible for the crime, “[Goodfellow’s] sincerest affection for
502). [Pennifeather]…had induced him to make every hypothesis
which imagination could suggest, by way of endeavoring to
While Bertillon had yet to write his treatise on anthropometry, account for what appeared suspicious in the circumstances that
Poe noted the importance of such biometric data, especially when told so seriously against Mr Pennifeather; but these circumstances
considering the compounding relevance of all of the physical were now altogether too convincing—too damning; he would
characteristics of the body. This statement is also important hesitate no longer—he would tell all he knew…”23 (Poe, 1994:
because Dupin notes the transition from the probable (induction) 542; emphasis in the original24). Shortly after, a postmortem
to certain proof (deduction). Another important concept Poe examination of the horse of Shuttleworthy is conducted (by
delves into is that of identity, a psychological, physiological and Goodfellow, nonetheless) and physical evidence is presented. Poe
forensic enquiry that targets the subjectivity of identification and inserts the discipline of forensic firearms examination25 in his tale
pattern recognition, “Nothing is more vague than impressions of upon discovery of the projectile in the horse,
individual identity. Each man recognizes his neighbor, yet there
are few instances in which any one is prepared to give a reason for Mr Goodfellow … was enabled to detect and to pull forth a
his recognition” (Poe, 1994: 503). bullet of very extraordinary size, which, upon trial, was
In The Purloined Letter, the attention to the limitations of the found to be exactly adapted to the bore of Mr
police is central to the story. From the initial visit of the Prefect of Pennifeather’s rifle, while it was far too large for that of
Parisian police, Monsieur G—, up through Dupin’s explanation any other person in the borough or its vicinity. To render
of how he solved the crime, the narrator highlights the boundaries the matter even surer yet, however, this bullet was
of police knowledge, “…the Prefect, had the fashion of calling discovered to have a flaw or seam at right angles to the
everything ‘odd’ that was beyond his comprehension, and thus usual suture; and upon examination, this seam corre-
lived amid an absolute legion of ‘oddities’ ” (Poe, 1994: 320). The sponded precisely with an accidental ridge or elevation in a
simplicity of the case is stressed on several occasions in the pair of moulds acknowledged by the accused himself to be
story,20 with Dupin also using the words “plain” and “self- his own property (Poe, 1994: 543).
evident” in describing the crime to the Prefect. According to
Dupin, the police were unable to locate the purloined letter This overwhelming evidence was not challenged, and so
because their methods were not suited for the case and the Pennifeather was swiftly found guilty of murder and sentenced
perpetrator, with the Prefect having a set of resources “to which to death. Goodfellow had successfully planted evidence, in turn
he forcibly adapts his designs…perpetually err[ing] by being too deflecting suspicion from himself and setting Pennifeather up to
deep or too shallow for the matter in hand” (Poe, 1994: 326). The be held accountable for the murder. But the narrator describes his
Prefect, being accustomed to thinking in a certain way and suspicions, which are largely based on the narrator’s under-
investigating in a rigid manner, is thereby unable to consider standing of ballistics and attention to detail (and of course the
alternate options and think outside of his set police policies and importance of reading one’s opponent),
procedures.21 The police were unable to identify the perpetrator’s
level of intellect and cater their investigation accordingly. By I saw at once that all the criminating discoveries arose,
failing to consider the perpetrator’s ingenuity, the police lacked either directly or indirectly, from [Goodfellow]. But the fact
the ability to think of where he could have hidden the letter, only which clearly opened my eyes to the true state of the case,
thinking of the surreptitious ways and secret places that they, the was the affair of the bullet, found by Mr G. in the carcass of

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the horse. I had not forgotten, although the [citizens of the Much like he did in the Dupin series, Poe reminds the reader
borough] had, that there was a hole where the ball had that assumptions, too much focus on trifles without recognition
entered the horse, and another where it went out. If it were of the links and significance among such trifles, and impulsivity
found in the animal then, after having made its exit, I saw in jumping to conclusions can render one’s conclusion baseless
clearly that it must have been deposited by the person who and built on a false chain of reasoning. Again, the danger of
found it (Poe, 1994: 546). cognitive bias and effectively moudling one’s observations to fit a
hastily developed theory is presented. The narrator begins to force
The descriptions in Poe’s tale can be directly correlated to his observations to fit into his hypothesis that the box contains
advancements in criminal investigation and forensic science in artwork28— asserting that he is “sufficiently settled” on the point
the Gothic era. In 1835, Henry Goddard of the Bow Street as if not willing or capable of considering any alternate
Runners used bullet evidence to capture and convict a murderer. hypotheses (ibid.). From this point, the narrator distorts all
Goddard had noticed that the bullet from the victim had a contrary evidence to that which fits into his assertion. The smell
characteristic gouge which was later linked to a mould in the becomes the byproduct of the tar or paint on the lid of the box;
murder’s residence, a mould having a flaw that corresponded to the husband’s behaviour towards his wife was because of disgust
the gouge in the bullet (Thorwald, 1965: 417). from a hasty, regrettable decision to marry in which divorce was
Another interesting feature about Thou Art the Man is the two imminent; the opening of the box at night was due to the artistic
different individuals producing two different lines of reasoning in indulgences of the husband and his sobbing sounds were merely
concert throughout the story. Goodfellow’s line of reasoning is ringing in the ears of the narrator. The Oblong Box takes a direct
logical, but of course, false. Yet the citizens involved in the trajectory towards the incorrect and draws attention to the
enquiry had no reason to question Goodfellow (after all, he was a limitations of method and man.
