Woodworking

Woodworking is the activity or skill of making items from wood, and

includes cabinet making (cabinetry and furniture), wood carving, joinery,
carpentry, and woodturning.

Contents
History
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Rome
Ancient China
Modern day Artists can use woodworking to
Materials create delicate sculptures.
Common Softwoods Used for Furniture
Cedar
Fir
Common Hardwoods Used for Furniture
Ash
Birch
Cherry
Mahogany
Oak
Maple
Factors in Choosing Materials
Woods with good working properties[9]
Very durable woods[9]
Woods used for carving
Notable woodworkers
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links

History
Along with stone, clay and animal parts, wood was one of the first materials worked by early humans. Microwear analysis
of the Mousterian stone tools used by the Neanderthals show that many were used to work wood. The development of
civilization was closely tied to the development of increasingly greater degrees of skill in working these materials.
Among early finds of wooden tools are the worked sticks from Kalambo Falls,
Clacton-on-Sea and Lehringen. The spears from Schöningen (Germany)
provide some of the first examples of wooden hunting gear. Flint tools were
used for carving. Since Neolithic times, carved wooden vessels are known, for
example, from the Linear Pottery culture wells at Kückhofen and Eythra.

Examples of Bronze Age wood-carving include tree trunks worked into coffins
from northern Germany and Denmark and wooden folding-chairs. The site of
Fellbach-Schmieden in Germany has provided fine examples of wooden animal
statues from the Iron Age. Wooden idols from the La Tène period are known
from a sanctuary at the source of the Seine in France.

Ancient Egyptian woodworking

Ancient Egypt
There is significant evidence of advanced woodworking in ancient
Egypt.[1] Woodworking is depicted in many extant ancient Egyptian
drawings, and a considerable amount of ancient Egyptian furniture (such
as stools, chairs, tables, beds, chests) has been preserved. Tombs
represent a large collection of these artefacts and the inner coffins found
in the tombs were also made of wood. The metal used by the Egyptians for
woodworking tools was originally copper and eventually, after 2000 BC
bronze as ironworking was unknown until much later.[2]

Commonly used woodworking tools included axes, adzes, chisels, pull

saws, and bow drills. Mortise and tenon joints are attested from the
earliest Predynastic period. These joints were strengthened using pegs,
dowels and leather or cord lashings. Animal glue came to be used only in
the New Kingdom period.[3] Ancient Egyptians invented the art of
veneering and used varnishes for finishing, though the composition of
these varnishes is unknown. Although different native acacias were used,
as was the wood from the local sycamore and tamarisk trees,
deforestation in the Nile valley resulted in the need for the importation of Woodworking shop in Germany in 1568,
the worker in front is using a bow saw,
wood, notably cedar, but also Aleppo pine, boxwood and oak, starting
the one in the background is planing.
from the Second Dynasty.[4]

Ancient Rome
Woodworking was essential to the Romans. It provided, sometimes the only, material for buildings, transportation, tools,
and household items. Wood also provided pipes, dye, waterproofing materials, and energy for heat.[5]:1Although most
examples of Roman woodworking have been lost,[5]:2 the literary record preserved much of the contemporary knowledge.
Vitruvius dedicates an entire chapter of his De architectura to timber, preserving many details.[6] Pliny, while not a
botanist, dedicated six books of his Natural History to trees and woody plants, providing a wealth of information on trees
and their uses.[7]

Ancient China
The progenitors of Chinese woodworking are considered to be Lu Ban (魯班) and his wife Lady Yun, from the Spring and
Autumn period (771 to 476 BC). Lu Ban is said to have introduced the plane, chalk-line, and other tools to China. His
teachings were supposedly left behind in the book Lu Ban Jing ( 魯 班 經 , "Manuscript of Lu Ban"). Despite this, it is
believed that the text was written some 1500 years after his death. This book is filled largely with descriptions of
dimensions for use in building various items such as flower pots, tables, altars, etc., and also contains extensive
instructions concerning Feng Shui. It mentions almost nothing of the intricate glue-less and nail-less joinery for which
Chinese furniture was so famous.

