Physicochemical Problems

Physicochem. Probl. Miner. Process. 52(1), 2016, 228−243

of Mineral Processing
ISSN 1643-1049 (print)
www.minproc.pwr.wroc.pl/journal/
ISSN 2084-4735 (online)

Received May 4, 2015; reviewed; accepted June 9, 2015

A PHYSICAL MODEL OF SEPARATION PROCESS

BY MEANS OF JIGS

Agnieszka SUROWIAK, Marian BROZEK

AGH University of Science and Technology, Al. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Krakow, Poland
[email protected], [email protected]

Abstract: In the case of ideal separation of minerals, partition into products is conducted according to a
specific partition feature which is, for instance, the density of raw material. Usually, enrichment in a jig is
described by means of the particle density as a partition feature. However, the degree of particle
loosening in the jig's bed is influenced by, among others, the particle free settling velocity. After some
time of the pulsating movement duration, particle segregation along the vertical axis according to the
settling velocity will occur. It can be said that the particle free settling velocity constitutes a feature
characteristic of the feed heterogeneous in terms of physical and geometric properties in the jigging
process. In the article on the basis of heuristic considerations, a physical model of the partition function
(recovery of the i-th fraction), in which interactions between particles in the working bed of the jig are
taken into account, is derived. A cause of the formation of the mechanism of particle dispersion around
equilibrium layers is given and the accuracy of particle partition for a narrow size fraction in two
variations, i.e. in conditions when a partition feature is, accordingly, the particle density and settling
velocity, is calculated. These calculations allowed for the analysis of causes of process and inherent
dispersion formation which takes place during the jigging process.

Keywords: jigging process, physical model, Maxwell distribution, probable error, imperfection

Introduction
The condition necessary for the correct separation of particles in a separating device, a
jig, is sufficient loosening of the feed particles in a working bed, leading to a proper
stratification of the feed particles into subsets with similar properties (size, density,
settling velocity). The diversified particle settling velocity in the working bed of the
jig determines the correct course of the partition process. In order to enable the
stratification of material into fractions differing in the settling velocity to occur in the
jig, particles must be able to move freely between each other. Therefore, conditions of
a pulsating movement must be chosen in such a way as to ensure appropriate
loosening of the material layer on jig's sieve. The degree of loosening of particles in

http://dx.doi.org/10.5277/ppmp160120
 A physical model of separation process by means of jigs 229

the jig's bed is influenced by, among others, the particle free settling velocity. A
distance traversed by a particle during one cycle depends on the settling velocity.
Therefore, after long duration of the pulsating movement, if partition was accurate,
segregation of particles will occur along the vertical axis according to the free settling
velocity (Willis and Napier-Munn, 2006). Thus, it can be said that the particle free
settling velocity at the accurate partition constitutes a characteristic feature of the feed
heterogeneous in terms of physical and geometric properties in the partition process in
the jig.

The particle partition and dispersion mechanism

A characteristic feature of partition in a jig is the free settling velocity. The particle
stratification into elemental fractions (layers) occurs according to the settling velocity.
The pulsating movement of liquid is a mechanism generating such partition. The
movement of particles in the jig's bed is a random process. The value of a random
variable denoting a particle location along the vertical axis in a non-stationary state is
a function of time. Particles move between each other under deterministic forces,
resulting from the pulsating movement, suffering collisions. These interactions at the
moment of collisions are a source of particle dispersion around grouping centres,
being a function of time, because the deterministic movement intensity is a function of
time. If the pulsating movement velocity was homogeneous in the whole volume of
the jig's working space and there were no interactions between particles, then in a
stationary state, that is after the conducted partition, the state of ideal stratification
according to the settling velocity would be achieved. However, this is not the case.
Due to the heterogeneity of the liquid velocity field in the vertical direction of the jig's
bed, the permeation of particles to layers improper to them occurs. It can be thus said
that two independent random processes occur. One is connected to the heterogeneity
of the liquid velocity field, independent of time and the other connected to particles'
collisions during the deterministic particles movement with different properties to
their equilibrium layers, dependent on time. The latter movement is described by the
Fokker-Planck equation (Tichonov, 1968; 1973):