good fellow). Meanwhile, the narrator, using observation, Crime solving, including advancements in criminological
reasoning and imagination, brought on by the suspicion that all theories and investigative techniques as well as the development
of the evidence was too convincing (and entirely presented by and organization of police, had substantial impact on Poe’s works
Goodfellow), followed his own line of reasoning to uncover the of Gothic fiction. In addition, Poe’s literature was impacted by the
true murderer. This disparity, a weakness in crime investigation, philosophical and epistemological debates in the nineteenth
was not lost on Poe, as it was a concept he captured in the century concerning thought, reasoning and scientific methodol-
Dupin series at the hands of the Paris police. This weakness still ogy. Although cliché, Poe’s writing demonstrates that he was a
exists in current criminal investigations, even if it is not progressive thinker and ahead of his time, especially with respect
necessarily done with malicious intent. False reasoning, brought to criminal investigations. Despite his lack of “success” in
about by cognitive biases, may result in the police detective “solving” the case of Mary Rogers (Marie Rogêt), Poe demon-
following a chain of reasoning that is a function of tunnel vision, strated an ability to evaluate and dispute alternate theories posited
or of manipulating the evidence to fit the scenario preferred by about the events surrounding Mary’s disappearance and death. It
the police detective. would be more than forty years between the end of Poe’s Dupin
In the final scene of Thou Art the Man, Poe upholds the Gothic and the introduction of Doyle’s consulting detective, Sherlock
focus on the horrific and macabre. At a festive dinner party, a Holmes. Evidence of Poe’s impact on Doyle’s works of fiction are
large package is placed on the table and its contents are, apparent, from his detective stories to Doyle’s tales of the
“disemboweled” in a ceremonial “disinterring” of the treasure26 to supernatural.
expose, “the bruised, bloody, and nearly putrid corpse of the
murdered Mr Shuttleworthy himself” (Poe, 1994: 545). To make
Doyle: following the footsteps of poe
the scene more morbid, the corpse is rigged by the narrator to sit Poe’s influence on the works of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1859–
up upon removal of the lid and declare “thou art the man” in the
1930) is readily apparent in not just his detective stories featuring
face of one drunken Goodfellow, who seals his fate by dying at the famous fictional detective, Sherlock Holmes, but also Doyle’s
that moment from sheer horror and shock.
works of terror, mystery and the supernatural. While Doyle’s
Another of Poe’s tales incorporating a decomposing corpse and Sherlock Holmes series from 1887–1927 was a great success,
the perils of reasoning improperly is The Oblong Box. While not a
Doyle’s other works included lesser-known tales of horror and the
detective, the narrator amuses himself with his reasoning ability supernatural. Many of these stories share a direct correlation to
only to find out his logic was flawed. By failing to submit himself
the works of Poe, establishing Poe’s influence on a variety of
to the holistic power of observation, imagination, and experience, Doyle’s stories. Oftentimes, Doyle demonstrated that theories of
the narrator, self-described as being “abnormally inquisitive about
the supernatural could be unraveled through scientific reasoning.
trifles” (Poe, 1994: 264) overlooked the obvious when drawing his By shifting perspective and applying science and reasoning, Doyle
conclusions by failing to recognize the links between his
was able to utilize Sherlock Holmes to disprove those instances of
observations: an empty stateroom; a wife distinctly different in the unexplainable. Like Poe, Doyle has two premises: the rational
appearance and personality from that which was described to the
scientific idea that events are linked in an unaccidental chain, and
narrator prior to meeting for the first time; the apparent the individualistic notion that a single enquirer can—and should
avoidance of the wife by the husband; a distracted husband
—establish the links (Knight, 1980: 68).
