Ucucuc

Tikrit University
Chemical Engineering Department
Mass Transfer
Third Year
By
Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Daham
Mass Transfer Third Year Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Daham
Title: Mass Transfer
Course Instructor: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Daham Wiheeb
Textbook:
1. Coulson J.M. & Richardson J.F., Chemical Engineering, Volume 1, six edition, ELBS,
Pergamon Press. 2002.
2. Coulson J.M. & Richardson J.F., Chemical Engineering, Volume 2, fifth edition, ELBS,
Pergamon Press. 2002.
References:
1. Treybal R.E., Mass Transfer Operations, McGraw Hill
2. McCabe W.L., Smith J.C. & Harriott P., Unit Operations in Chemical Engineering,
McGraw Hill.
3. Seader J.D.& Henley E.J., Separation Process Principles.
4. Rousseau R.W., Handbook of Separation Process Technology, John Wiley
5. Foust A.S. et al, Principles of Unit Operations, John Wiley
Course description:
This course covers the fundamentals of the basic concepts of mass transport
and understanding about diffusion theory, gas absorption, liquid-liquid
extraction, leaching , distillation, humidification, drying and evaporation.
Objectives:
To give the students a application of diffusion theory to simple mass
transfer problems. Analysis of chemical engineering unit operations involving
mass transfer. Design principles for mass transfer equipment. Solids/Liquids
separation processes. liquids/Liquids separation processes. gases/Liquids
separation processes.
Grading:
No. Assessment Number % each % total Dates

1 Homework (HW), Quizzes(Q) 10 % 10
2 Test 1 1 7.5 % 7.5
3 Test 2 1 7.5 % 7.5
4 Test 3 1 7.5 % 7.5
5 Test 4 1 7.5 % 7.5
6 Final Exam (F) 1 60 % 60
Overall Total 100
2
Syllabus:
No Topic Hours
1 Diffusion , flick's law, modes of diffusion 4
2 Multi-components mixture, correction of diffusivity 4
3 Diffusion in varying cross section area 4
4 Diffusivity coefficient in liquid and gas 2
5 Mass transfer theory 2
6 Mass transfer coefficient, wetted wall column 4
7 Absorption, equilibrium of gas and liquid 4
8 Packed tower 6
9 Tray tower 6
10 Calculation of tower diameter, stripping 2
11 Extraction , differential type 4
12 Completely immiscible 4
13 Party miscible 4
14 Leaching, batch leaching 4
15 Continuous leaching, constant under flow 4
16 Continuous leaching, variable under flow 4
17 Distillation , vapor-liquid equilibrium 4
18 Differential type 2
19 flash distillation 2
20 Continuous distillation (binary system) 6
21 Calculation the number of stages and reflux ration in continuous 4
distillation
22 Multi-feeds and side stream , lewis sorial method 6
23 Ponchon-savarit method 4
24 Batch distillation with constant reflux ratio 6
and with constant product composition
25 Multi-component distillation 4
26 Humidification , humidity 2
27 Cooling tower calculation 2
28 Height of cooling tower, carey method 4
29 Drying process 6
30 Evaporation 4
3
Chapter (10) in Volume (1)

((Diffusion))
The term diffusion (mass transfer) is used to denote the transference of a component in
a mixture from a region where its concentration is high to a region where the concentration is
lower. Diffusion process can take place in a gas or vapour or in a liquid, and it can result from
the random velocities of the molecules (molecular diffusion) or from the circulating or eddy
currents present in a turbulent fluid (eddy diffusion).
Diffusion depends on:

1. Driving force (ΔC), moles per unit volume (kmol/m3).
2. The distance in the direction of transfer (Δz), meter (m).
3. Diffusivity coefficient, unit area per unit time (m2/s).
Fick's Law of diffusion:

The rate of diffusion is governed by Fick's Law, first proposed by Fick in 1855 which
expresses the mass transfer rate as a linear function of the molar concentration gradient. In a
mixture of two gases A and B, assumed ideal, Fick's Law for steady state diffusion may be
written as:
4
∆CA
JA α
∆z
dCA
JA = − DAB ………… Fick ′ s first law of steady state diffusion
dz
Where:
kmol
JA : is the molecular diffusion flux of A , (moles per unit area per unit time) .
m 2 .s
kmol
CA: is the concentration of A (moles of A per unit volume) .
m3
DAB: is known as the diffusivity or diffusion coefficient for A in B (unit area per unit time)
m2
s
z: is distance in the direction of transfer (m).
Diffusion with bulk of mass in motion:

The Fick's first law of diffusion describes the mass transfer from the random movement
of molecules of a stationary medium or a fluid in streamline flow. If circulating currents or
eddies are present, then the molecular mechanism will be reinforced and the total mass
transfer rate may be written as:
Total diffusion = Molecular diffusion + Convection term
Convection term = Eddy diffusion = Molar flux due to convection
Convection term = Concentration * mass transfer velocity = CA . V
Where:
𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥
𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐟𝐥𝐮𝐱 𝐍𝐀 + 𝐍𝐁 𝟐 𝐦
𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐞𝐫 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐕 = = = 𝐦 .𝐬 =
𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐂𝐓 𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐬
𝐦 𝟑
Total diffusion = NA = JA + CA . V
𝐝𝐂𝐀 𝐂𝐀
𝐍𝐀 = −𝐃𝐀𝐁 + 𝐍𝐀 + 𝐍𝐁 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝟏)
𝐝𝐳 𝐂𝐓
Total diffusion equation in the form of concentration (normally used for liquids)
5
The total diffusion equation can be write in another forms:
a. Partial pressure for gases.

b. Mole fraction for gases and liquids.
a. Total diffusion equation in the partial pressure form:

If A and B are ideal gases in a mixture, the ideal gas law may be applied to each gas
separately and to the mixture:
n
PV=nRT P = RT
V
P =CRT
PA = CA R T and PT = CT R T
PA
CA =
RT
1
dCA = dP
RT A
−𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐝𝐏𝐀 𝐏𝐀
𝐍𝐀 = + 𝐍𝐀 + 𝐍𝐁 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝟐)
𝐑𝐓 𝐝𝐳 𝐏𝐓
Total diffusion equation in the form of partial pressure (normally used for gases)
b. Total diffusion equation in the mole fraction form:
PA CA
XA = or XA =
PT CT
PT XA = PA and CT XA = CA
PT dXA = dPA and CT dXA = dCA
Then:
− 𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐏𝐓 𝐝𝐗 𝐀
𝐍𝐀 = + 𝐗 𝐀 𝐍𝐀 + 𝐍𝐁 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝟑)
𝐑𝐓 𝐝𝐳
Total diffusion equation in the form of mole fraction (used for gases and liquids)
6
Modes of diffusion
There are two modes of diffusion:
Diffusion
(1( (2(
Stagnant diffusion Counter diffusion
𝐍𝐁 = 𝟎
 In absorption
process (i( (ii(
Equimolecular Unequimolecular
Counter diffusion Counter diffusion
𝐍𝐁 = − 𝐍𝐀 𝐍𝐁 = −𝐧 𝐍𝐀
 In distillation  In chemical
column reaction
1. Stagnant diffusion (Mass transfer through a stationary second component):
In several important processes, one component in a gaseous mixture will be transported

relative to a fixed plane, such as a liquid interface, for example, and the other will undergo no
net movement. In gas absorption a soluble gas A is transferred to the liquid surface where it
dissolves, whereas the insoluble gas B undergoes no net movement with respect to the
interface. Similarly, in evaporation from a free surface, the vapour moves away from the
surface but the air has no net movement. The mass transfer process therefore:
𝐍𝐀 = + 𝐍𝐀 + 𝐍𝐁 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (1)
Since stagnant diffusion layer: NB = 0
7
𝐍𝐀 = + 𝐍𝐀 … … … . … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
𝐏𝐀 −𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐝𝐏𝐀
𝐍𝐀 𝟏 − = … … … … … … … . . . … … … … … … … … … … . … (3)
𝐏𝐓 𝐑𝐓 𝐝𝐳
−𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝟏 𝐝𝐏𝐀
𝐍𝐀 = … … … … … … … . . . … … … … … … … … … … . … (4)
𝐑𝐓 𝐝𝐳 𝐏
𝟏 − 𝐏𝐀
𝐓
−𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐏𝐓 𝐝𝐏𝐀
𝐍𝐀 = … … … … … … … . . . … … … … … … … … … … . … (5)
𝐑𝐓 𝐝𝐳 𝐏𝐓 − 𝐏𝐀
𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐏𝐓 𝐏𝐓 − 𝐏𝐀𝟐
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐥𝐧
𝐑𝐓 𝐳𝟐 − 𝐳𝟏 𝐏𝐓 − 𝐏𝐀𝟏
Example 10.1: Ammonia gas is diffusing at a constant rate through a layer of stagnant air
1 mm thick. Conditions are such that the gas contains 50 percent by volume ammonia at one
boundary of the stagnant layer. The ammonia diffusing to the other boundary is quickly
absorbed and the concentration is negligible at that plane. The temperature is 295 K and the
pressure atmospheric, and under these conditions the diffusivity of ammonia in air is 0.18
cm2/s. Estimate the rate of diffusion of ammonia through the layer.
Solution:
If the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the two sides of the stagnant layer and the subscripts A and B refer
to ammonia and air respectively, then the rate of diffusion through a stagnant layer is given by:
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐥𝐧
𝐑𝐓 𝐳𝟐 − 𝐳𝟏 𝐏𝐓 − 𝐏𝐀𝟏
Where:
𝐏𝐓 = 101.3 kPa , 𝐏𝐀𝟐 = 0 , 𝐏𝐀𝟏 = yA PT = 0.5 ∗ 101.3 = 50.65 kPa
∆𝐳 = 𝐳𝟐 − 𝐳𝟏 = 1 mm = 1 ∗ 10−3 m
kJ 𝑐𝑚2 𝑚2
𝐑 = 8.314 , 𝐓 = 298 K and DAB = 0.18 = 1.8 ∗ 10−5
kmol . K 𝑠 𝑠
8
1.8 ∗ 10−5 101.3 101.3 − 0 −4

kmol
𝐍𝐀 = ln = 5.153 ∗ 10
8.314 ∗ 295 1 ∗ 10−3 101.3 − 50.65 m2 . s
2. Counter diffusion:
i. Equimolecular counter diffusion:
When the mass transfer rates of the two components are equal and opposite the process
is said to be one of equimolecular counter diffusion. Such a process occurs in the case of the
box with a movable partition. It occurs also in a distillation column when the molar latent
heats of the two components are the same (λA = λB) . At any point in the column a falling
stream of liquid is brought into contact with a rising stream of vapour with which it is not in
equilibrium. The less volatile component is transferred from the vapour to the liquid and the
more volatile component is transferred in the opposite direction. If the molar latent heats of
the components are equal, the condensation of a given amount of less volatile component
releases exactly the amount of latent heat required to volatilize the same molar quantity of the
more volatile component. Thus at the interface, and consequently throughout the liquid and
vapour phases, equimolecular counter diffusion is taking place (NB = - NA).
𝐍𝐀 = + 𝐍𝐀 + 𝐍𝐁 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (1)
Since equimolecular counter diffusion: NB = - NA
𝐍𝐀 = + 𝐍𝐀 − 𝐍𝐀 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
−𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐝𝐏𝐀
𝐍𝐀 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (3)
𝐑𝐓 𝐝𝐳
−𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐝𝐏𝐀
𝐍𝐀 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4)
𝐑𝐓 𝐝𝐳
−𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐏𝐀𝟐 − 𝐏𝐀𝟏

𝐍𝐀 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (5)
𝐑𝐓 𝐳𝟐 − 𝐳𝟏
𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐏𝐀𝟏 − 𝐏𝐀𝟐

𝐍𝐀 =
𝐑𝐓 𝐳 𝟐 − 𝐳𝟏
9
Drift Factor:
For stagnant diffusion:
DAB PT PT − PA 2
NA = ln
RT ∆z PT − PA 1
DAB PT PT − PA 2 − PT − PA 1 PT − PA 2
NA = ln
RT ∆z PT − PA 2 − PT − PA 1 PT − PA 1
From Dalton's Law of partial pressures: PT = PA + PB
By definition, PBm , the logarithmic mean of PB 1 and PB 2 , is given by:
PT − PA 2 − PT − PA 1 PB 2 − PB 1
= = PBm
PT − PA PB
ln P − P 2 ln P 2
T A1 B1
D AB 1 PT
NA = PA 1 − PA 2
RT ∆z P Bm
PT
Where: is known as the drift factor.
P Bm
PT
If the drift factor = = 1 ( this happen when the concentration of component A
P Bm
being transferred is low)
Then,
D AB PA −PA
1 2
NA =
RT z 2 −z 1
PT
* Thus the bulk flow enhances the mass transfer rate by a factor , known as
P Bm
the drift factor.
10
Example: In an air-carbon dioxide mixture at 298 K and 202.6 kPa, the concentration of CO2
at two planes (3 mm) apart are 15 vol.% and 25 vol.%. The diffusivity of CO2 in air at 298 K
and 202.6 kPa is 8.2*10-6 m2/s. Calculate the rate of transfer of CO2 across the two planes,
assuming:
a. Equimolecular counter diffusion.

b. Diffusion of CO2 through a stagnant air layer.
Solution:
PA 1 = yA 1 . PT = 0.15 202.6 = 30.39 kPa
PA 2 = yA 2 . PT = 0.25 202.6 = 50.65 kPa
a. Equimolecular counter diffusion.

DAB PA1 − PA2
NA =
RT z2 − z1
8.2 ∗ 10−6 kmol
NA = 50.65 − 30.39 = 2.23 ∗ 10−5
8.314 298 (3 ∗ 10−6 ) m2 . s
b. Stagnant diffusion.
DAB PT PT − PA 2
NA = ln
RT ∆z PT − PA 1
8.2 ∗ 10−6 202.6 202.6 − 30.39 kmol

NA = ln = 2.79 ∗ 10−5
8.314 298 3 ∗ 10−6 202.6 − 50.65 m2 . s
ii. Unequimolecular counter diffusion:

When the mass transfer rates of the two components are unequal and opposite, the
process is said to be the unequimolecular diffusion, such a process occurs in a chemical
reaction.
𝐍𝐀 = + 𝐍𝐀 + 𝐍𝐁 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (1)
Since unequimolecular counter diffusion: NB = - n NA
11
𝐍𝐀 = + 𝐍𝐀 − 𝐧 𝐍𝐀 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
𝐏𝐀 −𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐝𝐏𝐀
𝐍𝐀 𝟏 − 𝟏−𝐧 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (3)
𝐏𝐓 𝐑𝐓 𝐝𝐳
−𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐏𝐓 𝐝𝐏𝐀
𝐍𝐀 = . . … … … … … … … … … . . … … … … … … (4)
𝐑𝐓 𝐝𝐳 𝐏
𝟏 − 𝐏𝐀 𝟏−𝐧
𝐓
−𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝟏 𝐝𝐏𝐀
𝐍𝐀 = . . … … … … … … … … … . . … … … … … … (5)
𝐑𝐓 ∆𝐳 𝐏𝐓 − 𝐏𝐀 𝟏 − 𝐧
𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐏𝐓 𝟏 𝐏𝐓 − 𝟏 − 𝐧 𝐏𝐀𝟐
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐥𝐧
𝐑𝐓 ∆𝐳 𝟏−𝐧 𝐏𝐓 − 𝟏 − 𝐧 𝐏𝐀𝟏
Example: Species A in a gaseous mixture diffuses through a (3 mm) thick film and reaches a
catalyst surface where the reaction A → 3B takes place. If the partial pressure of A in the
bulk of the gas is 8.5 kN/m2 and the diffusivity of A is 2*10-5 m2/s. Find the mole flux of A,
given the pressure and temperature of the system are 101.3 kPa and 297 K, respectively.
Solution:
A → 3B
𝐍𝐁 𝟑
𝐧= = =𝟑
𝐍𝐀 𝟏
Given:
−5 m2
DAB = 2 ∗ 10 , PT = 101.3 kPa
s
T = 297 K , PA 1 = 8.5 kPa
PA 2 = 0
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐥𝐧
𝐑𝐓 ∆𝐳 𝟏−𝐧 𝐏𝐓 − 𝟏 − 𝐧 𝐏𝐀𝟏
2 ∗ 10−5 101.3 1 101.3 + 2(0) kmol
𝐍𝐀 = ln = 2.12 ∗ 10−5
8.314 ∗ 297 3 ∗ 10−3 1−3 101.3 + 2(8.5) m2 . s
12
Maxwell's Law for multicomponent mass transfer

This argument can be applied to the diffusion of a constituent of a multicomponent gas.
Considering the transfer of component A through a stationary gas consisting of components
B, C, D, ... etc, if the total partial pressure gradient can be regarded as being made up of
a series of terms each representing the contribution of the individual component gases. The
mass transfer rate can be calculated from the previous equations using the effective diffusivity
of A in the mixture (DAm).
Calculation of the effective diffusivity of (A) in the mixture (DAm):
Let A be the diffusing species through stagnant mixture of B, C, D ….. etc.
𝐝𝐗 𝐀
𝐍𝐀 = − 𝐃𝐀𝐦 𝐂𝐓 + 𝐗 𝐀 𝐍𝐀 + 𝐍𝐁 + 𝐍𝐂 + 𝐍𝐃 … … … … … … … … … … (𝟏)
𝐝𝐳
Where: DAm is the effective diffusivity of A in the mixture.
Since stagnant diffusion layer of the mixture: NB = NC = ND = 0
𝐝𝐗 𝐀
𝐍𝐀 = − 𝐃𝐀𝐦 𝐂𝐓 + 𝐗 𝐀 𝐍𝐀 … … … … … … … … … … (𝟐)
𝐝𝐳
𝐍𝐀 𝟏 − 𝐗 𝐀 𝐝𝐗 𝐀
= − … … … … … … … … … … (𝟑)
𝐂𝐓 𝐃𝐀𝐦 𝐝𝐳
Now consider binary system for diffusion of A in B.