 f ( z, t )  z  f ( z ) 1 ( z ) 2  2 f ( z, t )
 p  p (1)
t t  z 2 t  z2

where: f(z,t)Δz – the probability of a particle with given density to occur in a layer
with thickness Δz at time t or a fraction of particles which at time t are present in layer
Δz with coordinate z, p – the probability of a particle group transition from a layer to
a layer.
This movement is characterised by a movement of particle grouping centres with
specified settling velocities to their equilibrium layers and dispersion of those particles
to adjacent layers around grouping centres, dependent on time. Particle dispersion
230 A. Surowiak, M. Brozek

mechanisms in both cases are similar. They are particle interactions due to collisions.
However, sources of these collisions are different. In the first case, the source of
collisions is the heterogeneity of the liquid velocity field, while in the second case, the
source of collisions are particle deterministic movements to their equilibrium layers
with different physical and geometric properties, which the value and sense of the
velocity vertical component depend on. After stratification of particles according to
the settling velocity, this movement stops and this component of particle dispersion is
equal to zero. However, the first component of dispersion, which is always present
when there is a pulsating movement of liquid between particles, remains. This is
proven by experimental facts referred to in chapter 3 according to which the standard
deviation of particles with specified properties around their equilibrium centres
decreases with time; however, not to zero, but after long time of separation it achieves
a constant value.
The steady (stationary) state of a particle system in a jig's chamber is understood as
the state in which grouping centres do not change their position over time. Then
potential energy of the system would be minimal if there were no random transitions
of particles connected to the heterogeneity of the liquid velocity field. Each of the
random processes enumerated above generates the particles' velocity distribution
independent of each other. It can be thus assumed that a random variable denoting the
particle velocity in the jig's chamber is the sum of two independent random variables:

W  W1  W2 (2)

where: W1 – a random variable of the particle velocity conditioned by the

heterogeneity of the liquid velocity field, independent of time, W2 – a random
component of the particle velocity conditioned by a movement of particle grouping
centres, dependent on time.
Random variables W1 and W2 have normal distributions (as a vertical component of
the particle velocity distributions, which will be discussed in chapter 5). Therefore, the
sum (composition) of two independent random variables with normal distributions
will have normal distribution whose variance is equal to (Gerstenkorn and Srodka,
1972):

 2  12   22 (3)

where:  1 – the standard deviation of a random variable W1 distribution, independent

on time,  2 – the standard deviation of a random variable W2 distribution dependent
on time.
The standard deviation in a general case depends on particles' geometric properties,
the average particle density, the partition duration time and hydrodynamic conditions
of the partition (Rafales – Lamarka, 1962).
 A physical model of separation process by means of jigs 231

Dispersing interactions and particle velocity distribution variance in stationary

state
The force under the effect of which particles obtain additional kinetic energy is the
force of interaction between particles. It is equal to the change in momentum of a
particle in a unit of time:

vp
FT   V (4)
t
where:  – particle density, V – particle volume, t – the average time between
collisions, vp – root mean square velocity of a particle conditioned by the
heterogeneity of the liquid velocity field.
The average time between collisions is equal to:


t (5)
vp

where:  – the average distance covered by a particle between collisions (the average
free distance) is equal to (Tichonov, 1968; 1973):

1
 (6)
nS

where: n – a number of particles in a unit of volume, S – a projective plane of a

particle onto the plane perpendicular to the direction of movement.
Since the number of particles in a unit of volume is expressed by a formula:

C 6C
n  , (7)
V k1 d 3p

therefore, the average free distance is equal to:

2 k1d p
 (8)
3 k2 C

where: C – the particle volume concentration in the jig's bed, k1 – the volume shape
coefficient of particle, k2 – the dynamic shape coefficient of particle.
Therefore, the average time between collisions after taking expression (8) into
account is as follows:

2k1d p
t . (9)
3k2Cv p
232 A. Surowiak, M. Brozek

After the substitution of expression (9) into formula (4) we obtain:


FT   k2 v 2p d p2C  0.78  k2 v 2p d p2C . (10)
4

This force depends on the particle density. If it is assumed that the root mean
square velocity of the particle movement is proportional to the additional, random
value of liquid velocity vf conditioned by the heterogeneity of the velocity field, local
turbulences, that is v p  bv f (b – proportionality coefficient) and taken into account
that C  1   (  – loosening coefficient), then:

FT  0.78k2  bv 2f d p2 (1   ) . (11)

It can be seen from formula (11) that the greater degree of loosening, the smaller
the force of interactions between particles.
The following product:

FT    WL (12)

presents the work of the dispersion force over a distance equal to the particle average
free distance. Therefore, the variance  12 of the particles' velocity distribution in the
stationary state is equal to (Smirnova, 1980):

FT  0.78k2b  v f d p (1   )
2 2

 12   (13)
m m

 d 3p
where: m  k1  – the mass of a particle.
6
After the substitution of m into formula (13) we obtain:

1.5k2bv 2f (1   )
 12  . (14)
k1d p

Variance conditioned by a movement of particle grouping centres

Experience shows that the standard deviation characterising the distribution of
particles with given properties around grouping centres decreases over the partition
duration time (Fig. 1). The following expressions (Tichonov, 1968; 1973):

z
p v (15)
t
 A physical model of separation process by means of jigs 233

1 ( z ) 2 1
p  v z   2 (16)
2 t 2

present the velocity of a grouping centre movement and the standard deviation,
respectively. Both the velocity of movement and standard deviation are proportional to
the probability of transition. This probability decreases with approaching the
equilibrium layer and is expressed by the formula:

i z
p 1 1 i (17)
n zmax

where: i – layer’s number, n – amount of layers, zi – the distance from the equilibrium
layer to the position of ith layer, zmax – the distance from the beginning of the system to
the equilibrium layer (Fig. 2).
24

22
, [m2 x 10 -4 ]

20

18

16
2

14
The standard deviation,

-1
12 -2
-3
10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Time, t [s]

Fig. 1. Dependence of standard deviation on time:

1–3 densities accordingly 1.4–1.5; 1.6–1.7; 1.9–2.0 Mg/m3

Taking formula (17) into account, expressions (15) and (16) take the form of:

 z  dz
v  vmax  1   (18)
 zmax  dt

1  z 
 2  vmax 1   zmax (19)
2  zmax 

where: vmax – the maximum value of the velocity of equilibrium centre movement.
234 A. Surowiak, M. Brozek

The dependence of variance on time is developed on the basis of stochastic

processes is as follows (modified formula 19) (Nawrocki, 1972):

1 1
 22  zmax
2
k 2 e  kt  zmax
2
k 2 e  (20)
2 2

Fig. 2. System of elemental layers in a jig. I – a reference level,

II – the equilibrium layer (Nawrocki, 1972)

The constant k occurring in formula (20) presents the correct velocity of a grouping
centre (partition rate constant) of particles with given physical and geometric
properties to its equilibrium layer. Its value should be proportional to the velocity of
particle movement in conditions of constrained movement vsmax, because the higher
velocity of those particles' movement, the faster the grouping centre moves to its
equilibrium layer and it should be inversely proportional to the distance of the
equilibrium layer location from the feed level. At the established partition duration
time determined by the process efficiency, more distant equilibrium layers will be
more blurred and the boundary between centres of particle equilibrium with different
properties less sharp.
Taking the above notes into account, it was assumed that the partition rate constant
is equal to (Surowiak, 2007):

vs max
k (21)
zmax
 A physical model of separation process by means of jigs 235

where: v s max – the maximum velocity of particle movement under constrained

conditions.
The velocity of particle movement in constrained conditions is connected to the
free settling velocity v. For Reynolds numbers Re > 400 and the degree of loosening
 from range (0.5-1.0), it is the following dependence (Minc, 1953):

vs max   0.362(1   )  0.362(1   ) 3 v .