described by the narrator as morose, exhibiting signs of grief
throughout the story; withdrawn family members; and a box,
which the narrator describes as a 6 ft by two and a half feet, Doyle’s tales of horror and the supernatural. A selection of
peculiarly shaped, and made of pine from which emitted a strong, Doyle’s tales focused on horror and the supernatural, with little to
disagreeable, peculiarly disgusting odour (Poe, 1994: 266). no reference to reasoning. Likely influenced by Poe’s tales, Doyle
Further failure on the part of the narrator is demonstrated in also crafted stories of the “locked room” mystery style. Doyle’s
his inability to link the sounds of the opening of the box with the tale The New Catacomb (1898), parallels Poe’s The Cask of
distinct sobs of the husband during the night; and the narrator’s Amontillado (1846), where one man is effectively “buried alive”
inability to understand the significance of the salt reference made on purpose by his trusted acquaintance after following the friend
by the captain27 when the husband risks his life to remain with on a seemingly innocent venture. In these stories, both Doyle and
the box during a shipwreck. Poe rely on trust and vengeance to stir the anxiety of the reader.29

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In The Haunted Grange of Goresthorpe (1877), Doyle tells a tale mind those simple rules as the analysis of evidence laid down by
of two friends who stay overnight in a suspected haunted house Auguste Dupin. “Exclude the impossible”, he remarks in one of
and encounter blood dripping from the ceiling and two Poe’s immortal stories, ‘and what is left, however improbable,
frightening ghosts. In a tale with a similar name, Selecting a must be the truth’ ” (Doyle, 1982: 203).34
Ghost: The Ghosts of Goresthorpe Grange (1883), Doyle takes the Furthermore, the commentator laments that in the solutions
tale from a lighthearted, almost humorous attempt at one man’s presented concerning the fate of the Evangeline, “conjecture is so
quest to acquire a ghost for his mansion to his frightening rife” (ibid.). What is important in reading this story is to
encounter with a series of specters vying for the position. In this appreciate that the solution put forth by the commentator who
tale, Doyle also begins to demonstrate how science and reasoning referenced the methodology of Dupin, who posits a series of
can explain the real cause for the visions of haunting specters. impossibilities to support his conclusion, is wrong. In fact, the
After enlisting the help of a “professional spiritualist” who goes “doubly impossible” scenario presented by the commentator ends
through a series of rituals,30 a progression of ghosts presents up being the solution to the mystery. Much like the narrator’s
themselves to the owner of the mansion, each more haunting reasoning in Poe’s The Oblong Box, Doyle recognizes and exploits
than the previous: the invisible entity; the fiendish old woman; the Poe’s assertion that there is always a chance that one’s reasoning
cavalier; the leaver of footsteps and the spiller of gouts of blood; a is flawed. This, in the mind of Poe, can be the case if the reasoner
murderer and ruffian, the American blood-curdler; and the has limited experience and imagination or fails to utilize these
beautiful woman, forsaken and betrayed. Doyle writes, “I am the concepts when problem solving.
American blood-curdler…I am the embodiment of Edgar Allan In The Lost Special, in which a train appears to vanish without
Poe. I am circumstantial and horrible. I am a low-caste spirit- a trace, the narrator describes that various newspapers and
subduing spectre. Observe my blood and my bones. I am grisly private individuals are coming forth with explanations for the
and nauseous. No depending on artificial aid. Work with grave vanishing train, “One…attempted to deal with the matter in a
clothes, a coffin-lid, and a galvanic battery.31 Turn hair white in a critical and semi-scientific manner … It is one of the Elementary
night…”32 (1982: 141). Doyle reorients the tale from that of the principals of practical reasoning … that’s when the impossible
unknown to a rational, scientific explanation. The “professional has been eliminated the residuum, however improbable, must
spiritualist” was really an experienced burglar, and the grotesque contain the truth …” (Doyle, 1977: 118). The narrator continues
visions of the supernatural are due to the liquid ingested by the the explanation, peppered with phrases such as “it is certain”, “it
owner at the direction of the spiritualist; he was drugged. This is the highest degree unlikely, but still possible”, “it is obviously
drug “reduced him to a partial state of insensibility” in which impossible” and “it is improbable, but it is not impossible” (ibid.),
“circumstantial and bizarre visions [will] present themselves” and a directive to focus the investigation on observation. This line
(Doyle, 1982: 143). Doyle rectifies the supernatural by providing a of reasoning is a direct nod to that of Sherlock Holmes, the series
logical, scientific solution based on advancements in toxicology. which Doyle had been writing for more than ten years when The
In The Silver Hatchet (1883), the reader again sees scientific Lost Special was published. Published the same year, The Man
explanation eliminate any semblance of the unknown in a tale of with the Watches, a case in which a train passenger is found dead
violence and the supernatural. After a series of brutal murders in while two other passengers have disappeared from a moving
which the first victim’s head was “literally split in two halves by a train, presents a mystery of which the process of reasoning must
tremendous blow which, it was conjectured, must have been intervene,
struck from behind” and the second victim “so mutilated that he
was hardly recognizable, with his head cloven open similar Whatever maybe the truth … it must depend upon some
to the first victim with numerous deep gashes indicating the bizarre and rare combination of events so we need to have
fury with which the murderer continued to hack the lifeless no hesitation in postulating such events in our explanation.