Modern day
With the advances in modern technology and the demands of industry,
woodwork as a field has changed. The development of Computer Numeric
Controlled (CNC) Machines, for example, has made us able to mass-
produce and reproduce products faster, with less waste, and often more
complex in design than ever before. CNC Routers can carve complicated
and highly detailed shapes into flat stock, to create signs or art.
Rechargeable power tools speed up creation of many projects and require
much less body strength than in the past, for example when boring
multiple holes. Skilled fine woodworking, however, remains a craft
pursued by many. There remains demand for hand crafted work such as
furniture and arts, however with rate and cost of production, the cost for
consumers is much higher.

Materials
Historically, woodworkers relied upon the woods native to their region,
until transportation and trade innovations made more exotic woods Damascene woodworkers turning wood
for mashrabia and hookass, 19th century.
available to the craftsman. Woods are typically sorted into three basic
types: hardwoods typified by tight grain and derived from broadleaf trees,
softwoods from coniferous trees, and man-made materials such as plywood
and MDF.

Hardwoods, botanically known as angiosperms, are deciduous and shed their

leaves annually with temperature changes.[8] Softwoods come from trees
botanically known as gymnosperms, which are coniferous, cone-bearing, and
stay green year round.[8] Although a general pattern, softwoods are not
necessarily always “softer” than hardwoods, and vice versa.[9]
Micronesian of Tobi, Palau, making
Softwood is most commonly found in the regions of the world with lower a paddle for his wa with an adze.
temperatures and is typically less durable, lighter in weight, and more
vulnerable to pests and fungal attacks in comparison to hardwoods. They
typically have a paler color and a more open grain than hardwoods, which contributes to the tendency of felled softwood to
shrink and swell as it dries.[9] Softwoods usually have a lower density, around 25-37lb/cu ft, which can compromise its
strength.[9] Density, however, does vary within both softwoods and hardwoods depending on the wood's geographical
origin and growth rate. However, the lower density of softwoods also allows it to have a greater strength with lighter
weight. In the United States, softwoods are typically cheaper and more readily available and accessible.[9] Most softwoods
are suitable for general construction, especially framing, trim, and finish work, and carcassing.[10][9]
Hardwoods are separated into two categories, temperate and tropical hardwoods, depending on their origin. Temperate
hardwoods are found in the regions between the tropics and poles, and are of particular interest to wood workers for their
cost-effective aesthetic appeal and sustainable sources.[9] Tropical hardwoods are found within the equatorial belt,
including Africa, Asia, and South America. Hardwoods flaunt a higher density, around 65lb/cu ft as a result of slower
growing rates and is more stable when drying.[9] As a result of its high density, hardwoods are typically heavier than
softwoods but can also be more brittle.[9] While there are an abundant number of hardwood species, only 200 are common
enough and pliable enough to be used for woodworking.[11] Hardwoods have a wide variety of properties, making it easy to
find a hardwood to suit nearly any purpose, but they are especially suitable for outdoor use due to their strength and
resilience to rot and decay.[9] The coloring of hardwoods ranges from light to very dark, making it especially versatile for
aesthetic purposes. However, because hardwoods are more closely grained, they are typically harder to work than
softwoods. They are also harder to acquire in the United States and, as a result, are more expensive.[9]

Typically furniture such as tables and chairs is made using solid stock from hardwoods due to its strength and resistance
to warping.[10] Additionally, they also have a greater variety of grain patterns and color and take a finish better which
allows the woodworker to exercise a great deal of artistic liberty. Hardwoods can be cut more cleanly and leave less residue
on sawblades and other woodworking tools.[10] Cabinet/fixture makers employ the use of plywood and other man made
panel products. Some furniture, such as the Windsor chair involve green woodworking, shaping with wood while it
contains its natural moisture prior to drying.

Common Softwoods Used for Furniture

Cedar
Cedars are strong, aromatic softwoods that are capable of enduring outdoor elements, the most common of which is the
Western Red Cedar. Western Red Cedar can sustain wet environments without succumbing to rot, and as a result is
commonly used for outdoor projects such as patios, outdoor furniture, and building exteriors. This wood can be easily
found at most home centers for a moderate price.[12]

Fir
Fir, also known as Douglas Fir, is very inexpensive and common at local home centers. It has a characteristic straight,
pronounced grain with a red-brown tint. However, its grain pattern is relatively plain and it does not stain well, so Fir is
commonly used when the finished product will be painted. While commonly used for building, this softwood would also be
suitable for furniture-making as well.[12]