𝐝𝐗 𝐀
𝐍𝐀 = − 𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐂𝐓 + 𝐗 𝐀 𝐍𝐀 + 𝐍𝐁
𝐝𝐳
Since stagnant diffusion layer: NB = 0
𝐝𝐗 𝐀
𝐍𝐀 = − 𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐂𝐓 + 𝐗 𝐀 𝐍𝐀
𝐝𝐳
𝐝𝐗 𝐀
𝐍𝐀 𝟏 − 𝐗 𝐀 = − 𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐂𝐓
𝐝𝐳
= −
𝐂𝐓 𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐝𝐳
But: 𝟏 − 𝐗𝐀 = 𝐗𝐁 −𝐝𝐗 𝐀 = 𝐝𝐗 𝐁
13
𝐍𝐀 𝐗 𝐁 𝐝𝐗 𝐁
= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (𝟒)
𝐂𝐓 𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐝𝐳
Similarly for diffusion of A in C.

𝐝𝐗 𝐀
𝐍𝐀 = − 𝐃𝐀𝐂 𝐂𝐓 + 𝐗 𝐀 𝐍𝐀 + 𝐍𝐂
𝐝𝐳
Since stagnant diffusion layer: NC = 0
𝐝𝐗 𝐀
𝐍𝐀 = − 𝐃𝐀𝐂 𝐂𝐓 + 𝐗 𝐀 𝐍𝐀
𝐝𝐳
𝐝𝐗 𝐀
𝐍𝐀 𝟏 − 𝐗 𝐀 = − 𝐃𝐀𝐂 𝐂𝐓
𝐝𝐳
= −
𝐂𝐓 𝐃𝐀𝐂 𝐝𝐳
But: 𝟏 − 𝐗𝐀 = 𝐗𝐂 −𝐝𝐗 𝐀 = 𝐝𝐗 𝐂
𝐍𝐀 𝐗 𝐂 𝐝𝐗 𝐂
= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (𝟓)
𝐂𝐓 𝐃𝐀𝐂 𝐝𝐳
Similarly for diffusion of A in D.

𝐝𝐗 𝐀
𝐍𝐀 = − 𝐃𝐀𝐃 𝐂𝐓 + 𝐗 𝐀 𝐍𝐀 + 𝐍𝐃
𝐝𝐳
Since stagnant diffusion layer: ND = 0
𝐝𝐗 𝐀
𝐍𝐀 = − 𝐃𝐀𝐃 𝐂𝐓 + 𝐗 𝐀 𝐍𝐀
𝐝𝐳
𝐝𝐗 𝐀
𝐍𝐀 𝟏 − 𝐗 𝐀 = − 𝐃𝐀𝐃 𝐂𝐓
𝐝𝐳
= −
𝐂𝐓 𝐃𝐀𝐃 𝐝𝐳
But: 𝟏 − 𝐗𝐀 = 𝐗𝐃 −𝐝𝐗 𝐀 = 𝐝𝐗 𝐃
𝐍𝐀 𝐗 𝐃 𝐝𝐗 𝐃
= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (𝟔)
𝐂𝐓 𝐃𝐀𝐃 𝐝𝐳
14
Now adding Equations (4), (5) and (6):
𝐍𝐀 𝐗𝐁 𝐗𝐂 𝐗𝐃 𝐝(𝐗 𝐁 + 𝐗 𝐂 + 𝐗 𝐃 )
+ + =
𝐂𝐓 𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐃𝐀𝐂 𝐃𝐀𝐃 𝐝𝐳
But: 𝐗𝐁 + 𝐗𝐂 + 𝐗𝐃 = 𝟏 − 𝐗𝐀
𝐝(𝐗 𝐁 + 𝐗 𝐂 + 𝐗 𝐃 ) 𝐝𝐗 𝐀
=−
𝐝𝐳 𝐝𝐳
𝐍𝐀 𝐗 𝐁 𝐗𝐂 𝐗𝐃 𝐍𝐀 𝟏 − 𝐗 𝐀
+ + =
𝐂𝐓 𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐃𝐀𝐂 𝐃𝐀𝐃 𝐂𝐓 𝐃𝐀𝐦
𝟏 − 𝐗𝐀 𝐗𝐁 𝐗𝐂 𝐗𝐃
= + +
𝐃𝐀𝐦 𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐃𝐀𝐂 𝐃𝐀𝐃
For dilute mixture (low concentration of A), XA → 0
𝟏 𝐗𝐁 𝐗𝐂 𝐗𝐃
= + +
𝐃𝐀𝐦 𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐃𝐀𝐂 𝐃𝐀𝐃
Example: Nitrogen is diffusing under steady condition through a mixture of 2% N2, 20%
C2H6 , 30% C2H4 and 48% C4H10 at 298 K and 100 kPa. The partial pressure of nitrogen at
two planes (1 mm ) apart are 13.3 & 6.67 kPa, respectively. Calculate the rate of N2 across the
two planes. The diffusivity of N2 through C4H10 , C2H6 and C2H4 may be taken as 9.6*10-6
m2/s , 14.8*10-6 m2/s and 16.3*10-6 m2/s, respectively.
Solution:
Since stagnant diffusion:
DAm PT PT − PA 2
NA = ln
RT ∆z PT − PA 1
1 − yA yB yC yD
= + +
DAm DAB DAC DAD
1 − 0.02 0.48 0.2 0.3

= −6
+ −6
+
DAm 9.6 ∗ 10 14.8 ∗ 10 16.3 ∗ 10−6
−5
m2
DAm = 1.22 ∗ 10
s
1.22 ∗ 10−5 100 100 − 6.67 kmol
NA = ln = 0.0492
8.314 ∗ 298 0.001 100 − 13.3 m2 . s
15
Diffusivities of gases and vapours

Experimental values of diffusivities are given in Table 10.2 for a number of gases and
vapours in air at 298K and atmospheric pressure. The table also includes values of the
Schmidt number Sc, the ratio of the kinematic viscosity (μ/A) to the diffusivity (D) for very
low concentrations of the diffusing gas or vapour. The importance of the Schmidt number in
problems involving mass transfer is discussed later.
Experimental determination of diffusivities
Diffusivities of vapours are most conveniently determined by the method developed by

Winkelmann in which liquid is allowed to evaporate in a vertical glass tube over the top of
which a stream of vapour-free gas is passed, at a rate such that the vapour pressure is
maintained almost at zero (Figure 10.2). If the apparatus is maintained at a steady
temperature, there will be no eddy currents in the vertical tube and mass transfer will take
place from the surface by molecular diffusion alone. The rate of evaporation can be followed
by the rate of fall of the liquid surface, and since the concentration gradient is known, the
diffusivity can then be calculated.
16
DAB PT PT − PA 2
NA = ln … … … … … … … … (1)
RT ∆z PT − PA 1
D AB 1 PT
NA = PA 1 − PA 2
RT z P Bm
D AB CT
NA = CA 1 − CA 2
z C Bm
Material balance on component A over dz:

In = out ( in kg)
(A * dz) ρL =NA * A * M.wt * dt out
ρL dz dz
NA = … … … … … … … . . (2)
Mwt dt
in
Substitute Eq.(1) in to Eq.(2). To get:
ρL dz DAB PT PT − PA 2
= ln
Mwt dt RT z PT − PA 1
t z2
DAB PT PT − PA 2 ρL
ln dt = z dz
RT ∆z PT − PA 1 Mwt
0 z1
17
ρL . z2 2 − z1 2 . RT
DAB =
PT − PA 2
Mwt . 2t . PT . ln
PT − PA 1
Where:
ρL is the liquid density (kg/m3).
Mwt is the molecular weight of liquid.
PA 2 = 0 (always).
DAB CT
NA = CA 1 − CA 2 … … … … … … … … … … … … . (3)
z CBm
Since PA 2 = CA 2 = 0
Let CA 1 = CA
CA CT
NA = DAB … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4)
z CBm
Substitute Eq.(4) in to Eq.(2). To get:
ρL dz C CT
= DAB A
Mwt dt z CBm
2 Mwt . DAB . CA CT
z2 2 − z1 2 = t
ρL CBm
2 Mwt . DAB . CA CT
z2 − z1 (z2 − z1 + 2z1 ) = t
ρL CBm
𝐭 𝛒𝐋 𝐂𝐁𝐦
= 𝐳𝟐 − 𝐳𝟏
𝐳𝟐 − 𝐳𝟏 𝟐 𝐌𝐰𝐭 . 𝐃𝐀𝐁 . 𝐂𝐀 𝐂𝐓
𝛒𝐋 𝐂𝐁𝐦
+ 𝐳𝟏
𝐌𝐰𝐭 . 𝐃𝐀𝐁 . 𝐂𝐀 𝐂𝐓
18
𝐭
If we draw against 𝐳𝟐 − 𝐳𝟏 then:
𝐳𝟐 −𝐳𝟏
ρL CBm
The slope s =
2 Mwt . DAB . CA CT
𝐃𝐀𝐁 =
𝟐 𝐌𝐰𝐭 . 𝐬𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞 . 𝐂𝐀 𝐂𝐓
Example 10.2: The diffusivity of the vapour of a volatile liquid in air can be conveniently
determined by Winkelmann's method in which liquid is contained in a narrow diameter
vertical tube, maintained at a constant temperature, and an air stream is passed over the top of
the tube sufficiently rapidly to ensure that the partial pressure of the vapour there remains
approximately zero. On the assumption that the vapour is transferred from the surface of the
liquid to the air stream by molecular diffusion alone, calculate the diffusivity of carbon
tetrachloride vapour in air at 321 K and atmospheric pressure from the experimental data
given in Table 10.3.
The vapour pressure of carbon tetrachloride at 321 K is 37.6 kN/m2 and the density of the
liquid is 1540 kg/m3. The kilogram molecular volume may be taken as 22.4 m3.
Solution:
𝐭 𝛒𝐋 𝐂𝐁𝐦
= 𝐳𝟐 − 𝐳𝟏
𝐳𝟐 − 𝐳𝟏 𝟐 𝐌𝐰𝐭 . 𝐃𝐀𝐁 . 𝐂𝐀 𝐂𝐓
+ 𝐳𝟏
𝐌𝐰𝐭 . 𝐃𝐀𝐁 . 𝐂𝐀 𝐂𝐓
𝐭
we draw against 𝐳𝟐 − 𝐳𝟏
𝐳𝟐 −𝐳𝟏
19
𝐃𝐀𝐁 =
𝟐 𝐌𝐰𝐭 . 𝐬𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞 . 𝐂𝐀 𝐂𝐓
ks s
𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐬 = 0.031 2
= 3.1 ∗ 107 2
mm m
1 273 kmol
𝐂𝐓 = = 0.038
22.4 321 m3
PT 101.3 kmol
or, CT = = = 0.038
RT 8.314∗321 m3
Mwt = 154 kg/kmol , 𝛒𝐋 = 1540 kg/m3
𝐂𝐀 = mole fraction ∗ 𝐂𝐓
PA 37.6 kmol
𝐂𝐀 = CT = 0.038 = 0.0141
PT 101.3 m3
𝐂𝐁𝟏 = 𝐂𝐓 − 𝐂𝐀𝟏 = 0.038 − 0.0141 = 0.0239
𝐂𝐁𝟐 = 𝐂𝐓 − 𝟎 = 0.038
20
𝐂𝐁𝟐 − 𝐂𝐁𝟏 0.038 − 0.0239 kmol

𝐂𝐁𝐦 = = = 0.0303
𝐂𝐁𝟐 0.038 m3
ln ln
𝐂𝐁𝟏 0.0239
1540 0.0303 −6
m2
𝐃𝐀𝐁 = = 9.12 ∗ 10
2 154 3.1 ∗ 107 (0.0141) 0.038 s
Example: A small diameter tube closed at one end was filled with acetone to within 18 mm
of the top and maintained at 290 K with a gentle stream of air blowing across the top. After
15000 sec, the liquid level was fallen to 27.5 mm, the vapour pressure of acetone was 21.95
kPa and atmospheric pressure was 99.75 kPa. Calculate the diffusivity of acetone in air.
Given: the density of acetone is 790 kg/m3 and the molecular weight of acetone is 58
kg/kmol.
Solution:
ρL . z2 2 − z1 2 . RT
DAB =
PT − PA 2
Mwt . 2t . PT . ln
PT − PA 1
790 0.02752 − 0.0182 8.314 (290) −5

m2
DAB = = 1.9 ∗ 10
99.75 − 0 s
58 . 15000 (99.75) . ln
99.75 − 21.95
21
Prediction of diffusivities
The diffusivity (DAB) for the transfer of one component (A) in another component (B)
can be calculated empirically:
1. Empirical correlation for calculation of gas diffusivity:
The diffusivity (DAB) for the transfer of one gas in another is not known and
experimental determination is not practicable. It is necessary to use one of the many
predictive procedures. The equation developed by Fuller et al. (1966) is easy to apply and
gives reliable estimates:
𝟏 𝟏
𝟏. 𝟎𝟏𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝐓 𝟏.𝟕𝟓 +
𝐌𝐀 𝐌𝐁
𝐃𝐀𝐁 = 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝐏 𝐚 𝐯𝐢 𝟑 + 𝐛 𝐯𝐢 𝟑
Where:
DAB: is the diffusivity of (A) in (B), m2/s.
T: is the temperature, K.
p is the total pressure, bar.
MA, MB are the molecular masses of component (A) and (B).
a vi, b vi : are the summation of the special diffusion volume coefficients for
components a and b, given in Table 8.5.
22
Example: Estimate the diffusivity of methanol in air at atmospheric pressure and 25oC.
Solution:
2. Empirical correlation for calculation of liquid diffusivity:
The equation developed by Wilke and Chang (1955), given below, can be used to
predict liquid diffusivity diffusivities of dilute solutions of non-electrolytes. The Wilke-Chang
equation gives satisfactory predictions for the diffusivity of organic compounds in water but
not for water in organic solvents.
𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟔 ∅𝐁 𝐌𝐁 𝟎.𝟓