body” (Haining, 1987: 61), it is apparent that some “savage” is In the absence of data we must abandon the analytic or
committing these crimes.33 The forensic examination, specifically scientific method of investigation, and must approach it in
wound pattern analysis, conducted by an “eminent medico-jurist” the synthetic fashion. In a word, instead of taking known
enabled the crimes to be linked by the weapon employed. Upon events and deducing from them what has occurred, we
discovery and direct observation by a group of individuals of the must build up a fanciful explanation if it will only be
effects of a cursed silver hatchet, the narrator states, “against all consistent with known events. We can then test this
reason, science, and everything else though it be, there is a charm explanation by any fresh facts which may arise. If they fall
at work” (Haining, 1987: 68) But alas, the eminent medico-jurist into their places, the probability is that we are upon the
presents a reasonable hypothesis that a diffusible poison may right track, and with each fresh fact this probability
have been placed on the hatchet to bring on sudden and acute increases in a geometrical progression until the evidence
attacks of homicidal mania (Haining, 1987: 70). Doyle again becomes final and convincing (Doyle, 1977: 153).
refers to the advancements in forensic toxicology to reason that a
poison, not an ancient curse, is responsible for the behaviour of This statement of reasoning is very critical for several reasons.
the individual wielding the silver hatchet. First, Doyle’s “fanciful explanation” can be directly correlated
with Poe’s (or more correctly, Tyndall’s) concept of imagination,
as opposed to the analytic.35 Second, the reference to the
Doyle and reasoning. In three of Doyle’s mysteries, The Fate of dependence on a combination of events implies the importance of
the Evangeline (1885), The Lost Special (1898) and The Man with causality and understanding the links between occurrences.
the Watches (1898), subtle references to the reasoning methods Third, the statement walks the reader through the path of
applied to solving the cases are present. In The Fate of the reasoning, which is similar to the process of moving from
Evangeline, which was published prior to the introduction of abduction, to induction, and finally to deduction presented by
Sherlock Holmes and which features the tale of a ship and its Harrowitz. The “synthetic fashion” (in lieu of the analytic or
female passenger who have disappeared under mysterious and scientific method) along with the incorporation of the fanciful
unexplained circumstances, a direct reference to Dupin and his explanation implies abduction, or guesswork. This is followed by
methodology of reasoning is presented, “It would be well … if testing and probability, which is induction, and the progression to
those who express opinions upon such subjects would bear in the “final and convincing” is deduction. Finally, Doyle's reference

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to a “geometrical progression” is a direct nod to the compounding power of observation … which allow him to make conjectures…
significance of evidence referenced by Poe in The Mystery of He then postulates a rule which would explain certain … facts …”
Marie Rogêt. Moreover, Doyle subtlety addresses the limitations (in Eco and Sebeok, 1983: 186).
of law enforcement in The Man with the Watches, with the
narrator remarking, “The police had little difficulty in showing
that such a theory would not cover the facts, but they were Sherlock holmes and horror. While the Sherlock Holmes series
unprepared in the absence of evidence to advance any alternate was more aligned with detective fiction and advances in forensic
explanations” (Doyle, 1977: 152). science, some of the tales had remnants of those elements of
Doyle’s A Pastoral Horror (1890) shares much in common classic Gothic fiction. Specifically, The Hound of Baskervilles
with Poe’s Thou Art the Man; a murder mystery set in an isolated (1902), The Adventure of the Devil’s Foot (1910), The Adventure
town with a conclusion being made with the assistance of forensic of the Creeping Man (1923), and The Adventure of the Sussex
evidence and crime scene reconstruction. In addition to the Vampire (1924). In the latter story, upon hearing of the possibility
brutality and violence of the murders, madness is to blame, which of the “suspect” being a vampire, Holmes asserts, “What have we
fulfills the horror and social anxiety elements prominent in to do with walking corpses who can only be held in their grave by
Gothic fiction. The narrator, John Hudson, takes the reader stakes driven through their hearts? It’s pure lunacy” (Baring-
through a series of crimes occurring in the spring of 1866 in an Gould, 1967: 463). As expected, Sherlock is able to dispose of the
idyllic, isolated village. Upon hearing of the first murder, Hudson supernatural hypothesis and arrive at a conclusion based on
partakes in an examination of the body and its injuries, Doyle’s science, reason and causality. It is not the sucking of blood
homage to wound reconstruction and forensic pathology, occurring for thirst of a vampire, but the sucking of a wound
from an arrow impregnated with poison to save the life of the
[On] the back of the heads a singular triangular wound was injured, who is helpless at the hands of the perpetrator. Using
found, which had smashed the bone and penetrated deeply observation and confirmation to support his hypothesis, Holmes
into the brain. It had evidently been inflicted by a heavy declares, “It has been a case for intellectual deduction, but when
blow from a sharp pointed pyramidal instrument… [The this original intellectual deduction is confirmed point by point by
Pastor] suggested probability of the weapon in question quite a number of independent incidents, then the subjective
having been a short mattock or small pickaxe, such as are becomes the objective and we can say confidently that we have
to be found in every Alpine cottage. The Intendant, with reached our goal …” (Baring-Gould, 1967: 472). In this state-
praiseworthy promptness, at once obtained one and ment, it appears that the reference to deduction is more in line
striking a turnip, produced just such a curious gap as was with that of Mill. Here, Holmes’ observation and ratiocination are
to be seen in [the victim’s]36 head (Doyle, 1982: 278). supplemented by verification, which brings about a certainty in
results. Holmes’ linking of a series of independent incidents
An investigation committee is formed and, after interviewing provides the element of causality.
