Design of Roadways, Railways, and Guideway

Systems
The geometric design of roads is the branch of highway engineering concerned with the positioning of
the physical elements of the roadway according to standards and constraints. The basic objectives in
geometric design are to optimize efficiency and safety while minimizing cost and environmental
damage. Geometric design also affects an emerging fifth objective called "livability," which is defined as
designing roads to foster broader community goals, including providing access to employment, schools,
businesses and residences, accommodate a range of travel modes such as walking, bicycling, transit, and
automobiles, and minimizing fuel use, emissions and environmental damage.

Geometric roadway design can be broken into three main parts: alignment, profile, and cross-section.
Combined, they provide a three-dimensional layout for a roadway.

The alignment is the route of the road, defined as a series of horizontal tangents and curves.

The profile is the vertical aspect of the road, including crest and sag curves, and the straight grade lines
connecting them.

The cross section shows the position and number of vehicle and bicycle lanes and sidewalks, along with
their cross slope or banking. Cross sections also show drainage features, pavement structure and other
items outside the category of geometric design.

Location and Route Location

Route location in linear referencing, a discrete location along a route (point) or a portion of a route
(line). A point route location uses only a single measure value to describe a discrete location along a
route. A line route uses both a from- and to- measure value to describe a portion of a route.
Section of Road
1. Carriage way:-  The width of pavement way on which vehicles travel is called Carriage way or
pavement width. Sr. no. Class of road Width 1 Single lane 3.75m 2 Two lanes(without raised kerbs)
7.00m 3 Two lanes(with raised kerbs) 7.50m 4 Multi-lane pavements 3.50m per lane

2. Formation width:-  Formation width is the top of width of the highway embankment excluding the
side drains. Sr. No. Road classification Width of Formation in m Plain&Rolling Terrain Mountainous
Terrain 1 NH & SH (a) Single Lane 12.0 6.25 (b)Two Lanes 12.0 8.80 2 MDR (a) Single Lane 9.0 4.75
(b)Two Lanes 9.0 - 3 ODR (a) Single Lane 7.5 4.75 (b)Two Lanes 9.0 - 4 VR-Single Lane 7.5 4.0

3.Right of way:-  Right of way is the area of land acquired for the road, along its alignment. It is the
distance between the boundary stones on either side of the road. 4.Road shoulders:-  Shoulders are
provided along the road edge to serve as emergency lane for vehicles. A per IRC, the minimum width of
shoulders should be 2.5m.

5. Side slope:-  The slope of earthwork in filling or in cutting is called Side slope. It imparts stability to
the earthwork. • For Filling: Normally, 1:2 • For cutting: Type of soil Slope Ordinary soil 1:1 to 1:1/2
Broken Rock 1:1/2 to 1:1/4 Soft Rock 1:1/4 to 1:1/8 Hard Rock Approx. Perpendicular

6. Berm:-  The distance between the road toe and the inner edge of borrow pit is called berm.  It
prevents the erosion of embankment soil. 7. Boundary stone :-  To indicate the boundary of land
acquired for road, stones are driven in to the ground at about 30m distance on either side from the
center line of the road. These stones are known as boundary stone.

8. Side drain:-  For the drainage of rainwater, drains are provided on either side of the road. Normally,
side drains are required for the road in cutting. For road in embankment, side drain is not necessary. 9.
Building line:-  The distance from the center line of road on either side, within which construction of
buildings is not permitted is called Building line.

10.Control line:-  At the locations like bank, hospital, factory, theatre, etc. on the road, where more
people gather disturbance to the traffic will be more. 11.Spoil bank:-  The banks constructed from
surplus excavated earth on the side of road cutting parallel to its alignment, are known as Spoil banks. 
The soil from spoil bank can be used for the repair of shoulders.

12.Borrow pits:-  The pits dug along the road alignment for using excavated earth in the construction
of embankment, are known as borrow pits.  The small portion of earth left undug in a borrow pit to
measure depth of excavation is known as deadman.

13.Kerbs:-  the boundaries between pavement and shoulders or footpaths are known as kerbs.
Intersection
The most common hazard area on the road is the intersection. Intersections are widely varied and can be
confusing to experienced and inexperienced drivers alike. Whether you are driving in a big city or a small town,
your path is destined to cross with someone else’s. Let’s face it, intersections can be stressful driving situations
because there is often a considerable amount of activity going on: an array of navigational signs, turning lanes,
merging lanes, traffic signals, a multitude of other drivers who are in just as big of a hurry as you are. The most
helpful method of learning how to safely maneuver through intersections is to recognize the different types and
the common rules associated with them. Below is a list of popular types of intersections and some helpful tips
for getting through them and getting back on your way.