𝐓
𝐃𝐀𝐁 =
𝛍 𝐕𝐀𝟎.𝟔
Where:
DAB: is the diffusivity of solute (A) in solvent (B), m2/s.
T: is the absolute temperature, K.
MB : is the molecular weight of the solvent.
μ: is viscosity of the solution, (N s/m2).
VA: is the molar volume of the solute at its boiling point, m3/kmol. Values for simple
molecules are given in Table 10.4. For more complex molecules, VA is calculated by
23
summation of the atomic volume and other contributions given in Table 8.6. It may be
noted that for water a value of 0.0756 m3/kmol should be used.
∅B : is the association factor for the solvent (2.26 for water, 1.9 for methanol, 1.5 for
ethanol and 1.0 for unassociated solvents such as hydrocarbons and ethers).
24
Example: Estimate the diffusivity of phenol in ethanol at 20oC (293 K).
Solution:
* The Wilke-Chang correlation is shown graphically in Figure 8.2. This figure can be used
to determine the association constant for a solvent from experimental values for DAB (DL) in
the solvent. The Wilke-Chang equation gives satisfactory predictions for the diffusivity of
organic compounds in water but not for water in organic solvents.
25
It will be noted from the diffusivity equation is inversely proportional to the pressure and
varies with the absolute temperature raised to the power of 1.5. In order to correct the
diffusivity coefficient given in Table (10.2) we use the equation below:
𝟏.𝟓
𝐃𝐀𝐁 (𝟏) 𝐓𝟏 𝐏𝟐
=
𝐃𝐀𝐁 (𝟐) 𝐓𝟏 𝐓𝟏
Where:
DAB(1) is the diffusivity at T1 and P1 given in Table (10.2) at 298 K and 101.3 kPa.
DAB(2) is the diffusivity at T2 and P2 .
Unsteady-state Diffusion
Considering an element of gas of cross-sectional area A and of thickness δy in the
direction of mass transfer in which the concentrations CA and CB of the components A and B
are a function of both position y and time t (See Figure below), then if the mass transfer
flux is composed of two components, one attributable to diffusion according to Fick's Law
and the other to a bulk flow velocity uf, the fluxes of A and B at a distance y from the origin
may be taken as NA and NB, respectively. These will increase to NA+ (dNA/dy) δy and NB+
(dNB/dy) δy at a distance y + δy from the origin.
26
Fick's second law for unsteady state diffusion in one direction
This equation can be solved for a number of important boundary conditions. For the more
general three-dimensional case where concentration gradients are changing in the x, y and z
directions, these changes must be added to give:
Fick's second law for unsteady state diffusion in three direction
27
Diffusion through a varying cross-section area
kmol
The mole rate ( NA , ) through a system of a varying cross section area is constant, while
s
kmol
the mole flux ( NA , ) is variable. The mass transfer through a cone and sphere can be
m 2 .s
consider as a mass transfer through a system of varying cross section area. On the other hand,
the transfer through a cylinder can be consider as a mass transfer through a system of constant
cross section area.
kmol
mole rate NA kmol
NA = = = s2 = 2
surface area A m m .s
NA1 = NA2 = NA3 NA1 > NA2 > NA3
PA1 = PV
28
Diffusion through a spherical body
𝐍𝐀 = −𝐃𝐀𝐁 + 𝐍𝐀 + 𝐍𝐁 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝟏)
𝐝𝐫 𝐂𝐓
𝐍𝐀 𝐝𝐂𝐀 𝐂𝐀 𝐍𝐀 𝐍𝐁
= −𝐃𝐀𝐁 + + … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝟐)
𝐀 𝐝𝐫 𝐂𝐓 𝐀 𝐀
𝐍𝐀 = −𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐀 + 𝐍𝐀 + 𝐍𝐁 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝟑)
𝐝𝐫 𝐂𝐓
But: The surface area of sphere = A = 4π r 2
𝐍𝐀 = − 𝟒𝛑 𝐫 𝟐 𝐃𝐀𝐁 + 𝐍𝐀 + 𝐍𝐁 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝟒)
𝐝𝐫 𝐂𝐓
Case (I): Diffusion through a stagnant layer (𝐍𝐁 = 𝟎):
𝐍𝐀 = − 𝟒𝛑 𝐫 𝟐 𝐃𝐀𝐁 + 𝐍𝐀 + 𝟎
𝐝𝐫 𝐂𝐓
𝐝𝐂𝐀
𝐍𝐀 𝟏 − 𝐂𝐀 = − 𝟒𝛑 𝐫 𝟐 𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐂𝐓
𝐝𝐫
𝐫𝟏
𝐝𝐫 𝐂𝐓 − 𝐂𝐀𝟐
𝐍𝐀 = 𝟒𝛑 𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐂𝐓 𝐥𝐧
𝐫 𝟐 𝐂𝐓 − 𝐂𝐀𝟏
𝐫𝟎
𝟒𝛑 𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐂𝐓 𝐂𝐓 − 𝐂𝐀𝟐
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐥𝐧 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (1)
𝟏 𝟏 𝐂𝐓 − 𝐂𝐀𝟏
−
𝐫𝟎 𝐫𝟏
The most important things is to calculate the mass transfer rate for the sphere surface where
the surface area is constant ( 𝟒𝛑 𝐫𝟎𝟐 ):
𝐍𝐀 . 𝐀 = 𝐥𝐧
𝟏 𝟏 𝐂𝐓 − 𝐂𝐀𝟏
𝐫𝟎 − 𝐫 𝟏
29
𝐍𝐀 (𝟒𝛑 𝐫𝟎𝟐 ) = 𝐥𝐧
𝟏 𝟏 𝐂𝐓 − 𝐂𝐀𝟏
𝐫 𝟎 − 𝐫𝟏
𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐂𝐓 𝐂𝐓 − 𝐂𝐀𝟐
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐥𝐧 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
𝟏 𝟏
𝐫𝟎𝟐 𝐫 − 𝐫 𝐂𝐓 − 𝐂𝐀𝟏
𝟎 𝟏
Mole flux from the sphere surface
* When the mass transfer from surface to a large distance compare to the sphere surface (𝐫𝟎 ):
𝐫𝟏 → ∞ and 𝐂𝐀 𝟐 = 0
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐥𝐧
𝟏 𝟏
𝐫𝟎𝟐 𝐫 − ∞ 𝐂𝐓 − 𝐂𝐀𝟏
𝟎
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐥𝐧 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (3)
𝐫𝟎 𝐂𝐓 − 𝐂𝐀𝟏
In partial pressure form:
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐥𝐧 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4)
𝐫𝟎 . 𝐑𝐓 𝐏𝐓 − 𝐏𝐀𝟏
30
Example: A sphere of naphthalene having a radius of 2 mm is suspended in a large volume

of still air at 318 K and 101.3 kPa. The surface temperature of naphthalene can be assumed to
be 318 K and its vapour pressure at this temperature is 0.555 mmHg. The diffusivity of
naphthalene in air at 318 K is 6.92 * 10-6 m2/s. Calculate the rate of naphthalene evaporation
from surface.
Solution:
The sphere is suspended in a large volume of still air means:
r1 → ∞ and PA 2 = 0
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐥𝐧
𝐫𝟎 . 𝐑𝐓 𝐏𝐓 − 𝐏𝐀𝟏
0.555
PA 1 = ∗ 101.3 = 0.07397 kPa
760
r0 = 2 ∗ 10−3
6.92 ∗ 10−6 (101.3) 101.3 − 0 kmol

NA = ln = 9.68 ∗ 10−8
2 ∗ 10−3 8.314 (318) 101.3 − 0.07397 m2 . s
31
Case (II): Equimolecular Counter Diffusion (𝐍𝐁 = −𝐍𝐀 ):
𝐍𝐀 = −𝐃𝐀𝐁 + 𝐍𝐀 + 𝐍𝐁 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝟏)
𝐝𝐫 𝐂𝐓
𝐍𝐀 𝐝𝐂𝐀 𝐂𝐀 𝐍𝐀 𝐍𝐁
= −𝐃𝐀𝐁 + − … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝟐)
𝐀 𝐝𝐫 𝐂𝐓 𝐀 𝐀
𝐝𝐂𝐀
𝐍𝐀 = − 𝟒𝛑 𝐫 𝟐 𝐃𝐀𝐁 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝟑)
𝐝𝐫
𝐫𝟏
𝐂𝐀
𝟐
𝐝𝐫
𝐍𝐀 = − 𝟒𝛑 𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐝𝐂𝐀 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝟒)
𝐫𝟐
𝐫𝟎 𝐂𝐀
𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
𝐍𝐀 − = 𝟒𝛑 𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐂𝐀𝟏 − 𝐂𝐀𝟐 … … … … . . … … … … … … … (5)
𝐫𝟎 𝐫𝟏
𝟒𝛑 𝐃𝐀𝐁
𝐍𝐀 =
𝟏 𝟏
𝐂𝐀𝟏 − 𝐂𝐀𝟐
−
𝐫𝟎 𝐫𝟏
For the mass transfer from surface (A = 4π ro2 ):
𝐃𝐀𝐁
𝐍𝐀 =
𝟏 𝟏
𝐂𝐀𝟏 − 𝐂𝐀𝟐
𝐫𝟐𝟎 −
𝐫𝟎 𝐫𝟏
𝟏
In the case of r1 is very large =0
𝐫𝟏
𝐃𝐀𝐁
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐂𝐀𝟏 − 𝐂𝐀𝟐
𝐫𝟎
In the form of partial pressure:
𝐃𝐀𝐁
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐏𝐀𝟏 − 𝐏𝐀𝟐
𝐫𝟎 . 𝐑𝐓
32
Case (III): Unequimolecular Counter Diffusion (𝐍𝐁 = −𝐧 𝐍𝐀 ):
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐥𝐧
𝐑𝐓 𝐫𝟎 𝟏−𝐧 𝐏𝐓 − 𝟏 − 𝐧 𝐏𝐀𝟏
Example: Calculate the rate of burning of carbon particle 2.56 cm radius in an atmosphere of
pure oxygen at 1000 K and 1 atm. Assuming a very large blanking layer of CO 2 has formed a
round the particle. At the carbon surface PCO 2 = 1 atm and PO 2 = 0. At very large radius
PCO 2 = 0 and PO 2 = 1 atm. Given the diffusivity of oxygen in carbon dioxide = 1.032
cm2/s.
Solution:
C + O2 → CO2
The diffusion is equimolecular counter diffusion:
𝐃𝐀𝐁
𝐍𝐀 =
𝟏 𝟏
𝐏𝐀𝟏 − 𝐏𝐀𝟐
𝐑𝐓 . 𝐫𝟐𝟎 −
𝐫𝟎 𝐫𝟏
𝟏
In the case of r1 is very large (r1 → ∞) =0
𝐫𝟏
𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝟏. 𝟎𝟑𝟐 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟒

𝐍𝐀 = 𝐏𝐀𝟏 − 𝐏𝐀𝟐 = 101.3 − 0
𝐑𝐓 . 𝐫𝟎 𝟖. 𝟑𝟏𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 (𝟐. 𝟓𝟔 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 )
kmol
𝐍𝐀 = 4.95 ∗ 10−5
m2 . s
33
Mass transfer theories
1. The Two-Film Theory

The two-film theory of Whitman (1923) was the first serious attempt to represent
conditions occurring when material is transferred in a steady state process from one fluid
stream to another. In this approach, it is assumed that a laminar layer exists in each of the two
fluids. Outside the laminar layer, turbulent eddies supplement the action caused by the
random movement of the molecules, and the resistance to transfer becomes progressively
smaller as shown in Figure below. The thicknesses of the two films are z1 and z2 . Equilibrium
is assumed to exist at the interface and therefore the relative positions of the points C and D
are determined by the equilibrium relation between the phases.
interface
The rate of mass transfer per unit area in terms of the two-film theory for equimolecular
counterdiffusion is given for the first phase as:
𝐝𝐂𝐀
𝐍𝐀 = − 𝐃𝐀𝐁
𝐝𝐳
(𝐂𝐀 ∗ − 𝐂𝐀 )
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐃𝐀𝐁
𝐙
34
In the form of partial pressure:
𝐃𝐀𝐁 (𝐏𝐀 − 𝐏𝐀 ∗ )
𝐍𝐀 =
𝐑𝐓 𝐙
(𝐂𝐀 ∗ − 𝐂𝐀 ) 𝐃𝐀𝐁 (𝐏𝐀 − 𝐏𝐀 ∗ )

𝐍𝐀 = 𝐃𝐀𝐁 =
𝐙 𝐑𝐓 𝐙
Where: Z = Zg + ZL
The rate of mass transfer per unit area from the gas film:
(𝐃𝐀𝐁 )
𝐠
𝐍𝐀 𝐠 = (𝐏𝐀 − 𝐏𝐀𝐢 )
𝐙𝐠 . 𝐑𝐓
The rate of mass transfer per unit area from the liquid film:
(𝐃𝐀𝐁 )
𝐋
𝐍𝐀 𝐋 = (𝐂𝐀𝐢 − 𝐂𝐀 )
𝐙𝐋
The relation between the partial pressure (PA) and concentration (CA):
Raoult's law:
𝐏𝐀 = 𝐏𝐀 o 𝐗 𝐀
𝐏𝐀 𝐏𝐀 o
= 𝐗𝐀
𝐏𝐓 𝐏𝐓
𝐲𝐀 = 𝐊 𝐗 𝐀
Henry's law:
𝐏𝐀 = 𝐇 𝐂𝐀
Where: H is the Henry's constant.
𝐏𝐀 ∗ = 𝐇 𝐂𝐀 or 𝐲𝐀 ∗ = 𝐇 𝐱 𝐀
𝐂𝐀 = 𝐇 𝐏𝐀 ∗ or 𝐲𝐀 = 𝐇 𝐱 𝐀 ∗
𝐏𝐀𝐢 = 𝐇 𝐂𝐀𝐢 or 𝐲𝐀𝐢 = 𝐇 𝐱 𝐀𝐢
35
2. The Penetration Theory

The penetration theory was suggested in 1935 by Higbie who was investigating
whether or not a resistance to transfer existed at the interface when a pure gas was absorbed in
a liquid. In his experiments, a slug-like bubble of carbon dioxide was allowed rise through a
vertical column of water in a 3 mm diameter glass tube. As the bubble rose, the displaced
liquid ran back as a thin film between the bubble and the tube, Higbie assumed that each
element of surface in this liquid was exposed to the gas for the time taken for the gas
bubble to pass it; that is for the time given by the quotient of the bubble length and its
velocity. It was further supposed that during this short period, which varied between 0.01 and
0.1 s in the experiments, absorption took place as the result of unsteady state molecular
diffusion into the liquid, and, for the purposes of calculation, the liquid was regarded as
infinite in depth because the time of exposure was so short.
The way in which the concentration gradient builds up as a result of exposing a liquid -
initially pure - to the action of a soluble gas is shown in Figure 10.6. The percentage
saturation of the liquid is plotted agains the distance from the surface for a number of
exposure times in arbitrary units. Initially only the surface layer contains solute and the
concentration changes abruptly from 100 percent to 0 percent at the surface. For progressively
longer exposure times the concentration profile develops as shown, until after an infinite time
the whole of the liquid becomes saturated. The shape of the profiles is such that at any time
the effective depth of liquid which contains an appreciable concentration of solute can be
specified. If this depth of penetration is less than the total depth of liquid, no significant error
is introduced by assuming that the total depth is infinite.
36
The work of Higbie laid the basis of the penetration theory in which it is assumed that
the eddies in the fluid bring an element of fluid to the interface where it is exposed to the
second phase for a definite interval of time, after which the surface element is mixed with the
bulk again. Thus, fluid whose initial composition corresponds with that of the bulk fluid
remote from the interface is suddenly exposed to the second phase. It is assumed that
equilibrium is immediately attained by the surface layers, that a process of unsteady state
molecular diffusion then occurs and that the element is remixed after a fixed interval of
time. In the calculation, the depth of the liquid element is assumed to be infinite and this is
justifiable if the time of exposure is sufficiently short for penetration to be confined to the
surface layers. Throughout, the existence of velocity gradients within the fluids is ignored and
the fluid at all depths is assumed to be moving at the same rate as the interface.
The diffusion of solute A away from the interface (y-direction) is thus given by:
The following boundary conditions apply for the pentration theory:
The mass transfer rate per unit area of surface is then given by:
Note:
𝐍𝐀 𝛂 𝐃𝐀𝐁 film theory
𝐍𝐀 𝛂 𝐃𝐀𝐁 pertration theory