witnesses, Hudson and his committee “gathered and connected a In The Adventure of the Creeping Man, parallels exist between
series of facts” (ibid.). Here, the process of criminal investigation the behaviour of the creeping man and that of the character in
is coupled with crime scene investigation to begin the process of The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde40 (Baring-Gould,
reconstruction. Shortly thereafter, another crime is committed in 1967: 765), with the underlying premise being that an elixir taken
which the victim “had met his death by an exactly similar wound by the creeping man imbued upon him strange, animal like
to which had proved fatal” (Doyle, 1982: 281) to the first victim. behaviours. The “evil” causing the creeping man’s behaviour is
Upon the suspect’s third attempt at murder, he is unsuccessful, due to a serum from a climbing and creeping monkey. Here
and the intended victim is able to leave deep scratches in the again, the degeneration, or reversion from man to monkey
assailant’s wrist. This proves to be an important clue, as the marks correlate to the prevailing scientific debates in the nineteenth
are revealed and the assailant is determined to be the Pastor. century concerning atavism and evolution. In The Adventure of
It is determined that the Pastor is apparently suffering from a the Devil’s Foot, what appears to be human possession by the
“terrible and insidious form of insanity” of which Hudson, upon devil, leading to insanity and death, ends up being the effects of
retrospection, realizes the symptoms and behaviour of the Pastor exposure to a powerful poison. This is another instance of the
were indicative of such insanity that would induce homicidal advancements in forensic toxicology (as well as the exponential
mania (Doyle, 1982: 289).37 use of poisons to commit murder) in the nineteenth century
Sherlock Holmes’ power of perception and problem solving having a decided impact on the story lines presented by Doyle.
rests on abductive reasoning. Although Doyle refers to deduction The Hound of the Baskervilles includes several elements
as Holmes’ reasoning methodology, abduction is the primary characteristic of Gothic fiction. The ominous Baskerville estate
means by which Holmes develops his initial hypotheses. and the eerie moor, a hound representing death and evil, and the
Although Holmes occasionally asserts that he does not guess, supernatural elements of the hound haunting the Baskerville
he is actually doing so in the initial stages of his investigations.38 estate, “A creature upon the moor which corresponds with the
In their essay, Sebeok and Umiker-Sebeok write, “What makes Baskerville demon, and which could not possibly be any animal
Sherlock Holmes so successful a detective is not that he never known to science…A huge creature, luminous, ghastly and
guesses, but that he guesses so well” (in Eco and Sebeok, 1983: spectral” (Baring-Gould, 1967: 15). Further described as a
22). Throughout the narratives in his adventures, Holmes verifies “dreadful apparition” and a “hell hound” (Baring-Gould, 1967:
his hypotheses through observation, experiential knowledge, the 16), the hound has a thirst for blood and a desire to kill. Using
collection of clues, and testing (induction), ultimately arriving at a science, Doyle is able to explain the seemingly supernatural
conclusion with a measure of certainty (deduction). 39 Holmes’ qualities of the beast; when Holmes and Watson encounter the
references to the importance of observation and the utilization of creature, the blusih flame dripping from its mouth that provided
imagination, intuition and speculation, demonstrate that the the spectral glow is declared as being “ a cunning preparation” of
actual methods he applies to problem solving are based on phosphorous (Baring-Gould, 1967: 101). Reflecting the senti-
abductive reasoning. Like Poe’s ratiocinative-abductive narrator ments of Poe’s Dupin, Holmes states, “The more outré and
in A Descent into the Maelstrom, Holmes “has specific scientific grotesque an incident is, the more carefully it deserves to be
knowledge gained through previous [experience] and a keen examined, and the very point which appears to complicate a case

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is, when duly considered and scientifically handled, the one which Criminal Man. [Gibson, M & Rafter, ed. (2006). Criminal Man—Cesare Lombroso.