 A four-way

A four-way intersection is the most common type and involves the crossing of two roadways. Although the
roads can approach each other at any angle at a four-way intersection, they often appear perpendicular,
especially in metropolitan areas where the roads are designed in a grid-like fashion. Four-way intersections are
either controlled by stop signs or a traffic signal. At a four-way intersection controlled by a traffic signal, only
proceed when you are presented with a green light. Only turn left on a green light when there is no
approaching traffic. At a four-way intersection controlled by a stop sign, vehicles gain right of way in the order
they reach the intersection. Here is a short guide that cover important rules of a four-way intersection
including blinking lights, power outage and other vital situations.

 A T-junction

A T-junction is an intersection at which a minor roadway meets a major roadway. These are also common
types of intersections that you will often encounter. The minor roadway at a T-intersection is almost always
controlled by a stop sign, whereas the vehicles on the major roadway continue driving without having to stop.
The most important thing to remember about T-intersections is that the vehicles on the major roadway always
have right of way. The vehicle that is planning to turn right or left onto the major roadways must come to a
complete stop and look both directions before pulling out onto the major roadway.

 A Y-intersection

A Y-intersection has three sections, like a T-junction, but one roadway meets another roadway of equal size,
sometimes appearing as if the two roadways join to form one road. There are two types of Y-intersections. At
the first, there will be a stop sign on both roads a short distance from the actual junction. All traffic is required
to stop and the vehicle that arrives at their respective stop sign first proceeds first. At the second type of Y-
intersection, the drivers on one road proceed uninhibited while the drivers on the second road must come to a
complete stop and look in both directions for incoming traffic before pulling out onto the other road.
  A traffic circle

A traffic circle or roundabout is often used to control an intersection of four or more roadways. As you
approach a roundabout, yield to oncoming traffic then turn right so that you are driving around the circle in a
counterclockwise fashion. Turn right again to exit the roundabout when you reach the roadway you want to
continue on. It is important not to stop while driving in a roundabout because pile-ups can occur quickly. The
following animated guide will help you learn everything you need to know about roundabouts.

 A “fork”

A “fork” in the road is an actual type of intersection where two roadways meet. One lane of the main road
divides into two with one mini-lane connecting with a joining road and the other mini-lane continuing along
the road’s original path. Typically, there is a median area separating these two sections of the main roadway at
a fork.

 Turning lanes

Turning lanes appear at intersections that have a heavy amount of traffic. These lanes are designated for
drivers who desire to turn left at an intersection and are usually controlled by a traffic light. Turning lanes are
label with a painted arrow on the pavement. An arrow will also appear on the traffic light controlling the
turning lane. If you position your vehicle within a turning lane at an intersection, you must follow through with
the turn.

 Controlled or uncontrolled

Intersections are often described as controlled or uncontrolled. Controlled intersections are most common
and refer to those that employ stop signs or traffic signals. Uncontrolled intersections are found primarily in
rural areas with little traffic. Motorists are often warned of upcoming uncontrolled intersections by warning
signs; however, no traffic signal or stop sign is present. If you encounter an uncontrolled intersection, proceed
slowly and carefully. Use common sense and chronological order when determining right of way. Below you
can find more tips about controlled and uncontrolled intersections.

 Pedestrian crosswalk

Intersections are common areas for pedestrian crosswalks, particularly in urban areas. Make sure that you
watch out for and yield right of way to pedestrians crossing the street when you turn right at an intersection.
Drainage
The primary purpose of a road drainage system is to remove the water from the road and its
surroundings. The road drainage system consists of two parts: dewatering and drainage. “Dewatering”
means the removal of rainwater from the surface of the road. “Drainage” on the other hand covers all
the different infrastructural elements to keep the road structure dry. “Runoff” covers the water flowing
from the surface of the pavement via road shoulders and inner slopes to the ditches. “Dewatering”
covers the collection and transport of water from the surface and structure of the road so that there will
be no ponds on the road or in the ditches.

A typical “drainage” system consists of following elements:

– Outlet ditches

Outlet ditches are drainage structures that lead the water from the side ditches away from the road
area. The water from outlet ditches normally discharges to existing waterway systems, such as river
channels and lakes. The outlet ditch is a critical part of road drainage system but often ignored. If the
outlet is clogged, it can create significant problems to the road over a large area. Outlet ditches are
normally located outside the road area with the result that the road administrator may not always own
the land that they pass through. This can create difficulties in gaining permissions from the landowner
when the outlet ditch is clogged and requires re-opening.
– Side ditches

Side ditches collect road water and lead it onward to outlet ditches and are especially important when
road is in cut. If the road is on a high embankment, side ditches are not always necessary and their need
has to be evaluated case by case.
– Culverts

A culvert is a pipe or box structure generally used as cross drains for ditch relief and to pass water under
a road at natural drainage and stream crossings. In Finland a culvert is defined to be a culvert if its clear
opening is less than 2m, if it is more than 2m it is defined as a bridge. If the construction is a large pipe
with a clear opening of 2-4 m, the culvert is defined as a pipe bridge. The shape of a culvert is usually a
round pipe, but culverts can also be pipe arch, structural arch or box. The shape depends on the site, the
required area and the allowable height of soil cover.

– Inner/outer slopes

The goal in designing the inner and outer slopes on a road is to use as gentle slopes as possible. Gentle
slopes are friendlier for the environment, are better for traffic safety and have a higher resistance
against erosion. The inclination of a typical slope will depend on the road category (rural road, main
road, motorway etc.) and the local topography. The recommended inclination for an inner slope on a
main road according to old Finnish guidelines is a minimum of 1:2 and for outer slopes a minimum of 1:4
Earthworks
Earthwork is something that transportation projects seldom avoid. In order to establish a properly
functional road, the terrain must often be adjusted. In many situations, geometric design will often
involve minimizing the cost of earthwork movement. Earthwork is expressed in units of volumes (cubic
meters in metric). Increases in such volumes require additional trucks (or more runs of the same truck),
which cost money. Thus, it is important for designers to engineer roads that require very little
earthwork.

Cut and Fill

A Typical Cut/Fill Diagram

Various sections of a roadway design will require bringing in earth. Other sections will require earth to
be removed. Earth that is brought in is considered Fill while earth that is removed is considered Cut.
Generally, designers generate drawings called Cut and Fill Diagrams, which illustrate the cut or fill
present at any given site. This drawing is quite standard, being no more than a graph with site location
on the X-axis and fill being the positive range of the Y-axis while cut is the negative range of the Y-axis.

A Typical Mass Diagram

Mass Balance

Using the data for cut and fill, an overall mass balance can be computed. The mass balance represents
the total amount of leftover (if positive) or needed (if negative) earth at a given site based on the design
up until that point. It is a useful piece of information because it can identify how much remaining or
needed earth will be present at the completion of a project, thus allowing designers to calculate how
much expense will be incurred to haul out excess dirt or haul in needed additional. Additionally, a mass
balance diagram, represented graphically, can aid designers in moving dirt internally to save money.

Similar to the cut and fill diagram, the mass balance diagram is illustrated on two axes. The X-axis
represents site location along the roadway corridor and the Y-axis represents the amount of earth,
either in excess (positive) or needed (negative).

Pipeline Transportation
A method of transportation in which liquid, gaseous, or solid products are moved over long distances thr
ough pipelines. It isused mainly for conveying natural gas, petroleum, and solid materials.

Pipelines are classified in terms of their purpose and territorial layout as trunk, or main, and industrial pi
pelines. Trunk linesinclude natural-
gas and petroleum pipelines, which usually carry the product from the place of its extraction to the sites
ofprocessing and consumption, to industrial plants, or to seaports for transshipment to tankers and cont
inued transportation.Trunk lines also carry finished petroleum products from refineries to areas of cons
umption. Pipeline transportation is alsoused within industrial plants, where other products suitable for t
his mode of conveyance are transported in order to continuethe production process. Pipelines in tank fa
rms, industrial pipelines for petroleum, natural gas, and mixed products on oilfields, and municipal pipeli
ne networks for natural-
gas distribution, water supply, and sewerage are also part of pipelinetransportation.

Pipeline transportation is a progressive and economically advantageous mode of transportation. It is cha

racterized byflexibility, the absence of freight losses in transit, complete mechanization and automation
of labor-
intensive loading andunloading operations, and recovery of packaging. As a consequence, transportatio
n costs are lowered—for liquid goods, forexample, the costs of pipeline transportation are one-
third of those for railroad transport.

Further development of trunk pipelines is linked to an increase in pipe diameter and the pressure of nat
ural gas or petroleumconveyed through the pipeline and to the provision of compressor units for higher
pressures. The transport of liquefied naturalgas is another possible way of reducing transportation costs.
References:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_design_of_roads

https://www.slideshare.net/GhanshyamPrajapati3/cross-section-of-road

https://driving-tests.org/beginner-drivers/crossing-paths-keeping-yourself-and-others-safe-at-
intersections/

http://www.roadex.org/e-learning/lessons/drainage-of-low-volume-roads/components-of-road-
drainage-system/

https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Fundamentals_of_Transportation/Earthwork

https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Pipeline+Transportation