2
 
(22)

After taking the above connection and dependence presenting the settling velocity
 k1 
of irregular particle v  5.33 x d p   into account (Brozek and Surowiak, 2010),
 k2 
the partition rate constant is expressed by the formula:

k1
5.33 xd p
k2 
0.362(1   )  0.362(1   ) 3 
2
k (23)
zmax  

  o
where: x  - reduced particle density,  – particle density, o – medium density.
o
By replacing  in expression (20) from the following dependence:

Q 3600  h 3600  hk
q   (24)
bl t 

we obtain:

1  3600  hk 
 22  zmax
2
k 2 exp    (25)
2  q 

where: q – capacity per unit of jig bed surface, Q – jig capacity,  – mean particles
density, h – height of jig’s bed, b – jig bed’s width, l – jig bed’s length.

The dispersion function

In the non-stationary state of the particle system in the jig's chamber, the movement of
random nature, resulting from collisions between particles, overlaps the particle
movement conditioned by deterministic forces. Local turbulences created in spaces
between particles transfer energy of whirls to particles adjacent to them (Vinogradov,
1965, after Samylin 1976). It is a source of the additional random movement between
236 A. Surowiak, M. Brozek

particles. A result of this random, additional kinetic energy is the particle movement
velocity distribution around the most probable value.
It was assumed that the distribution of the random particle velocity component
along the vertical axis (axis z), that is the dispersion function, has the Maxwell
distribution of the velocity component (Smirnova, 1980):

1  (v  vr ) 2 
t (v )  exp    (26)
2   2 2 

where: vr – the most probable value of the particle velocity, while  2   12   22 .

It is thus a normal distribution. Taking dependences (14) and (24) into account, the
standard deviation is equal to:
1.5k 2bv 2f (1   ) 1 2 2  3600 śr hk 
2   zmax k exp   . (27)
k1d p 2  q 
After a long time of partition (infinitely long in theory), taking formula (20) into
account:
1.5k2bv 2f (1   )
lim    2 2
1 . (28)
t  k1d p

It is the standard deviation in the stationary state. When velocity vf goes to zero,
that is when the value of the dispersing force goes to zero ( v f  0 ), then the standard
deviation 1 goes to zero. The dispersion function for such a situation, that is the
following limit:
1  (v  vr ) 2 
lim exp      (v  vr ) (29)
1 0 2  1  2 12 

is equal to function δ-Dirac (Byron and Fuller, 1975), that is:

lim t (v)   (v  vr ) . (30)

v f 0

It means that all particles with settling velocity vr are in their equilibrium layer.

Partition function (recovery of the i-th fraction) and probable error

The partition function (recovery of the i-th fraction) specifying the probability of
getting a particle with terminal velocity v to tailings (in the case of coal) is presented
by the formula:
 A physical model of separation process by means of jigs 237

v v   v  vr 2  vv 
T (v )   t (v)dv    2 2  dv     r 
exp (31)
  

where:  – the Laplace function, σ – the standard deviation.

The partition function (recovery of the i-th fraction) expressed by formula (31)
constitutes the distribution function of a normal distribution. In Fig. 3, there are
presented forms of the partition curve for three values of velocity vf in the stationary
state.

Fig. 3. Partition curve for three velocity values: v1 f  v 2 f , v3 f  0

The probable error being a measure of the partition accuracy according to the
definition is equal to:

v (T  0.75)  v (T  0.25)
Ep  (32)
2

It is the so-called quartile deviation equal to a half of the difference between the
third and first quartile and for the normal distribution it is equal to:

E p  0.67 . (33)

Taking (27) into account, the probable error is expressed by the formula:

1.5k2bv 2f (1   ) 1 2 2  3600  hk 
E p  0.67  zmax k exp   . (34)
k1d p 2  q 
238 A. Surowiak, M. Brozek

Based on formulas (28) and (23), the probable error in the general case depends on
physical and geometric properties of a particle, the bed height, specific yield,
hydrodynamic conditions of partition (through  ). It decreases with the increase in
particle size, a degree of bed loosening and the partition rate constant, while it
increases with the increase in the bed height. It also depends on the shape of the
mixture particles.
For the stationary state:

k2b(1   )
E p  0.82v f . (35)
k1d p

When velocity vf increases, then in accordance with formula (21) the standard
deviation  1 increases. Therefore, with the unlimited increase in velocity vf is

1
lim T (v)  . (36)
v f  2

The partition curve has thus a form of a horizontal line, parallel to v-axis. It is
equivalent to no partition. Such a situation can occur in the case of partition of fine
particles with too high frequency and amplitude of the pulsating movement.
In the stationary state, particle dispersion is connected to the existence of
interactions between particles conditioned by the heterogeneity of the liquid velocity
field in the jig's bed which is characterised by the value of vf. At no interactions, that is
for the ideal partition, the partition function (recovery of the i-th fraction) with
consideration of dependence (30) is expressed by the following formula (Byron and
Fuller, 1975):
v v
T (v )   t (v)dv    (v  v )dv  H (v  v )
 
r r (37)

where H (v  vr ) is the Heaviside function. The Heaviside function is specified as

follows:

0 for v  vr
H (v  vr )   (38)
1 for v  vr

1
Considering the fact that according to formula (31) T (v  vr )  the partition
2
function at the ideal stratification is presented as follows:
 A physical model of separation process by means of jigs 239

0 for v  vr
1

T (v )   for v  vr (39)
2
 1 for v  vr
.
In Fig. 3, there is a graph of the partition curve described by formula (39) (curve 3). It
is thus a curve for the ideal partition. Its equation results directly from the general
equation of the dispersion function and partition function through the crossing point
corresponding to the condition of the ideal partition. Particles with settling velocity
v  vr with the identical probability equal to 1/2 reach the concentrate and tailing.
The probable error is equal to zero.

Empirical verification
Based on data obtained from the industrial experiment which consisted in testing a
fines jig upgrading bituminous coal, distributions of geometric (sizes of particles and
their shape coefficients) and densimetric properties (density) of the feed particles and
the partition products were calculated (Niedoba, 2013; Surowiak, 2007; Surowiak and
Brozek, 2014a,b). In order to calculate the partition accuracy, the partition curve
coordinates for two variations: when the partition property is the particle density and
the particle settling velocity were calculated. For the purposes of this work, one size
fraction 8 -10 mm was chosen and partition numbers and the partition accuracy were
calculated within this size fraction for both variations.
With functions of the settling velocity distribution density in tailing
and the feed in narrow size fraction 8 – 10 mm (Surowiak, 2014), it is possible to
calculate partition numbers (recovery of the i-th fraction) for tailing and a given value
of the settling velocity using the formula (Surowiak, 2007):

ho (v )
T (v )   o (40)
h (v )

where: T(v) – a partition number (recovery of the i-th fraction) equal to probability of
transferring particles of certain settling velocity v to tailing, γo – tailing yield, ho(v) –
the probability density function of the settling velocity in tailing of size fraction
8–10 mm, h(v) – the probability density function of the settling velocity in the feed of
size fraction 8–10 mm.
For the empirical partition curve obtained in this way, a model dependence, which
is expressed by the normal distribution function, is matched. From the match, a value
of the probable error and value of the cut point are obtained. In Fig. 4, the partition
curve obtained from the match is presented. Its equation is expressed by the following
formula in accordance with dependence (31):
240 A. Surowiak, M. Brozek

 v  0.159 
T (v )    . (41)
 0.018 

The curvilinear correlation index is greater than 0.99. The value of the cut point is
equal to vr = 0.159 m/s, while the probable error on the basis of formula (33) Ep =
0.012 m/s. Imperfection in accordance with the definition expressed by the formula is
Ep
equal to I   0.076 .
vr

1.0
Partition number (recovery of the i-th fraction),

0.8

0.6
T(v) [/]

- experiment
---- - model
0.4

0.2

0.0
0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.30

Settling velocity of particles, v [m/s]

Fig. 4. Partition curve for tailing (8–10 mm size fraction)

In the practice of upgrading and evaluation of partition results in a jig, using

partition curves is adopted when the partition feature is the particle density. Density is
the partition feature in the case of upgrading of the monodisperse spherical particles
sample. Then geometric properties have established identical values for all particles,
and the settling velocity distribution depends only on the particle density distribution.
Although the particle density distribution in a sample is independent of the geometric
properties distribution, the evaluation of the partition accuracy of the device, in which
particle stratification according to the settling velocity occurs, on the basis of density
is burdened with some error due to the existence of the inherent (pre-existents)
probable error, independent of the process course conditions and dependent on the
geometric properties distribution.
In Fig. 5, the partition curve based on results of densimetric analyses provided in
the work (Brozek and Surowiak, 2006; Surowiak, 2007) for size fraction 8–10 mm is
drawn.
 A physical model of separation process by means of jigs 241

Partition number (recovery of the i -th fraction),

100

80

60
T() [/]

- experiment
---- - model
40

20

0
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

Particles density,  [Mg/m3 ]

Fig. 5. Partition curve for 8–10 mm particle size fraction

As other authors' (Paul et al., 1998; Gottfried, 1978) studies have shown, partition
curves for jigs with density as the partition feature are asymmetric curves and are well
approximated by the Weibull distribution. Therefore, the Weibull distribution was
matched to the empirical partition curve. Its equation and values of the partition
density, probable error and imperfection are as follows:

    19.5  
T (  )  100 1  exp      (42)
   1.54   

ρr = 1.505 Mg/m3, Ep = 0.0605 Mg/m3, I = 0.12.

In Fig. 5, the continuous curve presents the model dependence. The curvilinear
correlation index is greater than 0.95. The value of imperfection in this case in greater
than in a situation when partition results are analysed on the basis of the particle
settling velocity. This difference is a result of the fact that the dispersion in the case of
the results analysis according to density is the sum of the inherent and process
dispersion. However, when partition results are analysed according to the settling
velocity, there is only the process dispersion. It can be thus said that the imperfection
difference is a cause coming from the inherent dispersion.

Discussion
The state in which material heterogeneous in terms of physical and geometric
properties in the jig's bed is ideally stratified due to the settling velocity is the state
with the lowest potential energy. It results from Mayer's energy theory. If material
242 A. Surowiak, M. Brozek

partitioned itself into densimetric fractions and apart from that each fraction into
particle size fractions according to the particle pyramid from the biggest to the
smallest, then the layer porosity would be the highest and thus the layer height would
be greater than before (Kuprin et al., 1983). Therefore, after such partition, potential
energy would be greater than before partition. It is contrary to the principle of least
action that processes proceed in the direction of minimum potential energy of the
system. A decrease in porosity will occur when empty spaces between bigger particles
are fulfilled with smaller particles. It will take place in a situation when in the ideally
stratified material, as above, smaller particles with greater density move to a higher
sublayer of greater particles with lower density or the other way round. There will
appear the ideal stratification according to the settling velocity, whose result is the
phenomenon of dispersion of particles with given density to other layers. It is the so-
called inherent dispersion. It can be thus said that from the physical point of view the
inherent dispersion results from the principle of minimising potential energy of the
system of particles heterogeneous in terms of physical and geometric properties. It is
present always when a mixture of mineral particles heterogeneous in terms of
geometric properties is partitioned in a jig or other partitioning devices where the
partition argument is the settling velocity. If the feed particles were spherical particles
with the same diameters, then at the ideal separation there would be no dispersion of
particles to layers inappropriate to them and the value of the inherent dispersion would
be equal to zero.
The inherent dispersion constitutes the first mechanism of dispersion of particles
with given density to other layers. Another mechanism of dispersion are mutual
collisions of particles between each other due to the heterogeneity of the liquid
velocity field. It is the so-called process dispersion which is always present regardless
of what physical properties is the partition feature (density or settling velocity). If
material heterogeneous in terms of physical and geometric properties is partitioned,
then the settling velocity is the partition feature. Analysing the partition results on the
basis of this feature, the lower value of imperfection is obtained because there is no
inherent dispersion in this case. However, in analysing the results of such material
partition with the use of the particle density as the partition feature, the greater value
of imperfection is obtained because it is the result of the inherent and process
dispersion's influence on the partition accuracy.

Acknowledgements
This work was performed as a part of the AGH University of Science and Technology Research Program
No.11.11.100.276 project.

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