37
3. The Random Surface Renewal Theory

Danckwerts (1951) suggested that each element of surface would not be exposed for the
same time, but that a random distribution of ages would exist. It was assumed that the
probability of any element of surface becoming destroyed and mixed with the bulk of the fluid
was independent of the age of the element.
Thus, the overall rate of mass transfer per unit area when the surface is renewed in a random
manner is:
Where:
S is the rate of production of fresh surface per unit total area of surface.
4. The Film - Penetration Theory

A theory which incorporates some of the principles of both the two-film theory and the
penetration theory has been proposed by Toor and Marchello (1958) . The whole of the
resistance to transfer is regarded as lying within a laminar film at the interface, as in the two-
film theory, but the mass transfer is regarded as an unsteady state process. It is assumed that
fresh surface is formed at intervals from fluid which is brought from the bulk of the fluid to
the interface by the action of the eddy currents mass transfer then takes place as in the
penetration theory, except that the resistance is confined to the finite film, and material which
traverses the film is immediately completely mixed with the bulk of the fluid. For short times
of exposure, when none of the diffusing material has reached the far side of the layer, the
process is identica to that postulated in the penetration theory. For prolonged periods of
exposure when a steady concentration grad
ient has developed, conditio ns are similar to those considered in the two-film theory.
The diffusion of solute A away from the interface (y-direction) is thus given by:
38
The following boundary conditions apply for the pentration theory:
𝐭=𝟎 → 𝐂𝐀 = 𝐂𝐀 𝟎
𝐲=𝟎 → 𝐂𝐀 = 𝐂𝐀 ∗
𝐲=𝐋 → 𝐂𝐀 = 𝐂𝐀 𝟎
The mass transfer rate across the interface per unit area is therefore given by:
When:
Dt
is small the pentration theory applicable.
L2
Dt
is large the two film theory applicable.
L2
The concentration profiles near an interface on the basis of:

(a) the film theory (steady-state)
(b) the penetration-theory (unsteady-state)
(c) the film-penetration theory (unsteady-state)
are shown in Figure 10.7.
39
Mass transfer coefficients
Consider the two-film theory as shown in Figure (1):
The rate of mass transfer per unit area from the gas film:
(𝐃𝐀𝐁 )
𝐠
𝐍𝐀 𝐠 = (𝐏𝐀 − 𝐏𝐀𝐢 )
𝐙𝐠 . 𝐑𝐓
The rate of mass transfer per unit area from the liquid film:
(𝐃𝐀𝐁 )
𝐋
𝐍𝐀 𝐋 = (𝐂𝐀𝐢 − 𝐂𝐀 )
𝐙𝐋
Where:
(𝐃𝐀𝐁 )𝐠 = (𝐃𝐀𝐁 )𝐋
𝐍𝐀 𝐠 = 𝐍𝐀 𝐋
40
Since the film thickness 𝐙𝐠 and 𝐙𝐋 are difficult to define or estimate, then we rewrite the
above egyations as follow:
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐤 𝐠 (𝐏𝐀 − 𝐏𝐀𝐢 )
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐤 𝐋 (𝐂𝐀𝐢 − 𝐂𝐀 )
But: 𝐏𝐀𝐢 and 𝐂𝐀𝐢 are difficult to measure, therefore we define the overall mass transfer
coefficient:
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐊 𝐎𝐆 (𝐏𝐀 − 𝐏𝐀 ∗ )
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐊 𝐎𝐋 (𝐂𝐀 ∗ − 𝐂𝐀 )
Where:
𝐤𝐋 is the individual liquid film mass transfer coeficient.
𝐤𝐠 is the individual gas film mass transfer coeficient.
𝐊 𝐎𝐋 is the overall mass transfer coeficient based on liquid phase.

𝐊 𝐎𝐆 is the overall mass transfer coeficient based on gas phase.
𝐏𝐀𝐢 is the partial pressure of the gas (A) at the interface.
𝐂𝐀 𝐢 is the concentration of the liquid (A) at the interface.
𝐏𝐀 ∗ is the partial pressure of the gas phase which is in equilibrium with the liquid phase 𝐂𝐀 .
𝐂𝐀 ∗ is the concentration of the liquid phase which is in equilibrium with the gas phase 𝐏𝐀 .
The Relationships between the various mass transfer coefficients
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐤 𝐠 𝐏𝐀 − 𝐏𝐀𝐢 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (1)
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐤 𝐋 𝐂𝐀𝐢 − 𝐂𝐀 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (2)
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐊 𝐎𝐆 𝐏𝐀 − 𝐏𝐀 ∗ … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (3)
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐊 𝐎𝐋 𝐂𝐀 ∗ − 𝐂𝐀 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (4)
𝟏 𝟏 𝐇
= + … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (5)
𝐊𝐎𝐆 𝐤𝐠 𝐤𝐋
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (6)
𝐊𝐎𝐋 𝐇 𝐤𝐠 𝐤𝐋
41
𝟏 𝟏 𝐇
𝐐: Prove that = +
From Eq.(3) above:
𝟏 𝐏𝐀 − 𝐏𝐀 ∗
=
𝐊𝐎𝐆 𝐍𝐀
𝟏 𝐏𝐀 − 𝐏𝐀 ∗ + 𝐏𝐀𝐢 − 𝐏𝐀𝐢
=
𝐊𝐎𝐆 𝐍𝐀
𝟏 𝐏𝐀 − 𝐏𝐀𝐢 𝐏𝐀𝐢 − 𝐏𝐀 ∗
= +
𝐊𝐎𝐆 𝐍𝐀 𝐍𝐀
𝟏 𝐏𝐀 − 𝐏𝐀𝐢 𝐇 𝐂𝐀 𝐢 − 𝐇 𝐂𝐀
= +
𝟏 𝐏𝐀 − 𝐏𝐀𝐢 𝐇 (𝐂𝐀𝐢 − 𝐂𝐀 )
= +
𝟏 𝟏 𝐇
= +
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝐐: Prove that = +
From Eq.(4) above:
𝟏 𝐂𝐀 ∗ − 𝐂𝐀
=
𝐊𝐎𝐋 𝐍𝐀
𝟏 𝐂𝐀 ∗ − 𝐂𝐀 + 𝐂𝐀 𝐢 − 𝐂𝐀 𝐢
=
𝐊𝐎𝐋 𝐍𝐀
𝟏 𝐂𝐀 ∗ − 𝐂𝐀 𝐢 𝐂𝐀 𝐢 − 𝐂𝐀
= +
𝐊𝐎𝐋 𝐍𝐀 𝐍𝐀
𝐏𝐀 𝐏𝐀𝐢
𝟏 − 𝐇 𝐂𝐀 𝐢 − 𝐂𝐀
= 𝐇 +
𝐊𝐎𝐋 𝐍𝐀 𝐍𝐀
𝟏 𝟏 𝐏𝐀 − 𝐏𝐀𝐢 𝐂𝐀 𝐢 − 𝐂𝐀
= +
𝐊𝐎𝐋 𝐇 𝐍𝐀 𝐍𝐀
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
42
Notes:
1
1. The inverse to mass transfer coefficient is termed as a resistance to mass transfer.
K
2. The term (gas film control) refers to the resistance lie in the gas film.
𝟏 𝟏 𝐇
0
Thus: =𝐤 + 𝐤 [when the solute is very soluble in liquid solvent]
𝐊𝐎𝐆 𝐠 𝐋
3. The term (liquid film control) refers to the resistance lie in the liquid film.
0
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Thus: = 𝐇𝐤 + 𝐤
𝐊 𝐎𝐋 𝐠 𝐋
4. The units of mass transfer coeficients are as follows:
𝐦
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐤 𝐋 𝐂𝐀𝟏 − 𝐂𝐀𝟐 → 𝐤𝐋 =
𝐬
𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐤 𝐠 𝐏𝐀𝟏 − 𝐏𝐀𝟐 → 𝐤𝐠 =
𝐦𝟐 . 𝐬. 𝐤𝐏𝐚
𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐤 𝐠 𝐗𝐀𝟏 − 𝐗𝐀𝟐 → 𝐤𝐠 =
𝐦𝟐 . 𝐬.
𝟏
𝐤𝐋 ∗ = 𝐤𝐠
𝐑𝐓 m2 kN
kJ = kN. m = kg. , kPa =
s2 m2
m 1 m kmol m kmol kmol kmol

𝐩𝐓 ∗ ∗ = = ∗ = =
𝐤𝐋 ∗ = 𝐤𝐠 s kJ s kJ s kN. m S. kN kN
∗K S. 2 ∗ m2
𝐑𝐓 kmol. K m
kmol
= 2 = kg
m . kPa. S
𝐤 𝐠 ∗ 𝐏𝐓 = 𝐤 𝐠
m kPa m kPa . kmol m kN kmol kmol
∗ = ∗ = ∗ 2∗ = 2
s kJ s kJ s m kN. m m .s
∗K
kmol. K
= kg
43
Example: For a system in which component (A) is transfering from the liquid to the gas
phase, the equilibrium is given by 𝐲𝐀 ∗ = 0.75 𝐱 𝐀 . At one point in the apparturs the liquid
contain 90 mol% of (A) and gas contain 45 mol% of (A). The individual gas film mass
transfer coefficient at this point in the appartus of 0.02716 kmol/m2.s , and 70% of the
overall resistance to mass transfer is known to be encountered in the gas film: determine:
1. The molar flux of (A).

2. The interficial concentration of (A).
3. The overall mass transfer coefficient for liquid and gas phases.
Solution:
1 1
= 0.7
kg KOG
1 1
= 0.7
0.02716 KOG
kmol
K OG = 0.019
m2 . s
NA = K OG yA ∗ − yA
yA ∗ = 0.75 xA = 0.75 0.9 = 0.675
kmol
1. NA = 0.019 0.675 − 0.45 = 4.274 ∗ 10−3
m2 .s
2. NA = k g yA − yA
i
4.274 ∗ 10−3 = 0.02716 (yA i − 0.45)
yA i = 0.607
1 1 H
3. = +
KOG kg kL
1 1 0.75
= +
0.019 0.02716 kL
kL = 0.0476
1 1 1
= +
KOL H kg kL
1 1 1 kmol
= + → KOL = 0.0142
KOL 0.75 (0.02716) 0.0476 m2 . s
44
The wetted wall column

The wetted wall column is a small experimental device used to determine the average
mass transfer coefficient (𝐊 𝐎𝐆 ). Usually it is (1 - 1.5 inch) in diameter and one meter long.
Let the mass transfer being from gas phase to liquid phase:
WA = G yA 1 − yA 2 = L (xA 1 − xA 2 )
Where:
WA : is the total mole rate diffusion along the column.
At one point in the apparatus the diffusion is as follows:
NA = K OG . A . PA − PA∗ or NA = K OG . A . yA − yA∗
NA i = WA = K OG i . A . ∆yA i
WA = K OG . A . ∆PLm ………….. (kmol/s)
WA = K OG . ∆PLm ………….. (kmol/m2.s)
45
Where:
A is the transfer area (πdL) in (m2).
∆PLm is the logarithmic mean of partial pressure.
𝐖𝐀 = 𝐊 𝐎𝐆 . 𝐀 . ∆𝐏𝐋𝐦 ………………………. (1)
Now to calculate (K OG ) from Eq.(1) we must calculate (WA ) and (∆PAm ):
∆P1 − ∆P2
1. ∆PLm =
∆P
ln ∆P1
2
Where:
∆P1 = PA 1 − PA∗1 , PA∗1 = H CA 1
∆P2 = PA 2 − PA∗2 , PA∗2 = H CA 2
2. From overall material balance:
WA = G yA 1 − yA 2 = L (xA 1 − xA 2 )
Where:
yA and xA : are the mole fraction of component (A) in gas and liquid phase, respectively.
G : is the mole flow rate of gas (kmol/s).
L : is the mole flow rate of liquid (kmol/s).
We can rewrite the Eq.(1) in the mole fraction form instead of partial pressure as follows:
𝐖𝐀 = 𝐊 𝐎𝐆 . 𝐀 . ∆𝐲𝐋𝐦 ………………………. (2)
Where:
∆y1 − ∆y2
∆yLm =
∆y
ln ∆y1
2
∆y1 = yA 1 − 𝑦𝐴∗1 and 𝑦𝐴∗1 = HxA 1
∆y2 = yA 2 − 𝑦𝐴∗2 and 𝑦𝐴∗2 = HxA 2
46
Example: A wetted wall column is used to absorbed NH3 by water from 6 vol.% in air. The
gas flow rate is 1.2 kmol/min at 1 atm and 20oC. Calculate the overall mass transfer
coefficient. The data given are:
 The water flow rate to gas flow rate ratio is 1.4.

 The outlet gas concentration is 1.5 vol.%.
 The column height is 100 cm.
 The column diameter is 2 cm.
 Henry's constant is 1.3.
Solution:
kmol
WA = G yA 1 − yA 2 = 1.2 0.06 − 0.015 = 0.054
min
kmol
WA =9 ∗ 10−4 s
A = πdL = (3.14) (2*10-2) (1)
A = 0.06283 m2
∆y1 − ∆y2
∆yLm =
∆y1
ln
∆y2
∆y1 = yA 1 − 𝑦𝐴∗1
∆y2 = yA 2 − 𝑦𝐴∗2
To find ( xA 1 )
G yA 1 − yA 2 = L (xA 1 − xA 2 )
G
xA 1 = y − yA 2 + xA 2
L A1
1
xA 1 = 0.06 − 0.015 + 0
1.4
xA 1 = 0.321
𝑦𝐴∗1 = HxA 1 = 1.3 ∗ 0.0321 = 0.04173
𝑦𝐴∗2 = HxA 2 = 1.3 ∗ 0 = 0
47
∆y1 = yA 1 − 𝑦𝐴∗1 = 0.06 − 0.04173 = 0.01827
∆y2 = yA 2 − 𝑦𝐴∗2 = 0.015 − 0 = 0.015
0.01827 − 0.015
∆yLm = = 0.0165
0.01827
ln
0.015
WA = K OG . A . ∆yLm
WA 9 ∗ 10−4 kmol
K OG = = = 0.868 2
A . ∆yLm 0.06283 (0.0165) m .s
48
Mass Transfer Coefficient From Empirical Correlation
Several workers have measured the rate of transfer from a liquid flowing down the
inside wall of a tube to a gas passing counter currently upwards. GILLILAND and
SHERWOOD vaporized a number of liquids including water, toluene, aniline and propyl,
amyl and butyl alcohols into an air stream flowing up the tube in order to measure the
individual mass transfer coefficient (kg). GILLILAND and SHERWOOD used the empirical
relation below to measure the individual mass transfer coefficient (kg) and this relation in
forms of dimensionless groups:
𝐒𝐡 = 𝐚 . 𝐑𝐞 𝐛 . 𝐒𝐜 𝐜
Where:
kg d
Sh: Sherwood number , Sh =
D
ρud
Re: Renold's number , Re =
μ
μ
Sc: Schmidt number , Sc =
ρD
kg individual mass transfer coefficient (m/s).
d: diameter (m).
D: diffusivity (m2/s).
ρ: density (kg/m3).
μ: viscosity (N.s/m2).
 When the constant (a), (b) and (c) in the above equation are unknown, then we can take
them as below:
𝟎.𝟖𝟑 𝟎.𝟒𝟒
𝐒𝐡 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝐑𝐞 𝐒𝐜
49
Example: Calculate the gas film coefficient for the absorption of sulpher dioxide from a
dilute mixture with air in a wetted wall column using Gilliland and Sherwood correlation for
wetted wall column for the following data:
 Gas velocity = 2.5 m/s.