Duke University Press: Durham].
is most likely to elucidate it” (Baring-Gould, 1967: 109)
5 The unsolved murders of Jack the Ripper in 1888 struck fear in London society and
Doyle’s stories of reasoning and the supernatural demonstrate reminded all citizens that not every crime could be solved and not all perpetrators
that the influence of early Gothic fiction from Poe, as well as the would be brought to justice. It is plausible that, while this resulted in fear and horror,
scientific, philosophical, and criminological progress of the it also fostered intrigue that resulted in the upsurge of a macabre interest in criminal
nineteenth century greatly influenced Doyle’s work. These factors behaviour, law and order.
6 Positivism being that knowledge is based on natural phenomena verified by the
provided insight into the effects of criminal justice, scientific
empirical sciences; Empiricism being the practice of using observation and experi-
discourse and epistemological enquiry on society in the second mentation to acquire knowledge.
half of the nineteenth century. In addition, although fictional, 7 The scientific method is characterized by the process of stating a problem, developing
Sherlock Holmes and his methods of reasoning became the a hypothesis, collecting data through observation and experimentation, and either
cornerstone of modern criminal investigation and forensic refining the hypothesis or developing a theory; it includes all principles and proce-
science. dures utilized throughout the entirety of the process. For a discussion of developing
reasoning and problem solving skills, see Konnikova’s Mastermind: How to Think
Like Sherlock Holmes (2013).
Conclusions 8 For historical overviews of the development of law enforcement agencies and forensic
Although considered Gothic fiction, the works presented by Poe investigations, see Thorwald (1965), Wagner (2006), Kurland (2009).
and Doyle blur the real with the imaginary. Gothic society was 9 For more information on semiotics and the relationships between clues, signs and
symptoms, see Eco and Sebeok (1983).
fearful of many intrusions, from disease and poverty to crime and 10 Referring first to one ‘Aries Tottle’, who “propagated what was termed the deductive
degeneration. These fears, compounded by advances and enquiry or a priori mode of investigation; starting with axioms of self-evident truths and
in science, technology and epistemology, were exploited by many thence proceeded logically to results” and then referring to ‘Hog’, who preached a
Gothic writers—from the walking dead and lab-created monsters system of the “a posteriori, or inductive” type, which “proceeded by observing,
to madness and evil specters. Successful authors found ways to analyzing, and classifying facts—instantiœ naturœ—into general laws” (Poe,
1994: 406).
make their fictional tales horrific by weaving in elements of moral 11 Identified only as Pundita.
panic and socio-cultural beliefs to give their macabre tales an air 12 In this work, Tyndall credits Darwin with being successful in his approaches to
of reality. Degeneration, criminological theories of atavism and evolutionary theory due to his combined use of observation, imagination and reason.
psychological theories of madness sparked fears that Poe and 13 Intuition is knowledge without proof or evidence, often synonymous with insight,
Doyle were able to capture in their stories. which is the understanding of someone or something.
14 In his writing on abduction and induction, Peirce challenges some of the assertions of
The Gothic/Victorian Gothic eras brought forth the develop- Mill (Buchler, 1955).
ment of policing and the advancement of the natural sciences to 15 According to the narrator, a pure machine performs its operations without any
criminal investigation, which Poe and Doyle were able to immediate human agency and is characterized by fixed, determinate calculations and
superimpose on their tales of mystery. While scholars and subsequent movements resulting from that limited, certain data set (Poe, 1994).
practitioners weighed in on epistemology and reasoning, Doyle 16 Throughout this assertion, Vidocq compares his skills to those of scientists and
doctors of the time, including phrenologists, which had influenced Poe’s philoso-
and Poe were able to exploit the weaknesses in law enforcement phical beliefs in science, as written in his original introduction to reasoning in The
and the limitations of knowledge on the ability to solve crimes. Murders in the Rue Morgue, a passage which was later removed, likely when phre-
For a society that feared violent crime and needed law and order, nology became discredited and found to be lacking in scientific rigour. Vidocq also
the state of policing left much to be desired. Fear and horror were refers to the ‘Father of Forensic Toxicology,’ Mathieu Orfila. For a historical overview
driven by the madman, loose on the streets, committing violent of Forensic Toxicology and Dr Orfila, see Thorwald (1965). For a reproduction
of Poe’s original first paragraph, see Hurh, P (2012). “The Creative and the
acts without fear of impunity. The police, corrupt and Resolvent”: The Origins of Poe’s Analytical Method. Nineteenth Century Literature.
disorganized, did not have the mental faculties to apprehend 66(4), p. 473.
such savages, allowing them to diffuse from regions of poverty to 17 This could be perhaps, because of Poe’s problems with resolving the unsolved murder
those of the elite classes. of Mary Rogers that laid the groundwork for his second tale.
An important recurring theme on the stories by Poe and Doyle 18 Draughts being likened to checkers and whist being a card game.
19 A sentiment that will be expanded upon in the discussion of The Purloined Letter.
is the inherent weakness in application of reasoning to 20 Perhaps this is a reference to Marcus Aurelius’ statements on simplicity in his
investigations. With the intersection of law and science coming Meditations (170-190 AD): “Of each particular thing ask: What is it in itself? What is
to the forefront of crime investigation in the nineteenth century its nature?” The influence can be traced through William Whewell to John Stuart
came the necessity to utilize proper methods of reasoning to Mill. Whewells’ History and Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences texts, written in the
guide methods of investigating and problem solving. Poe and mid-1800’s, may also have influenced Poe’s thoughts on reasoning, either directly or
indirectly through Mill. Considering the simplicity of a letter, a paper, it is just that—
Doyle recognized this, and carefully crafted tales to include one would expect it to be found on a desk or in a document-holder, possibly with
horror, crime, science and philosophy. Since the development of other documents of similar kind. The concept of simplicity can be directly correlated
what was known as police science,41 the term criminalistics42 has to Sherlock Holmes’ occasional reference to “elementary” in arriving to his conclu-
been developed to capture the integration of science, criminal sions through methods of reasoning.
investigation and reasoning. What is important about Poe’s and 21 This indicates a slight evolution in policing from Poe’s first Dupin story to the last; In
The Murders in the Rue Morgue, there was indication of little organization with no
Doyle’s detective stories is their recognition of the importance of methods, whereas in The Purloined Letter, the police are described as “forcibly
having an individual with the capability to apply scientific adapted to his designs,” likely a product of improved structure and organization of
reasoning to an investigation, specifically at the crime scene and existing police agencies, training of the police investigators, and the development of
when evaluating evidence. standardized procedures within that time frame.
22 The irony was not lost on Poe. The was the case in many of his tales.
23 Note Poe’s use of imagination in playing a role in the process of reasoning.
24 Likely this was not lost on the narrator of the tale—perhaps this is the turning point
Notes in which the narrator begins to have some doubts as to Goodfellow’s intentions.
1 Here, moral panic is defined as a condition that emerges and becomes identified as a 25 For a historical overview of Forensic Ballistics, see Thorwald (1965),Wagner (2006),
threat to societal values and interests, whose nature is presented in a stylized fashion Kurland (2009).
by authors of Gothic fiction. For more on the theory of moral panic and its rela- 26 Poe is using these words to foreshadow what the narrator is about to uncover upon
tionship to criminology, see Cohen, S (2002). Folk Devils and Moral Panics, 3rd ed. opening the package at the request of the host, Mr Goodfellow, and likely demon-
Routledge: London. strating Poe’s perverse sense of humour.
2 Pertaining to study of knowledge and understanding. 27 This may require a knowledge of science on part of the narrator—an understanding
3 Such as the work by Sigmund Freud and Charles Darwin, respectively. that the salt served to impede the process and signs of decomposition. Interestingly,
4 Atavism, synonymous with degeneration, or man’s reversion to a more primitive, Mill, in providing examples of causality and the laws of nature, refers to the laws of
savage form of existing. See, for example, works by Cesare Lombroso, including putrefaction, noting “the strong attraction of salt for water and the necessity of the

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PALGRAVE COMMUNICATIONS | DOI: 10.1057/palcomms.2017.45 ARTICLE

presence of water as a condition of putrefaction” and “flesh … kept in a dry atmo- Buchler J (ed) (1955) Philosophical Writings of Peirce. Dover Publications,
sphere does not putrefy …” (Mill, 1882: 340). This is another indication that Poe was Inc.: New York.
exposed to, and influenced by, the work of Mill. Cohen S (2002) Folk Devils and Moral Panics. 3rd edn. Routledge: London.
28 A hypothesis so conclusive that the narrator has even determined the title and artist Doyle A (1977) Tales of Terror and Mystery. Doubleday: New York.
of the work stored in the oblong box. Doyle A (1982) Uncollected Stories. Doubleday & Co., Inc.: New York.
29 Similar tales of horror and suspense in which the corpse of the victim is hidden in Eco U and Sebeok T (1983) Dupin, Holmes Peirce: The Sign of Three. Indiana
close proximity to the murderer include Poe’s The Tell-tale Heart (1842) and The University Press: Bloomington, IL.