Common Hardwoods Used for Furniture

Ash
This hardwood is relatively easy to work with and takes stain well, but its white to light brown color with a straight grain is
visually appealing on its own. However, ash is much more difficult to find than other common woods, and won’t be found
at the local home center. Larger lumber yards should have it in stock.[12]

Birch
Whether yellow or white birch, these hardwoods are stable and easy to work with. Despite this, Birch is prone to blotching
when stained, so painting birch products is probably best. Birch is easily found at many home centers and is a relatively
inexpensive hardwood.[12]

Cherry
Popular and easy to work with, cherry is in high demand for its reddish-brown color and ease of staining and finishing.
Cherry likely won’t be at the local home center, but should be at a lumberyard for a somewhat expensive price.[12] This
hardwood is a very common material for furniture, and is resistant to normal wear-and-tear, but it is best for indoor
pieces.[13]

Mahogany
A hardwood, mahogany has a trademark reddish-brown to deep-red tint and is known as “one of the great furniture
woods.” However, mahogany is not typically grown in sustainable forests, and thus runs a steep price at local lumber
yards.[12]

Oak
With two varieties, red and white, oak is known to be easy to work with and relatively strong. However, furniture makers
often opt for white oak over red oak for its attractive figure and moisture-resistance.[12] Depending on the kind needed,
oak can probably be found at a local home center or a lumberyard for a bit pricier than other hardwoods.[12][13]

Maple
With strength, sturdiness, and durability, maple is a common material for furniture for the bedroom and even china
cabinets. Maple is moisture-resistant and frequently displays stand-out swirls in the wood grain, an aesthetically pleasing
differentiator from other hardwoods. While most commonly a lighter color, maple also can take stains and paint well.[13]

Factors in Choosing Materials

There are many factors to consider when deciding what type of wood to use for a project. One of the most important is the
workability of the wood: the way in which it responds when worked by hand or tools, the quality of the grain, and how it
responds to adhesives and finishes.[9] When the workability of wood is high, it offers a lower resistance when cutting and
has a diminished blunting effect on tools.[9] Highly workable wood is easier to manipulate into desired forms. If the wood
grain is straight and even, it will be much easier to create strong and durable glued joints. Additionally, it will help protect
the wood from splitting when nailed or screwed.[9] Coarse grains require a lengthy process of filing and rubbing down the
grain to produce a smooth result.[9]

Another important factor to be considered is the durability of the wood, especially in regards to moisture. If the finished
project will be exposed to moisture (e.g. outdoor projects) or high humidity or condensation (e.g. in kitchens or
bathrooms), then the wood needs to be especially durable in order to prevent rot. Because of their oily qualities, many
tropical hardwoods such as teak and mahogany are popular for such applications.[9]

Woods with good working properties[9]

Agba (Gossweilerodendron balsamiferum)

Alder (Alnus glutinosa)

Basswood (Tilia americana)

Obeah (Triplochiton scleroxylon)

Pine (Pinus)

Western Cedar (Thuja plicata)

Very durable woods[9]

Teak (Tectona grandis)

Iron (Milicia excelsa)

Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata)

Chestnut (Castanea)

Oak (Quercus)

Cedar (Thuja)

Woods used for carving

While many woods can be used for carving, there are some clear favorites, including Aspen, Basswood, Butternut, Black
Walnut, and Oak.[14] Because it has almost no grain and is notably soft, Basswood is particularly popular with beginner
carvers. It is used in many lower-cost instruments like guitars and electric basses.[14] Aspen is similarly soft, although
slightly harder, and readily available and inexpensive.[14] Butternut has a deeper hue than Basswood and Aspen and has a
nice grain that is easy to carve, and thus friendly for beginners. It's also suitable for furniture.[14] While more expensive
that Basswood, Aspen, and Butternut, Black Walnut is a popular choice for its rich color and grain.[14] Lastly, Oak is a
strong, sturdy, and versatile wood for carving with a defined grain. It's also a popular wood for furniture making.[14]

Notable woodworkers
Alvar Aalto
Norm Abram
John Boson
Frank E. Cummings III
Henning Engelsen
Wharton Esherick
Tage Frid
Alexander Grabovetskiy
Greta Hopkinson
James Krenov
Mark Lindquist
Sal Maccarone
Thomas J. MacDonald
John Makepeace
Sam Maloof
David J. Marks
George Nakashima
 Jere Osgood
Alan Peters
Matthias Pliessnig
André Jacob Roubo
Paul Sellers
Evert Sodergren
Henry O. Studley
Roy Underhill
Matthias Wandel

See also
Boat building
Cabinet making
Carpentry
Ébéniste
Fire hardening
Glossary of woodworking terms
Green woodworking
History of construction
History of wood carving
Intarsia
Japanese carpentry
Lath art
Luthier
Millwork
Marionette
Marquetry
Saw pit
Segmented turning
Sloyd, a system of handicraft-based education
Stave church
Studio Furniture
Tack cloth
Timber framing
Turning
Wood carving
Wood glue
Wood Inlay
Woodturning
Woodworking workbench

Notes
1. Killen, Geoffrey (1994). Egyptian Woodworking and Furniture. Shire Publications. ISBN 0747802394.
2. Leospo, Enrichetta (2001), "Woodworking in Ancient Egypt", The Art of Woodworking, Turin: Museo Egizio, p.20
3. Leospo, pp.20-21
4. Leospo, pp. 17-19
5. Ulrich, Roger B. (2008). Roman Woodworking. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300134605. OCLC 192003268 (http
s://www.worldcat.org/oclc/192003268).
 6. Vitruvius. De architectura. 1:2.9.1.
7. Pliny. Natural History.
8. "differences american hardwoods and tropical hardwoods | Hardwood Distributors" (http://www.hardwooddistributors.o
rg/blog/tag/differences-american-hardwoods-and-tropical-hardwoods/). www.hardwooddistributors.org. Retrieved
2018-04-16.
9. Stephen., Corbett, (2012). The practical woodworker : a comprehensive step-by-step course in working with wood (htt
ps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/801605649). Freeman, John. Wigston: Southwater. ISBN 1780192207. OCLC 801605649
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/801605649).
10. 1951-, Korn, Peter, (2003). Woodworking basics : mastering the essentials of craftsmanship (https://www.worldcat.or
g/oclc/51810586). Newtown, CT: Taunton Press. ISBN 156158620X. OCLC 51810586 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/
51810586).
11. "Lumber Buying Guide" (https://www.lowes.com/projects/build-and-remodel/lumber-buying-guide/project).
www.lowes.com. Retrieved 2018-04-16.
12. "Types of Wood for Woodworking - dummies" (http://www.dummies.com/crafts/types-of-wood-for-woodworking/).
dummies. Retrieved 2018-04-16.
13. "The Best Woods for DIY Furniture" (http://renolumber.com/2015/06/the-best-woods-for-diy-furniture/). 2015-06-10.
Retrieved 2018-04-16.
14. "Top Hardwoods for Carving | Hardwood Distributors" (http://www.hardwooddistributors.org/blog/postings/top-hardwoo
ds-for-carving/). www.hardwooddistributors.org. Retrieved 2018-04-16.

References
Feirer, John L. (1988). Cabinetmaking and Millwork. Mission Hills California: Glencoe Publishing. ISBN 0-02-675950-
0.
Frid, Tage (1979). Tage Frid Teaches Woodworking. Newton, Connecticut: Taunton Press. ISBN 0-918804-03-5.
Joyce, Edward (1987). Encyclopedia of Furniture Making. revised and expanded by Alan Peters. New York: Sterling
Publishing Co. ISBN 0-8069-6440-5.
Roubo, André Jacob (1769–1784). The Art of the Joiner. Paris: French Academy of Sciences.

Further reading
Naylor, Andrew. A review of wood machining literature with a special focus on sawing (http://ncsu.edu/bioresources/Bi
oRes_08/BioRes_08_2_3122_Naylor_Hackney_Review_Wood_Machining_Focus_Sawing_3847.pdf). BioRes, April
2013

External links
Video (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k9wTLBGXZ04/) about the Zafimaniry peoples in Madagascar.
Videos about woodworking (https://av.tib.eu/search?q=woodworking&loc=de&f=publisher%3Bhttp://av.tib.eu/resource/
IWF_%2528G%25C3%25B6ttingen%2529) published by Institut für den Wissenschaftlichen Film. Available in the AV-
Portal (https://av.tib.eu/) of the German National Library of Science and Technology.

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