 Gas temperature = 293 K.
 Gas viscosity = 1.78 * 10-5 N.s/m2.
 Gas density = 1.22 kg/m3.
 Gas diffusivity = 1.22 * 10-5 m2/s.
 Inside column diameter = 25 mm.
Solution:
0.83 0.44
Sh = 0.023 Re Sc
kg d 25 ∗ 10−3
Sh = = kg = 2049 k g
D 1.2 ∗ 10−5
ρud 1.22 2.2 (25 ∗ 10−3 )

Re = = = 3370
μ 1.78 ∗ 10−5
μ 1.78 ∗ 10−5
Sc = = = 1.1959
ρD 1.22 (1.2 ∗ 10−5 )
2049 kg = 0.023 3370 0.83 1.1959 0.44
m
k g = 0.01129
s
50

Absorption of Gases
((Gas – Liquid Separation))
In absorption (also called gas absorption, gas scrubbing, and gas washing), a gas
mixture is contacted with a liquid (the absorbent or solvent) to selectively dissolve one or
more components by mass transfer from the gas to the liquid. The components transferred to
the liquid are referred to as solute or absorbate.
Absorption is used to separate gas mixture; remove impurities, contaminants, pollutants,

or catalyst poisons from gas; or recovery valuable chemicals. Thus, the species of interest in
the gas mixture may be all components, only the component(s) not transferred, or only the
component(s) transferred. The opposite of absorption is stripping (also called desorption),
wherein a liquid mixture is contacted with gas to selectively remove components by mass
transfer from the liquid to the gas phase.
There are two types of absorption processes:
1. Physical process (e.g. absorption of acetone from acetone – air mixture by water).
2. Chemical process, sometimes called chemi-sorption (e.g. absorption of nitrogen oxides by
water to produce nitric acid.
Equipment:
Absorption and stripping are conducted in tray towers (plate column), packed column,
spray tower, bubble column, and centrifugal contactors. The first two types of these
equipment will be considered in our course for this year.
1. Tray tower:
A tray tower is a vertical, cylindrical pressure vessel in which gas and liquid, which
flow counter currently, are contacted on a series of metal trays or plates. Liquid flows across
any tray over an outlet weir, and into a down comer, which takes the liquid by gravity to the
tray below. The gas flows upward through opening in each tray, bubbling through the liquid
51
on the other tray. A schematic diagram for the flow patterns inside the tray column is shown
below.
Figure : Typical cross-flow plate (sieve)
2. Packed tower:
The packed column is a vertical, cylindrical pressure vessel containing one or more
section of packing material over who's the liquid flows down wards by gravity as a film or as
droplets between packing elements. Gas flows upwards through the wetted packing contacting
the liquid. The sections of packing are contained between a lower gas – injection support
plate, which holds the packing, and an upper grid or mish hold – down plate, which prevent
packing movement. A liquid distributor, placed above the hold – down plate, ensures uniform
distribution of liquid as it enters the packing section.
52
Figure: Packing absorber column.
Figure: Types of packing (a) Raschig rings (b) Pall rings (c) Berl saddle ceramic (d) Intalox saddle
ceramic (e) Metal Hypac ( f ) Ceramic, super Intalox.
53
General Design Consideration:

Design or analysis of an absorber (or stripper) requires consideration of a number of
factors, including:
1. Entering gas (liquid) flow rate, composition, temperature, and pressure.

2. Design degree of recovery (R) of one or more solutes.
3. Choice absorbent (solvent) agent.
4. Operating pressure and temperature and allowable pressure drop.
5. Minimum absorbent (solvent) agent flow rate and actual solvent flow rate as a multiple
of the minimum rate needed to make the separation.
6. Number of equilibrium stages.
7. Heat effects and need for cooling (heating).
8. Type of absorber (stripper) equipment.
9. Height of absorber (stripper) column.
10. Diameter of absorber (stripper) column.
The ideal absorbent (solvent) should have:
a. High solubility for the solute(s) to minimize the need for absorbent (solvent).
b. A low volatility to reduce the loss of absorbent (solvent) and facilitate separation of
absorbent (solvent) from solute(s).
c. Be stable to maximize absorbent (solvent) life and reduce absorbent makeup
requirement.
d. Be non – corrosive to permit use of common material of construction.
e. Have a low viscosity to provide low pressure drop and high mass and heat transfer
rates.
f. Be non – foaming when contacted with gas so as to make it unnecessary.
g. Be non – toxic and non – flammable to facilitate its safe use.
h. Be available, if possible.
The most widely absorbent (solvent) used are water, hydrocarbon oils, and aqueous
solutions of acids and bases. While the most common stripping agents used are water vapor,
air, inert gases, and hydrocarbon gases.
54
Equilibrium Relations Between Gas and Liquid Phases:
The equilibrium of any gas-liquid system can be expressed as:
Non-ideal system (Henry's law): Ideal system (Raoult's law):
PA = H xA divided by (PT ) PA = PA0 xA divided by (PT )
PA H PA PA0
= x = x
PT PT A PT PT A
𝐲𝐀 = 𝐦 𝐱 𝐀 𝐲𝐀 = 𝐦 𝐱 𝐀
‫) فً الغاز‬A( ‫* فً عملٌات االمتصاص من المهم جدا معرفة طبٌعة عالقة التعادل ( وهً العالقة بٌن تركٌز المذاب‬
‫ فقد تكون عالقة التعادل بٌن ( 𝐀 𝐗) و ( 𝐀𝐘) عالقة خطٌة أو عالقة‬. ))𝐗 𝐀 ( ‫) فً السائل‬A( ‫( 𝐀𝐘) مع تركٌز المذاب‬
.‫غٌر خطٌة اعتمادا على طبٌعة المواد وتركٌز المذاب‬
Equilibrium relation Equilibrium relation
𝐘𝐀 𝐘𝐀
𝐗𝐀 𝐗𝐀
Where:
𝐗 𝐀 : is the mole ratio of solute in liquid phase (A/C).
𝐘𝐀 : is the mole ratio of solute in gas phase (A/B).
55
Notes:
The equilibrium relation is the ratio between the mole ratio of solute in gas phase (𝐘𝐀 ) and
the mole ratio of solute in liquid phase (𝐗 𝐀 ). The equilibrium relation may be linear or no
linear.
.) 𝐘𝐀 = m 𝐗 𝐀 ( ًٌ‫* إرا وبٔذ ػاللخ اٌزؼبدي خطٍخ فزؼطى ثبٌشىً اٌزب‬
:ٖ‫* أِب إرا أػطٍذ ػاللخ اٌزؼبدي ثشىً ثٍبٔبد وّب فً أدٔب‬
𝐗𝐀 - - - - - -
𝐘𝐀 - - - - - -
‫ خظ ِسزمٍُ ػٕذ‬ٛ٘ 𝐘𝐀 ٚ 𝐗 𝐀 ٍٓ‫ال فئرا وبْ اٌشسُ ث‬ٚ‫ففً ٘زٖ اٌحبٌخ ٌّؼشفخ طجٍؼخ ػاللخ اٌزؼبدي فٍزُ سسُ اٌجٍبٔبد أ‬
.) 𝐘𝐀 = m 𝐗 𝐀 ( ‫ٌٓ ػاللخ اٌزؼبدي‬ٛ‫رى‬ٚ ‫ف ٌزُ اخز اًٌٍّ ِٓ اٌشسُ فمظ‬ٛ‫ران س‬
.ُ‫ْ اٌحً ثبٌشس‬ٛ‫ثشىً ِٕحًٕ فؼٕذ ران سٍى‬ 𝐘𝐀 ٚ 𝐗 𝐀 ٍٓ‫أِب إرا وبْ اٌشسُ إٌبرح ث‬
ٚ‫ي أ‬ٚ‫ٌٍخ ) 𝐀 𝐱( وّب فً ػاللخ ساؤ‬ٌّٛ‫إٌسجخ ا‬ٚ (𝐏𝐀 ) ً‫* فً ثؼض األحٍبْ رؼطى ػاللخ اٌزؼبدي ثٍٓ اٌضغظ اٌدضٌئ‬
.) 𝐗 𝐀 , 𝐘𝐀 ( ٍٓ‫ب اٌى ػاللخ ث‬ٌٍٙٛ‫ٕ٘شي ففً ٘زٖ اٌحبٌخ ٌدت رح‬
The relation between the mole fraction and mole ratio:
𝐲𝐀 𝐱𝐀
𝐘𝐀 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐗𝐀 =
1 − 𝐲𝐀 1 − 𝐱𝐀
Where:
𝐱 𝐀 and 𝐲𝐀 : are the mole fractions of solute (A) in liquid and gas phases, respectively.
𝐗 𝐀 and 𝐘𝐀 : are the mole ratio of solute (A) in liquid and gas phases, respectively.
56
The relation between the mole fraction and weight fraction:
𝐦𝐨𝐥% ∗ (𝐌. 𝐰𝐭)

𝐰𝐭. % =
𝐦𝐨𝐥% ∗ (𝐌. 𝐰𝐭)
𝐰𝐭. % (𝐌. 𝐰𝐭)

𝐦𝐨𝐥% =
𝐰𝐭. % /(𝐌. 𝐰𝐭)
Where:
𝐰𝐭. % : is the weight fraction.
𝐦𝐨𝐥% : is the mole fraction.
𝐌. 𝐰𝐭 : is the molecular weight.
Symbols used in the absorption processes:

A solute (A) in a mixture (A, B) shall be absorbed in Liquid (C), the inert gas (B) is
insoluble in solvent (C). The following symbols will be used:
𝐆 : is the mole rate of the gas mixture (A + B), kmol/s.

𝐆𝐬 : is the mole rate of the inert (insoluble) gas (B), kmol/s.
𝐆 : is the mole flux of the gas mixture (A + B), kmol/m2.s.
𝐆𝐬 : is the mole flux of the inert (insoluble) gas (B), kmol/m2.s.
𝐋 : is the mole rate of the liquid mixture (A + C), kmol/s.
𝐋𝐬 : is the mole rate of the liquid solvent only (C), kmol/s.
𝐋 : is the mole flux of the liquid mixture (A + C), kmol/m2.s.
𝐋𝐬 : is the mole flux of the liquid solvent only (C), kmol/m2.s.
𝐱 𝐀 : is the mole fraction of solute (A) in liquid, (A /A+C).
𝐲𝐀 : is the mole fraction of solute (A) in gas, (A /A+B).
𝐗 𝐀 : is the mole ratio of solute (A) in liquid, (A / C).
𝐘𝐀 : is the mole ratio of solute (A) in gas, (A / B).
57
Calculation of Tower Height
The physical absorption process can be carried out in countercurrent flow process,
which may be carried out in packed or tray column:
Packed Tower Tray Tower
Z = HOG * NOG Z=H*N
Where: Where:
HOG: is the height of transfer unit H : is the distance between two

(HTU) based on gas phase, and it trays, and it is given (0.3 - 0.7 m)
can be calculated from the equation
below:
𝐆𝐬
𝐇𝐎𝐆 = , in (meter)
𝐊𝐨𝐆. 𝐚
NOG: is the number of transfer N : is the number of trays, and it

unit (NTU) based on gas phase, can be calculated based on
and it can be calculated based on equilibrium data:
equilibrium data:
If the equilibrium If the equilibrium If the equilibrium If the equilibrium

data are linear, data are non- data are linear, data are non-
then NOG will be linear, then NOG then N will be linear, then N will
calculated using a will be calculated calculated using a be calculated
suitable equation. graphical method. suitable equation. graphical method.
58
1. Packed tower:
Absorption and stripping are frequently conducted in packed columns, particularly when:
(1) the required column diameter is less than 0.6 m.

(2) the pressure drop must be low, as for a vacuum service.
(3) corrosion consideration favor the use of ceramic or polymeric material.
(4) low liquid holdup is desirable.
The gas liquid contact in a packed bed column is continuous, not stage-wise, as in a
plate column. The liquid flows down the column over the packing surface and the gas or
vapour, counter-currently, up the column. In some gas-absorption columns co-current flow is
used. The performance of a packed column is very dependent on the maintenance of good
liquid and gas distribution throughout the packed bed, and this is an important consideration
in packed-column design.
Calculations of the packing height based on gas phase:
Overall material balance on the solute (A) over an element (∂z) based on gas phase:
𝐆𝐒 𝐝𝐘 = 𝐋𝐒 𝐝𝐗 = 𝐍𝐀 . 𝐀
𝐝𝐘
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐆𝐬 𝐘 − 𝐆𝐬 𝐘 + 𝛛𝐳 = 𝐊𝐨𝐆 (𝐚 𝐒 𝛛𝐳)(𝐘 − 𝐘 ∗ )
𝐝𝐙
Where:
𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐞𝐫 = 𝐚 𝐝𝐕 = 𝐚 𝐒 𝛛𝐳
S: is the cross-sectional area of column (m2).
a: is the surface area of interface per unit volume of

column (m2/m3).
𝐝𝐘
− 𝐆𝐬 𝛛𝐳 = 𝐊𝐨𝐆. 𝐚 (𝐒 . 𝛛𝐳)(𝐘 − 𝐘 ∗ )
𝐝𝐙
59
𝐝𝐘
𝐆𝐬 = − 𝐊𝐨𝐆. 𝐚 (𝐒 . 𝛛𝐳)(𝐘 − 𝐘 ∗ )
𝐝𝐙
𝐙 𝐘𝟐
−𝐆𝐬 𝐝𝐘
𝐝𝐙 =
𝐊𝐨𝐆. 𝐚 . 𝐒 (𝐘 − 𝐘 ∗ )
𝟎 𝐘𝟏
𝐘𝟏
(𝐆𝐬 𝐒) 𝐝𝐘
𝐙=
𝐊𝐨𝐆. 𝐚 (𝐘 − 𝐘 ∗ )
𝐘𝟐
𝐘𝟏
𝐆𝐬 𝐝𝐘
𝐙=
𝐊𝐨𝐆. 𝐚 (𝐘 − 𝐘 ∗ )
𝐘𝟐
Z = HOG * NOG = HTU * NTU
Where:
𝐆𝐬
𝐇𝐎𝐆 = ∶ heiht of transfer unit HTU based on gas phase, with the units of (m).
𝐊𝐨𝐆. 𝐚
𝐘𝟏
𝐝𝐘
𝐍𝐎𝐆 = ∶ number of transfer unit NTU based on gas phase, without units.
(𝐘 − 𝐘 ∗ )
𝐘𝟐
Equation of the operating line:
Solute material balance between one end of the column and any point will give:
𝐆𝐬 𝐘 − 𝐘𝟐 = 𝐋𝐬 𝐗 − 𝐗 𝟐
𝐋𝐬
𝐘= 𝐗 − 𝐗 𝟐 + 𝐘𝟐
𝐆𝐬
* The equation of operating line is a relation between

mole ratio of solute in gas phase (Y) and the mole ratio of
solute in liquid phase (X).
60
𝐋
* The operating line can be draw from two points (X1, Y1) and (X2, Y2), or from its slope ( 𝐆𝐬 )
𝐬
and one of the two points.
Calculation of Number of Transfer Unit (NOG):
A. For Linear Equilibrium Relationship 𝐘 ∗ = 𝐦 𝐗 :
𝐘𝟏
𝐝𝐘
𝐍𝐎𝐆 = … … … … … … … … … … … . . (1)
(𝐘 − 𝐘 ∗ )
𝐘𝟐
𝐘∗ = 𝐦 𝐗 … … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
𝐆𝐬 𝐘 − 𝐘𝟐 = 𝐋𝐬 𝐗 − 𝐗 𝟐 … … … … … … … … … … … . . (3)
𝐆𝐬
𝐗= 𝐘 − 𝐘𝟐 + 𝐗 𝟐
𝐋𝐬
For pure liquid solvent used then, X2 = 0
𝐆𝐬
𝐗= 𝐘 − 𝐘𝟐 … … … … … … … … … … … . (4)
𝐋𝐬
Substitution Eq.(4) into Eq.(2) to get:
𝐦 𝐆𝐬
𝐘∗ = 𝐘 − 𝐘𝟐 … … … … … … … … … … … … (5)
𝐋𝐬
61
𝐘𝟏
𝐝𝐘
𝐍𝐎𝐆 =
𝐦𝐆
𝐘𝟐 (𝐘 − 𝐋 𝐬 𝐘 − 𝐘𝟐 )
𝐬
𝐦 𝐆𝐬 𝐒𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐛𝐫𝐢𝐮𝐦 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐦

𝐋𝐞𝐭: =𝛟= = < 1.0
𝐋𝐬 𝐒𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐋𝐬 𝐆𝐬
𝐘𝟏
𝐝𝐘
𝐍𝐎𝐆 =
𝐘 − 𝛟𝐘 + 𝛟𝐘𝟐
𝐘𝟐
𝐘𝟏
𝐝𝐘
𝐍𝐎𝐆 =
𝟏 − 𝛟 𝐘 + 𝛟𝐘𝟐
𝐘𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 − 𝛟 𝐘𝟏 + 𝛟𝐘𝟐
𝐍𝐎𝐆 = 𝐥𝐧
𝟏−𝛟 𝟏 − 𝛟 𝐘𝟐 + 𝛟𝐘𝟐
𝐍𝐎𝐆 =
𝟏−
𝐍𝐎𝐆 =
𝟏−
B. For Non-linear Equilibrium Relationship:
𝐘𝟏 𝐝𝐘
In this case the integration [ NOG = 𝐘 ] will be solved using graphical method or
𝟐 (𝐘−𝐘 ∗ )
numerical method (Simpson rule) following steps below:
1. Draw the given equilibrium data.