Black Cat (1842-3). In Doyle’s The Story of the Sealed Room (1898), the corpse is in Haining P (ed) (1987) The Supernatural Tales of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. W.
close proximity to a family member who lives many years without knowledge of the Foulsham: London.
body’s existence. Hurh P (2012) The Creative and Resolvent: The Origins of Poe's Analytical
30 Including providing a clear transparent fluid that the owner must ingest before Method. Nineteenth Century Literature; 66 (4): 473.
interviewing the ghosts. Knight S (1980) Form & Ideology in Crime Fiction. Indiana University Press:
31 Doyle’s nod to the walking dead, vampires, and Mary Shelley’s 1818 novel, Bloomington, IL.
Frankenstein. Konnikova M (2013) Mastermind: How to Think Like Sherlock Holmes. Penguin
32 A correlation to Poe’s A Descent into Maelstrom, into which the ratiocinative survivor Books: New York.
of the whirlpool suffers a whitening of the hair from his near-death experience. Kurland M (2009) Irrefutable Evidence: Adventures in the History of Forensic
33 The use of the term “savage” can be correlated to the idea of degeneration and Science. Ivan R. Dee: Chicago, IL.
atavism promulgated by scientists like Lombroso in the Victorian Gothic era as well Mill JS (1882) A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive, Being a Connected
as the debates concerning evolution and Darwinism throughout the nineteenth View of the Principles of Evidence, and the Methods of Scientific Investigation,
century. 8th edition, Harper & Brothers: New York.
34 Described as one of the most famous maxims of Sherlock Holmes, this expression is Poe E (1994) The Complete Illustrated Stories and Poems. Chancellor Press:
stated twice by Holmes in The Sign of the Four (1890): “Eliminate all other factors, London.
and the one which remains must be the truth” (Baring-Gould, 1967: 613); “…when Thorwald J (1965) The Century of the Detective. Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc.:
you have eliminated the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be New York.
the truth” (Baring-Gould, 1967: 638); and repeated in several other stories featuring Tyndall J (1872) Scientific Use of the Imagination and Other Essays. Longmans,
Holmes (see annotation, Baring-Gould, 1967: 614). Green and Col: London.
35 In the treatise at the start of The Murders of the Rue Morgue, Poe explains, “Between Vidocq E (1834) Memoirs of Vidocq, Principal Agent of the French Police. Carey &
ingenuity and the analytic there exists a difference far greater, indeed, than that Hart: Philadelphia, PA.
between the fancy and the imagination, but of character very strictly analogous. It will Wagner EJ (2006) The Science of Sherlock Holmes. John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken,
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never otherwise than analytic” (Poe, 1994).
36 Lending itself to a sense of irony, the name of the victim so viciously attacked in the
story is named Maul. Perhaps Doyle intended this much like Poe’s ‘Goodfellow’ Data availability
character in Thou Art the Man. Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed
37 Recall this was the diagnosis in The Silver Hatchet upon interaction of the handler during the current study.
with the suspected poison that was believed to have impregnated the handle.
38 When Holmes is ‘accused’ of guesswork in the Hound of the Baskervilles, Holmes
asserts, “[Such determinations enter] into a region where we balance probabilities and
Additional information
Competing interests: The author declares that there are no competing interests.
choose the more likely. It is the scientific use of the imagination, but we have always
had some material basis on which to start our speculations. Now, you would call it a Reprints and permission information is available at http://www.palgrave-journals.com/
guess, no doubt, but I am almost certain …” (Baring-Gould, 1967: 24). Although pal/authors/rights_and_permissions.html
much more brief than the reasoning presented in Doyle’s The Lost Special, Holmes’
statement about guessing addresses imagination, guessing (abduction), probability How to cite this article: Miranda M (2017) Reasoning through madness: the detective in
(induction), and a certainty (deduction). Gothic crime fiction. Palgrave Communications. 3:17045 doi: 10.1057/palcomms.2017.45.
39 Here again we see the process described by Harrowitz; moving from abduction
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(guesses which suggest), to induction (which shows with a measure of probability)
published maps and institutional affiliations.
and ultimately to deduction (which proves with a certainty) (in Eco and Sebeok,
1983).
40 Written in 1886 by Robert Louis Stevenson.
41 Utilization of natural sciences to aid in criminal detection.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
42 Criminalistics is the scientific discipline directed toward the recognition, identifica-
International License. The images or other third party material in this
tion, individualization and interpretation of physical evidence using forensic science;
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investigations.
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References
Arntfield M (2016) Gothic Forensics: Criminal Investigative Procedures in Victorian
Horror & Mystery. Palgrave Macmillan: New York. r The Author(s) 2017
Baring-Gould W (ed) (1967) The Annotated Sherlock Holmes. 2 vol. Clarkson N.
Potter: New York.

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