2. Draw the operating line, from two points (X1, Y1) and (X2, Y2) or one point and slope of
𝐋
( 𝐆𝐬 ).
𝐬
3. Create the table below by calculated (𝐘 ∗ ) from the plot as below:
62
𝐘 𝐘∗ 𝟏
Assume points between (Y1 - Y2) Calculated from plot (𝐘 − 𝐘 ∗ )
Y1 - calculated √ = f0
- (assumed) - calculated √ = f1
- (assumed) - calculated √= f3
Y2 - calculated √ = fn
Figure: Calculation of ( 𝐘 ∗ ) for packed column.
𝟏
4. To calculate NOG we draw [ ] Vs. [Y] to find the area under the curve:
(𝐘−𝐘 ∗ )
Where:
NOG = Area under the curve
63
Simpson rule for calculation of NOG:
NOG = Area under the curve
𝐡
𝐍𝐎𝐆 = 𝐟 + 𝐟𝐧 + 𝟐 𝐟𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧 + 𝟒 𝐟𝐨𝐝𝐝
𝟑 𝟎
Where:
𝐘𝟏 − 𝐘𝟐
𝐡= , 𝐧 = 𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟔, 𝟖, … … . . 𝐞𝐭𝐜.
𝐧
Notes:
* If the entering solute concentration is dilute (Y < 5%), then:
𝐘𝐀 = 𝐲𝐀 , 𝐗𝐀 = 𝐱𝐀 , 𝐆𝐬 = 𝐆 , 𝐋𝐬 = 𝐋
* If the tower type is not mention in the problem we can take it as a packed tower.
Example (1):
Ammonia is to be removed from a 10 percent ammonia–air mixture by countercurrent

scrubbing with water in a packed tower at 293 K so that 99 percent of the ammonia is
removed when working at a total pressure of 101.3 kN/m2. If the gas rate is 0.95 kg/m2.s of
tower cross-section and the liquid rate is 0.65 kg/m2. s, find the necessary height of the tower
if the absorption coefficient KoG.a = 0.008 kmol/m3.s. kPa., The equilibrium data are:
Y ∗ = 0.8 X .
Solution:
y2 = 1 − 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 y1 = 1 − 0.99 0.1 = 0.001
Convert mole fraction to mole ratio:
y1 0.1
𝐘𝟏 = = = 0.11
1 − y1 1 − 0.1
64
y2 0.001
𝐘𝟐 = = = 0.001
1 − y2 1 − 0.001
We can see that at low conc. (mole ratio = mole fraction):
gas mass flux

The gas mole flux, 𝐆 =
average gas molecular weight
0.95 kmol
= = 0.0341
0.1 17 + 0.9 29 m2 . s
liquid mass flux

The liquid mole flux, 𝐋 =
average liquid molecular weight
0.65 kmol
= = 0.0361
(18) m2 . s
kmol
the mole flux of the inert gas , 𝐆𝐬 = 𝐆 𝟏 − 𝐲𝟏 = 0.0341 1 − 0.1 = 0.0307 m 2 .s
kmol
the mole flux of the inert liquid , 𝐋𝐬 = 𝐋 𝟏 − 𝐱𝟐 = 0.0361 1 − 0 = 0.0361 m 2 .s
Therefore, for pure solvent: 𝐋𝐬 = 𝐋
Gs 0.0307
HOG = = = 0.38 m
KoG. a. PT 0.0008 101.3
Since the equilibrium is linear:
𝐍𝐎𝐆 =
𝟏−
m Gs 0.8 (0.0307)
ϕ= = = 0.68
Ls (0.0361)
NOG =
1−
Z = HOG * NOG = (0.38) (11.19) = 4.25 m
65
Example (2):
Ammonia is to be removed from a 10 percent ammonia–air mixture by countercurrent

absorption with water in a packed tower at 293 K. The outlet gas concentration from the top
of the tower is 0.1%. The absorption tower is working at a total pressure of 101.3 kN/m2. If
the inlet gas is 0.034 kmol/m2.s and the liquid rate is 0.036 kmol/m2. s, find the necessary
height of the tower if the absorption coefficient KoG.a = 0.081 kmol/m3.s. The equilibrium
data is given by the following data:
kmol NH3/kmol water: 0.021 0.031 0.042 0.053 0.079 0.106 0.159
Partial pressure NH3 in 1.6 2.4 3.3 4.2 6.7 9.3 15.2
gas phase (kN/m2):
Solution:
First of all we have to convert the equilibrium data to mole ratio:
PA 𝟏. 𝟔
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝐻3 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑕𝑎𝑠𝑒 , 𝑦𝑁𝐻3 = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟖
PT 101.3
𝑦𝑁𝐻3 0.0158
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝐻3 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑕𝑎𝑠𝑒 , YNH 3 = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟎
1 − 𝑦𝑁𝐻3 1 − 0.0158
The equilibrium data becomes:
𝐗 𝐍𝐇𝟑 0.021 0.031 0.042 0.053 0.079 0.106 0.159

𝐘𝐍𝐇𝟑 0.0160 0.0243 0.0337 0.0433 0.0708 0.1011 0.1765
Gs 0.034
HOG = = = 0.419 m
KoG. a 0.081
𝐘𝟏
𝐝𝐘
𝐍𝐎𝐆 =
(𝐘 − 𝐘 ∗ )
𝐘𝟐
66
The equilibrium data may be not linear relation, so that the integration should be solved by
plotting or by Simpson's rule as follows:
1. Draw the equilibrium data:

2. Draw the operating line from two points:
(X1, Y1) and (X2, Y2)
y1 0.1
𝐘𝟏 = = = 0.11
1 − y1 1 − 0.1
y2 0.001
𝐘𝟐 = = = 0.001
1 − y2 1 − 0.001
Overall ammonia material balance:

𝐆𝐬 𝐘𝟏 − 𝐘𝟐 = 𝐋𝐬 𝐗 𝟏 − 𝐗 𝟐
𝐆𝐬 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟒
𝐗𝟏 = 𝐘𝟏 − 𝐘𝟐 + 𝐗 𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏 + 𝟎
𝐋𝐬 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟔
𝐗 𝟏 = 0.0935
Operating line:
(X1, Y1) = (0.0935, 0.11) = (9.35*10-2, 10*10-2)
(X2, Y2) = (0, 0.001) = (0, 0.1*10-2)
We will solve the integration by Simpson's rule:
𝐘𝟏 − 𝐘𝟐
𝐡= , 𝑊𝑒 𝑐𝑕𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑛 = 4
𝐧
𝟎. 𝟏𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏
𝐡= = 0.02725
𝟒
Calculate 𝐘 ∗ from the plot as follows:
67
𝐘 𝐘∗ 𝟏
Assume points between (Y1 - Y2) Calculated from plot (𝐘 − 𝐘 ∗ )
0.11 0.088 45.45 = f0

0.08275 0.061 45.98 = f1
0.05550 0.0375 55.56 = f2
0.02825 0.0175 93.02 = f3
0.001 0.00 1000 = fn
𝐡
𝐍𝐎𝐆 = 𝐟 + 𝐟𝐧 + 𝟐 𝐟𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧 + 𝟒 𝐟𝐨𝐝𝐝
𝟑 𝟎
0.02725
𝐍𝐎𝐆 = 𝟒𝟓. 𝟒𝟓 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝟐 𝟓𝟓. 𝟓𝟔 + 𝟒[ 𝟒𝟓. 𝟗𝟖 + 𝟗𝟑. 𝟎𝟐 ]
𝟑
𝐍𝐎𝐆 = 15.56
Z = HOG * NOG = (0.419) (15.56) = 6.52 m
68
Calculation of Minimum Liquid Flow Rate:
The minimum liquid (solvent) flow rate is calculated when the exit solvent
concentration from the absorber (X1) is in equilibrium with the entering gas concentration to
the absorber (Y1). However, this calculations based on the equilibrium relationship natural:
A. If the equilibrium relationship is linear 𝐘 ∗ = 𝐦 𝐗 :
The exit solvent concentration from the absorber (X1) is calculated from the equilibrium
relationship as below:
𝐘𝟏 = 𝐦 𝐗 𝟏
𝐘𝟏
→ 𝐗𝟏 = … … … … … … … … … … … … . (𝟏)
𝐦
Overall solute material balance on the absorber column:
𝐆𝐬 𝐘𝟏 − 𝐘𝟐 = 𝐋𝐬 𝐗 𝟏 − 𝐗 𝟐
𝐋𝐬 𝐘𝟏 − 𝐘𝟐
=
𝐆𝐬 𝐗𝟏 − 𝐗𝟐
For pure solvent ( 𝐗 𝟐 = 𝟎):
= … … … … … … … … … … … (𝟐)
𝐆𝐬 𝐗𝟏
𝐋𝐬
To calculate minimum liquid flow rate we subsititute Eq. 1 into Eq. 2 :
𝐆𝐬 𝐦𝐢𝐧
𝐋𝐬 𝐘𝟏 − 𝐘𝟐 𝐘𝟏 − 𝐘𝟐 𝐘𝟐
= =𝐦 =𝐦 1−
𝐆𝐬 𝐘𝟏 𝐘𝟏 𝐘𝟏
𝐦𝐢𝐧
𝐦
𝐋𝐬 𝐘𝟐
=𝐦 1−
𝐘𝟏
𝐋𝐬 𝐋𝐬
𝐖𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞: = 𝟏. 𝟏 − 𝟏. 𝟓
𝐆𝐬 𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥
69
B. If the equilibrium relationship is non-linear:
The exit solvent concentration from the absorber (X1) is calculated from the equilibrium
relationship as below:
=
𝐗 ∗𝟏 − 𝐗 𝟐
For pure solvent ( 𝐗 𝟐 = 𝟎):
=
𝐗 ∗𝟏
Where: 𝐗 ∗𝟏 the exit liquid concentration which is in equilibrium with (𝐘𝟏 ) is calculated from
the plot as show bellow:
70
Example (3):
A solute gas is absorbed from a dilute gas-air mixture by counter current scrubbing with a
solvent in a packed tower. The equilibrium relation is Y = m X. Show that the number of
transfer units (NOG) required is given by the following equation:
𝐍𝐎𝐆 =
𝟏
If (99%) of the solute is to be recovered using a liquid rate of 1.75 times the minimum and the
height of transfer unit is (1 m). What the height of packing will be required.
Solution:
Z = HOG * NOG
For linear equilibrium relationship:
Ls Y2
=m 1−
Gs min
Y1
𝐘𝟐 = 𝟏 − 𝐑𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐲 𝐘𝟏 = 1 − 0.99 Y1 = 0.01 Y1
Y2 = 0.01 Y1
Ls 0.01 Y1
=m 1− = 0.99 m
Gs min
Y1
Ls Ls
= 1.75 = 1.75 0.99 m = 1.7325 m
Gs actual
Gs min
m Gs m
ϕ= = = 0.577
Ls 1.7325 m
𝐍𝐎𝐆 =
𝟏−
NOG =
1−
NOG = 8.88
Z = HOG * NOG = (1) (8.8) = 8.8 m

71
Calculations of the packing height based on liquid phase:
Overall material balance on the solute (A) over an element (∂z) based on liquid phase:
𝐆𝐒 𝐝𝐘 = 𝐋𝐒 𝐝𝐗 = 𝐍𝐀 . 𝐀
𝐝𝐗
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐋𝐬 𝐗 + 𝐝𝐙 𝛛𝐳 − 𝐋𝐬 𝐗 = 𝐊𝐨𝐋 (𝐚 𝐒 𝛛𝐳)(𝐗 ∗ − 𝐗)
Where:
𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐞𝐫 = 𝐚 𝐝𝐕 = 𝐚 𝐒 𝛛𝐳
S: is the cross-sectional area of column (m2).
a: is the surface area of interface per unit volume of

column (m2/m3).
𝐝𝐗
𝐋𝐬 𝛛𝐳 = 𝐊𝐨𝐋. 𝐚 (𝐒 . 𝛛𝐳)(𝐗∗ − 𝐗)
𝐝𝐙
𝐝𝐗
𝐋𝐬 = 𝐊𝐨𝐋. 𝐚 (𝐒 . 𝛛𝐳)(𝐗∗ − 𝐗)
𝐝𝐙
𝐙 𝐗𝟏
𝐋𝐬 𝐝𝐗
𝐝𝐙 = ∗
𝐊𝐨𝐋. 𝐚 . 𝐒 ( 𝐗 − 𝐗)
𝟎 𝐗𝟐
𝐗𝟏
(𝐋𝐬 𝐒) 𝐝𝐗
𝐙= ∗
𝐊𝐨𝐋. 𝐚 ( 𝐗 − 𝐗)
𝐗𝟐
𝐗𝟏
𝐋𝐬 𝐝𝐗
𝐙= ∗
𝐊𝐨𝐋. 𝐚 ( 𝐗 − 𝐗)
𝐗𝟐
Z = HOL * NOL = HTU * NTU
Where:
𝐋𝐬
𝐇𝐎𝐋 = ∶ heiht of transfer unit HTU based on liquid phase, with the units of (m).
𝐊𝐨𝐋. 𝐚
72
𝐗𝟏
𝐝𝐗
𝐍𝐎𝐋 = ∗ ∶ number of transfer unit NTU based on liquid phase, without units.
(𝐗 − 𝐗)
𝐗𝟐
Calculation of Number of Transfer Unit (NOL):
A. For Linear Equilibrium Relationship 𝐘 = 𝐦 𝐗 ∗ :
𝐗𝟏
𝐝𝐗
𝐍𝐎𝐋 = … … … … … … … … … … … . . (1)
(𝐗 ∗ − 𝐗)
𝐗𝟐
𝐘
𝐗∗ = … … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
𝐦
𝐆𝐬 𝐘 − 𝐘𝟐 = 𝐋𝐬 𝐗 − 𝐗 𝟐 … … … … … … … … … … … . . (3)
𝐋𝐬
𝐘= 𝐗 − 𝐗 𝟐 + 𝐘𝟐
𝐆𝐬
For pure liquid solvent used then, X2 = 0
𝐋𝐬
𝐘= 𝐗 + 𝐘𝟐 … … … … … … … … … … … . (4)
𝐆𝐬
𝐋𝐬 𝐘𝟐 𝟏 𝐘𝟐
𝐗∗ = 𝐗+ = 𝐗+ … … … … … … … … … … … … (5)
𝐦𝐆𝐬 𝐦 𝛟 𝐦
𝛟
𝐍𝐎𝐋 =
𝟏−
𝐍𝐎𝐋 = 𝛟 𝐍𝐎𝐆
𝐦𝐆𝐬
𝐖𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞: 𝛟 =
𝐋𝐬
73
B. For Non-linear Equilibrium Relationship:
𝐗𝟏 𝐝𝐗
In this case the integration [ 𝐍𝐎𝐋 = 𝐗𝟐 (𝐗∗ −𝐗)
] will be solved using graphical method or
numerical method (Simpson rule) following steps below:
1. Draw the given equilibrium data.

2. Draw the operating line, from two points (X1, Y1) and (X2, Y2) or one point and slope of
𝐋
( 𝐆𝐬 ).
𝐬
3. Create the table below by calculated (𝐗 ∗ ) from the plot as below:
𝐗 𝐗∗ 𝟏
Assume points between (X1 - X2) Calculated from plot (𝐗 ∗ − 𝐗)
X1 - calculated √ = f0
- (assumed) - calculated √= f3
X2 - calculated √ = fn
Figure: Calculation of ( 𝐗 ∗ ) for packed column.
74
𝟏
4. To calculate NOL we draw [ ] Vs. [X] to find the area under the curve:
(𝐗 ∗ −𝐗)
Where:
NOL = Area under the curve
Simpson rule for calculation of NOL:
NOL = Area under the curve
𝐡
𝐍𝐎𝐋 = 𝐟 + 𝐟𝐧 + 𝟐 𝐟𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧 + 𝟒 𝐟𝐨𝐝𝐝
𝟑 𝟎
75
E-operator
ً‫أً) ف‬ٛ‫(اٌص‬ ً‫ب ٌزُ حسبة ػذد اٌّشاح‬ٌٙ‫ع اٌشٌبضً الشزمبق اٌؼاللبد اٌشٌبضٍخ اٌزً ِٓ خال‬ٛ‫ض‬ٌّٛ‫ٌسزفبد ِٓ ٘زا ا‬
:ًٌٍ ‫وّب‬ٚ ًٔ‫ا‬ٛ‫األثشاج راد اٌص‬
𝐘𝐧+𝟏 = 𝐄 𝐘𝐧
𝐘𝐧+𝟐 = 𝐄𝟐 𝐘𝐧
𝐘𝐧−𝟏 = 𝐄 −𝟏 𝐘𝐧
𝐘𝐧−𝟐 = 𝐄 −𝟐 𝐘𝐧
:ًٌ‫أً ثبٌشىً اٌزب‬ٛ‫ش رشوٍض اٌّزاة ػٍى اٌص‬ٙ‫ف ٌظ‬ٛ‫أً س‬ٛ‫ اٌص‬ٚ‫اصٔخ ِبدح ػٍى اٌجشج ر‬ِٛ ًّ‫ػٕذ ػ‬
)E-operator( ًِ‫ف ٔسزخذَ اٌّؼب‬ٛ‫) فس‬n( ‫احذح‬ٚ ‫حذ ٘زٖ اٌّزغٍشاد ػٍى ِشحٍخ‬ٛٔ ً‫ٌى‬ٚ 𝐘𝐧 , 𝐘𝐧−𝟏 , 𝐗 𝐧+𝟏 , 𝐗 𝐧
‫س‬ٚ‫ ثُ إلٌدبد اٌحً ٌزٍه اٌّؼبدٌخ ( أي إٌدبد خز‬.) 𝐘𝐧 ( ‫احذ‬ٚ ‫ًٌ اٌّؼبدٌخ ثذالٌخ ِزغٍش‬ٛ‫ف ٌسبػذٔب ػٍى رح‬ٛ‫سٖ س‬ٚ‫اٌزي ثذ‬ٚ
‫س ِخزٍفخ‬ٚ‫س اٌّؼبدٌخ فئرا وبٔذ اٌدز‬ٚ‫َ ثبٌزحًٍٍ إلٌدبد خز‬ٛ‫ِٓ ثُ ٔم‬ٚ ) ρ ( ٛ٘ ‫ ) ثّزغٍش خذٌذ‬E ( ‫اٌّؼبدٌخ) ٌزُ اسزجذاي‬
:ًٌ‫ْ اٌحً وبٌزب‬ٛ‫فسٍى‬
𝐧 𝐧
𝐘𝐧 = 𝐜𝟏 𝛒𝟏 + 𝐜𝟐 𝛒𝟐
Where:
ρ𝟏 , ρ𝟐 ∶ are roots of equation.
Yn : is the concentration (mole ratio) of solute on tray (n).
n: is the number of trays.
c𝟏 , c𝟐 : are equation constants.
To find the equation constants we will use the boundary conditions at:
n=0
n=1
Then we will have two equations, we can solve them simultaneously to find c𝟏 and c𝟐 .
76
2. Tray or plate tower:

The plate column is a common type of absorption equipment for large installations.
Bubble-cap columns or sieve trays are sometimes used for gas absorption, particularly when
the load is more than can be handled in a packed tower of about 1 m diameter and when there
is any probability of deposition of solids which would quickly choke a packing. Plate towers
are particularly useful when the liquid rate is sufficient to flood a packed tower. Phase
equilibrium is assumed to be achieved at each tray between the vapor and liquid streams
leaving the tray. That is, each tray is treated as equilibrium stage. Assume that the only
component transferred from one phase to the other is solute A.
Figure 11.51: Bubble-cap tray.
Figure 11.52: A perforated or sieve tray.

77
Figure 11.53: A bubble tray.
The height of tray tower can be obtained by using the following equation:
Z=H*N
Where:
H : is the distance between two trays, and it is given (0.3 - 0.7 m) and usually used (0.5 m).
N : is the number of trays, and it can be calculated based on equilibrium data.
Calculation of Number of theoretical Trays (N):
A. For Linear Equilibrium Relationship 𝐘 = 𝐦 𝐗 :
Solute material balance over tray (n):
Gs Yn−1 + Ls Xn+1 = Gs Yn + Ls Xn …………(1)
The equilibrium relation is:
Y=mX … … … … … (2)
Substitute Eq.(2) in to Eq.(1) to get:
Ls Ls
Gs Yn−1 + Yn+1 = Gs Yn + Y
m m n
78
Ls Ls
Gs Yn−1 + Yn+1 = Gs + Y
m m n
m Gs m Gs
𝐘𝐧+𝟏 − + 1 𝐘𝐧 + 𝐘𝐧−𝟏 = 0
Ls Ls
Where:
m Gs
=𝛟
Ls
𝐘𝐧+𝟏 − 𝟏 + 𝛟 𝐘𝐧 + 𝛟 𝐘𝐧−𝟏 = 0
By using E-operator:
E 𝐘𝐧 − 𝟏 + 𝛟 𝐘𝐧 + 𝛟 E −1 𝐘𝐧 = 0 …………… 3 multiply by (E)
E 2 − 𝟏 + 𝛟 E + 𝛟 𝐘𝐧 = 0
Change (E) symbol by (ρ):
ρ2 − 𝟏 + 𝛟 ρ + 𝛟 = 0
ρ−1 ρ−ϕ =0
The equation roots are:
ρ1 = 1 and ρ2 = ϕ
The general solution is:
𝐘𝐧 = c1 ρ1n + c2 ρn2
Substitute the equation roots in to the general solution to get:
𝐘𝐧 = 𝐜𝟏 + 𝐜𝟐 𝛟n
𝐘𝐧 − 𝐜𝟏
𝐥𝐧 𝐜𝟐
𝐧=
𝐥𝐧 𝛟
79
To find the total number of trays, we substitute (n) by (N) to get:
𝐘𝐍 − 𝐜𝟏
𝐥𝐧 𝐜𝟐
𝐍=
𝐥𝐧 𝛟
To find the equation constants C1 and C2 we substitute the boundary conditions:
𝐁. 𝐂. 𝟏: 𝐚𝐭 𝐧=𝟎 → 𝐘𝐧 = 𝐘𝟎
𝐁. 𝐂. 𝟐: 𝐚𝐭 𝐧=𝟏 → 𝐘𝐧 = 𝐘𝟏 → 𝐘𝟏 = 𝐦 𝐗 𝟏
𝐘𝐧 = 𝐜𝟏 + 𝐜𝟐 𝛟n
𝐁. 𝐂. 𝟏: 𝐘𝟎 = 𝐜𝟏 + 𝐜𝟐 𝛟0 → 𝐘𝟎 = 𝐜𝟏 + 𝐜𝟐 … … . . (1)
𝐁. 𝐂. 𝟐: 𝐘𝟏 = 𝐜𝟏 + 𝐜𝟐 𝛟1 → 𝐦 𝐗 𝟏 = 𝐜𝟏 + 𝐜𝟐 𝛟 … … . . (2)
From Eq.(1) and Eq.(2) we get:
𝐘𝟎 − 𝐦 𝐗 𝟏
𝐜𝟐 =
𝟏−𝛟
𝐜𝟏 = 𝐘𝟎 − 𝐜𝟐
80
B. For Non-linear Equilibrium Relationship (Graphical method):
In this case the number of theoretical plates will be calculated using graphical method
following steps below:
1. Complete the material balance to calculate all the unknowns (all compositions and
flow rates of the inlet and the outlet streams must be known).
2. Draw the equilibrium curve (or line) either from given data or from the equilibrium
equation: Y = m X.
3. Draw the operating line, from two points (X1, Y0) and (XN+1, YN) or one point and
𝐋
slope of ( 𝐆𝐬 ) according to the condition of the process.
𝐬
4. Draw a vertical line from point 1 which represents the point (X1, Y0) {as shown in the
figure} to point 2 which will intersect the equilibrium line (Curve). Then draw a
horizontal line from point 2 to point 3, intersecting the operating line. The triangular
formed will represent the plate number one.
5. Continue drawing the vertical lines and horizontal lines as in step 4 (shown in the fig.)
until we reach to the point (XN+1, YN) or pass it.
6. Count the triangles constructed, this number represents the number of theoretical plates.
81
Column efficiency:
The number of ideal stages required for a desired separation may be calculated by one
of the methods discussed previously, although in practice more trays are required than ideal
stages. There are two types of efficiency usually used:
1. Overall column efficiency (Ec):
The theoritical number plates Nth

overall column efficiency (Ec ) = =
The actual number plates Nact
Nth
Ec =
Nact
Where: Nact > Nth
and: Nact = Nth if Ec = 100%
𝐙 = 𝐍𝐚𝐜𝐭 ∗ 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐲 𝐬𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐧𝐠
Where: Zact > Zth
2. Plate efficiency (Em):
The proportion of liquid and vapour, and the physical properties of the mixtures on the
trays, will vary up the column, and conditions on individual trays must be examined, as
suggested by Murphree (1925). For a single ideal tray, the vapour leaving is in equilibrium
with the liquid leaving, and the ratio of the actual change in composition achieved to that
which would occur if equilibrium between Yn and Xn were attained is known as the
Murphree plate efficiency (Em). The plate efficiency can be expressed in terms of gas and
liquid as given below:
82
a. Plate efficiency based on gas phase (Emv):
Yn − Yn+1 bc
Emv = =
Yn − Yn∗ ac
Where:
Yn∗ : is the composition of the gas that would be in equilibrium with the liquid of
composition Xn actually leaving the plate.
b. Plate efficiency based on liquid phase (Eml):
Xn − Xn−1 bc
Eml = =
Xn − Xn∗ ac
Where:
Xn∗ : is the composition of the liquid that would be in equilibrium with the gas of
composition Yn actually leaving the plate.
83
‫‪Mass Transfer‬‬ ‫‪Third Year‬‬ ‫‪Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Daham‬‬
‫الٌجاد عذد انصىانً انحقٍقً ( ‪ )Nact‬فًٍا نى اعطٍج كفاءة انصٍنٍت انًعخًذة عهى انبخار ( ‪ )Emv‬او انسائم ( ‪)Eml‬‬
‫نخبع انخطىاث انخانٍت‪:‬‬
‫‪ٌ .1‬خى انقٍاس بانًسطزة انًسافت بٍن ينحنً انخعادل (‪ (a‬وخط انخشغٍم (‪ (c‬وحًثم هذه انًسافت ( ‪.)ac‬‬
‫‪ .2‬نجذ انًسافت ( ‪ )bc‬باسخخذاو يعادنت كفاء انصٍنٍت ( ‪ )Emv‬او ( ‪.)Eml‬‬
‫‪ .3‬حعاد هذه انعًهٍت نخًس نقاط نكً ٌخى اٌجاد ينجنً انخعادل انجذٌذ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .4‬عذد انصىانً انحقٍقً ( ‪ٌ )Nact‬خى اٌجاده بانخسقٍط بٍن خط انخشغٍم وينحنً انخعادل انجذٌذ‪ ،‬فً حٍن عذد انصىانً‬
‫اننظزي ( ‪ٌ )Nth‬خى اٌجاده بانخسقٍط بٍن خط انخشفٍم وينحنً انخعادل انقذٌى ‪.‬‬
‫يالحظاث يهًت جذا‪:‬‬
‫‪ .1‬ارا اػطً فً اٌسؤاي ِؼٍ‪ِٛ‬بد اٌزؼبدي ‪ٚ‬وزٌه رشوٍض اٌّزاة ػٍى صٍٍٕزٍٓ ِزدٍ‪ٛ‬سرٍٓ فٍىً ٌزُ حسبة وفبءح اٌصٍٍٕخ‬
‫ٔزجغ اٌطشٌمخ اٌزبٌٍخ‪:‬‬
‫ٔشسُ ِؼٍ‪ِٛ‬بد اٌزؼبدي ‪ٚ‬وزٌه خظ اٌزشغًٍ ثُ ٔحذد رشوٍض اٌّزاة اٌّؼطى ػٍى اٌصٍٍٕزٍٓ اٌّزدب‪ٚ‬سرٍٓ ػٍى ِح‪ٛ‬س‬
‫(‪ ( )Y-axis‬ارا وبْ اٌزشوٍض اٌّؼطى ثبٌٕسجخ ٌٍغبص )‪ .‬ثؼذ رٌه ٔسمظ ٘زٖ اٌزشاوٍض ػٍى خظ اٌزشغًٍ ‪ٔٚ‬شسُ اٌّثٍث وّب‬
‫ِ‪ٛ‬ضح ادٔبٖ فبٌٕمطخ اٌزً رّثً ساط اٌّثٍث ً٘ ٔمطخ ػٍى ِٕخًٕ اٌزؼبدي اٌدذٌذ ‪ٚ‬ػٕذ ران ٔطجك ػاللخ وفبءح اٌصٍٍٕخ‬
‫ثمٍبط اٌّسبفبد‪.‬‬
‫‪84‬‬
‫) فٍىً ٌزُ حسبة اسرفبع ثشج االِزصبص‬Emv ( ‫اػطٍذ وفبءح اٌصٍٍٕخ‬ٚ ‫ِبد اٌزؼبدي فً اٌسؤاي‬ٍٛ‫ ارا ٌُ رؼطى ِؼ‬.2
:‫ٔسزخذَ غاللخ وفبءح اٌصٍٍٕخ اٌزبٌٍخ‬
Yn − Yn+1
Emv =
Yn − Yn∗
‫ أي ال‬،‫وبما أن معلومات التعادل لم تعطى فً السؤال هذا ٌعنً السائل المستخدم شدٌد االمتصاص أي أن مٌل عالقة التعادل = صفر‬
‫ ( م‬Yn∗ = 0 ( ‫ٌوجد منحنً تعادل وهذا ٌعنً أن‬
‫) إلٌجاد‬E-operator( ‫فٌت التعوٌض بالمعادلة السابقة وتبسٌط المعادلة باستخدا م‬
.‫ ) وبالتعوٌض عن التركٌز النهائً نجد عدد الصوانً الحقٌقٌة ثم بعد ذلك نجد ارتفاع البرج‬n ( ‫ ) و‬Yn ( ‫العالقة بٌن‬
.)Emv ( ‫ أذا لم تعطى كفاءة الصٌنٌة فً السؤال فٌتم فرضها على إنها‬.3
Calculation of the Height Equivalent of a Theoretical Plate (HETP):
The height of a theoretical plate (HETP), also called the height of an equivalent
equilibrium stage, is the height of packing that will give the same separation as an
equilibrium stage. The relationship between transfer units (HOG) and the height of an
equivalent theoretical plate (HETP) is given by:
𝐥𝐧 𝛟
𝐇𝐄𝐓𝐏 = 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐲 𝐬𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐧𝐠 = 𝐇𝐎𝐆 ∗
𝟏−𝛟
85
mGs
Where: ϕ =
Ls
𝐙 = 𝐍 ∗ 𝐇𝐄𝐓𝐏
Where: N = number of plates
ٍٓ‫ٌُ رؼطى اٌّسبفخ ث‬ٚ ًٔ‫ا‬ٛ‫ اٌص‬ٚ‫ة حسبة اسرفبع اٌجشج ر‬ٍٛ‫وبْ اٌّط‬ٚ ًٔ‫ا‬ٛ‫* ارا ٌُ ٌؼطى فً اٌسؤاي اٌّسبفخ ثٍٓ اٌص‬
‫( السزخذاِٗ فً حسبة اسرفبع‬HETP) ‫( فٍزُ حسبة‬HOG) ‫ب حسبة‬ٌٙ‫فشح ٌّىٓ ِٓ خال‬ٛ‫ِبد ِز‬ٍٛ‫ٕ٘بن ِؼ‬ٚ ًٔ‫ا‬ٛ‫اٌص‬
.‫اٌجشج‬
Relation between overall and film transfer units:
𝐘𝟏
𝐆𝐬 𝐝𝐘
𝐙𝐎𝐆 = 𝐇𝐎𝐆 ∗ 𝐍𝐎𝐆 =
𝐊𝐨𝐆. 𝐚 (𝐘 − 𝐘 ∗ )
𝐘𝟐
𝐗𝟏
𝐋𝐬 𝐝𝐗
𝐙𝐎𝐋 = 𝐇𝐎𝐋 ∗ 𝐍𝐎𝐋 =
𝐊𝐨𝐋. 𝐚 ( 𝐗∗ − 𝐗)
𝐗𝟐
𝐘𝟏
𝐆𝐬 𝐝𝐘
𝐙𝐠 = 𝐇𝐠 ∗ 𝐍𝐠 =
𝐊𝐠. 𝐚 (𝐘 − 𝐘𝐢 )
𝐘𝟐
𝐗𝟏
𝐋𝐬 𝐝𝐘
𝐙𝐋 = 𝐇𝐋 ∗ 𝐍𝐋 =
𝐊𝐋. 𝐚 (𝐗 𝐢 − 𝐗)
𝐗𝟐
𝐖𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞: 𝐙 = 𝐙𝐎𝐆 = 𝐙𝐎𝐋 = 𝐙𝐠 = 𝐙𝐋
86
Example (1): Calculate the height of plate column with tray spacing of 0.51 m and plate
efficiency based on gas phase 40% to reduce the concentration of NH3 from 5.5 mol% to 0.1
mol% in an NH3-Air mixture using fresh water. The gas and liquid flow rates are 300 and
400 Kg/m2.hr, respectively, and the equilibrium relationship is such that the vapor pressure
of NH3 over the liquid is negligible.
Solution:
For plate tower: Z = N * tray spacing
Yn − Yn+1
Emv =
Yn − Yn∗
Since the vapor pressure of NH3 over the liquid is negligible, then: m=0
Yn − Yn+1 Yn − Yn+1
Emv = → 0.4 =
Yn Yn
Yn+1 − 0.6 Yn = 0
By using E-operator:
E − 0.6 Yn = 0 → ρ − 0.6 = 0
ρ = 0.6
n n
Yn = C ρ = C 0.6
Using the boundry condition:
n=0 → Yn = Y0 = 0.055
0
0.055 = C 0.6
→ C = 0.055
n
Yn = 0.055 0.6
N
0.001 = 0.055 0.6
N = 7.83 ≈ 8
Z = N * tray spacing
Z = 7.83 * 0.51 = 4 m
87
Example (2): A mixture of ammonia and air is scrubbed in a plate column with fresh water. If
the ammonia concentration is reduced from 5% to 0.5% .Given that: Y = 2 X.
a. Calculate the No. of theoretical plate and the tower height. Given that: L = 0.65
Kg/m2.s and G = 0.4 Kg/m2.s, KOG.a = 0.0008 Kmol/m3.s.kPa
L L
b. Calculate the No. of theoretical plate, given that: =2 .
G G min
L
c. Calculate if the actual No. of plates = 12, and the column efficiency = 0.5.
G
d. Calculate the theoretical and actual No. of plates, give that:

L L
= 1.5 and Emv = 0.7
G G min
e. Given the concentration of a gas in the two adjacent plates are 4% and 3.3%. Calculate
Emv and Eml if L = 0.65 Kg/m2.s and G = 0.4 Kg/m2.s.
Solution:
Since the inlet gas concentration is 5% then no need to convert the mole fraction to mole
ratio:
0.65 kmol
Ls = = 0.0361
18 m2 . s
0.4 kmol
Gs = = 0.01379
29 m2 . s
Overall solute material balance on the tower:
Gs Y1 − Y2 = Ls X1 − X2
0.01379 0.05 − 0.005 = 0.0361 X1 − 0
X1 = 0.01718
To find the number of theoretical plates:
1. Plot the operating line:

X1 , Y1 = 0.01718 , 0.05
X2 , Y2 = 0 , 0.005
2. Plot the equilibriam relation (Y = 2 X):

From the figure below we can find the theroritical No. of plates by stepping off:
88
N = 5 Plates
The height of plate tower is:
Z = N * HETP
Gs 0.01379
HOG = = = 0.17 m
KOG. a. PT 0.0008 (101.3)
mGs 2(0.01379)
ϕ= = = 0.7639
Ls 0.0361
ln ϕ ln 0.7639
HETP = HOG ∗ = 0.17 ∗ = 0.19 m
1−ϕ 1 − 0.7639
Z = (5) (0.19) = 0.97 m
L L
b. =2
G act G min
For linear equilibrium relation:
L Y2 0.005
=m 1− =2 1− = 1.8
G min Y1 0.05
L L
=2 = 2 1.8 = 3.6
G act G min
Gs Y1 − Y2 = Ls X1 − X2
Gs 1
X1 = Y1 − Y2 = 3.6 0.05 − 0.005
Ls
X1 = 0.0125

X1 , Y1 = 0.0125 , 0.05
X2 , Y2 = 0 , 0.005

N = 3 Plates
89
c. Theoritical No. of plates = Actual No. of plates * overall column efficiency
Nth = Nact * Ec
Nth = 12 * 0.5 = 6 plates
L
ُ‫اٌخطب ثشس‬ٚ ‫ٌخ‬ٚ‫َ ثبٌّحب‬ٛ‫ف ٔم‬ٛ‫) أي ًٍِ خظ اٌزشغًٍ فس‬G ( ٛ٘ ‫ة‬ٍٛ‫اٌّط‬ٚ (N( ًٔ‫ا‬ٛ‫ ػذد اٌص‬ٛ٘ ‫َ فً ٘زا اٌسؤاي‬ٍٛ‫اٌّؼ‬
: ‫خظ اٌزشغًٍ ِٓ إٌمطخ‬
X2 , Y2 = 0 , 0.005
‫ي‬ٚ‫اٌزي ٌسب‬ٚ ٍٍِٗ ‫َ ثحسبة‬ٛ‫ ػٕذ اٌدبد خظ اٌزشغًٍ اٌصحٍح ٔم‬. ) Y1 = 0.05( ‫) ػٕذ‬6( ًٔ‫ا‬ٛ‫ثحٍث ٌحمك ػذد اٌص‬
L
:)G (
From plot:
Ls
= 2.23
Gs
𝐝. =
𝐗 ∗𝟏 − 𝐗 𝟐
From plot at Y1 = 0.05 → 𝐗 ∗𝟏 = 0.025
Ls 0.05 − 0.005
= = 1.8
Gs min
0.025 − 0
Ls Ls
= 1.5 = 1.5 1.8 = 2.7
Gs act
Gs min
Gs Y1 − Y2 = Ls X1 − X2
Gs 1
X1 = Y1 − Y2 = 2.7 0.05 − 0.005
Ls
X1 = 0.0166
90

X1 , Y1 = 0.0166 , 0.05
X2 , Y2 = 0 , 0.005

N = 4 Plates
To find the actual No. of plates:
Plot the new equilibrium curve at (Emv = 0.7), and stepping off:
The actual No. of plates =5
e.
0.65 kmol
Ls = = 0.0361
18 m2 . s
0.4 kmol
Gs = = 0.01379
29 m2 . s
Gs Y1 − Y2 = Ls X1 − X2
0.01379 0.05 − 0.005 = 0.0361 X1 − 0
X1 = 0.01718

X1 , Y1 = 0.01718 , 0.05
X2 , Y2 = 0 , 0.005

3. From the plot we find (Emv) and (EmL) at:
YN = 4% and YN+1 = 3%
ab 19 mm
Emv = = = 0.67
ac 25 mm
ab 6 mm
Eml = = = 0.5
ac 12 mm
91
Calculation of column diameter:
a. Packed tower:
G ∗ M. wt G ∗ M. wt
Ug = = π
ρg ∗ S ρg ∗ 4 D2
Ug = f (D)
Ug ≪ UL Loading
Ug ≫ UL flooding
UL < Ug < Uf
Ug = 0.7 − 0.9 Uf
The diameter of the tray tower can be estimated following the procedure below:
1. Calculate 𝐅𝐋𝐕 from the following equation:
L ρg
FLV =
G ρL
Where:
kg
L = Liquid mass flow rate, .
s
kg
G = Gas mass flow rate, .
s
2. Using Figure 11.44 to find K4 with the used pressure drop:
μ 0.1
13.1 G2 FP ρL
L
K4 =
ρg ρL − ρg
Where:
G = gas mass flux ( kg/m2.s).
92
FP = packing factor, characteristic of the size and type of packing, see Table 11.3, m-1.
μL = liquid viscosity, Ns/m2.
kg
ρL , ρg = liquid and gas densities, .
m3
𝐆 ∗ 𝐌𝐰𝐭
𝐆=
𝐒
Where:
G = gas mole rate (kmol/s).
S = cross section area (m2).
Mwt = gas molecular weight.
𝐆 ∗ 𝐌𝐰𝐭 𝛑
𝐒= = 𝐃
𝐆 𝟒
𝟒 ∗ 𝐌𝐰𝐭 ∗ 𝐆
𝐃= (𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫)
𝛑 𝐆
93
b. Tray tower:
The diameter of the tray tower can be estimated following the procedure below:
3. Calculate 𝐅𝐋𝐕 from the following equation:
L ρg
FLV =
G ρL
Where:
kg
L = Liquid mass flow rate, .
s
kg
G = Gas mass flow rate, .
s
4. Using Figure 11.27 to find K1 with the used plate spacing:
The flooding velocity can be estimated from the correlation given by Fair (1961):
ρL − ρg
Uf = K 1
ρg
Where:
m
Uf = flooding velocity of vapour, .
s
K1 = a constant obtained from Figure 11.27 .
kg
ρL , ρg = liquid and gas densities, .
m3
5. Find the tower diameter:
Uact = 0.7 − 0.9 Uf
G ∗ M. wt G ∗ M. wt
Uact = = π
ρg ∗ S ρg ∗ 4 D2
4 G ∗ M. wt
D=
π ρg ∗ Uact
94
Where:
𝐃 = 𝐜𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐧 𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫, 𝐦 .
S = column cross section area, m2 .

kg
M. wt = gas molecular weight, .
kgmol
95
Choice of plates or packing:
The choice between a plate or packed column for a particular application can only be
made with complete assurance by costing each design. However, this will not always be
worthwhile, or necessary, and the choice can usually be made, on the basis of experience by
considering main advantages and disadvantages of each type; which are listed below:
1. Plate columns can be designed to handle a wider range of liquid and gas flow-rates than
packed columns.
2. Packed columns are not suitable for very low liquid rates.
3. The efficiency of a plate can be predicted with more certainty than the equivalent term
for packing (HETP or HTU).
4. Plate columns can be designed with more assurance than packed columns. There is
always some doubt that good liquid distribution can be maintained throughout a packed
column under all operating conditions, particularly in large columns.
5. It is easier to make provision for cooling in a plate column; coils can be installed on the
plates.
6. It is easier to make provision for the withdrawal of side-streams from plate columns.
7. If the liquid causes fouling, or contains solids, it is easier to make provision for cleaning
in a plate column; manways can be installed on the plates. With small-diameter columns
it may be cheaper to use packing and replace the packing when it becomes fouled.
8. For corrosive liquids a packed column will usually be cheaper than the equivalent plate
column.
9. The liquid hold-up is appreciably lower in a packed column than a plate column. This
can be important when the inventory of toxic or flammable liquids needs to be kept as
small as possible for safety reasons.
10. Packed columns are more suitable for handling foaming systems.
11. The pressure drop per equilibrium stage (HETP) can be lower for packing than plates;
and packing should be considered for vacuum columns.
12. Packing should always be considered for small diameter columns, say less than 0.6 m,
where plates would be difficult to install, and expensive.
96

((Liquid–Liquid Extraction))
97

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Tikrit University

Chemical Engineering Department

Title: Mass Transfer

Course Instructor: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Daham Wiheeb

No. Assessment Number % each % total Dates

Overall Total 100

Chapter (10) in Volume (1)

Diffusion depends on:

Fick's Law of diffusion:

Diffusion with bulk of mass in motion:

Total diffusion = Molecular diffusion + Convection term

Convection term = Eddy diffusion = Molar flux due to convection

Convection term = Concentration * mass transfer velocity = CA . V

The total diffusion equation can be write in another forms:

a. Partial pressure for gases.

a. Total diffusion equation in the partial pressure form:

b. Total diffusion equation in the mole fraction form:

PT dXA = dPA and CT dXA = dCA

Stagnant diffusion Counter diffusion

1. Stagnant diffusion (Mass transfer through a stationary second component):

In several important processes, one component in a gaseous mixture will be transported

Since stagnant diffusion layer: NB = 0

𝐏𝐓 = 101.3 kPa , 𝐏𝐀𝟐 = 0 , 𝐏𝐀𝟏 = yA PT = 0.5 ∗ 101.3 = 50.65 kPa

1.8 ∗ 10−5 101.3 101.3 − 0 −4

Since equimolecular counter diffusion: NB = - NA

−𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐏𝐀𝟐 − 𝐏𝐀𝟏

𝐃𝐀𝐁 𝐏𝐀𝟏 − 𝐏𝐀𝟐

From Dalton's Law of partial pressures: PT = PA + PB

By definition, PBm , the logarithmic mean of PB 1 and PB 2 , is given by:

a. Equimolecular counter diffusion.

a. Equimolecular counter diffusion.

8.2 ∗ 10−6 202.6 202.6 − 30.39 kmol

ii. Unequimolecular counter diffusion:

Since unequimolecular counter diffusion: NB = - n NA

Maxwell's Law for multicomponent mass transfer

Calculation of the effective diffusivity of (A) in the mixture (DAm):

Let A be the diffusing species through stagnant mixture of B, C, D ….. etc.

Where: DAm is the effective diffusivity of A in the mixture.

Since stagnant diffusion layer of the mixture: NB = NC = ND = 0

Now consider binary system for diffusion of A in B.

Since stagnant diffusion layer: NB = 0

Similarly for diffusion of A in C.

Since stagnant diffusion layer: NC = 0

Similarly for diffusion of A in D.

Since stagnant diffusion layer: ND = 0

Now adding Equations (4), (5) and (6):

For dilute mixture (low concentration of A), XA → 0

1 − 0.02 0.48 0.2 0.3

Diffusivities of gases and vapours

Experimental determination of diffusivities

Diffusivities of vapours are most conveniently determined by the method developed by

Material balance on component A over dz:

Substitute Eq.(4) in to Eq.(2). To get:

Mwt = 154 kg/kmol , 𝛒𝐋 = 1540 kg/m3

𝐂𝐁𝟏 = 𝐂𝐓 − 𝐂𝐀𝟏 = 0.038 − 0.0141 = 0.0239

𝐂𝐁𝟐 − 𝐂𝐁𝟏 0.038 − 0.0239 kmol

790 0.02752 − 0.0182 8.314 (290) −5

1. Empirical correlation for calculation of gas diffusivity:

2. Empirical correlation for calculation of liquid diffusivity: