LL.B.

IV TERM
GENDER JUSTICE AND
FEMINIST JURISPRUDENCE
PAPER LB-4031

Course Materials: Selected and Edited By

Prof. Ved Kumari
Prof. Usha Tandon
Ms. Nanditta Batra

Faculty of Law
University of Delhi, Delhi – 110007
January 2017
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 GENDER JUSTICE AND FEMINIST JURISPRUDENCE
Paper LB-4031
This course aims at questioning the understanding that law is universal, protects
everybody equally and is accessible to all equally. It uses gender, particularly in relation to
women and persons with non-heterosexuality as examples to show discrimination perpetuated
by law and legal processes. It has long been recognised that law, lawyers and judges are
insensitive and unaware of the problems and perspectives of women resulting in grave injustice
to them in various ways. Orientation and in-service refresher training programmes for lawyers
and judges on these aspects have been suggested by all concerned and indeed such training
programmes are being organised too. Law Schools in this scenario have the important
obligation to generate awareness of the gender bias operating in society and legal system in
India. This course aims to focus on discrimination on the ground of sex and non-
heterosexuality in the extant law and judicial decisions. It also explores the jurisprudential
explanations for the existing state of affairs. It focuses on the patriarchal nature of state and
family and contemporary feminist and queer debates.
It is expected that the students will acquire analytical skills and knowledge to critically
analyse functioning of legal provisions and judicial responses from the perspectives of the
deprived and powerless groups in society as an outcome of this course. These skills are
important not only from the perspective of municipal laws but also in the context of
discrimination between the first and third world countries and international law.
Prescribed Readings:
1. Sarla Gopalan, TOWARDS EQUALITY – THE UNFINISHED AGENDA – STATUS OF WOMEN
IN INDIA 2001. National Commission for Women.
2. Amita Dhanda, Archana Parashar (ed) ENGENDERING LAW ESSAYS IN HONOUR OF
LOTIKA SARKAR (1999). Eastern Book Depot.
3. Ratna Kapur and Brendia Cossman, SUBVERSIVE SITES: FEMINIST ENGAGEMENTS WITH
LAW IN INDIA (1996).
4. TOWARDS EQUALITY Report of the Committee of Status in India Government of India
(1974).
5. Kalapana Kannabhiran (ed), WOMEN AND LAW CRITICAL FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES (Sage
Publications India 2014)
6. Usha Tandon (ed), Gender Justice: A reality or fragile myth (2015).

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 CONTENTS
(15 weeks course - Total Classes 45-50)

TOPIC ONE: INTRODUCTION (7 LECTURES)

 What is Gender justice
o Notions of sex and gender
o Deconstructing ‘Man’, ‘Woman’, ‘Other’
o Private-public dichotomy
 Women in ancient, medieval and modern India: An overview
 Current status of women:-
Indicators of status: Difference in - likelihood of survival; female foeticide, assigned
human worth; and control over property, valued goods and services, working conditions,
knowledge and information, political processes, symbolic representation, one’s body,
daily lifestyles, reproductive processes
 Gender Justice in India: An overview
Readings:
1. National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India, [(2014) 1 SCC 1] available at <
http://supremecourtofindia.nic.in/outtoday/wc40012.pdf>
2. Moira Gatens, “A Critique of the Sex/Gender Distinction” in A Phillips ed. FEMINISM
AND SUBJECTIVITY, pp. 139-154 (Provided in reading material)
3. Carol Pateman, “Feminist Critique of the Public and Private” in A Phillips ed.
Feminism and Equality, pp. 103-123(Provided in reading material)
4. India Report under CEDAW 2011 availabale at
<http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/docs/AdvanceVersions/CEDAW-C-IND-
4-5_en.pdf>
5. Sunita Kishor and Kamla Gupta. 2009. Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in
India. National Family Health Survey (NFHS-3), India, 2005-06. Mumbai: International
Institute for Population Sciences; Calverton, Maryland, USA: ICF Macro. Available at
<http://rchiips.org/nfhs/a_subject_report_gender_for_website.pdf>
6. Lotika Sarkar, “Women’s Movement and the Legal Process” Occasional Paper 24,
CWDS, Available at < http://www.cwds.ac.in/wp-
content/uploads/2016/09/WomensMovement.pdf>
7. Nivedita Menon, “The disappearing body and feminist thought” (2011) available at
<https://criticalencounters.net/2011/02/19/the-disappearing-body-and-feminist-
thought/>
8. Usha Ramanathan, “Images (1920-1950) Reasonable Man, Reasonable Woman and
Reasonable Expectations” in Amita Dhanda, Archana Parashar (ed) ENGENDERING LAW,

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 pp. 33-70 (1999). Eastern Book Company. Available at <
http://www.ielrc.org/content/a9906.pdf>
TOPIC TWO: PATRIARCHY AND FEMINIST JURISPRUDENCE (8 LECTURES)
 Understanding Patriarchy
 Issues and contradictions in feminism
 Sameness and difference debate
 Liberal feminism
 Radical feminism
 Socialist/Marxist feminist approaches
9. Kamla Bhasin, What is Patriarchy, Kali/Women Unlimited (2004) (Provided in reading
material)
10. Ratna Kapur and Brendia Cossman, Subversive Sites: Feminist Engagements with Law
in India 43-75 (1996).
11. Alison Jagar “Introduction : Living with Contradictions: Controversies in Feminist
Social Ethics” (1994) Westview Press (Provided in reading material)
12. Heywood, “Feminism in Political Ideology: An Introduction” pp. 252-265 (2004)
Palgrave McMillan. (Provided in reading material)
TOPIC THREE: INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS AND WOMEN RIGHTS (4-5 LECTURES)
 UDHR, ICESCR, ICCPR
Available at < http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/>
Available at< http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/ccpr.aspx>
Available at< http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CESCR.aspx>
 UN Convention for the Elimination of Discrimination against Women. Available at <
http://www.ohchr.org/en/hrbodies/cedaw/pages/cedawindex.aspx>
 UN Human Rights Council Resolution on Human rights, sexual orientation and gender
identity, 2011. Available at <
http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Discrimination/Pages/LGBTUNResolutions.aspx>
13. EXCERPTS: Born Free and Equal: Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity in
International Human Rights Law (UN Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner)
HR/PUB/12/06 (2012)
TOPIC FOUR: SEXUALITY AND MORALITY IN LAW ( 6 LECTURES)
 Indian Penal Code 1860
 Rape Laws
 Adultery
 Immoral Traffic Prevention Act 1956 read with section 370 IPC
 Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986

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 14. Ved Kumari, “Gender Analyses of Indian Penal Code” in Amita Dhanda, Archana
Parashar (ed) ENGENDERING LAW Essays in Honour of Lotika Sarkar, pp.139-160
(1999). Eastern Book Company. Available at
<http://www.womenstudies.in/elib/crime_ag_women/ca_gender_analysis.pdf>
15. Usha Tandon and Sidharth Luthra, “Rape: Violation of the Chastity or Dignity of
Woman? A Feminist Critique of Indian Law”, FICHL Policy Brief Series No. 51 (2016)
available at<
http://www.fichl.org/fileadmin/user_upload/160615_PBS_No._51__2016___Tandon__
Luthra_.pdf>
16. Arvind Narrain, “'That despicable specimen of humanity’: Policing of homosexuality in
India” in Kalpana Kannabiran (ed), CHALLENGING THE RULE(S) OF LAW: COLONIALISM,
CRIMINOLOGY AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN INDIA (2008) Sage India (Provided in reading
material)
17. Vishal Jeet v. UOI, 1990 SCR (2) 861 (Provided in reading material)
18. Suresh Kumar Koushal and another v. Naz Foundation, Civil Appeal No.10972 of 2013
decided by the Supreme Court on 11 December 2013. Available at <
http://judis.nic.in/supremecourt/imgs1.aspx?filename=41070>
TOPIC FIVE: ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT AND LAW ( 8 LECTURES)
 Labour Laws:
 Gender protective laws
 Gender neutral laws
 Gender corrective laws
 Law Protecting Women against Sexual Harassment at Work Place
 The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and
Redressal) Act 2013
 Property Rights of Women
19. Flavia Agnes, “Conjugality, Property, Morality and Maintenance” 32-58 in Kalapana
Kannabhiran (ed), WOMEN AND LAW CRITICAL FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES (Sage
Publications India 2014) (Provided in reading material)
20. Usha Tandon, Gender Bias in the Property Rights of Women under Hindu Law, XXII
DLR, 163 (2000)
21. C.B. Muthamma v. Union of India, 1979(4)SCC 260 (Provided in reading material)
22. Air India and others v. Nergesh Meerza, 1982 SCR (1) 438 (Provided in reading material)
23. Sujata Sharma v. Manu Gupta, 2015 SCC OnLine Del 14424, decided on 22-12-
2015(Provided in reading material)
24. Richa Mishra v. State of Chhattisgarh, (2016) 4 SCC 179,
http://judis.nic.in/supremecourt/imgs1.aspx?filename=43378

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 25. Charu Khurana v. UOI ,WRIT PETITION (CIVIL) NO.78 OF 2013 decided by SC on
November 10, 2014 available at <
http://supremecourtofindia.nic.in/outtoday/wc7813C.pdf>
26. D Nagasaila, Gender Equality at Workplace: A Frozen Agenda, in Kalapana
Kannabhiran (ed), Women and Law Critical Feminist Perspectives (Sage Publications
India 2014)
TOPIC SIX: REPRODUCTIVE RIGHTS (6 LECTURES)
 Indian Penal Code, 1860
 Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971
 Maternity Benefits Act, 1964
 PC & PNDT Act 1994
27. Municipal Corporation of Delhi v. Female Workers (Muster Roll) and Another, (2000) 3
SCC 224. (Provided in reading material)
28. Sabu Mathew George v. Union Of India & Ors., Writ Petition(s)(Civil) No(s).341/2008
in Supreme Court of India (Provided in reading material)
29. Vinod Soni v. UOI, 2005 Bombay High Court (Provided in reading material)
TOPIC SEVEN: LAW PROTECTING WOMEN AGAINST VIOLENCE AT HOME: DOMESTIC
VIOLENCE, DOWRY HARASSMENT, SATI. (5 LECTURES)
 Protection of Women against Domestic Violence Act 2005
 Dowry Prohibition Act 1961
 Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act 1987
30. S.R. Batra and Anr v. Taruna Batra, (SC 2006) (Provided in reading material)
31. D Velusamy v. D Patchaiammal, decided by SC on 21 December 2010 (Provided in reading
material)
32. Hiral P. Harsora And Ors v. Kusum Narottamdas Harsora¸ 2016 SCC OnLine SC
1118, decided on 06.10.2016 (Provided in reading material)
33. All India Democratic Women's Association And Janwadi Samiti v. Union of India &
Ors., 1989 SCR (2) 66. (Provided in reading material)
34. Indira Jaisingh, “Bringing Rights Home: Review of the Campaign for a Law on
Domestic Violence” in Kalapana Kannabhiran (ed), WOMEN AND LAW CRITICAL
FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES (Sage Publications India 2014) (Provided in reading material)
TOPIC EIGHT: GENDER JUSTICE AND JUDICIARY (2-3 LECTURES)
35. Kalpana Kannabhiran, “Judicial Meanderings in Patriarchal Thickets: Litigating Sex
Discrimination in India” in Kalapana Kannabhiran (ed), WOMEN AND LAW CRITICAL
FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES (Sage Publications India 2014) (Provided in reading material)
It may be noted that the list of reading prescribed and suggested is subject to revision with
new publications and developments.

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 PREVIOUS YEAR PAPERS
JUNE 2016
1. (a) “Gender neutral laws are not really gender neutral as they incorporate male standards and
experiences in the framing of those laws.” Explain with the help of legal provisions in support
of the above statement.
(b) “There can be no gender equality in public sphere without first enumerating gender equality
in the private sphere.” Give reasons for agreeing or disagreeing with the above statement.
2. What do you understand by patriarchy? How does it burden both men and woman?
3. What are the difference between paternalistic approach and difference or corrective
approaches of law while dealing with gender differences between men and women? Explain by
reference to legal provisions and judicial decisions.
4. What do you understand by “Third Gender”? Point out the lacunae in the NALSA judgment
of the Supreme Court providing for OBC status to persons belonging to the ‘third gender’.
5. What are the reasons behind grant of Maternity Leave and Paternity Leave, and Child Care
Leave? What is their role in reinforcing or changing gender roles in the private and public
sphere?
6 (a) What are the salient features of the Convention for Prevention of Discrimination
against Women?
(b) What are the salient features of the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace
(Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal), Act, 2013?
7. In what respects the Protection of Women against Domestic Violence Act different from the
remedies provided to women victims of domestic violence under the Indian Penal Code?
8. Write short notes on any two of the following:
(a) Give reasons for agreeing or disagreeing with the statement that the ever decreasing number
of girls in the 0-6 years is an indicator that no substantive change has happened in the status of
women in India.
(b) Role of Supreme Court in promoting gender equality.
(c) Difference between Radical and Liberal Feminists.
Supplementary Exam- September 2016
1. What is Feminism?
(i) “Feminist issues are obviously human issues as human issues invariably turn out
to have a feminist dimension.” Critically analyse the statement.
(ii) Write a feminist critique of Private-Public dichotomy.

2. Do you think that PWDV Act, 2005 is based on woman norms and experience? Elaborate
with the help of the definition of Domestic Violence and remedies available under the Act.
3. Firestove argued that “women can achieve emancipation by transcending their biological
nature and escaping from the ‘curse of Eve’.” Elaborate the statement explaining Radical
Feminism. How is it different from Liberal Feminism?
4. Describe the foundational framework of CEDAW, with special reference to the principle of
equality, non-discrimination and State obligations?
5. Do you agree that Rape law in India is based on patriarchal norms? Whether 2013
Amendment reinforce or dilutes the patriarchal norms to establish the offence of rape?
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6. Vinod and Mamta, a lawfully wedded couple file a write petition challenging the
Constitutional validity of PCPNDT, Act, 1994 contending that it violates Art. 21 of the
Constitutional of India will they succeed? Decide with the help of judicial precedents.
7 (i) Critically analyse ‘Gender Protective’ and ‘Gender Corrective’ labour laws.
(ii) Describe the definition and scope of Sexual Harassment of Women at work place under the
Act of 2013.
8. Write short notes on any two:
(i) Human rights of LGBT
(ii) Gender analysis of the offence of ‘Adultery’
(iii) Women’s reproductive under MTP Act 1971
(iv) Role of Judiciary in promoting Gender Justice

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 A CRITIQUE OF THE SEX/GENDER DISTINCTION
Moira Gatens
In recent years it has become increasingly prevalent, in texts and papers concerned with sexual
politics, to encounter the sex/gender distinction This distinction is used in both confused a n d
confusing ways and it is the purpose of this paper to clarify first, what the theoretical basis of
this distinction is, second, to ascertain whether or not it is a valid or coherent distinction, and
finally, to consider the political effects of the use of this distinction by various political groups.
This tripartite task will involve overlapping considerations of feminism's relation to socialist
and homosexual politics. The tale of the uncomfortable alliance between feminist and socialist
politics and feminist and homosexual politics has recently surf aced in a way that is potentially
productive for all parties. A critical appraisal of past and continuing alliances is the least one
expects from radical theorists who value dialectical and historical analysis. It is in this spirit
that the question of the viability of analyses located at the intersection of 'sex' and 'class' can be
addressed. The difficulty of reconciling sex and class, or feminism and Marxism, despite the
intervention of a third party, psychoanalysis has been well demonstrated.
In this context, the introduction of 'spot-lighting' of gender, as an analytical tool which
purportedly yields high explanatory returns (as opposed to the barren category of 'sex') offers
occasion for comment. Over the past five years or so, feminist theory, of an Anglo-American
orientation, has taken up the notion of 'gender' with considerable interest and mixed intent.
Influential journals and texts such as m/f, Ideology and Consciousness, Feminist Studies, The
Reproduction of Mothering, The Mermaid and the Minotaur and Women's Oppression Today,
share if nothing else, this enthusiasm for the notion of 'gender ' as a central explanatory and
organizing category of their account s of the social and familial and/o r discursive construction
of subjectivity. In general, the favouring of the category 'gender' over the category 'sex' is
defended in terms of the 'dangers of biological reductionism'. Theorists who favour analyses
based on gender argue that it is indispensable to see ‘sex' as a biological category and gender
as a social one'. Additionally, it would appear that the role of prior or current political
commitment to any one of a variety of 'left' politics plays a decisive role in this preference for
'gender'. Given that the category 'gender' commands considerable theoretical centrality in
contemporary feminist and socialist-feminist theorizing as compared with its peripheral
employment in the early seventies, it is appropriate, at this time, to critically reassess its
credentials.
It is in the area of political analysis and practice that the recent proliferation of the sex/gender
distinction becomes most worrying. The distinction has been used by groups as diverse as:
Marxists; (usually male) homosexual groups; and feminists of equality.
The effect of the use of the sex/gender distinction by the three groups outlined above, though
clearly they display discernibly distinct political and theoretical motivations, has been to
encourage or engender a neutralization of sexual difference and sexual politics. This neutralizing
process is not novel, it can be traced to nineteenth-century liberal environmentalism where 're-
education' is the catch cry of radical social transformation. Much of contemporary radical
politics is, perhaps unwittingly, enmeshed i n this liberal tradition. A feminism based on

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difference rather than on a priori equality is representative of a decisive break with this
tradition.
What I wish to take to task in implicit and explicit investigations of gender theory is the
unreasoned, unargued assumption that both the body and the psyche are a post-natally passive
tabula rasa. That is, for theorist s of gender, the mind, of either sex, is a neutral, passive entity,
a blank state, on which is inscribed various social 'lessons'. The body, on their account, is the
passive mediator of these inscriptions. The result of their analyses is the simplistic solution to
female oppression: a programme of re-education, the unlearning of patriarchy's arbitrary and
oppressive codes, and the relearning of politically correct and equitable behaviours and traits,
leading to the whole person: the androgyn. It is precisely this alleged neutrality of the body; the
postulated arbitrary connection between femininity and the female .body; masculinity and the
male body; and the apparent simplicity of the ahistotical and theoretically naive solution, viz.
resocialization, that this paper proposes to challenge.
Before proceeding to present a critique of the proponents of the sex/gender distinction I should
clarify what I take to be the central issue at stake. It would appear that one of the most burning
issues in the contemporary women's movement is that of sexual equality is sexual difference. It
is arguable that this debate brings to a crisis both feminism's association with socialism and
feminism's association with (male) homosexual groups. Both associations are often predicated
upon an assumed 'essential or possible equality in the sense of sameness' between the sexes. It is
against this backdrop of this question that this paper is situated. I would maintain that the
proponents of sexual equality consistently mischaracterize and distort the position of those
feminists who favour a politics of sexual difference. The fault may well lie with those feminist s
w h o have not made clear what such a 'politics of difference' amounts to. This paper is an
attempt t o a mend this situation and, in addition, to quell, once and for all , the tired (and tiring,
if not tiresome) charges of essentialism and biologism so often levelled at theories of sexual
difference. Critics of feminists of difference tend to divide the entire theoretical field of social
enquiry in to an exclusive disjunction: social theory is either environmentalist or it is
essentialist.
Therefore, and it follows quite logically from this premise, if feminist theories of difference are
not environmentalist then they must be essentialist. The task remains, then, to reopen the field
of social theory from its forced containment in this disjunction and demonstrate the practical
and theoretical viability of the politics of difference. The latter task shall be effected indirectly,
by way of a critique of the proponents of 'degendering '.
THE DEGENDERING PROPOSAL
The problem of the relationship between sex and gender is, of course, not a new one. Freud
grappled with the problem of finding a suitable definition of masculinity and femininity and
their relation to men and women in the 'Three Essays' published in 1905.11 However , the
authoritative source for the recent prominence of writings centring on gender is not Freud but
Robert J. Stoller, a contemporary psychoanalyst. Stoller published a book titled Sex and
Gender,12 in 1 968, a text wherein he reports the findings and theses arising out of his research
and involvement with the Gender Identity Research Clinic at UCLA.

10
 Stoller studies first various biological anomalies (for example, neuters and hermaphrodites) in
order to ascertain the relationship between sex and gender, and second he considers the
biologically nor m al but psychologically disturbed individual (for example, the transsexual). He
claims, at the completion of his research, to be able to account for the aetiology of both the
transvestite and the transsexual - although his account is self-avowedly more complete in the
case of male transvestites and transsexuals than in the (much rarer) cases of female transvestites
and transsexuals. He claims to be able to account for these psychological anomalies largely in
terms of the distinction which he develops and systematizes between sex and gender.
The explanation is as follows. The biological sex of a person has a tendency to augment, though
not determine, the appropriate gender identity of that sex (i .e. masculinity in the case of the
male sex; femininity in the case of the female sex). However, a person’s gender identity is
primarily a result of post-natal psychological influences. These psychological 'influences on
gender identity, he claims, can completely override the biological fact of a person's sex and
result in, for example, the situation of the transsexual.
Stoller takes the genesis of transsexualism to be wholly social, that is, not biologically or
physically determined. He posits, as the cause of male transsexualism, the mother's attitude to
the child from birth. He report s that in all normal infants there is an initial period of symbiosis
with the mother but that this symbiosis must be broken, particularly in the case of the boy, if
normal masculinity or femininity as a separate (and in the case of the boy, different) and
independent identity is to develop.
Stoller posits, in the case of the male transsexual, an unwillingness on the part of the mother to
allow the child to separate from her and develop as an individual. It must be stressed that it is
not only a matter of how long the child is held close to the mother's body but also in what
manner."' If the mother sees the child as a part of or extension to her own body, then the child
will respond by not developing an identity separate from the mother's (or developing it at a
critically late stage) and so, in the case of a male child, will feel himself to be a woman trapped
in a male body.
The details of Stoller's work are not terribly important for the purposes of this paper. What is
important is that his work was generally heralded as a breakthrough in the area of sexuality and
socialization. As such it was quickly taken up by feminist theorists as offering theoretical
justification for the right to equality for all independently of sex. His work has been used by
Greer, Millett, Oakley, and more recently by Chodorow, Dinnerstein, and Barrett, to name a
few. Millett, writing in 1971, and acknowledging Stoller as support or 'proof ' of her view,
offers the speciously reasoned conclusion that since 'Psychosexually (e.g. in terms of masculine
and feminine, and in contra-distinction to male and female) there is no differentiation between
the sexes at birth. Psychosexual personality is therefore postnatal and learned. Millett's
contention that 'patriarchal ascriptions of temperament and role' to the sexes are arbitrary and
leads to the inevitable and naive feminist tactic of the re-socialization of society. She writes
since patriarchy's biological foundations appear to be so very in secure, one has some cause to
admire the strength of "socialisation " which can continue a universal condition "on faith
alone", as it were, or through an acquired value system exclusively. What does seem decisive in

11
assuring the maintenance of the temperamental differences between the sexes is the
conditioning of early childhood.
Greer and Oakley pursue the same line of reasoning, with idiosyncratic differences.
The initial appeal of the implications of Stoller's research, in the late 1960s and early 1970s, is
consistent with the social context of liberal humanism. Education or re-education, at that time,
seemed a particularly viable programme for radical social change. Ten years later, however,
both the context and the sentiment have ·altered considerably. Previous demands and strategies
of the women's movement have 'back- fired' or proved to be co-optable. It is in this context that
we need to examine, very carefully, both the 'politics of equality' and sentiments originating
with the liberal humanists of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
The unproblematic assumptions of Stoller's research by contemporary writers, such as
Chodorow and Barrett, warrants careful scrutiny.
In order for a programme of 'degendering' to be successful or even theoretically tenable, one
would have to allow the validity of at least two unargued assumptions central to the thesis put
forward by Stoller and assumed by the 'degendering feminists'. These are: i) that the body is
neutral and passive with regard to the formation of consciousness, consciousness is primary
and determinant - implicitly a rationalist view; and ii) the important effects of the historical and
cultural specificity of' one's 'lived experience' is able to be altered, definitively, by consciously
changing the material practice of the culture in question. If the validity of these assumptions is
allowed then one could claim that cultural and historical significances or meanings receive their
expression in or are made manifest by an (initially or essentially) neutral consciousness which,
in turn, acts upon an (initially) neutral body. One could claim, in addition, that masculine and
feminine behaviours are arbitrary forms of behaviour, socially inscribed on an indifferent
consciousness that is joined to an indifferent body. However, the above-mentioned assumptions
warrant no such validity. To clarify the problem in other words, socialization theory, which
posits the social acquisition of a particular gender by a particular sex is, implicitly, a rationalist
account, an ahistorical account, and an account which posits a spurious neutrality of both the
body and consciousness. In order to substantiate this position vis-a- vis the resocialization
feminists who uncritically adopt Stoller's account, these two assumptions, outlined above, will
be treated in detail. Although they are obviously interrelated, they will be treated separately for
the sake of clarity and manageability.
SEX/GENDER AND THE RATIONALIST CONCEPTION OF THE SUBJECT
It is in the area of the heredity vs environment debate that the extreme difficulty of avoiding
conceptualizing the person as a split body / consciousness is most apparent. The sex/gender
distinction is situated in such a debate and, it will be argued, is deeply entrenched in the
problems of confused terminology and conceptualizing that characterize that debate. The
sex/gender distinction is understood, by socialization theorists, as a body /consciousness
distinction. This is not to suggest that this understanding does not have an immediate,
commonsense validity but rather that such an understanding commits its user to a series of
assumptions that, historically, have proved untenable. Theorists who uncritically use the mind /

12
body distinction consistently characterize the subject as either predominantly (or wholly)
determined by biological forces, i.e. heredity or predominantly (or wholly) determined by the
influence of social or familial relations, i.e. environment. Both these positions, the latter being
the one that would best characterize re-socialization feminists, posit a naive causal relation
between either the body and the mind or the environment and the mind which commits both
viewpoints, as two sides of the same coin , to an a priori, neutral, and passive conception of the
subject. If we conceive of the bod y as neutral and passive and of consciousness as socially
determined, then we are at least halfway to a behavioural conception of subjectivity. It is
unclear if the behaviourist conception of conditioning, which is based on various experimental
hypotheses in animal ethology, has any valid application in the sphere of human behaviour. The
stimulus-response model of conditioned behaviour assumes a passive and non-signifying
subject who can be trained to respond appropriately and who can be relied upon to consistently
respond appropriately. Psychoanalysis read as a descriptive theory of the constitution of
subjectivity in (western, industrialized) patriarchal society, seriously undermines the
behaviourist conception of 'conditioning' and the assumed passivity of the subject.
The problem of the interrelation and interaction of the body and the mind is by no means
anarchaic theoretical preoccupation. It is out of this problem that psychoanalysis arose. The
Freud of 1889, that is, Freud the neurophysiologist, was perplexed by the phenomenon of
hysteria, a disorder he once described as representing a 'mysterious leap from the mind to the
body'. Since Freud's early work on hysterics with Charcot and Breuer both physiological and
psychoanalytic understandings of the so-called mind-body problem have altered drastically. A
cogent and theoretically useful account posits that there is one unitary reality underlying two (or
more) distinct levels of theoretical abstraction and that the 'mysterious leap' is actually a leap
from one kind of discourse, say the psychological, to another, the physiological. It remains to
integrate this insight into everyday and theoretical concept ions of the person - a task not always
achieved even by those who offer acknowledgement of the necessity of such integration.
Freud stressed, from his earliest papers, that even perception cannot be regarded as passive but
rather is an active process. He argues further that consciousness cannot be equated with the
percuptual system and that, in fact, most of what is perceived never even enters consciousness
but remains pre-conscious or unconscious. This implies an activity, and not necessarily a
conscious activity, on the part of the subject that cannot be accounted for by the behaviourist.
Perception can be reduced to neither the body nor consciousness but must be seen as an activity
of the subject.
Concerning the neutrality of the body, let me be explicit, there is no neutral body, there are at
least two kind of bodies; the male body and the female body. If we locate social practices and
behaviours as embeded in the subject, as we have with perception, rather than in consciousness'
or 'in the body' then this has important repercussions for the subject as always a sexed subject. If
one accepts the notion of the sexually specific subject, that is, the male or female subject, then
one must dismiss the notion that patriarchy can be characterized as a system of social
organizavon that valorizes the masculine gender over the feminine gender. Gender is not the
issue; sexual difference is. The very same behaviours (whether they be masculine or feminine)
have quite different personal and social significances when acted out by the male subject on the

13
one hand, and the female subject on the other. Identical social 'training', attitudes, or, if you will,
conditioning, acquire different significances when applied to male or female subjects.
This is largely a result of the activity of the subject and its drive to master social relations and
meanings. Each gesture, attitude, perception, that enters human consciousness, does so charged
with significances that relate to all that has gone before. That the male body and the female
body have quite different social value and significance cannot help but have a marked effect on
ma le and female consciousness.
The orthodox account of the gender /sex distinction claims that the social determination of
personal identity operates at the level of ideas, the level of 'the mind'. What this account fails to
note is the obvious divergence between feminine behaviour, experience, lived out by a female
subject and feminine behaviour, experience, lived out by a male subject (and vice versa with
masculine behaviour). This claim does not imply any commitment, on my part, to a fixity or
essence of the social significance of bodily functions, events, or experience. Signification, and
its constitutive role in the construction of subjectivity is curiously absent from the writings of
the proponents of degendering. This is likely to be an effect of their implicit commitment to a
behaviourist conception of the person and the resultant stress on passive conditioning and
socialization rather than the active process of signification.
While explicitly wishing to distance this paper from ahistorical and a priori accounts of the
social significance of the sexed body and its behaviour. I would suggest that some bodily
experiences and events, though lacking any fixed significance are likely in all social structures
to be privileged sites of significance. Various anthropological, ethological, and historical
evidence would seem to support this claim. For example, menstruation is likely to be one of
these privileged sites. The fact that menstruation occurs only in (normal) female bodies is of
considerable import for this paper. Given that in this society there is a network of relations
obtaining between femininity and femaleness, that is, between the female body and femininity,
then there must be a qualitative difference between the kind of femininity 'lived ' by men. To
take again the example of menstruation, in our culture it is associated with shame and modesty-
both characteristically feminine attributes. An interesting speculation is whether this shame
could be connected to the more general shame involved in the failure to control one's bodily
fluids, excretions, wastes, given the high store put on this control in our culture. Freud's neglect
of the effect of the menses on the pubertal girl's psyche is significant. That the flow of blood
would have profound psychical significance for her is clear and that this significance would
centre around ideas of castration, sexual attack, and socially reinforced shame is highly
probable. The female's first act of coitus would probably also hear on this.
The point is that the body can and does intervene, to confirm or to deny, various social
significances in a way that lends an air of inevitability to patriarchal social relations. A thorough
analysis of the construct ion of the specificity to female experience, which takes account of the
female body, is essential to dispelling this 'air'. To slide from 'male' and 'female' experience to
'masculine' and 'feminine' experience further confuses the issue. The 'feminine male' may have
experiences that are socially ascribed as 'feminine' but - and this is the relevance of the body and
its specific social value and meaning - in a way that must be qualitatively different from female

14
experience of the feminine. He is parasitically dependent on the female body, more particularly
the maternal body, by a process of identification. This point shall be elaborated further.
It has been the purpose of this section to argue that the view that consciousness is wholly
socially constituted and inscribed by means of a passively conditioned socialization which in
turn acts upon neutral and passive body is untenable. I have argued that the conception of a
passive subject (supported by various behaviourist-oriented assertions), central to the
programme of degendering is demonstrably inadequate to account for human behaviour and, in
particular, the activity of signification.
CONTEXTIAL SPECIFICITY
A most common claim made against feminist of sexual difference is that their theories are seen
essentialist and a priori in short ahistorical. This claim operates like the infamous blade that cuts
both ways. The irony of the accusation is that feminists who propose degendering propose it
outside of history and without considering the extreme resilience of expressions of sexual
difference and the network of language and other systems of signification that both constitute
and perpetuate this difference. Again, Chodorow provides us with the stereotype of this claim.
She states 'To sec men and women as qualitatively different kinds of people, rather than seeing
gender as processual, reflexive, and constructed, is to reify and deny relations of gender, to see
gender differences as permanent rather than as created and situated. Note the slide from sex to
gender in this passage - from biological terminology (men, women) to psychological
terminology (feminine, masculine). What is quite remarkable in her article is that she does not
write about the body at all, except in a footnote where she does little more than acknowledge
this (convenient) 'oversight'. She writes there:
We cannot know what children would make of their bodies in a non-gender or non -sexually
organised world, what kind of sexual structuration or gender identities would develop but it
is not obvious that there would be major significance to biological sex differences to gender
difference, or to different sexualities.
This kind of speculative phantasy is merely veiled rhetoric - the point is that we are
historically and culturally situated in a society that is divided and organized in terms of sex -
an historical fact. The charge of essentialism and ahistoricism can be made both ways. The
recognition of the historicity of the significance of sex and gender can be shown to be of prime
importance to theories of sexual difference. It is this historicity, this specificity that the
analysis is based upon. Theorists of sexual difference do not take as their object of study the
physical body, the anatomical body, the neutral, dead body, but the body as lived, the animate
body - the situated body.
It is striking that the body figures in socialization theory only as the biological anatomical or
physiological body. There is little analysis of the body as lived: of the body's morphology or of
the imaginary body. If one wants to understand sex and gender or, put another way, a person’s
biology and the social and personal significance of that biology as lived, then one needs an
analysis of the imaginary body. It is here that the importance of the feminist rereadings of
Freud's work in term of a theoretical description of how it is that male and female bwlog1cs a
e lived as masculine and feminine subjectivities in patriarchal culture is located.

15
As I indicated at the beginning of the preceding section, it was largely due to Freud's early
work with hysterics that the discipline of psychoanalysis arose. What Freud posited as crucial
in order to understand the hysteric's symptom was an understanding of the emotional and
libidinal investment obtaining between the subject and her (or his) body. This insight opened
the way for future advances in the still prevalent mechanism of dualist conceptions of the
subject. Contemporary French psychoanalytic research, in particular the work of Laplanche
and Lacan, can be seen as such advances. In Lacan's formulation of the 'mirror phase' he
claims to have shown 'an essential libidinal relationship with the body-image'.
In both papers where Lacan treats, specifically, the genesis of the ego, he stresses the
importance of the mirror phase in relation to both hysteria and the imaginary body. He writes:
To call these (hysterical) symptoms functional is but to confess our ignorance, for they
follow the pattern of a certain imaginary anatomy which has typical forms of its own. In
other words, the astonishing somatic compliance which is the outward sign of the imaginary
anatomy is only shown within certain definite limits. I would emphasise that the imaginary
anatomy referred to here varies with the ideas (clear or confused) about bodily junctions
which are prevalent in a given culture.
The existence and operations of the imaginary body are most clearly demonstrated by the
actiologically related phenomena of 'phantom limb' and hysteria. What these phenomena
illustrate is a libidinal or narcissistic relation of the subject with its body. This relation defies
mechanistic or purely empirical explanation along either rationalist or behaviourist lines. The
dispute concerning the experience of the unit y of the body tends to centre around what this
experience is predicated upon, and whether it is an experience given immediately in perception
or developed in a milieu of social meaning and value. There is abundant evidence to favour the
latter description. Schilder maintains that both 'phantom limb' and hysteria can be understood
only if we take into account the fact that all healthy people are, or have, in addition to a material
body, a body-phantom or an imaginary body. This psychical image of the body is necessary in
order for us to have motility in the world - without it we would not be intentional subjects. The
imaginary body is developed, learnt, connected to the body-image of others, and is not static.
Hysterical symptoms have a demonstrably clear relation to the (culturally specific) imaginary
body. Hysterical paralysis, for example, conforms to the culturally and linguistically delineated
imaginary body. Hysterical paralysis of the arm does not correspond to the anatomical or
physiological organization of the body but rather to the anatomically naïve conception of the
body, where the arm ends at the place where the shirt sleeve meets the shoulder seam. Or there is
an intimate relation of equivalence between the mouth and the vagina that is in the case of Dora,
used to express her unconscious desire via the symptom of Tussis nervosa. Knowledge of the
particular form of the culturally constructed imaginary body is essential in order to understand
the social (rather than individual) character of hysteria. The surprising homogeneity in the
expression of the hysterical symptom, such as anorexia nervosa, within a given culture, signals
the social character of the imaginary body. The imaginary body is socially and historically
specific in that it is constructed by: a shared language; the shared psychical significance and
privileging of various zones of the body (e.g. the mouth, the anus, the genitals); and common

16
institutional practices and discourses (e.g. medical, juridical, and educational) on and through
the body.
It is by way of an analysis of the imaginary body that it can be shown to be the site of the
historical and cultural specificity of masculinity and femininity. It i s to the imaginary body that
we must look to find the key or the code to enable the decipherment of the social and personal
significance of male and female biologies as lived in culture, that is, masculinity and
femininity.
In this connection it is also clear that there is a contingent, though not arbitrary, relation between
the male body and masculinity and the female body and femininity. To claim this is neither
biologism or essentialism but rather to acknowledge the extremely complex and ubiquitous
network narcissistic relation of the subject with its body. of signification and its historical,
psychological, and cultural manifestations. To deny this network and the specific historical form
of femininity and masculinity and their relation to female and male subjects and to favour
instead a conception of the subject as essentially neutral or neutered and further, to base one's
political practices on this conception , can only lead to the reproduction, at another site, of these
relations.
When Freud describes femininity and masculinity as end results of a developmental chain, he
is quite explicit. The respective tasks of women and men in our culture are, for women, to 'take
over' the place of the object, passive, castrated, the feminine, and, for the man, to 'combine' the
values of subject, active, phallic, masculine.' Among the traits that epitomize femininity for
Freud (and our culture) are: passivity, masochism, narcissism, envy, shame. What I suggest is
that these feminine behaviours are not merely the result of patriarchal socialization and
conditioning, the strength of which Millett was so admiring, or a discursively constituted
category lacking a referent, but additionally are modes of defensive behaviour that utilize the
culturally shared phantasies about biology - that is, they are manifestations of and reactions to
the (conscious and unconscious) ideas we share about our biology.
Freud saw the biology of women and men to be unproblematic – the ovam is passive, the
sperm is active – the problem for him was the psychology of masculinity and femininity which
'mirrors' this biology: the man actively penetrates the passive vagina. However, and this is the
role of cultural and historical specificity, it is not given a priori that the penis is active, the
vagina passive. This concept has to do with the imaginary anatomy, where the vagina is
conceived of as a ' hole', a 'lack' and the penis as a 'phallus'. One could just as well, given a
different relational mode between men and women, conceive of the penis as being enveloped or
'embraced' by the active vagina. In this context an interesting addendum is provided by recent
biological research which maintains that the ovum is not as passive as it appears - it rejects
some sperm and only allows entry, or envelops, a sperm(s) of its 'choice'.
Masculinity and femininity as forms of sex-appropriate behaviours are manifestations of an
historically based, culturally shared phantasy about male and female biologics, and as such sex
and gender are not arbitrarily connected. The connection between the female body and
femininity is not arbitrary in the same way that the symptom is not arbitrarily related to it’s
aetiology. Hence, to treat gender, the 'symptom', as the problem is to misrecognize its genesis.

17
Again, we can here note parallels between behaviourist psychology and 'degendering'. The
therapeutic techniques of behaviourism - systematic desensitization, behaviour modification,
and so on - treat the symptom only.
In the above analysis of the two assumptions taken to be crucial to the theory of degendering, it
has been argued that masculine and feminine forms of behaviour are not arbitrary inscriptions
on an indifferent consciousness which is joined to an indifferent body. To speak of 'acquiring' a
particular gender is to be mistaken about the significance of gender and its intimate relation to
biology-as-lived in a social and historical context. The account of 'difference' that has been
affected only indirectly, is an ongoing project and as such is both tentative and incomplete.
However, even at this stage we can oppose the naive simplicity of degendering and its
questionable theoretical basis.
TRANSSEXUALISM RECONSIDERED
It has been argued throughout this paper that the relation between masculine behaviour acted
out by a male subject and masculine behaviour acted out by a female subject (or feminine
behaviour acted out by a female subject and feminine behaviour acted out by a male subject)
cannot be symmetrical. In other words, it has been argued that masculinity and femininity do
not differ with regard to the sexes in terms of quantity only but qualitatively. If this thesis is
correct then to suggest the degendering of society as political strategy is hopelessly utopian,
and ahistorical, and functions theoretically and practically as a diversionary tactic. Additionally
it has been argued that the programme of degendering is based on a misunderstanding of
patriarchal social relations.
This all but concluding sect ion is titled 'transsexualism reconsidered' because it is the case of
the transsexual that most clearly demonstrates the dissymmetry between masculinity/femininity
and male/female. An understanding of the determination of male and female transsexualism is
not to be found in the sex/gender distinction or in an analysis of the acquisition of gender
identity. It was mentioned early in this paper that Stoller's account of transsexualism is more
complete in the case of male transsexuals than female transsexuals. Contrary to Stoller's hopes,
it is clear that the same account will not cover both cases. It has been suggested that the male
transsexual can be understood only if we first understand the genesis of the primitive ego and
the notion of the imaginary body. The male transsexual, due to his primary relations to his
mother, is in the situation of being constituted in such a way that his (primitive) ego conflicts
with his imaginary (and biological) body, leading to his subjectivity being conceived by him as
'female-in-a-male- body'. Briefly this would involve the non-resolution of the misrecognition
of the body of the other for one's own, that is, the male transsexual's primitive (bodily) ego is
predicated upon a female body (i.e. the maternal body) and he does not develop, until
comparatively late, a separate identity from his mother. His transsexualism, in fact, is evidence
that this separation is never adequately achieved. The desire of the mother is active in this non-
resolution or critically late resolution.
The case of the female transsexual cannot be symmetrical. The relation of the female infant to
the mother's body is not and cannot be problematic in the same way. This may partially explain
the relative rarity of female transsexualism. (Though the extremely common phenomenon of

18
the 'tom-boy' is transsexualism, of a sort.) Female transsexualism is much more likely to be a
reaction against oppression, that is, against the socially required forfeit of activity that was
once enjoyed and socially tolerated. This possibly is overlaid by the desire or the mother to
make a husband-substitute of the girl and/or the mother's own resentment of the female role in
patriarchy. The transsexual knows, most clearly, that the issue is not one of gender but one of
sex. It is not masculinity per se that is valorized in our culture but the masculine male.
On another level, this dissymmetry between the sexes is reflected in feminist musings
concerning whether women are excluded (or all but excluded) from certain profession because
they are prestigious or whether those professions are prestigious because women are excluded.
The implication being that it i s not what is done or how it is done but who docs it that
determines its value. The problem is not the socialization of women to femininity and men to
masculinity but the place of these behaviours in the network of social meaning and the
valorization of one (the male) over the other (the female) and the resultant mischaracterization
of relations of difference as relations of superiority and inferiority.
There is another aspect to the theory of gender that is also important to consider, and that is the
political use to which the sex/gender distinction is put.
THE EFFECT OF THE SEX/ GENDER DISTINCTION IN
POLITICAL ANALYSIS AND ACTION
The commitment to economism or humanism in many Marxist accounts of the social and
political status of women each, in their different ways, effects the neutralization of sexual
difference. Economism by its privileging of the relations of production over psychical and
social forms of subjectivity that are prior to or inadequately captured by the capitalist mode of
production. Humanism by its adherence to an a priori and universal conception of human
nature that, also, takes no account of sexual difference. A coherent account of the construction
of male and female subjectivity under patriarchy and capitalism is indispensable for effective
political strategy. However, to shift the site of analysis from 'male' to 'masculine', from 'female'
to 'feminine', claiming by the shift priority to gender in the construction of men and women,
rather than avoiding the problems of 'individualism' merely presents us with another set of
problems, for example, masculinity and femininity and their constitutive role in sexual
difference are often, on this account, reduced to the status of a deus ex machina.
M. Barrett in Women's Oppression Today uses the category of gender to argue that socialism
and feminism are compatible and 'that the ideology of masculinity and femininity has a crucial
role in the division of labour as it has developed historically'. Barrett's extensive and central
use of the category gender is problematic in that she does not state, support, or defend its
theoretical status, but rather assumes that there is general agreement concerning its, apparently
transparent, explanatory merits. She writes: 'The processes by which gender, and particularly
femininity, is socially constructed in capitalist society have been extensively explored. This
topic falls within the well-researched area of 'socialization studies' in sociology and has also
been a major focus of feminist accounts.' It has been argued, at some length, in this paper that
both the explanatory value and theoretical adequacy of 'socialization studies' are extremely
tenuous. The question arises then, 'why would a theorist, familiar with the implications of

19
 psychoanalytic theory for socialization theory, adopt the use of gender, knowing it is based on
questionable theoretical grounds?' A likely explanation is that prior political investments and
allegiances lead some feminists to neglect casting their otherwise critical eye in the appropriate
direction.
Recent issues of the local journal Gay Information reveal a similar commitment to the
centrality of the category gender in sexual politic. What Carrigan and others argue is that the
diversity of sexual preference and practice is such that a biological distinction, male/ female, is
inadequate to account for forms of sexuality. There is no quarrel here. However, to introduce
gendered forms of sexuality takes us out of one hiatus into another. This move adopts, in
keeping with socialization theory, only a quantitative distinction between masculinity and
femininity and their relation to the construction of male and female subjectivities. Again, the
body is neutral and a priori, consciousness a passive tabula rasa.
It is in the above context that I maintain that the programme of degendering put forward
initially by feminists such as Millett and Oakley and taken over by Chodorow, is based on a
misunderstanding (originating with Stoller's mistaken thesis of the genesis of transsexualism) of
masculinity and femininity as conditioned forms of behaviour. Rather, I would suggest that
'masculinity' and 'femininity' correspond at the level of the imaginary body to 'male' and
'female' at the level of biology. It bears repetition that this statement does not imply a fixed
essence to 'masculine' and 'feminine' but rather an historical specificity.
What has brought equality feminist s and difference feminists in to the present sharp
confrontation is, partly, the so-called 'crisis' in Marxism and the withdrawal of the labour of
many feminists from Marxist- oriented research. Also, at another level, the influence of French
feminism has been instrumental in the formulation and defence of a politics of difference,
which is often placed in opposition to the politics of Marxist-feminism.
One could also argue that the gradual demise of the call for sexual equality and the rise of
the insistence on sexual difference can he accounted for in purely pragmatic terms, that is, trial
and error - we asked for equality and it didn't work, let's insist on difference. Practically, this
has been the case in a number of areas, for example, the demand for equal legal status is now
thought by some to be counter- productive. The feminist campaign for the acquittal of the
cases of Roberts and Krope were argued on the grounds that the law of provocation did not
take account of the, in general, disproportionate strength' of men and women. Likewise, many
feminists have pointed out the abuse by men of the recently introduced anti -discrimination
legislation.
However, there are also, and more importantly for the purposes of this paper, several
theoretical determinations or the tactical shift from equality to difference. The most important
of these I take to be the growing belief in the inefficacy of key theoretical concepts in various
analyses and understandings of oppression (whether racial, class, or sex, in particular the
notion of ideology - a notion that has its base in a rationalist concept ion of the subject. It is
from the assumption of this analysis that predictable and planned social change or revolution
can be posited, initially, in terms of the radicalization of consciousness.

20
 The early feminist contribution to this social change is typified by the challenge to the
notion that the sexual division of labour is natural, claiming rather that it is ideological - the
implication being that alongside the struggle against capitalism should be the struggle against
patriarchy, that the struggle for male emancipation was not, necessarily, compatible with or
inclusive of the struggle for female emancipation.
The stumbling block to the proposed 'equal society' was (either or both) women's reproductive
capacity and the responsibility of childrearing. These feminist claims represented the first 'crack'
in the edifice of the homogeneity of radical and /or socialist politics. However, this 'crack' was
quickly filled, oft en by feminists themselves, by recourse to the claimed necessity of the
neutralizing of sexual difference. For example, Firestone's 'cybernetic communism' proposed the
literal neutering of bodies by means of the complete technologization, and hence socialization,
of the reproductive capacity. So, in effect, the edge of sexual difference and the denial of sexual
neutrality was quickly, but not effectively, blunted by the call to neutralize the difference.
What is overlooked in this megalomaniacal phantasy, leaving aside the desirability or otherwise
of its details, is that the implied neutrality is not a neutrality at all but a 'masculinization' or
'normalization' (in a society where men are seen as the norm, the standard) of women - a making
of 'woman' into 'man'. This move has many echoes in discourse and politics, as many feminists
have tirelessly pointed out. An assumption implicit in the aim of neutralizing the body and to
thereby allot primacy to the ideological is the total passivity of the body. What this analysis
yields, at best, is the predominantly Anglo-American crass empirical equation between patriarch
al sex-role socialization and patriarchal consciousness.
It is the revival, or continuation, of the above problematic that the proponents of the sex/gender
distinction seek. In addition to the naturalization of sexual difference, the sex/gender distinction
lends itself to those groups or individuals whose analyses reveal a desire to ignore sexual
difference and prioritize 'class', 'discourse', 'power', or some other 'hobby-horse'. Their accounts
attempt to co-opt or trivialize feminist struggles and feminist theory at its peak, reducing sexual
politics to gender difference and positing as primary the relations obtaining between genders and
power, gender and discourse, or gender and class - as if women's bodies and the repression and
control of women's bodies were not a crucial stake in these struggles.

21
 Feminist Critiques of the Public/Private Dichotomy
CAROLE PATEMAN
The dichotomy between the private and the public is central to almost two centuries
of feminist writing and political struggle; it is, ultimately, what the feminist movement is
about. Although some feminists treat the dichotomy as a universal, trans-historical aril
trans-cultural feature. of human existence, feminist criticism is primarily directed at the
separation and opposition between the public and private spheres in liberal theory and
practice.
The relationship between feminism and liberalism is extremely close but also
exceedingly complex. The roots of both doctrines Ile in the emergence of individualism
as a general theory of social li16; neither liberalism nor feminism is conceivable without
sortie conception of individuals as free and equal beings, emancipated from the
ascribed, hierarchical bonds of traditional society. But if liberalism and feminism share
a common origin. their adherents have often been opposed over the past 200 years.
The direction and scope of feminist criticism of liberal conceptions of the public and the
private have varied greatly in different phases of the feminist movement. An analysis of
this criticism is made more complicated because liberalism is inherently ambiguous
about the 'public' and the 'private’ and feminists and liberals disagree about where and
why the dividing line is to be drawn between the two spheres, at-, according to certain
contemporary feminist arguments, whether It should be drawn at all.
Feminism is often seen as nothing more than the completion of the liberal or
bourgeois revolution, as an extension of liberal principles and rights to women as well
as men. The demand for equal rights has, of course, always been an important part of
feminism. However, the attempt to universalize liberalism has more far-reaching
consequences than is often appreciated because, in the end, it inevitably challenges
liberalism itself.' Liberal feminism has radical implications, not least in challenging the
separation and 'opposition between the private and public spheres that is fundamental
to liberal theory and practice. The liberal contrast between private and public is more
than a distinction between two kinds of social activities. The public sphere, and the
principles that govern it, are seen as separate from, or independent of, the
relationships in the private sphere. A familiar illustration of this claim is the long
controversy between liberal and radical political scientists about participation, the
radicals denying the liberal claim that the social of inequalities of the private sphere are
irrelevant to questions about ,the political equality, universal. suffrage and associated
civil liberties of the public realm.
Not all feminists, however, are liberals; ‘feminism’ goes far beyond liberal-feminism.
Other feminists explicitly reject liberal conceptions of the private and public and see
the social structure of liberalism as the political problem, not a starting point from which
equal rights can be claimed. They have much in common with the radical and socialist
critics of liberalism who rely on 'organic' theories but they differ sharply in their analysis
of the liberal state. In short, feminists, unlike other radicals, raise the generally
neglected problem of the patriarchal character of liberalism.
LIBERALISM AND PATRIARCHALISM

22
Benn and Gaus's account of the liberal conception of the public and the private
illustrates very nicely some major problems in liberal theory.2 They accept that the
private and the public are central categories of liberalism, but they do not explain why
these two terms are crucial or why the private sphere is contrasted with and opposed
to the 'public' rather than the 'political' realm. Similarly, they note that liberal arguments
leave it unclear whether civil society is private or public bur, although they stare that in
both of their liberal models the family is paradigmatically private, they fail to pursue the
question why, in this case, liberals usually also sec civil society as private. Berm and
Gaus's account of liberalism also illustrates its abstract, a historical character and, in
what is omitted arid taken for granted, provides a good example of the theoretical
discussions that feminists are now sharply criticizing. The account bears out
Eisenstein’s claim that the ideology of public and private life` invariably presents 'the
division between public and private life ...as reflecting the development of the
bourgeois liberal state, not the patriarchal ordering of bourgeois state."
The term 'ideology' is appropriate here because the profound ambiguity of the liberal
conception of the private and public obscures and mystifies the social reality it helps
constitute. Feminists argue that liberalism is structured by patriarchal as well as class
relations, and that the dichotomy between the private and the public obscures the
subjection of women to men within an apparently universal, egalitarian and individualist
order. Berm and Gaus's account assumes that the reality of our social life is more or
less adequately captured in liberal conceptions. They do not recognize that 'liberalism'
is patriarchal liberalism and that the separation and opposition of the public and private
spheres is an unequal opposition between women and men. They thus take the talk of
'individuals' in liberal theory at face value although, from the period when the social
contract theorists attacked the patriarchalists, liberal theorists have excluded women
from the scope of their apparently universal arguments.4 One reason why the
exclusion goes unnoticed is that the separation of the private and public is presented in
liberal theory as if it applied to all individuals in the same way. It is often claimed — by
anti-feminists today, but by feminists in the nineteenth century, most of whom accepted
the doctrine of 'separate spheres' that the two spheres are separate., bur equally
important and valuable. The way in which women and men are differentially located
within private life and the public world is, as I shall indicate, a complex matter, but
underlying a complicated reality is the belief that women's natures are such that they
are properly subject to men and their proper place is in the private, domestic sphere.
Men properly inhabit, and rule within, both sphere.The essential feminist argument is
that the doctrine of `separate but equal', and the ostensible individualism and egali-
tarianism of liberal theory, obscure the patriarchal reality of a social structure of
inequality and the domination of women by men.
In theory, liberalism and patriarchalism stand irrevocably Op-posed to each other.
Liberalism is an individualist, egalitarian, conventionalist doctrine; patriarchalism claims
that hierarchical relations of subordination necessarily follow from the natural
characteristics of men and women. In fact, the two doctrines were successfully
reconciled through the answer given by the contract theorists in the seventeenth
century to the subversive question of who counted as free and equal individuals. The

23
conflict with the patriarchalists did not extend to women or conjugal relations; the latter
were excluded from individualist argument; and the battle was fought out over the
relation of adult sons to their fathers.
The theoretical basis for the liberal separation of the public and the private was
provided in Locke's Second Treatise. He argued against Filmer that political power is
conventional and can justifiably be exercised over free and equal adult individuals only
with their consent. Political power must not be confused with paternal power over
children in the private, family sphere, which is a natural relationship that ends at the
maturity, and hence freedom and equality, of (male) children. Commentators usually
fail to notice that Locke's separation of the family and the political is also a sexual
division. Although he argued that natural differences between men, such as age or
talents, are irrelevant to their political equality, he agrees with Filmer's patriarchal claim
that the natural differences between men and women entail the subjection of women to
men or, more specifically, wives to husbands Indeed, in Locke's statement at the
beginning of the Second Treatise that he will show why political power is distinctive, he
takes it for granted that the rule of husbands over wives is included in other (non-
political) forms of power. He explicitly agrees with Filmer that a wife's subordination to
her husband has a 'Foundation in Nature' and that the husband's will must prevail in
the household as he is naturally 'the abler and the stronger'.' But a natural subordinate
cannot at the same time be free and equal. Thus women (wives) are excluded from the
status of 'individual' and so from participating in the public world of equality, consent
and convention.
It may appear that Locke's separation of paternal from political power can also be
characterized as a separation of the private from the public. In one sense this is so; the
public sphere can be seen as encompassing all social life apart from domestic life.
Locke’s theory also shows how the private and public spheres are grounded in
opposing principles of association which—are exemplified in the conflicting status of
women and men natural subordination stands opposed to free individualism. The
family is based on natural ties of sentiment and blood and on the sexually ascribed
status of wife and husband (mother and father). Participation in the public sphere is
governed by universal, impersonal and conventional criteria of achievement, interests,
rights, equality and property - liberal criteria, applicable only to men. An important
consequence of this conception of private and public is that the public world, or civil
society, is conceptualized and discussed in liberal theory (indeed, in almost all political
theory) in abstraction from, or as separate from, the private domestic sphere..
It is important to emphasize at this point that the contemporary feminist critique of
the public—private dichotomy is based on the same Lockcan view of the two
categories; domestic life is as paradigmatically private for feminists as it is in (this
interpretation of) Locke's theory. However, feminists reject the claim that the separation
of the private and the public follows inevitably front the natural characteristics of the
sexes. They argue that a proper tinker standing of liberal social life is possible only
when It is accepted that the two spheres, the domestic (private) and civil society
(public), held to be separate and opposed, are inextricably interrelated; they are the
two sides of the single coin of liberal patriarchalism.

24
 If, at one theoretical level, feminists and liberals ;Ire in conflict over a shared
conception of the public and the private, at another level they are at odds about these
very categories. There is another sense in which the private and public are far from
synonymous with 'Locke's paternal and political power. Precisely because liberalism
conceptualizes civil society in abstraction from ascriptive domestic life, the latter
remains 'forgotten' in theoretical discussion. The separation between private and public
is thus re-established as a division within civil society itself, within die world of men.
The separation is then expressed in a number of different private and public but also,
for example and 'state'; or 'economy' and `political'; or 'freedom and `coercion'; or
'social' and 'political'..!, Moreover, in this version of the separation of private and
public,- one category, the private, begins to wear the trousers (to adapt J. L. Austin's
patriarchal metaphor for once in an appropriate context). The public or political aspect
of civil society tends to get lost, as, for example, Wolin points out in Politics and Vision!
The uncertain position of the public sphere develops for very good reason; the
apparently universal criteria governing civil society are actually those associated with
the liberal conception of the male individual, a conception which is presented as that Of
the individual. The individual is the owner of the property, in his person, that is to say,
he is seen in abstraction from his ascribed familial relations and those with his fellow
men. He is a. 'private' individual, but he needs a sphere in which he can exercise his
rights and opportunities, pursue his (private) interests and protect and increase his
(private) property. If all men ('individuals') are so to act in an orderly fashion, then, as
Locke is aware, a public 'umpire' (rather than a hidden—private? hand), or a
representative, liberal state, is required to make and enforce publicly known, equitable
able laws. Because individualism is, as Benn and Gaus remark, 'the dominant mode of
liberal theory and discourse', it is not surprising either that the private and the public
appear as the 'obvious' pair of liberal categories, or that the public gets stripped of its
trousers and civil society is seen, above all else, as the sphere of private interest,
private enterprise and private individuals.'
In the late twentieth century the relation between the capitalist economy and the
state no longer looks like that between Locke's umpire arid civil society and confusion
abounds about the boundary between the private and public. But the confusion is
unlikely to be remedied from within a theory which 'forgets' that it includes another
boundary between private and public. One solution is to reinstate the political in public
life. This is the response of Wolin or of Haberims in his rather opaque discussion of the
principles of the public sphere, where citizens can form reasoned political judgements.
Unlike these theorists, feminist critiques insist that an alternative to the liberal
conception must also encompass the relationship between public and domestic life. 'he
question that feminists raise is why the patriarchal character of the separation of a
depoliticized public sphere from private life is so easily forgotten’ why is the separation
of the two worlds located within civil society so that public life is implicitly
conceptualized as the sphere of men?
The answer to this question can be found only by examining the history of the
connection between the separation of Production from the household and the
emergence of the family as paradigmatically_ private. When Locke attacked (one

25
aspect of) patriarchalism, husbands were heads of households but their wives played
an fictive, independent part in numerous areas of production. As capitalism and its
specific form of sexual as well as class division of labour developed, however, wives
were pushed into a few, low-status areas of employment or kept out of economic life
altogether, relegated to their 'natural', dependent, place in the private, familial sphere."
Today, despite a large measure of civil equality, it appears natural that wives tire
subordinate just because they are dependent cri their husbands for subsistence, and it
is taken for granted that liberal social life can be understood without reference to the
sphere of subordination, natural relations and women. The old patriarchal argument
from nature and women's nature was thus transformed as it was modernized and
incorporated into liberal capitalisrn. Theoretical and practical attention became fixed
exclusively on the public area, on civil society — on 'die social' or on 'the economy' —
and domestic life was assumed irrelevant to social and political theory or the concerns
of men of affairs. The fact that parriarchalism is an essential, indeed constitutive, part
of the theory and practice of liberalism remains obscured by the apparently impersonal,
universal dichotomy between private and public within civil society itself.
The intimate relation between the private and the natural is obscured when the
private and the public are discussed in abstraction from their historical development
and also from other ways of expressing this fundamental structural separation within
liberalism. 1 have already observed that, when the separation is located within civil
society, the dichotomy between private and public is referred to in a variety of ways
(and a full account of liberalism would have to explain these variations). Similarly, the
feminist understanding of the private and the public, an t e feminist critique of their
separation and opposition, are sometimes presented in these terms, but the argument
is also formulated using the categories of nature and culture, or personal and political,
or morality and power, and, of course, women and men and female and male. In
popular (and academic) consciousness the duality of female and male often serves to
encapsulate or represent the series (1- (or circle) of liberal separations and
oppositions: female, or — I nature, personal, emotional, love, private, intuition, morality,
ascription, particular, subjection; male, or — culture, political, reason, justice, public,
philosophy, power, achievement, universal, • freedom. The most fundamental and
general of these oppositions associates women with nature and men with culture, and
several contemporary feminists have framed their critiques in these terms.
NATURE AND CULTURE
Patriarchalism rests on the appeal to nature and the claim that women's natural
function of childbearing prescribes their domestic and subordinate place in the order of
things. J.S. Mill wrote in the nineteenth century that the depth of the feelings
surrounding the appeal to nature was 'the most intense and most deeply-rooted of all
those which gather round and protect old institutions and customs'." In the 1980s, when
women in the liberal democracies n have won citizenship and a large measure of legal
equality with n men, the arguments of the organized anti-feminist movement w illustrate
that the appeal to nature has lost none of its resonance. From the seventeenth century
a question has been persistently asked by a few female voices: 'if all men are born
free, how is it that all women are horn slaves?"' The usual answer, vigorously

26
presented by Mary Wollstonccraft in the Vindicanon of the Rights of Women in 1792,
and today by feminist critics of the sexism of children's books, schooling and the
media, is that what are called women's natural characteristics are actually, in
Wollsronecraf's phrase, 'artificial', a product of women's education or lack of it.
However, even the most radical changes in educational practice will not affect women's
natural, biological capacity to bear children. This difference between the sexes is
independent of history and culture, and so it is perhaps not surprising that the natural
difference, and the opposition between (women's) nature and (men's) culture, has
been central to some well-known feminist attempts to explain the apparently universal
subordination of women. Arguments focusing on nature/culture fall into two broad
categories, the anthropological and the radical feminist."
In one of the most influential anthropological discussions, Ortner argues that the
only way to explain why the value universally assigned to women and their activities is
lower than-that assigned to men and their pursuits is that women are 'a symbol' of all
'that every culture defines as being of a lower order of existence than itself'.' That is,
women and domestic life symbolize nature. Humankind attempts to transcend a merely
natural existence 50 that nature is always seen as of a lower order than culture.
Culture becomes identified as the creation and the world of men because women's
biology and bodies place them closer to nature than men, and because their child-
rearing and domestic tasks, dealing with un-socialized infants and with raw materials,
bring them into closer contact with nature. Women and the domestic sphere thus
appear inferior to the cultural sphere and male activities, and women are seen as
necessarily subordinate to men.
It is unclear whether °ruler is arguing that women's domestic activities symbolize
nature, are part of nature or, rather, place women in a mediating position between
nature and culture. She argues that the opposition between women nature and
men/culture is itself a cultural construct and not given in nature; 'Woman is not reality"
any closer to (or further from nature than man — both have consciousness, both are
mortal. But there are certainly reasons why she appears that way."' However, Ormer
fails to give sufficient weight to the fundamental fact that men and women are social
and cultural beings, or to its corollary that 'nature' always has a social meaning, a
meaning that, moreover. varies widely in different societies and in different historical
periods. Even if women and their tasks have been universally devalued, it does not
follow that we can understand this important fact of human existence by asking
questions in universal terms and looking for general answers formulated in terms of
universal dichotomies. The distinction between domestic, private women's life and the
public world of men does not have the same meaning in pre-modern European society
as in present liberal capitalism, and to see both the latter and hunter-gatherer societies
from `the perspective of a general opposition between nature and culture, or public and
private, can lead only to an emphasis on biology or 'nature'. Rosaldo recently criticized
arguments about women's subordination tilt u, like ruler's, implicitly rest on the
question, 'How did it begin?' She points out that to seek a universally applicable
answer inevitably opposes 'woman' to 'man', and gives rise to a separation of domestic

27
life from 'culture' or 'society' because of the 'presumably p:mlitinian functions' thus
attributed to women."'
The most thorough attempt to find a .universal answer to the question of why it is that
women arc in subjection to Men, and the most stark opposition between nature and
culture, cats he found in the writings of the radical feminists who argue that nature is
the single cause of men's domination. The best 'clown version of this argument is
Firestone's The Dialectic of Sex, which also provides an example of how one form of
Feminist argument, the liberal separation of private and public, remains within the
abstractly individualist framework which helps constitute this division of social life.
Firestone reduces the history of the relation between nature and culture or private and
public to an opposition between female and male. She argues that the origin of the
dualism lies in 'biology itself - procreation'," a natural or original inequality that is the
basis of the oppression of women and the source of male power. Men, by confining
women to reproduction (nature), have freed themselves 'for the business of the world'"
and so have created and controlled culture. The proposed solution is to eliminate
natural differences (inequalities) between the sexes by int1oducing artificial
reproduction. 'Nature'-and the private sphere of the family will then be abolished and
individuals, of all ages, will interact as equals in an undifferentiated cultural (or public)
order.
The popular success of The Dialectic of Sex owes :mire to the need for women to
continue to fight for control of their bodies and reproductive capacity than to its
philosophical argument. The key assumption of the book is that women necessarily
suffer from a fundamentally oppressive biological condition, but biology, in itself, is
neither oppressive nor liberating; biology, or nature, becomes either a source of
subjection or free creativity for women only because it has meaning within specific
social relationship.
Firestone's argument reduces the social conceptions of 'women' and 'men' to the
biological categories of 'female' and `male', and thus denies any significance to the
complex history of the relationship between men and women or between the private
and public spheres. She relies on an abstract conception of a natural, biological female
individual with a reproductive capacity •which pots her at the mercy of a male
individual, who is assumed to have a natural drive to subjugate her."' This
contemporary version of a thorough Hobbesian reduction of individuals to their natural
state leads to a theoretical dead end, not perhaps a surprising conclusion to an
argument that implicitly accepts the patriarchal claim that women's subordination is
decreed by nature. The way forward will not be found in a universal dichotomy between
nature and culture, or between female and male individuals. Rather, as Rosaldo
argues, it is necessary to develop a feminist theoretical perspective that takes account
of the social relationships between women and men in historically specific structures of
domination and subordination; and, it might be added, within the context of specific
interpretations of the 'public' and 'private'.
MORALITY AND POWER
The long struggle to enfranchise women is one of the most important theoretical and
practical examples ,of feminist attacks on the dichotomy between the private and

28
public. Suffragist arguments show how the attempt to universalize liberal principles
leads to a / challenge to liberalism itself, and this is particularly well, if implicitly,
illustrated in the writing of J. S. Mill. Despite the enormous amount of attention given to
voting over the past thirty years, remarkably little attention has been paid by either
theoretical or empirical- students of polities to the political meaning and consequences
of manhood and womanhood suffrage. In recent feminist literature, however, two
different views can be found about the implications of the enfranchisement of women
for the separation between the public and the private. There is disagreement whether
the suffrage movement served to reinforce the sexual separation in social life or
whether, rather despite itself, it was one means of undermining it. In the mid-nineteenth
century, when feminism emerged as an organized social and political movement, the
argument from nature had been elaborated into the doctrine of __Separate spheres;
men and women, it was claimed, each naturally had a separate, but complementary
and equally valuable, social place. The most striking difference between the early
feminists and suffragists and contemporary feminism is that almost everyone in the
nineteenth century accepted the doctrine of separate spheres.
The early feminists bitterly opposed the grossly unequal position of women but the
reforms they struggled to achieve, such as an end to the legal powers of husbands that
made their wives into private property and civil non-persons, and the opportunity to
obtain an education so that single women could support themselves, were usually seen
as means to equality for women who would remain within their own private sphere. The
implicit assumption was that the suffrage, too, meant different things to men and
women. This comes out clearly in one of the most passionately sentimental, and anti-
feminist, statements of the doctrine of separate spheres. In 'Of Queens' Gardens',
Ruskin argues that the man's duty, as a member of the commonwealth, is to assist-the
maintenance, in the advance, in the defence of the state. The woman's duty, as a
member of the commonwealth, is to assist in the ordering, in the comforting, and in the
beautiful adornment of the state. Citizenship for women could thus be seen as an
elaboration of their private, domestic tasks and one of the suffragists' main arguments
was that the vote was a necessary means to product and strengthen women’s special
sphere (an argument that gained weight at the end of the century as legislatures
increasingly interested themselves in social issues related to women's sphere).
Moreover, both the most ardent anti-suffragists and vehement suffragists agreed that
women were weaker, but more moral and virtuous, than men. The antisuffragists
argued that, therefore, enfranchisement would fatally weaken the state because
women could not bear arms or use force; the suffragists countered by claiming that
women's superior morality and rectitude would transform the state and usher in a reign
of peace. All this has led Elshtain to argue that it was precisely because the suffragists
accepted the assumptions of the doctrine of separate spheres that they 'failed, even on
their own terms.' Far from raising a challenge to the separation of the public and
private, they merely 'perpetuated the very mystifications and unexamined presumptions
which serve to rig the system against them.'
Much of Elshtain's argument is conducted in terms of the duality of morality and
power, one way of formulating the separation of private and public when this is located

29
within civil society. Liberal theorists often contrast the political sphere (the state), the
sphere of power, force and violence, with the society (the private realm), the sphere of
voluntarism, freedom and spontaneous regulation." However, the argument about the
implications of women's moral superiority, and Elshtain's use of the duality of morality
and power, refer rather to the more fundamental separation of the private, domestic
sphere from public life or civil society. The opposition between morality and power then
counterposes physical force and aggression, the natural attributes of manliness, which
are seen as exemplified in the military force of the state, against love and altruism, the
natural attributes of womanhood, which are, paradigmatically, displayed in domestic life
where the wife and mother stands as the guardian of morality. Was the struggle for
womanhood suffrage locked in the separation and dichotomies of patriarchal liberalism,
within the duality of morality and power (which, again, is one way of expressing the
doctrine of separate spheres), to the extent suggested by Elshrain? To vote is, after all,
a political act. Indeed, it has come to be seen as the political act of a liberal-democratic
citizen, and citizenship is a status of formal civil or public equality.
A different assessment of the suffrage movement is presented in recent work by
DuBois, who argues that the reason that both sides of the struggle for enfranchisement
saw the vote as the key feminist demand was that the vote gave women 'a connection
with the social order not based on the institution of the family and their subordination
within it ... As citizens and voters, women would participate directly in society as
individuals, not indirectly through their subordinate position as wives and mothers.'"
DuBois empha-sizes that the suffragists did not question women's 'peculiar suitability'
for domestic life, but the demand for the vote constituted a denial that women were
naturally fir only for private life. The demand for the suffrage thus reached to the heart
of the mutual accommodation between patriarchalism and liberalism since to win the
vote meant that, in one respect at least, women must be admitted as `individuals'. This
is why DuBois can argue that women's claim for a public, equal status with men,
'exposed and challenged the assumption of male authority over women'. An important-
long-term consequence of women's enfranchisement, and the other reforms that have
led to women's present position of (almost) formal political and legal equality with men,
is that the contradiction between civil equality and social, especially familial, subjection,
including the beliefs that help constitute it, is now starkly revealed. The liberal-
patriarchal separation of the public and private spheres has become a political
problem.
The dimensions of the problem are set out —very dearly, with the benefit of
hindsight — in John Stuart Mill's feminist essay The Subjection of Women and his
arguments for womanhood suffrage. Mill's essay shows that the assumption that an
individual political status can be added to women's ascribed place in the private sphere
and leave the latter intact, or even strengthened, is ultimately untenable. Or, to make
this point anodic!' way, principles cannot simply be universalized to extend to women in
the public sphere without raising an acute problem about thii patriarchal structure of
private life. Mill shows theoretically, as the feminist movement has revealed in practice,
that the spheres are integrally related and that women's full and equal membership irk'
public life is impossible without changes in the domestic sphere.

30
 In the Subjection, Mill argues that the relation between men and women, or more
specifically between husbands and wires, forms an unjustified and unjustifiable
exception to the liberal principles of individual freedom and equality, free choice,
equality of opportunity and allocation of occupations by merit that (he believes) govern
other social and political institutions in nineteenth-century Britain. The social
subordination of women is 'a single relic of an old world of thought and practice
exploded in everything else'." At the beginning of the essay Mill attacks the appeal to
nature and argues that nothing can be known about the natural differences, if any,
between women and men until evidence is available about their respective attributes
within relationships and institutions where they interact as equals instead of as
superiors and inferiors. Much of Mill's argument is directed against the legally
sanctioned powers of husbands which placed them in the position of slave-masters
over their wives. Legal reform should turn the family from a 'school of despotism' into a
'school of sympathy in equality' and a 'real school of .the virtues of freedom'. However,
as retest feminist critics have pointed out, in the end he falls back on the same
argument from nature that he criticizes. Although Mill argues that in the prevailing
circumstances of women's upbringing, lack of education and occupational
opportunities, and social pressures, they do not have a free choice whether or not to
marry, he also assumes that, even after social reform, most women will still choose
marital 'dependence. He states that it will generally be understood that when a woman
marries she has chosen her 'career', just like a man entering a profession: 'she makes
choice of the management of a household, and the bringing up of a Family, as the first
call upon her exertions. She renounces [all occupations] not consistent with the
requirements of this. The question why, if marriage is a 'career', liberal arguments
about (public) equality of opportunity have any relevance to women, is thus neatly
begged. Mill introduced the first measure for womanhood suffrage into the House of
Commons in 1867. He advocated votes for women for the same two reasons that he
supported manhood suffrage; because it was necessary for self-protection or the
protection of interests and because political participation would enlarge the capacities
of women. However, it is nor usually appreciated that Mill’s acceptance of a sexually
ascribed division of labour, or the separation of domestic from public life, cuts the
ground from under his argument for enfranchisement. The obvious difficulty for his
argument is that women as wives will be largely confined to the small circle of the
family so they will find it hard to use their votes to protect their interests. Women will
not be able to learn what their, interests without experience outside domestic life. This
point is even more crucial for Mill's argument about individual development and
education through political participation. Mill, in what Benn and Gaus call his
`representative liberal text', refers to the develop merit of a 'public spirit' by citizens. In
the Subjection lit writes of the elevation of the individual 'as a moral, spiritual and-social
being' that occurs under 'the ennobling influence' of free government." This is a large
claim to make for the periodic casting of a ballot and Mill did not think that such
consequences would arise from the suffrage alone. lie writes that 'citizenship', and here
take him to be referring to universal suffrage, 'fills only a small place in modern fife, and
does not come near the daily habits or inmost sentiments'." He goes on to argue that

31
the (reformed) family is the real school of freedom. However, this is no more
....plausible than the- claim about liberal democratic voting. A despotic, patriarchal
family is no school for democratic citizenship, but neither can the egalitarian family, on
its own,. substitute for participation in a wide variety of social institutions (especially the
workplace) that Mill, in his other social and political writings, argues is the necessary
education fur citizenship. How can wives who have 'chosen' private life develop a
public spirit? Women will thus exemplify the selfish, private beings, lacking a sense of
justice, who result, according to Mill, when individuals have no experience of public life.
Mill's ultimate failure to question the 'natural' sexual division of labour undermines
his argument for an equal public status for women. His argument in the Subjection
rests on an extension of liberal. principles to the domestic sphere --which immediately
brings the separation of the private and public, and the opposition between the
principles of association in the two spheres into question. He would not have remained
Bent) and Gaus's 'exemplary' liberal theorist if he had not, at least in part, upheld the
patriarchal liberal ideology of the separation between public and private. On the other
hand, by throwing doubt on the original Lockean separation of paternal and political
power, and by arguing that the same political principles apply to the structure of family
life as to political life, Mill also raises a large question about the status of the family.
The language of 'slaves', 'masters', 'equality', 'freedom' and `justice' implies that the
family is a conventional- not a natural association. Mill would not want to draw the
conclusion that the family is political, but many contemporary feminists have done so.
The most popular slogan of today's feminist movement is 'the personal is the political',
which not only explicitly rejects the liberal separation of the private and public, but also
implies that no distinction can or should be drawn between the two spheres.

IV . THE PERSONAL 15 THE POLITICAL

The slogan 'the personal is the. political' provides a useful point from which to comment
on some of the ambiguities of the public and private in liberal patriarchalism and also,
in the light of some of its more literal feminist interpretations, to comment further on an
alternative feminist conception of the political. Its major impact has been to unmask the
ideological character of liberal claims about the private and public. 'The personal is the
political' has drawn women's attention to the way in which we are encouraged to see
social life in personal terms, as a matter of individual ability or luck in finding a decent
man to marry or an appropriate place to live. Feminists have emphasized how personal
circumstances are structured by public factors, by laws about rape and abortion, by the
status of ‘wife’, by policies on childcare and the allocation of welfare benefits and the
sexual division of labour in the home and workplace. ‘Personal’ problems can thus be
solved only through political means and political action.
The popularity of the slogan and its strength for feminists arises from the complexity of
women's position in contemporary liberal-patriarchal societies. The private or personal
and the public or political arc held to be separate from and irrelevant to each at
women's everyday experience confirms this separation yet, simultaneously, it denies
and it affirms the integral connection between the two spheres. The separation of the

32
private and public is both part of our actual lives and an ideological mystification of
liberal-patriarchal reality.
The separation of the private domestic life of women from the public world of men has
been constitutive of patriarchal liberalism from its origins and, since the mid-nineteenth
century, the economically dependent wife has been presented its the ideal for all
respectable classes of society. The identification of women and the domestic sphere is
now also being reinforced by the revival of anti-feminist organizations and the
'scientific' reformulation of the argument from nature by the socio-biologists." Women
have never been completely excluded, of course, from public life; but the way in which
women arc included is grounded, as firmly is their position in the domestic sphere, in
patriarchal beliefs and practices. For example, even many anti-suffragists were willing
for women to educated, so that they could be good mothers, and for them to engage in
local politics and philanthropy because these activities could be seen, as voting could
not, as a direct extension of their domestic tasks. Today, women still have, at best,
merely token representation in authoritative public bodies; public life, while not entirely
empty of women, is still the world of then and dominated by them.
Again, large numbers of working-class wives have always had to enter the public
world of paid employment to ensure the survival of their families, and one of the most
striking features of post-war capitalism has been the employment of a steadily
increasing number of married women. However, their presence serves to highlight the
patriarchal continuity that exists between the sexual division of labour in the family and
the sexual division of labour in the workplace. Feminist research has shown how
women workers are concentrated into a few occupational areas ('women's work') in
low-paid, low-status and non-supervisory jobs. Feminists have also drawn attention to -
the fact that discussions of work life, whether by laissez-faire liberals or Marxists,
always assume that it is possible to understand economic activity in abstraction from
domestic life. It is 'forgotten' that the worker, invariably taken to be a man, can appear
ready for work and concentrate on his work free from the everyday demands of
providing food, washing and cleaning, and care of children, only because these tasks
are performed unpaid by his wife. And if she is also a paid worker she works a further
shift at these 'natural' activities. A complete analysis and explanation of the structure
and operation of capitalism will be forthcoming only when the figure of the worker is
accompanied by that of the housewife.
Feminists conclude that the 'separate' liberal worlds of private and public life are
actually interrelated, connected by a patriarchal structure. This conclusion again
highlights the problem of the Critiques of the Public/Private Dichotomy 119 status of
the 'natural' sphere of the family, which is presupposed by, yet seen as separate from
and irrelevant TO, the conventional relations of civil society. The sphere of domestic
life-is at the heart of civil society rather than apart or separate from it. A .Widespread
conviction that this is so is revealed by contemporary concern about the crisis, the
decline, the disintegration of the nuclear family that is seen as the bulwark of civilized
moral life. That the family is a major 'social problem' is significant, for the 'social' is a
category that belongs in civil society, nor outside it, or, more accurately, it is one of the
two sides into which civil society can be divided; the social (private) and the political

33
(public), Donzelot has recently explored how the emergence of the social is also the
emergence of 'social work' and a wide variety of ways of (politically) 'policing' the
family, giving mothers a social status, and controlling children." Feminists, too, have
been investigating how personal an 'family life -is politically regulated, an investigation
which denies the conventional liberal claim that the writ of the state runs out at the gate
to the family home. They have shown how the family Is a major concern of the stare
and how, through legislation concerning marriage and sexuality and the policies of the
welfare state, the subordinate status of women is presupposed by and maintained by
the power of the state
These feminist critiques of the dichotomy between private and public stress that the
categories refer to two interrelated dimensions of the structure of liberal patriarchalism;
they do not necessarily suggest that no distinction can or should be drawn between the
personal and political aspects asocial life. The slogan 'time personal is the political'
can, however, be taken literally. For example, Millen, in Sexual Politics, implicitly
rejects Locke's distinction between paternal and political power. In political science the
political is frequently defined in terms of power, but political scientists invariably fail to
take their definition to its logical conclusion. Millar agrees with the definition but, in
contrast, argues. that all power is political so that, because men exercise power over
women in a multitude of ways in personal life, it makes sense to talk of 'sexual politics'
and 'sexual dominion . provides [the] most fundamental concept of power'." The
personal becomes the political. This approach illuminates many unpalatable aspects of
sexual and domestic life, in particular its violence, that too frequently remain hidden,
but it does not greatly advance the critique of patriarchal liberalism. As the radical
feminist attempts to eliminate nature, as one side of the dichotomy, so Millen seeks to
eliminate power, thus echoing the suffragist vision of a moral transformation of politics.
But this does nothing to question the liberal association (or identification) of the political
with power, or to question the association of women with the 'moral' side of the duality.
Other feminists have also rejected the identification of the political with power.
Sometimes, by standing liberal patriarchafisni on its head, it is merely claimed that,
properly understood, political life is thus intrinsically feminine." More fruitfully, the
feminist rejection of 'masculine' power also rests on an alternative conception of the
political. It is argued that the political is the 'area of shared values and citizenship'," or
that it 'includes shared values and civic concerns in which power is only one aspects.
These conceptions remain undeveloped in feminist writings, but they are closely
related to the arguments of the critics of liberalism who deplore the depoliticization of
civil society or liberalism's loss of distinctive sense of the political. For instance,
Haberrnas argues for public, shared communication so that substantive political
problems can be rationally evaluated, and Wolin states that the 'public' and the
'common' are 'synonyms for what is political', so that 'one of the essential qualities of
what is political ... is its relationship to what is "public"." These critics and some
feminists agree that what is not personal is public and that what is public is political.
The implication is that there is no division within civil society, which is the realm of the
public, collective, common political life of the community. The argument is usually
developed, however, without any consideration of how this conception of the public-

34
political sphere is related to domestic life, or any indication that such a problem arises.
The feminists have posed, but have not yet answered, this fundamental question. What
can he said is that although the personal is not the political, the two spheres- arc
interrelated, necessary dimensions of a future, democratic feminist social order.
CONDITIONS FOR A FEMINIST ALTERNATIVE TO LIBERAL PATRIARCHALISM
Feminist critiques of the liberal-patriarchal opposition of private and public raise
fundamental theoretical questions, as well as the complex practical problems of
creating a radical social transformation. But one objection to feminist arguments denies
that our project is even sensible. Wolff has recently claimed, from a position
sympathetic to feminism, that overcoming the separation of the two spheres presents
an inherently insoluble problem. To 'struggle against the split' is pointless; the best that
can be achieved is ad hoc adjustments to the existing order. The separation of public
and private derives from two 'equally plausible and totally incompatible conceptions of
human nature'. One is that of 'man [sic] as essentially rational, atemporal, a historical',
and the second is of 'man as essentially time bound, historically, culturally and
biologically conditioned. To argue that everyone should be treated in the public world
as if the facts of sex, class, colour, age and religion do not count, is to insist that we
should deny the most basic human facts about ourselves and thus accentuate the
inhumanity and alienation of the present. But Wolff's two conceptions are not of a
single 'human' nature, and they are far from equally plausible; they represent the
liberal-patriarchal view of the true natures of (private) women and (public) men. Human
beings are time bound, biological and culturally specific creatures. Only from a liberal
individualist perspective (one failing to see itself as a patriarchalist perspective) that
abstracts the male individual from the sphere where his wife remains in natural
subjection, then generalizes this abstraction as public man, can, such an opposition of
'human nature, of women and men, private and public, appear philosophically or
sociologically plausible. Feminists are trying to develop a theory of a social practice
that, for the first time in the western world, would be a truly general theory — including
women and men equally —grounded in the inter-relationship of the individual to
collective life, or personal to political life, instead of their separation and opposition. At
the immediately practical level, this demand is expressed in what is perhaps the most
clear conclusion of feminist critiques; that if women are to participate ply, as equals, in
social life, men have to share equally in child rearing and other domestic tasks. While
women are identified with this private work their public status is always undermined.
This conclusion does not, as it often alleged, deny the natural biological fact that
women, not men, bear children; it does deny the patriarchal assertion that this natural
fact entails that only women can rear children. Equal parenting and equal participation
in the other activities of domestic life presuppose some radical changes in the public
sphere, in the organization of production, in what we mean by 'work', and in the
practice of citizenship. The feminist critique of the sexual division of labour in the
workplace and in political organizations of all ideological persuasions, and its rejection
of the liberal-patriarchal conception of the political, extends and deepens the challenge
to liberal capitalism' posed by the participatory democratic and exist criticism of the
past two decades, but also goes well beyond it. The temptation, as Wolff's argument

35
shows, is to suppose that if women are to take their place as public individuals', then
the conflict is about the universalization of liberalism. But that is to ignore the feminist
achievement in bringing to light the patriarchal character of liberalism and the
ambiguities and contradictions of its conception of the private and public. A full analysis
of-the various expressions of the dichotomy between the private and the public has yet
to be provided, together with a deeper exploration than is possible in this essay of the
implications of the double separation of domestic life from civil society and the
separation of the private from public within civil society itself. Feminist critiques imply a
dialectical perspective upon social life as an alternative to the dichotomies and
oppositions of patriarchal liberalism. It is tempting, as shown by feminists themselves,
either to replace opposition by negation (to deny that nature has any place in a feminist
order) or to assume that the alternative to opposition is harmony and identification (the
personal is the political; the family is political). The assumptions of patriarchal
liberalism allow only these two alternatives, but feminist critiques assume that there is
a third.
Feminism looks toward a differentiated social order within which the various
dimensions are distinct but not separate or opposed, and which rests on a social
conception of individuality, which includes both women and men as biologically
differentiated but not unequal creatures. Nevertheless, women and men, and the
private and the public, are not necessarily in harmony, Given the social implications of
women's reproductive capacities, it is surely Utopian to suppose that tension between
the personal and the political, between love and justice, between individuality and
communality will disappear with patriarchal liberalism.
The range of philosophical and political problems that are encompassed, implicitly
or explicitly, in feminist critiques indicates that a fully developed feminist alternative to
patriarchal liberalism would provide its first truly "total critique':" Three great male critics
of abstractly individualist liberalism already claim to have offered such a critique, but
their claim must be rejected. Rousseau, Hegel and Marx each argued that they had left
behind the abstractions and dichotomies of liberalism and retained individuality within
communality. Rousseau and Hegel explicitly excluded women from this endeavour,
confining these politically dangerous beings to the obscurity of the natural world of the
family; Marx also failed to free himself and his philosophy from patriarchal
assumptions. The feminist total critique of the liberal opposition of private and public
still await its philosopher.

36
 What is Patriarchy?
By Kali for Women 1993 New Delhi © Kamla Bhasin
Introduction
Many of us involved with different programmes and activities for women's development over
the years, have found it necessary to understand the system which keeps women dominated and
subordinated, and to unravel its workings in order to work for women's development in a
systematic way. For years I looked at women's oppression in a piecemeal fashion; the fragments
began to form a pattern when I started to look at them as part of a system-- the system of
patriarchy. It was not easy to understand, initially; not being an academic I was not trained to
immediately grasp, concepts and abstractions. Gradually, listening to friends who were
academics, reading bits and pieces here and there, things became clearer. What really helped me
was a month-long workshop on women and development that I organised in Bangladesh some
years ago, with Amrita Chhachhi (of the Institute of Social Studies, the Hague) as resource
person. That workshop clarified many issues and concepts, not just for me, but for most of the
participants as well.
Since then (1987) I have been looking for short and simply written articles on the subject of
patriarchy, which I could share with women and men activists. Most of what- I had read was
either too difficult to understand or too full of jargon, or it assumed prior knowledge of the
subject. So I started initiating discussions on patriarchy in different workshops with the help of
my notes and of Amrita's presentation at Bangladesh. During these discussions my own
understanding became clearer, and I also found some articles and books which were very good.
I decided to try to put all that I had read, liked and understood together in an accessible and, I
hope, useful form.
In this pamphlet, I try to look at patriarchy as we experience it in our lives and as a concept
which explains women's subordination. (Some theories regarding its origin are introduced here
but very briefly. For a more detailed understanding other readings will be necessary.) It is
intended for activists who may not have access to books and journal or the kind of time required
to go through them all; but I hope that the writers of whose work I have drawn upon will be
illuminated and will encourage at least some activists to read more on the subject. What we
desperately need is more conceptual work on the nature, origin and roots of patriarchy in South
Asia so that we can understand our own situation better.
The material is presented in a question and answer style, a format that I have used earlier in
pamphlets on Feminism, and one that people find easy to assimilate.
What is Patriarchy?
Q. What do we mean by patriarchy?
A. The word patriarchy literally means the rule of the father or the "patriarch", and originally it
was used to describe a specific type of "male-dominated family"-the large household of the
patriarch which included women, junior men, children, slaves and domestic servants all under
the rule of this dominant male. Now it is used more generally to refer to male domination, to the
power relationships by which men dominate women, and to characterise a system whereby

37
women are kept subordinate in a number of ways. In South Asia, for example, it is called
pitrasatta in Hindi, pidarshahi in Urdu and pitratontro in Bangla.
The subordination that we experience at a daily level, regardless of the class we might belong
to, takes various forms -discrimination, disregard, insult, control, exploitation, oppression,
violence- within the family, at the place of work, in society. The details may be different, but
the theme is the same.
Q. How does patriarchy actually manifest itself? Can we recognise it in our own lives?
A. Anyone who has experienced even subtle discrimination, bias or non-acceptance feels and
knows it, even though they may not be able to name it. Whenever women have talked about
their experiences as women in workshops or trainings, they have actually described the different
forms of patriarchal control that they have personally experienced. A few examples will
illustrate what I mean. Each of them represents a specific form of discrimination and a
particular aspect of patriarchy.
"I heard my family was unhappy when I was born. They wanted a boy." (Son preference) "My
brothers could demand food, they could stretch out their hands and take what they wanted. We
were told to wait for it to be given. We sisters and our mother had to make do with whatever
was left over." (Discrimination against girls in food distribution)
"I have to help my mother with the household work, my brothers don't." (Burden of household
work on women and young girls)
It was a struggle to go to school. My father thought it was not necessary for us girls to study."
(Lack of educational opportunities for)
"I could not go out to meet friends or to play."
"My brothers can come back at any time but I have to be back before dark." (Lack of freedom
and mobility for girls)
"My father used to often beat my mother." (Wife-battering)
"My brothers are worse than my father. They don't want me to talk to any boys." (Male control
over women and girls)
"Because I was not willing to give in to the demands of my boss I was thrown out of my job.'"
(Sexual harassment at work)
"I have no share in my father's property. My husband's property is also not mine. Actually there
is no home I can call my own." (Lack of inheritance or property rights for women)
"I have to submit my body to my husband whenever he wants it. I have no say. I fear sex. Don't
enjoy it." (Male control over women's bodies and sexuality)
"I wanted my husband to use family planning methods but he refused. He also did not give me
permission to get operated myself." (No control over fertility or reproductive rights)
As we begin to reflect on them the fragments of these experiences gradually star t forming a
pattern, and we realise that each one of us has had to struggle in one way or another against this

38
discrimination. The feeling and experience of subordination destroy self-respect, self- esteem
and self-confidence and yet limits on our aspirations. Every courageous act we perform to
assert ourselves is condemned as "unfeminine". We are called beparda (shameless) as soon as
we try to step out of our defined spaces and roles.
Norms and practices which define us as inferior to men, which impose controls on us, are
present everywhere in our families, social relations, religions, laws, schools, textbooks, media,
factories, offices.
As we listen to each other we realise that this subordination is not the fate of a few of us who
are unfortunate, nor is it some "vicious" men who exploit or oppress some women. We begin to
understand that what we are up against is a system, a system of male domination and
superiority, of male control, in which women are subordinate.
Q. Does the term patriarchy then sum up the kind of male domination we see around us
all the time?
A. Yes, you could say so. But it is more than just a term: feminists use it like a concept, and like
all other concepts it is a tool to help us understand our realities. It is defined by different people
in different ways. Juliet Mitchell, a feminist psychologist, uses the word patriarchy to refer to
kinship systems in which men exchange women, and to the symbolic power that fathers
exercise within these systems. This power she says, is responsible for the "inferiorised"
psychology of women. Sylvia Walby in her book, THEORISING PATRIARCHY calls it a system of
social structures and practices in which men dominate, oppress and exploit women". As I said
earlier and as Sylvia Walby reminds us, it is important to understand patriarchy as a system
because this helps us to reject the notion of biological determinism (which says that men and
women are naturally different because of their biology or bodies and are therefore assigned
different roles) or the notion that every individual man is always in a dominant position and
every woman in a subordinate one.
Linked to this system is the ideology that men are superior to women, that women are and
should be controlled by men and that women are part of men's property. In some South Asian
languages, for example, the words used tor Husband are swami, shauhar, pati, malik, - all words
which mean "lord" or "owner".
Q. Is patriarchy the same everywhere?
A. No, not always. Its nature can be and is different in different classes in the same society; in
different societies, and in different periods in history. The broad principles remain the same,
i.e., men are in control, but the nature of this control may differ. For example the experience of
patriarchy was not the same in our grandmothers' time as it is today; it is different for tribal
women and for upper-caste Hindu women; for women in the USA and women in India. Each
social system or historical period throws up its own variations on how patriarchy functions, and
how social and cultural practices differ. We will discuss this in detail a little later, but it is
important to recognise these differences so that we can, both, analyse our own situation better
and come up with appropriate strategies to deal with it.
Q. What is it that men control in a patriarchal system?

39
A. Normally the following areas of women's lives can be said to be under patriarchal control.
1. Women's productive or labour power
Men control women's productivity both within the household and outside, in paid work. Within
the household women provide all kinds of free service to their children, husbands and other
members of the family, throughout their lives. In what Sylvia Walby calls the "patriarchal mode
of production", women's labour is expropriated by their husbands and others who live there. She
says housewives are the producing class, while husbands are the expropriating class; their back-
breaking, endless and repetitive labour is not considered work at all and housewives are seen to
be dependent on their husbands.
Men also control women's labour outside the home in several ways. They force their women to
sell their labour or they may prevent them from working. They may appropriate what women
earn; they may selectively C\lbw them to work intermittently. Then women are excluded from
better-paid jobs, they are forced to sell their labor at very low wages; or work within the home
in what is called "home-based" production, a most exploitative system.
This control over and exploitation of women's labour means that men benefit materially from
patriarchy; they derive concrete economic gains from the subordination of women. In other
words, there is a material basis for patriarchy.
2. Women's reproduction
Men also control women's reproductive power. In many societies women do not have the
freedom to decide how many children they want, when to have them, whether they can use
contraception, or terminate a pregnancy, etc. Apart from individual male control, male
dominated institutions like the church or state (i.e. religion arid politics) also lay down rules
regarding women's reproductive capacity. This is institutionalised control. For example, in the
Catholic Church the male religious hierarchy decides whether men and women can use birth
control methods, which methods are permissible, whether women can abort unwanted children,
and so on. The continuous struggle by women for the freedom to choose when, whether and
how many children to have, in practically every country in the world, is an indication of how
strong this control is and how reluctant men are to relinquish it. We will discuss why this is so
in the next section.
In modem times, the patriarchal state tries to control women's reproduction through the family
planning programmes. The state decides the optimum size of the country's population and
accordingly, actively encourages or discourages women to have children. In India there has
been an aggressive birth control programme to limit family sizes drastically. In Malaysia,
women have been urged to have several children, in order to ensure a sizeable domestic market
for the country's industrial products. In Europe, where birth rates are very low, women are lured
through various incentives to have more children. They are given fully-paid and very long
maternity leave, opportunities for part time jobs, childcare facilities, etc.; some countries even
provide for "male maternity leave". The ideology and policies of the state also change according
to the demand for labour birth economy. For example, after World War II in Germany, when
labour power was required to rebuild the country, women were called upon to take up jobs and
participate in nation-building. Conversely, in Britain, once the war had been won, women who

40
had participated actively on the frontlines were told to go back home now that the men could
engage in peace-time activities. The famous Baby Boom of the 1950s in the U.S. is an
illustration of this, and of the state's implicit endorsement of the ideology of motherhood.
This ideology of motherhood is central to the radical feminist analysis of women's situation.
According to them women are subjugated mainly because the burden of mothering and
nurturing is forced on to them, and only on them, by patriarchal societies. Motherhood is forced
by depriving young women of adequate contraceptive information; the contraceptives it does
make available are inconvenient, unreliable, expensive and often dangerous. Patriarchy, they
assert, limits abortions and often seeks to deny them entirely, but at the same time subjects
women to intense and unremitting pressure to engage in sexual relations.
Further, patriarchy not only forces women to be mothers, it also determines the conditions of
their motherhood. This ideology of motherhood is considered one of the bases of women's
oppression because it creates feminine and masculine character types which perpetuate
patriarchy; it creates and strengthens the divide between private and public, it restricts women's
mobility and growth and it reproduces male dominance.
3. Control over women's sexuality
This is another very important area of women's subordination. Women are obliged to provide
sexual services to their en according to their needs and desires. A whole moral and legal regime
exists to restrict the expression of women's sexuality outside marriage in every society, whereas
customarily, a blind eye is turned towards male promiscuity. At the other end of the spectrum
men may force their wives, daughters or other women in their control into prostitution, i.e.
trading their sexuality. Rape and the threat of rape is another way in which women's sexuality is
dominated through an invocation of "shame" and "honour". In order to control women's
sexuality their dress, behaviour and mobility are carefully monitored by familial, social, cultural
and religious codes of behaviour.
A radical feminist analysis says that women under patriarchy are not only mothers, they are
also sexual slaves, and patriarchal ideology typically opposes women as sexual beings to
women as mothers. With the partial exception of mothers, the male culture defines women as
sexual objects for male pleasure. According to it, rape may not have existed in every society but
it is a defining feature of patriarchy. It sees rape as an effective political device, a political act of
oppression exercised by members of a powerful class on members of a powerless class. Radical
feminists also focus their attention on institutionalised prostitution, pornography and forced
heterosexuality as other examples of control over women's sexuality under patriarchy.
4. Women's mobility
In order to control women's sexuality, production and reproduction, men need to control
women's mobility. The imposition of parda, restrictions on leaving the domestic space, a strict
separation of private and public, limits on interaction between the sexes; and so on, all control
women's mobility and freedom in ways that are unique to them-that is, they are gender-specific,
because men are not subjected to the same constraints.
5. Property and other economic resources

41
Most property and other productive resources are controlled by men and they pass from one
man to another, usually from father to son. Even where women have the legal right to inherit
such assets, a whole array of customary practices, emotional pressures, social sanctions and,
sometimes, plain violence, prevent them from acquiring actual control over them. In other
cases, personal laws curtail their rights, rather than enhance them. In all cases, they are
disadvantaged. This is amply illustrated by UN statistics: "Women do more than 60 per cent of
the hours of work done in the world, but they get 10 per cent of the world's income and own one
per cent of the world's property."
Q. You earlier said that all economic, political, religious, social and cultural institutions
are by and large controlled by men. Can you elaborate?
A. An analysis of the main institutions in society shows that they are all patria rchal in nature.
The family, religion, media, the law are the pillars of a patriarchal system and structure. This
well-knit and deep-rooted system makes patriarchy seem invincible; it also makes it seem
natural. Let us deal with each patriarchal institution separately.
(i) The family
The institution of the family, that basic unit of society, is probably the most patriarchal. A man
is considered the head of the household; within the family he controls women's sexuality, labour
or production, reproduction and mobility. There is a hierarchy in which man is superior and
dominant, woman is inferior and subordinate. The family is also important for socialising the
next generation in patriarchal values. It is within the family that we learn the first lessons in
hierarchy, subordination, discrimination. Boys learn to assert and dominate, girls to submit, to
expect unequal treatment. Again, although the extent and nature of male control may differ in
different families, it is never absent.
According to Gerda Lerner, the family plays an important role in creating a hierarchical system
and keeping order in society. She writes, "The family not merely mirrors the order in the state
and educates its children to follow it, it also creates and constantly reinforces that order." 2
(ii) Religion
Most modem religions are patriarchal, defining male authority as supreme. They present a
patriarchal order as being supernaturally ordained. The feminine principle of power which
existed before the evolution of institutionalised religions has been gradually weakened,
goddesses have been replaced by gods. All major religions have been created, interpreted and
controlled by upper class and upper cast men; they have defined morality, ethics, behaviour and
even law; they have laid down the duties and rights of men and women, the relationship
between them. They have influenced state policy and continue to be a major force in most
societies; in South Asia their power and presence are enormous. In India, for instance, inspite of
the fact that it is ·a secular country, a person's legal identity with regard to marriage, divorce
and inheritance is determined by his or her religion.
There is sufficient analysis now to show how almost every religion considers women to be
inferior, impure, sinful; how they have created double standards of morality and behaviour; how
religious laws often justify the use of violence against "deviant" women; how inequitous

42
relationships are sanctioned and legitimised by recourse to "religious" creeds and fundamental
tenets.
(iii) The legal system
The legal system in most countries is both patriarchal and bourgeois, i.e., it favours men and
economically powerful classes. Laws pertaining to family, marriage and inheritance are very
closely linked to the patriarchal control 0ver property. In South Asia every legal system
considers man the head of the household, the natural guardian of · children and the primary
inherit0r of property. Systems of jurisprudence, the judiciary, judges and lawyers are, for the
most part, patriarchal in their attitudes and in their interpretation of the law.
(iv) The economic system and economic institutions
Within a patriarchal economic system, men control the economic institutions, own most
property, direct economic activity, and determine the value of different productive activities.
Most productive work done by women is neither recognised nor paid for; their contribution to
the creation of surplus through what Maria Mies has called "shadow work" is completely
discounted, and housework is not evaluated at all. Moreover, women's role as producers and
rearers of children and of labour power is not considered an economic contribution at all.
(v) Political systems and institutions
Almost all political institutions in society, at all levels, are male dominated, from village
councils to parliament. There are only a handful of women in political parties or organisations
which decide the fate of our countries. When some women do assume important political
positions (Sirimavo Bandaranaike, Indira Gandhi, Benazir Bhutto, Khaleda Zia) they do so at
least initially, because of their association with some strong male political personalities, and
they function within the structures and principles laid down by men. Inspite of being the only
region in the world that has had so many women heads of state, the percentage of women in
parliament has never and nowhere been more them ten per cent, in South Asia.
(v) Media
Media are very important tools in the hands of upper class, upper caste men to propagate class
and gender ideology. From films and television to magazines, newspapers, radio, the portrayal
of women is stereotypical and distorted. Messages about male superiority and female inferiority
are repeated constantly; violence against women is rampant, especially in films. As with other
sectors, women are highly under-represented in the media, professionally, and biases in
reporting coverage, advertising and messaging are still very sexist.
(vii) Educational institutions and knowledge systems
Ever since learning and education became formal and institutionalised, men have assumed
control over whole areas of knowledge: philosophy, theology, law, literature, the arts, science.
This male hegemony over the creation of knowledge marginalised women's knowledge and
experiences, their expertise and aspirations.

43
In many cultures women were systematically prevented from studying the scriptures, and even
today there are very few who are allowed to reinterpret' religious and legal texts. Gerda Lerner
says;
We have seen how men appropriated and then transformed the major symbols of female
power: the power of the Mother Goddess and the fertility goddess. We have seen how
men constructed theologies based on the counterfactual metaphor of male procreativity
and redefined female existence in a narrow and sexually dependent way. We have seen,
finally, how the very metaphors for gender have expressed the male as norm and the
female as deviant; the male as whole and powerful, the female as unfinished, mutilated
and lacking in autonomy. On the basis of such symbolic constructs... men have
explained the world in their own terms and defined the important questions so as to
make themselves the centre of discourse.3
According to some feminists, patriarchal thought and knowledge are characterised by divisions,
distinctions, oppositions and dualism. Patriarchy, they claim, opposes mind to matter, self to
other, reason to emotion, and enquirer to object of enquiry. In each of these oppositions one side
of the dualism is valued more than the other. Patriarchal knowledge systems are also seen to
emphasise specialisation, to be narrowly compartmentalised and fragmented and unable to see
the wholeness of phenomena.4
Male dominated knowledge and education have created and perpetuated patriarchal ideology,
created what Sylvia Walby calls 'a variety of gender-differentiated forms of subjectivity".5 Men
and women behave, think, aspire differently because they have been taught to think of
masculinity and femininity in ways which condition difference.
Q. Don't some feminists believe that there is institutionalised violence against women in
many societies?
A. Yes, they do and according to them different kinds of violence may be used to control and
subjugate women; such violence by men may even be considered legitimate. In fact, violence
against women is so pervasive that Sylvia Walby calls male violence a structure. She writes,
"Male violence constitutes a further structure despite its apparently individualistic and diverse
form. It is behaviour routinely experienced by women from men. Male violence is
systematically condoned and legitimated by the state's refusal to intervene against it except in
exceptional instances."
Violence against women was one of the first issus taken up by the international women's
movement for discussion and analysis. Feminist scholarship has theorised this violence in many
ways, all of which are agreed on at least one point: that it is systematic and institutionalised.
According to Mary Daly, the rulers of patriarchy (males with power) wage an increasing war
against life itself. "The state of patriarchy is the state of war, in which periods of recuperation
from and preparations for battle are euphemistically called 'peace'." For Daly, the custom of
widow-burning in India, the Chinese ritual of foot-binding, the genital mutilation of young girls
in Africa, the massacre of women as witches in "Renaissance" Europe, gynocide (female
killing) under the guise of American gynaecology and psychotherapy are all examples of female
hating and violence against women, practiced in different cultures of the world.6

44
In South Asia violence against women has been extensively documented and commented upon
and attempts have been made to see the relationship between violence and the economic
exploitation of women, violence and sexuality, violence and caste and class, etc. In a conference
of autonomous women's organisations (Nari Mukti Sangharsh Sammelan) held in India in 1988,
the following resolution was passed:
Women face specific forms of violence: rape and other forms of sexual abuse, female
foeticide, witch-killing, sati, dowry murders, wife-beating. Such violence and the
continued sense of insecurity that is instilled in women as a result keeps them bound to
the home, economically exploited and socially suppressed. In the ongoing struggles
against violence in the family, society a nd the state, we recognize that the state is one of
the main sources of violence and stands behind the violence committed by men against
women in the family, the work-place and the neighbourhood. For these reasons a mass
women's movement should focus on the struggles against them in the home or out of it.7
Q. Can we say that male control over all these institutions benefits them directly?
A. Generally speaking, we can. Men benefit not only in terms of greater privilege and control,
but economically and materially as well. Patriarchy has a material basis. This is what Sylvia
Walby means when she says women are the producing class and men are the expropriating
class. Heidi Hartmann, a feminist scholar who sees a very close link between patriarchy and
capitalism says:
The material base upon which patriarchy rests lies most fundamentally in men's control
over women's labour power. Men maintain this control by excluding women from
access to some essential productive resources (in capitalist societies: for example, jobs
that pay living wages) and by restricting women's sexuality. Monogamous heterosexual
marriage is one relatively recent and efficient form that seems to allow men to control
both these areas. Controlling women's access to resources and their sexuality, in turn,
allows men to control women's labour power, both for the purpose of serving men in
many personal and sexual ways and for the purpose of rearing children. The services
women render men, and which exonerate men from having to perform many unpleasant
tasks, occur outside as well as inside the family setting. The material base of patriarchy,
then, does not rest solely on child bearing in the family but on all the social structures
that enable men to control women's labour.8
Q. Are women completely powerless in patriarchal systems?
A. In general men held power in all the important institutions of a patriarchal society; this
however does not imply that women are totally powerless or totally without rights, influence
and resources under patriarchy. In fact, no unequal system can continue without the
participation of the oppressed, some of whom derive some benefits from it. This is true of
patriarchies as well. Women have risen to power by becoming queens or prime ministers, have
occasionally been in control, have wrested benefits in greater or smaller measure. But all this
does not change the fact that the system is male-dominated -- women are merely accommodated
in it in a variety of ways. To give a parallel, in a capitalist society workers play a very important

45
role, they may even participate in management to some extent, but this does not mean that they
are in control.
Gerda Lerner makes a telling point:
Men and women live on a stage, on which they act out their assigned roles, equal in
importance. The play cannot go on without both kinds of performers. Neither of them
"contributes" more or less to the whole; neither is marginal or dispensable. But the stage
set is conceived, painted, defined by men. Men have written the play, have directed the
show, interpreted the meanings of action. They have assigned themselves the most
interesting, most heroic parts, giving women the supporting roles.
In other words the problem is not with what women do or are, it is with how they are valued
and who has the right to assign value to people. It is not that women are absolutely excluded
from power or prestige in patriarchy - the problem is with the framework itself, and the
framework is determined by men.
Q. But women also support the rule of men. Without their cooperation patriarchy would
not exist. Why do they do this?
A. For a variety of complex reasons, some of which are familiar. We know, for example, that
without the help of local soldiers, policemen, civil servants, a handful of British rulers could not
have managed to rule large countries and continents. Without the tacit cooperation of slaves,
slavery would not have lasted for so long. It is the same with women. They are very much part
of the system, they have internalised its values, they are not free of patriarchal ideology, and as
we said earlier, they obviously derive some benefits from it too. An equally complex set of
relationships keeps their cooperation or complicity as some feminists call it - active. According
to Gerda Lerner:
This cooperation is secured by a variety of means: gender indoctrination; educational
deprivation; the denial to women of knowledge of their history; the dividing of women,
one from the other, by defining 'respectability' and 'deviance' according to women's
sexual activities; by restraints and outright coercion; by discrimination in access to
economic resources and political power; and by awarding class privileges to conforming
women...a form of patriarchy best described as paternalistic dominance.
Women have always shared the class privileges of men of their class as long as they were under
'the protection' of a man. For women, other than those of the lower classes, the 'reciprocal
agreement' went like this: in exchange for your sexual, economic, political, and intellectual
subordination to men you may share the power of men of your class to exploit men and women
of the lower class.9
In order to retain privilege, women are continually renegotiating their bargaining power, so to
speak, sometimes at the cost of other women. But it is important that we look at the overall
system and analyse the reasons behind this. It is true that women often treat their sons better,
deprive their daughters of education, restrict their freedom, mistreat daughters-in-law and so on.
All this needs to be analysed in the context of the respective power and position men and
women have in the family and in society. A rural woman explained this very graphically. She

46
said, "Men in our families are like the sun, they have light of their own (they own resources,
have income, they are mobile, have the freedom to take decisions, etc. Women are like satellites
without any light of their own. They shine only if and when the sun's light touches them. This is
why women have to constantly compete with each other to have a bigger share of sunlight,
because without this light there is no life."
Q. Do all men benefit as men from patriarchy?
A. The answer is yes and no. Yes, because men, whether they want to or not, enjoy certain
privileges ns men. Even working class men who are powerless vis-à-vis bourgeois men, have
power over their women. In South Asia, all men enjoy greater mobility, access to resources, as
men, even to basics like food and health. In other words, as discussed earlier, social, religious,
legal and cultural practices privileges them as men, and consequently, accord them more rights
in practically every area.
But in another sense men are also disadvantaged by patriarch. Like women they are pushed into
stereotypes, into playing certain roles, they are expected to behave in a particular way, whether
they want to or not. They too are obliged to fulfill social and other obligations that require them
to function in a specific way. Men who are gentle and unaggressive are harassed and mocked
for being sissies; those who deal on equal terms with their wives are "hen-pecked". I know a
man who was forever subjected to ridicule because he was training to be a Kathak dancer and
was fond of sewing and knitting, all feminine activities, unfit for a "real" man.
Men, too, are denied genuine choices: they do not have the option to step out of the
mainstream, relinquish the role of provider and protector. Eyebrows are raised in disbelief and
contempt if a young/ educated man says he "poes not work", he looks after the house. "Such
answers befit women, not men", he is told.
But this dehumanisation can in no way be compared to or equated with the subordination of
women, for two important reasons-men do not, as a whole, experience it as such, and they are
not discriminated against or disabled substantially because of it.
Q. What about matriarchal societies or communities like the Nairs in Kerala?
A. Actually there is no historical evidence of the existence of matriarchy, anywhere. Sometimes
people confuse matrilineal or matrilocal systems with matriarchy. What existed amongst the
Nairs of Kerala as matrilineality and matrilocality. It is important to distinguish between these
terms. In a matrilineal society, the lineage is traced through the mother, i.e., property passes
from mothers to daughters. Such communities may also be matrilocal, i.e. the husband comes to
live with the wife who continues to live in her own home. Although the position of women is
much better in matrilineal and matrilocal societies, they are still not matriarchal. In a
matriarchal society, women would be in a dominant position; in control of state power, religious
institutions, economic production, trade, etc. Even in matriarchal societies real control is in the
hands of brothers and uncle but there is no denying the fact that the status of women in such
systems is far higher than it would be otherwise.
The matrilinial, matrilocal system which existed among the Nairs of Kerala and in the north-
east of India has been weakening and disappearing under the pressure of patriarchal ideology,

47
legal systems which have (displaced customary and community diversity, and the pervasiveness
of "modernity", which demands uniformity. Their existence, however, proves that there can be
and have been different ways of organising families, inheritance, residence, labour, etc., and
that there is nothing fixed or immutable about a particular order. It is, after all, man-made, not
pre-ordained.
Q. Nevertheless, you seem to be implying that patriarchy has become more powerful in
say the last hundred years or so. Is this so?
A. It is not easy to give a clear-cut answer to this question. It is a complex issue and cannot be
generalised for all societies or communities. In some ways women have definitely gained more
rights (the right to vote, to inherit, for example); more opportunities (for education, training,
jobs, travel), some participation in political decision-making. There is also much greater
awareness about women's oppression and the need to tackle it systematically. Women
themselves have organised for change. But then there are other ways in which women seem to
be worse off -the incidence of violence against them has increased sharply, their objectification
by the media and the commercialisation of women's sexuality have reached alarming
proportions. In India, among communities where dowry was non-existent it is now being
practiced; where female infanticide was unknown, girls are being killed. The project of
development and modernisation itself - which some feminists see as intrinsically patriarchal,
whether communist, socialist or capitalist -seems to militate against women and rnarginalise
them further.
In agriculture, men have gained more technical education and skills, access to credit and
markets, membership in cooperatives and, as a result, acquired more control over decision-
making and resources. Women continue to carry the main burden of agricultural work but with
much less decision-making power or control over resources. Then, in India, the sex-ratio has
been steadily declining in women's disfavour since 1921. In 1921 there were 975 women per
1000 men; in 1991 there are only 929. Globalisation of trade and the international accumulation
of capital have radically altered women's role in the labour force, again often to their
disadvantage.
Examining the changes in the patriarchal system in Britain, Sylvia Walby points out certain
features which seem to be applicable to South Asia as well. She says:
There have been changes both in the degree and form of patriarchy in Britain. Britain
has seen a movement from a private to a public form of patriarchy over the private to a
public form of patriarchy over the last century. Private patriarchy is based upon
household productions the main site of women's oppression. Public patriarchy is based
principally in public sites such as employment and the state. The household does not
cease to be a patriarchal structure in the public form but it is no longer the chief site. In
private patriarchy expropriation of women's labour take place primarily by individual
patriarchs, in public patriarchy it is collective.
On the question of whether there has been progress or regress in women's position, she says,
''Patriarchy is not a historical constant. Modifications in gender relation over the last century or
so have been interpreted variously as progress, regress and involving no overall change.

48
Liberals typically define them as progress; Marxists as regress followed by stasis, and radical
feminists as embracing no significant change."10
The Origin of Patriarchy
Some Explanations
Q. Now that we have some clarity about patriarchy as a system, the next question that
arises is obviously about its origins. Has patriarchy always existed?
A. Some people do believe that men are born to dominate and women to be subordinate. They
believe that this hierarchy has always existed and will continue, and that like other rules of
nature this one too cannot be changed. There are others who challenge these beliefs and say that
patriarchy is not natural, it is man-made and therefore it can be changed. It has not always
existed, it had a beginning and therefore it can have an end. In fact for over a hundred years this
debate has been going on between those who believe patriarchy is natural and universal and
those who say it is not. Here we will briefly introduce the main theories put forward by
feminists regarding the existence and origin of patriarchy; readers are encouraged to refer to
their writings, as well, for a deeper understanding.
The traditionalist view of patriarchy
Traditionalists everywhere accept patriarchy as biologically determined. According to Gerda
Lerner, "traditionalists, whether working within a religious or a 'scientific' framework, have
regarded women's subordination as universal, God-given, or natural, hence immutable. What
has survived, survived because it was best; it follows that it should stay that way." 11
She summarises the traditionalist argument in the following way: It may be offered in religious
terms according to which women are subordinate to men because they were so created and
consequently were assigned different roles and tasks. All known societies subscribe to such a
"division of labour" which has been based on a primary biological difference between the sexes:
because their biological functions are distinct, they must "naturally" have different social roles
and tasks. And because these differences are natural, no one can be blamed for sexual inequality
or male dominance. According to traditionalist arguments, because women produce children,
their chief goal in life is to become mothers, and their chief task; child- bearing and child-
rearing.
The corollary to this argument is that men, having greater physical strength, become hunters
and providers-and by extension warriors while women, because they produce children and are
engaged in nurturing and mothering, require protection by men. This biological, deterministic
explanation, she says, comes down, unbroken, from the stone-age to present times and it
believes that man is born superior.
Explanations which consider men biologically superior and the main providers of families have
however been disproved on the basis of research done on hunting and gathering societies." In all
these societies, big hunt provided food for only some of the time; the main and regular food
supply came through the gathering activities of women and children. Moreover, in hunter-
gatherer societies there is evidence of the existence of tremendous complementarity between
men and women. In South Asia even today we find that in tribal societies women command a

49
great deal of respect, and differences in the status of men and women are much less
disadvantageous t0 women.
Then again, if male superiority and the sexual division of labour were "natural" we would not
find such vast differences in the way men and women's roles are defined in different societies.
There are many traditional or primitive societies in which biological differences do not make
for too much hierarchy in status and power between men and women.
Such traditionalist views were, however, not the monopoly of religious ideology. Pseudo-
scientist theories have also been propagated to prove that men are superior and women inferior.
Many of them argue that because women bear children and menstruate they are incapacitated
and hence, disabled.
Aristotle propounded similar "theories" and called males active, females passive. For him
female was "mutilated male", someone who does not have a soul. In his view the biological
inferiority of women makes her inferior also in her capacities, her ability to reason and therefore
her ability to make decisions. Because man is superior and woman inferior, he is born to rule
and she, born to be ruled. He said "the courage of man is shown in commanding, of a woman in
obeying.”
Several feminists have pointed out that modern psychology has also perpetuated similar views.
It claims that women's biology determines their psychology and, therefore, their abilities and
roles. Sigmund Freud, for example, stated that for women "anatomy is destiny". Freud's normal
human was male, the female, by his definition, a deviant human being lacking a penis, whose
entire psychological structure supposedly centred around the struggle to compensate for this
deficiency. Popularised Freudian doctrine then became the prescriptive text for educators, social
workers and the general public.
Many people have challenged all ti1ese theories of male supremacy. They have proved that
there is no historical or scientific evidence for such explanations. Human beings have distanced
themselves from nature, they have changed. Biology is no more their destiny. There are indeed
biological differences between men and women which may even lead to some differences in
their roles, but they do not have to become the basis of a sexual hierarchy in which men are
dominant. The dismantling of many of these theories enables us to recognise that patriarchy is
man-made; historical processes have created it.
Q. Which theories deny the universality of female subordination and explore the origin of
patriarchy?
A. For over a hundred years men and women have been trying to understand the origin of
patriarchy: when and why did it start? They have asked questions like: before patriarchy was
there matriarchy, in which women dominated men or was there equality between the sexes?
How were different roles assigned to men and women? When did the subordination begin? It is
important to ask and answer these questions not just to satisfy our curiosity about our past but
because an understanding of the origins of patriarchy is essential to challenge it and envisage a
society without sexual hierarchy. Strategies for change have to be based on some theoretical
understanding of what needs to be changed. No single explanation of the origin of patriarchy is

50
accepted by all. Here we will present only some of the principal theories put forward, and that,
too, very briefly.
1. Engels' explanation of the origin of patriarchy
A very important explanation for the origin of patriarchy was given by Frederick Engels in
1884 in his book, Origins of the Family; Private Property and the State. Engels believed that
women's subordination began with the development of private property, when according to him,
"the world historical defeat a f the female sex" took place. He says both the division of classes
and the subordination of women developed historically. There was a time when there were no
class-gender differences. He speaks of three phases of society - savagery, barbarism and
civilization. In savagery human beings lived almost like animals, gathered food and hunted.
Ancestry was through the mother, there was no marriage and no notion of private property.
Gathering and hunting continued during the phase of barbarism and gradually agriculture and
animal husbandry were developed. Men started moving further afield to hunt, while women
stayed home both to mind the children and to look after the homestead. A sexual division of
labour gradually developed, but women had power, and also had control over the gens (clans or
communities with a common origin). Within the gens there were no classes but there were
conflicts between one gen and another.
When men started domesticating animals, they also understood the principle of impregnation.
They developed weapons for bigger hunt, which were then also used in inter-group fights.
Slavery developed. Gens started acquiring animals and slaves, especially female slaves. This led
to more division among the sexes. Men acquired power over others and started accumulating
wealth in me form of animals and slaves. All this led to the formation of private property. Men
wanted to retain power and property, and pass it on to their own children. To ensure this
inheritance, mother-right was overthrown. In order to establish the right of the father, women
had to be domesticated and confined and their sexuality regulated and controlled. According to
Engels it was in this period, and for these reasons, that both patriarchy and monogamy for
women were established.
Because surplus was now produced in areas controlled by men, women became economically
dependent. Modern civilization, according to Engels was based on restricting women to the
sphere of the home in order to produce heirs to inherit property. This, he said, was the
beginning of the sexual double standard in marriage.
According to him, with the development of the state, the monogamous family changed into the
patriarchal family in which the wife's household labour became a "private service, the wife
became a head servant, excluded from all participation in social production".
"The overthrow of the mother right was the world historical defeat of the female sex. The man
took command in the home also; the woman was degraded and reduced to servitude; she
became the slave of his lust and a mere instrument for the production of children."
Engels made a distinction between the bourgeois woman and working-class woman. The
former, according to his analysis, does not work outside the family, she is totally dependent on
her husband, she is property herself. Her only function is to produce heirs. The working class

51
woman, on the other hand, has already broken her oppression by going into production. There is
no material basis for the oppression of women among the working classes. Here the basis for
male domination has been wiped out and if there are traces of women's oppression it is just a
hangover of the past and will disappear once the revolution takes place. According to Engels,
working-class women have to struggle with their men to overthrow private property.
Engels and other Marxists explained women's subordination only in economic terms. They
argued that once private property was abolished and women joined the labour force, patriarchy
would disappear. The primary contradiction for them was not between sexes but between
classes. The strategy suggested for women's emancipation was their joining the labour force and
joining their men in class struggle.
Other men and Marxist feminists have developed Engels' thesis further. Marxist feminists
accept that class contradiction is primary and take the argument further within the Marxist
framework. Several feminists have critiqued Engels' explanations; new anthropological research
has shown the important role women played in the development of agriculture and in
subsistence production, raising serious questions regarding his "man-the-hunter" model.
Feminists also think that Engels' emphasis on economic factors makes for an inadequate
explanation of women's subordination, and disagree with his argument that there is no material
basis for women's subordination in working-class families. Despite this, however, Gerda
Lerner, assessing Engels' contribution to the understanding or patriarchy writes:
Yet, Engels made major contributions to our understanding of women's position in
society and history: (i) he pointed to the connection between structural changes in
kinsh1p relations and changes in the division of labour on the one hand and women’s
position in society on the other; (ii) he showed a connection between the establishment
of private property, monogamous marriage and prostitution; (iii) he showed the
connection between economic and political dominance by men and their control over
female sexuality; (iv) by locating the world historical defeat of the female sex in the
period of the formation of archaic states, based on the dominance of propertied elites, he
gave the event historicity. Although he was unable to prove any of these propositions, he
defined the major theoretical questions for the next hundred years.12
2. The radical feminist and revolutionary feminist explanations
According to the radical feminists, patriarchy preceded private property. They believe that the
original and basic contradiction is between the sexes and not between economic classes. Radical
feminists consider all women to be a class. Unlike the traditionalists however they do not
believe that patriarchy is natural or that it has always existed and will continue to do so.
According to his analysis gender differences can be explained in terms of the biological or
psychological differences between men and women. Shulamith Firestone says women are
oppressed because of reproduction. She believes the basis of women's oppression does lie in
women's reproductive capacity insofar as this has been controlled by men.
Some Radical feminists say there are two systems of social classes: (i) the economic class
system which is based on relations of production and (ii) the sex-class system which is

52
based on relations of reproduction.13 It is the second system that is responsible for the
subordination of women. According to them the concept of patriarchy refers to the second
system of classes, to the rule of women by men, based upon men's ownership and control of
women's reproductive capacities. Because of this women have become physically and
psychologically dependent on men. "The precise forms of control change according to the
cultural and historical period and according to developments in the economic class system.
However it is the constancy of men's power and control over women's reproductive capacities
which revolutionary feminists argue constitutes the unchanging basis of patriarchy." 14 But these
feminists also say that it is not women's biology itself, but the value men place on it and the
power they derive from their control over it that are oppressive.
There are other radical feminists who see patriarchy linked not to women's biology but to men's
biology. Susan Brownmiller says women have been subordinate because of men's ability to rape
thern.15
She says man uses his ability to rape, to intimidate and control women. This she says has led to
male dominance over women and to male supremacy. And Gerda Lerner, "Elizabeth Fischer
ingeniously argued that the domestication of animals taught men their role in procreation and
the practice of the forced mating of animals led men to the idea of raping women. She claimed
that the brutalisation and violence connected with animal domestication led to men's sexual
dominance and institutionalised aggression."16
Then there are feminists who see patriarchy as connected to male psychology. Marry 0'Brien
believes that it is men's psychological need to compensate for their inability to bear children
which made them construct institutions of dominance. Radical feminists believe that because of
their biology and/or p3ychology men and women belong to two separate classes. Men are the
ruling class and they rule through the direct use of violence, which in time, becomes
institutionalised.17
Radical feminists have been critiqued for accepting biological determinism as a given. If this is
so then how does one change society? They have also been challanged for not exploring the
connections between the sex classes system and the economic class system, for treating them as
autonomous. Nevertheless, they have made considerable contribution to theorising both
violence and patriarchy and presented some penetrating insights into the nature of women's
subordination.
Radical feminism indeed has revealed a different reality. It has shown us a world in
which men control women's bodies and force women into motherhood or sexual slavery.
Radical feminism has also described how much of this occurs; it has demonstrated an
interlocking system of male dominant institutions that trap women and leave them with
few routes of escape; it has also explored the psychic mutilation of women imprisoned
in these institutions. What radical feminism has not yet done is provide an account of the
underlying causes of the patriarchal system. Why have men built these institutions and
why do they maintain them.18
3. The socialist feminist position

53
Socialist feminists accept and use the basic principles of Marxism but have tried to enrich and
extend it by working on areas which, they believe, were neglected by conventional Marxist
theory. They try to combine the Marxist and radical feminist positions because they feel both of
them have something to contribute but neither is sufficient by itself.
They do not consider patriarchy to be a universal or unchanging system because of their
commitment to a historical, materialist method as well as of their own observations of variety in
the sexual division of labour; socialist feminists view the struggle between women and men as
changing historically with changes in modes of production.19
They take economic class and sex class as two contradictions in society end try to see the
relationship between them. According to them patriarchy is related to the economic system, to
the relations of production,
q
but it is not causally related. There are many other forces which
influence patriarchy; ideology for example, which has played a very important role in
strengthening it. Some believe that patriarchy preceded private property, that, in fact the
exploitation of women made it possible. They also believe that, just as patriarchy is not a
consequence only of the development of private property so, too, it will not disappear when
private property is abolished. They look at both the relations of production and the relations of
reproduction in their analysis. According to them the whole area of reproduction, family and
domestic labour was neglected or inadequately developed by Marxist scholars, and they have
directed their attention to these.
Social feminist avoid not only the language of "primary" or "principal" contradiction but in
general are suspicious of attempts to assert that either class or gender is causally basic to the
other. They see the various systems of oppression as connected inseparably with each other.
Q. Can we discuss some of the different schools of thought among socialist feminists?
A. There is some difference in the emphasis and focus and also in the use of concepts. Zillah
Eisenstein, a socialist feminist scholar, says that one concern is how to "formulate the problem
of woman as both mother and worker, reproducer and producer". She argues that male
supremacy and capitalism are the core relations which determine the oppression of women. She
depicts society as comprising, "on the one hand, the capitalist labour process in which
exploitation occurs, and on the other, the patriarchal sexual hierarchy, in which the woman is
mother, domestic labour and consumer and in which the oppression of women occurs".21
According to her patriarchy is not a direct outgrowth of biological differentiation; it results from
the ideological and political interpretations of differentiation. This is what is meant by the social
relations of reproduction or the sex-gender system.
For Zillah Eisenstein these relations of reproduction are not specifically capitalist
relations, but are cultural relations which are carried over from one historical period to
another. While the economic organisation of society may change, patriarchy, which is
located in the social relations of reproduction, provides a system of hierarchical ordering
and control which has been used in various forms of social organisation, among them
capitalism.22
One socialist feminist school of thought prefers to use the concept of subordination of women
rather than patriarchy, which they reject as being ahistorical. Patriarchy according to them is

54
neither universal nor an all-embracing phenomenon, as different kinds of relationships have
always existed between men and women in history. According to them it is not sex but gender
which is important; sex is biological, gender is social. This group is concerned with what they
call gender relations.
This school of thought has gained currency among feminist scholars and more recently among
development agencies, although few feminists are of the view that the very use of concepts like
gender serves to de-emphasise patriarchy as an analytical as well as a struggle concept. This last
they believe is critical for a synthesis of theory and practice.
Then there is the patriarchy and capital theory view developed, amongst others, by Heidi
Hartmann. This school looks at the link between patriarchy and capitalism, and argues that
patriarchy links all men to each other irrespective of their class. A woman’s work benefits both
capital and her husband. Hartmann defines patriarchy as a set of relations which has a material
base and in which there are hierarchical relations between men and solidarity among them,
which in turn enable them to dominate women. The material base of patriarchy is men's control
over women's labour power. She says:
As feminist socialists, we must organise a practice which addresses both the struggle
against patriarchy and the struggle against capitalism. We must insist that the society we
want to create is a society in which the recognition of interdependence is liberation
rather than shame, in which nurturance is a universal, not an oppressive practice, and in
which women do not continue to support the false as well as the concrete freedoms of
men.23
Another important socialist feminist view has been presented by Maria Mies in a paper entitled
"The Social Origins of the Sexual Division of Labour."24 She puts forward some ideas regarding
the possible reasons for and the sequence of historical developments leading to the origin of
gender hierarchy or patriarchy. In this paper, she says, whatever the ideological differences
between the various feminist groups, they are united in their rebellion against this hierarchical
relationship between men and women, which no longer accepted as biological destiny. Their
enquiry into the social foundations of this inequality and asymmetry is the necessary
consequence of their rebellion. Emphasising the close relationship between feminist action and
theory she says :
Women who are committed to struggle against the age old oppression and exploitation
of women cannot rest content with the indifferent conclusion forwarded by many
academics, i.e., that the question of origins should not be raised because we know so
little about them. The search for the social origins of this relationship is part of the
political strategy of women's emancipation. Without understanding the foundation and
the functioning of the asymmetric relationship between men and women it is not
possible to overcome it.
Mies says that there have been biologistic biases in the earlier explanations given for sex
hierarchy and they need to be thoroughly understood and discarded.
This covert or overt biological determinism, paraphrased in Freud's statement that anatomy is
destiny, is perhaps the most deep-rooted obstacle for the analysis of the causes of women's

55
oppression and exploitation. Although women who struggle for their liberation have rejected
biological determinism, they find it very difficult to establish that the unequal, hierarchical and
exploitative relationship between men and women is due to social, that is, historical factors.
One of our main problems is that not only the analysis as such but also the tools of the analysis,
the basic concepts and definitions, are affected-or rather infected-by biological determinism.
Mies does not ask the question: when did the division of labour arise between men and women
but how did this division of labour become a relationship of dominance and exploitation and
why did this relationship become asymmetric and hierarchical? She suggests that "we should no
longer look at the sexual division of labour as a problem related to the family, but rather as a
structural problem of a whole society. The hierarchical division of labour between men and
women and its dynamics form an integral part of dominant production relations, i.e., class
relations of a particular epoch and society and of the broader national and international
divisions of labour."
She believes that if we want to find a materialist concept of women and men and their history
we have to first analyse their respective interaction with nature and how, in this process, they
built up their own human or social nature. She disagrees with Engels and says, "If we were to
follow Engels, we would have to relegate women's interaction with nature to the sphere of
evolution. (This, in fact, is being done by functionalists and behaviourists all over the world.)
We would have to conclude that women have not yet entered history (as defined by men) and
still basically belong to the animal world. History, for Engels, begins with civilization, the
exploitation of woman by man and man by man." According to Mies,
… male-ness and female-ness are not biological givens, but rather the result of a long
historical process. In each historic epoch male-ness and female-ness are differently
defined, the definition depending on the principal mode of production in those epochs.
This means that the organic differences between women and men are differently
interpreted and valued, according to the dominant form of appropriation of natural
matter for the satisfaction of human needs. Therefore, men and women develop a
qualitatively different relationship to their own bodies. Thus in matristic societies,
female-ness was interpreted as the social paradigm of all productivity, as the main active
principle in the production of life. All women were defined as 'mothers'. But 'mothers'
then had a different meaning. Under capitalist conditions all women are socially defined
as housewives (all men as breadwinners), and motherhood has become part and parcel
of this housewife-syndrome. The distinction between the earlier, matristic definition of
female-ness and the modem one is that the latter has been emptied of all active, creative,
productive (i.e. human) qualities.
Mies goes on to say, that, because women's production of new life is linked inseparably to the
production of the means of subsistence for it, the appropriation of their bodily nature, the fact
that they produce children and milk, makes them the first providers of daily food, either as
gatherers or as agriculturists. She further argues that man's objective relationship to nature is
qualitatively different, because men cannot experience their own bodies as being productive in
the way that women can. She suggests that male self-conception as human, i.e. as being

56
productive, is closely linked to the invention and control of tools. "Without tools man is no
MAN."
Female productivity then is the pre-condition of male productivity. The material dimension
consists in the fact that women at all times will be the producers of new women and men, and
that without this production all other forms and modes of production lose their meaning.
If, according to Mies, women were the first producers of life, of social production, of the first
tools of production and if they were also first to initiate social relations, why were they unable
to prevent the establishment of an hierarchical and exploitative relationship between the sexes?
She answers this by saying that male supremacy, far from being a consequence of men's
superior economic contribution was a result of the development and control of destructive tools
through which they controlled women, nature and other men. According to her, women
invented tools for production whereas men invented bows and arrows and spears - tools for
destruction. The significance of hunting, she argues, does not lie in its economic productivity
but in the particular objective relationship that it constitutes to nature.
Mies points out that it is not the hunting technology as such that is responsible for the
constitution of an exploitative dominance - relationship between man and nature, between man
and man, and man and woman. She uses recent studies on hunting societies to show that hunters
do not have an aggressive relationship to the animals they hunt. The pygmies, for example,
seem to be extremely peaceful people who know neither war nor quarrels nor witchcraft. Also,
their hunting expeditions are not aggressive affairs, but are accompanied by feelings of
compassion for the animals they have to kill. She says that as long as hunters remained confined
to their limited hunting- gathering context they did not realise the exploitative potential of their
predatory mode of production. It was the pastoralists who first established patriarchal relations
between men and women. Men had monopoly over arms and they now knew their generative
functions as well. It was this that led to a change in their relationship to nature as well as to
changes in the sexual division of labour. “For pastoral nomads, women were no longer very
important as producers or gatherers of food, as is the case among hunters. They were needed as
breeders of children, particularly of sons. Their productivity was reduced to their 'fertility',
which was appropriated and controlled by men."
From this she concludes that
.. .it is therefore probably correct to say that the pastoral nomads were the fathers of all
dominance relations, particularly that of men over women... In the last analysis we can
attribute the asymmetric division of labour between women and men to this predatory
mode of production, or rather appropriation, which is based on the male monopoly over
means of coercion, i.e. arms, and on direct violence by means of which permanent
relations of exploitation and dominance between the sexes were created and maintained.
Maria Mies further argues that the asymmetric division of labour by sex, once established by
means of violence, was upheld by such institutions as the" family and the state and also by
means .of powerful ideological systems, above all the patriarchal religions, which have defined
women as part of nature which has to be controlled and dominated by man.

57
To summarise, the various forms of asymmetric, hierarchical divisions of labour which
developed throughout history, up to the stage where the whole world is now structured into one
system of unequal division of labour under the dictates of capital accumulation, are based on the
social paradigm of the predatory hunter/warrior, who, without producing himself, is able by
means of arms to appropriate and subordinate other producers, their productive forces and their
products.
Another feminist scholar whose work I have found very useful in understanding patriarchy is
Gerda Lerner. Basically, she has argued against single cause theories and against looking for
one historical moment when patriarchy was established. She argues that it was not me event but
a process developing over a period of almost 2500 years (from approximately 3100 B.C. to 600
B.C.) and a number of factors and forces that were responsible for the establishment of male
supremacy as we see it today.25
Gerda Lerner begins by emphasising the importance of women's history in women's struggle
against patriarchy and for equality. She began her own search into the origins of patriarchy with
the conviction that it is historical, as a system; that it has a beginning in history. If that is so, it
can be ended by historical process, and she has tried to understand the historical process by
which it becomes established and institutionalised. She develops the following propositions:
(i) That it was the appropriation and commodification of women's sexual and reproductive
capacity by men that lies at the foundation of private property; that, in fact, preceded the
formation of private property and class society.
(ii) That archaic states were organised around, and in the form of, patriarchy, so that from its
inception, the state had an essential interest in the maintenance of the patriarchal family.
(iii) That it was men's experience of dominance over the women of their own group that enabled
them to institute dominance and hierarchy over other people. Thus, she says, the
institutionalisation of slavery began with the enslavement of women of conquered groups.
(iv) That women's sexual subordination was institutionalised in the earliest law codes and
enforced by the full power of the late. Their cooperation in the system was secured by
various means: force, economic dependency on the male head of the family, class privileges
bestowed upon conforming and dependent women of the upper classes, and the artificially
created division of women into respectable and not-respectable women.
(v) That class for men was and is based on their relationship to the means of production: those
who owned the means of production could dominate those who did not. For women, class is
mediated through their sexual ties to a man, who then gives them access to material
resources.
(vi) That long after women were sexually and economically subordinated to men, they still play
active and respected roles in mediating between humans and gods as priestesses, seers,
diviners, and healers. This explains goddess worship in earlier times.
(vii) That the dethroning of the powerful goddesses and their displacement by a dominant male
god occurred in most near-eastern societies after the establishment of a strong and
imperialistic kingship.

58
(viii) That the emergence of Hebrew monotheism took the form of an attack on the widespread
cults of the various fertility goddesses.
(ix) That the actual as well as symbolic devaluing of women in relation to the divine became
one of the founding metaphors of western civilization. The other founding metaphor was
supplied by Anstotelian philosophy, which assumes that women are incomplete and
damaged human beings of an entirely different order than men. “It is with the creation of
these two metaphorical contrasts, which are built into the very foundations of the symbol
systems of western civilization that the subordination of women comes to be seen as natural,
hence, it becomes invisible. It is this which finally established patriarchy firmly as an
actuality and as an ideology.'' 26
Q. What about patriarchy and its origins in South Asia?
A. I am aware of some attempts being made in India to understand the origin of patriarchy,
taking into account the related issues of gender, caste and class. Uma Chakravarti, in an analysis
of the structural framework of Indian patriarchy, argues that caste and gender hierarchies were
the organising principles of the Brahmanical social order, although they did not always exist in
the form in which we see them today.27 They evolved slowly over a considerable period of time.
Basing her argument on studies of early Indian history she claims that in prehistoric cultures,
women's role in production and reproduction was recognised as valuable and that in the hunting
gathering stage there was no rigid sexual division of labour. (In this her analysis is fairly close
to Gerda Lerner's, discussed earlier.) According to her, in the Mesolithic period in central India
women appear to have participated in the hunt in addition to the important task of gathering, the
major food-procuring activity in tropical climates. Based on the study of cave paintings in
central India by different historians, she says that the importance of women in the hunting-
gathering economy was greatly enhanced by the importance attached to the reproductive role of
women. In such a society, female sexuality was not a threat and did not have to be "managed";
on the contrary since the very survival of the community depended upon it, female reproductive
power was highly valued. This she says explains the worship of female power which was
located in motherhood or procreation.
This worship, however, was gradually replaced by a patriarchal ideology in the post-class
historical society which evolved after the Aryans established control over large tracts of land
and subjugated the indigenous tribes whom they obviously regarded with hostility and
considered racially inferior to themselves. They killed many of the men and enslaved the
women of the subjugated people. Uma Chakravarti argues that the first large group of people to
be enslaved in early Indian history were women (a conclusion that she shares with Gerda
Lerner).
In the case of Aryan women the patriarchal family had managed to establish a certain control
over women inspite of the fact that they played an active productive role in the pastoral
economy.
In the course of time there was a shift to an agricultural economy. By the time of the
second urbanisation (circa 600 B.C.) class and caste stratification was discernible, the
Brahmana was a force to reckon with and patriarchy was well entrenched. The control

59
 that men were establishing over women and the tensions inherent in such a process are
indicated in references in the Rig Veda where the relationship between gods and
goddesses is often depicted as hostile. There are references also to suggest that women
must be rendered powerless by ensuring that they do not gain in strength and are
obedient to men and follow them. At the same time the subjugation of certain tribes and
their reduction to servility made their labour available for agricultural production. Aryan
women (the women of the conquering class) retreated into the household and were no
longer associated directly with economic production.
Like Engels, Uma Chakravarti argues that the establishment of private property and the need to
have caste purity required the subordination of women and strict control over their mobility and
sexuality. The mechanism of control operated through three different devices and at three
different levels. The first device was ideology, internalised by women as pativrata (wifely
fidelity) "whereby women accepted and even aspired to chastity and wifely fidelity as the
highest expression of their self-hood. Because it was self-imposed, the hierarchical and
inegalitarian social order was reproduced by the complicity of upper caste women; their own
subordinate status was successfully invisibilised and with it patriarchy was so firmly established
as an ideology that it appeared to be natural."
The second device was law and custom, as prescribed by the Brahmanical social code to keep
deviant women under patriarchal control. The third device was the state itself. "If a woman's
male kinsmen, who were authorised to use force, did not succeed in 'restraining’ her, the archaic
state enforced the patriarchal norms by punishing women for 'transgressions' as defined by men.
Ultimately it was the over-arching support of the early state that provided for the firm
establishment of patriarchy as an actuality and not merely as an ideology." Uma Chakravarti
recognises the existence of differences and contradictions in the values governing women in
different classes, castes and regions, but she feels "on the whole, post-caste-class Brahmanised
society sanitised and circumscribed female power as mother and relocated it to reside in power
born out of wifely fidelity and chastity. Wifehood, not motherhood, has been the dominant
strand of mythology intended to mould feminine identity in India, and it was through such
models that the sexuality of women was contained within legitimate boundaries."
This duality of perceptions (between pre-class womanhood and post-caste-class womanhood) in
India continues in present-day Hindu society according to Chakravarti. The power to give birth
continues to be worshipped by men and women along with notion of self-restraint and fidelity.
Like Gerda Lerner, Uma Chakravarti also believes that patriarchy has been a system of
benevolent paternalism in which obedient women were accorded certain rights and privileges
and security. This paternalism simultaneously made the insubordination invisible and led to
their complicity in it.
. ..while they participated in the process of their own subordination because they were
psychologically shaped so as to internalise the idea of their own inferiority as they did
elsewhere, in India they were also socialised into believing in their own empowerment
through chastity and fidelity; through sacrifice they saw themselves as achieving both
sublimation and strength. Thus they created a strength out of their inferiority and
weakness; through a rich and imaginative mythology women were narcoticised into

60
 accepting the ideology that genuine power lies in women's ability to sacrifice, in gaining
spiritual strength by denying themselves access to power, or the means to it. Through
the reiteration of cultural models in the mythology women believed that they had
different and distinctive power, a higher and more spiritual power, a power which would
save their husbands from the worst fate and even absolve them of their sins. Working
together, paternalism and cultural models of womanhood in mythology virtually erased
subordination; it was thus much easier for women to be complicit in such a structure.
Gail Omvedt, another feminist scholar and activist who has been living and working in India
for almost two decades, has studied different Indian and western theories regarding the origin of
patriarchy.28 She concludes that
1. The earliest human societies (of the paleolithic and pre-paleolithic periods) were either
matrifocal bands or genderless foraging societies.
2. Kinship societies (paleolithic-neolithic) in the pre-state period were substantially egalitarian,
and even after the rise of the state and patriarchal influence upon them, they continue to
provide significant autonomy and access to power to women through kinship networks.
3. The rise of state-class societies, with economic inequalities, militarism, alienated religions,
etc., involved the first full subordination of women which is described by feminist theorists
as "patriarchy'' -- male control of female fertility, sexuality and labour power.
Like Gerda Lerner and Uma Chakravarti, Gail Omvedt also believes that several factors like
economic participation, the role of violence and force and ideology led to the creation of
patriarchy, but is optimistic in her conclusions: "Simone de Beauvoir was wrong to say that
society is male. State power, class exploitation may be male, but non-state, non-class and non-
gender societies are possible: they have existed and they will exist again."
At this point it is important to restate the obvious: that is, there is no one theory of patriarchy or
of its origin applicable and acceptable across societies and cultures. In fact as Gail Omvedt says,
the term patriarchy "operates mainly at an empiricist level. It does not really tell us what is the
essence of patriarchy as a system, how it functions, how it interacts with the relations of
production (of material goods) or mode of production. Is sexuality or fertility or labour the most
crucial? Feminist theorists themselves differ about this.”
In conclusion
Generally speaking, a large number of women's groups in South Asia seem to accept the social
feminist position, i.e. that both patriarchy and class oppression are important, are related to, and
in most cases, reinforce each other, and that women have to simultaneously challenge the
system of patriarchy and class and caste domination.
In South Asia during the last three decades, women and their organisations have been
challenging patriarchy in different ways; their challenges have local, sporadic and spontaneous,
as well as well-thought-out, organised and coordinated, through autonomous women's
formations or in association with other social movements, political parties or trade unions. In a
way, women's conceptualisation of patriarchy, their attempts to analyse it as a system and to
deconstruct it are themselves a powerful challenge. The subsequent applicacon of this analysis

61
to action at several levels -academic, grassroots, regional and international, and in society in
general - has placed the issue of women's subordination on most national agendas.
Over the last two decades or more middle and working class, rural and urban women have
come together in small and large groups, in formal and informal meetings, study camps and
workshops to further their own understanding of oppression and male domination.
Besides such generalised opposition to patriarchy, individual women and women's
organisations have challenged different manifestations of patriarchal ideology through the
media, conferences, trainings, and actual projects on the ground for women's empowerment.
They have analysed and opposed in very many ways the different forms of violence women are
subjected to, they have lobbied for changes in the laws, stricter implementation of existing laws,
the creation of special police cells to deal with violence against women. They have created
homes for battered women, support groups for women in distress, shelters and short-stay
homes.
Individual women, women's organisations and feminist scholars have challenged the patriarchal
assumptions and sexist biases in the health, education and legal systems of our countries and
have carried out different campaigns to make these systems more gender equitable. In almost
every country in South Asia women's groups have analysed the sexist bias in the media, and
examined the impact of their portrayal on women, suggested guidelines and proposed
alternatives. Similarly, women's groups and feminist researchers have also studied the impact of
development policies and programmes on woman and have attempted to interact with national
governments on policy planning and implementation.
Notes
1 See Alison Jagger's excellent presentation of the analysis of patriarchy by different strands of
feminism in her book, Feminist Politics and Human Nature (New Jersey: Rowman and
Allanheld, 1993).
2 Gerda Lerner, The Creation of Patriarchy (Oxford and New York : Oxford University Press,
1986), p.217.
3 Gerda Lerner, op. cit., p.219.
4. Alison Jaggar, op. cit., p.367.
5 Sylvia Walby, Theorising Patriarchy (Oxford : Basil Blackwell, 1990).
6 Mary Daly, Gynocology : The Metaethics of Radical Feminism (Boston Beacon Press, 1978).
7 Taken from the Report of the Nari Mukti Sangharsh Sammelan, Patna, 1988.
8 Heidi Hartmann, "The Unhappy Marriage of Marxism and Feminism: Towards a More
Progressive Union", in Capital ar.d Class 8, Summer.
9 Gerda Lerner, op. cit.
10 Sylvia Walby, op. cit.
11 Gerda Lerner, op. cit., p.l6.
12 Ibid, p.23.
13 For instance Sheila Jeffery, "The Need for Revolutionary Feminism" quoted in Veronica
Beechy, "On Patriarchy", Feminist Review, 3.
14 Veronica Beechy, op. cit.
15 Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will : Men, Women and Rape (New York : Bantam, 1976).

62
16 Gerda Lerner, op dt., p.46.
17 Jaggar, op. cit., p.160.
18 Veronica Beechy, op. cit.
19 Ibid.
20 Heidi Hartmann, op. cit.
21 This paper has been reproduced in Maria Mies, et al., Women: the Last Colony (Delhi : Kali
for Women, 1988).
22 Gerda Lerner, op. cit.
23 Ibid, pp. 8-11.
24 Uma Chakravarti, "Conceptualising Brahmanical Patriarchy in Early India: Gender, Caste,
Class and State", Economic and Political Weekly, Apr. 3, 1993.
25 Gail Omvedt, "Patriarchy and Matriarchy", Feminist Concepts series, SNDT, Bombay.

63
 Introduction: Living with Contradictions
Alison M. Jaggar
Feminist ideas, and even the word feminism, have always been controversial. For at
least one hundred fifty years, political life in Western Europe and North America has
been marked by conflict between those who seek to improve the status of women and
those who assert that it needs no such improvement. Today, while feminists challenge
both the blatant and subtle forms of violence and injustice that we see as inherent in
many contemporary practices, others criticise what they take to be feminist proposals
on the grounds that they are unnecessary, unrealistic, subversive, subversive, and/or
immoral.
It would not be difficult to put together a collection of readings exploring conflicts
between feminist and antifeminist views; a number of such collection already exist.
This book, however, it different. Rather than exploring conflicts between feminists and
antifeminists, it explores conflicts that presently occur within Western, primarily North
American, feminism. It thus represents an in-house discussion among feminists.
Rather than continuing to debate whether feminist approaches in general are justified,
this book explores in details what may be involved in a genuine commitment to
feminism.
What is Feminism?
Feminism is a term that carries a potent emotional charge. To be a feminist is a badge
of pride for some people, central to their sense of identity ; for other, “feminist” is a
label to be repudiated at all costs, a code representing whatever they fear or hate. At
the extreme, feminists may be caricatured as Western bourgeois man-hating
separatists! Because “feminism”is a used as both an honorific title and a term of abuse,
some try to deny the title “feminist”to those who would claim it, and other seek to fix it
on those who would reject it. In consequence of the importance often attached to being
or not being a feminist, the meaning of feminism is hotly contested not only between
feminists and antifeminists but also among feminists.
In making commitment to feminism a condition for inclusion, this collection obviously
presupposes a working definition of feminism independent of the more elaborate
understandings developed in the various selection. The working definition assumed
here identifies feminism with the various social movements dedicated to ending the
subordination of women. For the purpose of this collection, people, male, or female,
court as Feminist if and only if Mime re sincerely committed to this goal --however they
Conceive it.
This working definition of feminism is not only extremely bread; if also departs from the
original meaning of the lean When the word feminism was first introduced into the
United States !tom France in the early twentieth century, it referred only to one
particular group within what in the nineteenth century was called “the woman
movement': a diverse collection of groups all dedicated in one way or another to
"advancing” the position of women. The feminists were the 'romantic' group of women's
rights advocates, those who asserted the uniqueness of women, the mystical
experience of motherhood, and women’s special purity: by contrast, the 'sexual

64
rationalists" argued that the subordination of women was irrational, not because
women were purer than men, but because women and men were basically similar.
There are several reasons for using a definition or “feminism” that is broader and more
minimal than the original one. First, It makes political sense to employ a definition that
is as uncontroversial and widely acceptable as possible— though it would be pre-
sumptuous to insist that people who were uncomfortable for one reason or another with
identifying themselves as feminists were "really" pad of the feminist community,
Second, a definition must prejudge as few questions as possible about what feminism
entails and also avoid framing disputes about the subordination of women in terms that
encourage sectarianism. Rather than debate which ideas and practices are "truly-
feminist, it is more productive as well as less divisive to recognize that people who are
sincerely committed to ending the subordination of women may have genuine dis-
agreements about what that involves and how it may be accomplished. Third, a
definition that reduces possible fears of exclusion from the feminist community lowers
the political and emotional stakes al feminist debates and allows substantive issues to
be discussed with less acrimony and polarization.
Creating a safe Space for in-house discussion among feminists is necessary be
cause, though feminists are united by a conscious commitment to ending women's
subordination, we are divided about much else. Not only do we disagree about Issues
apparently unrelated to gender, which Is only to he expected, since feminists are
deferent individuals from a wide variety of backgrounds; we also often disagree,
perhaps less predictably, over what should be done to end women's subordination and
even over hove to identify its various manifestations. Thus, feminist disputes are not
restricted to strategic disagreement about the best means for achieving our long-term
goats: we also sometimes differ about our goals. Our visions are not all alike.
Disagreement among Western feminists Is not a new phenomenon Feminists of
the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries debated with each other not only over
women's Special purity but also over practical issues such as temperance, how far
feminism should involve itself with seemingly non gendered working-class or anti racist
struggles, whether feminists should support World War I, and how Important the vote
was. Many al those early disagreements still echo through present-day feminist
debates. Over the course of the twentieth century, however, world historical changes,
including technological developments, have added new dimensions to old issues and
have raised new questions that were quite unforeseeable at the beginning of the
century. Thus, for example, feminist discussions of the treatment of animals or of war
and peace have been transformed by the advert of factory farming and weapons of
mass destruction, and we now debates the custody of frozen embryos and the
selective abortion of female fetuses.
This book explores some of the moral and public policy issues that divide
Western, especially North American, feminists as the twentieth century ends and the
twenty-first century begins. Obviously, the issues we confront today are identical
neither with the issues faced by North American feminists a hundred years ago nor
with those currently faced by movements against women’s subordination in Latin
American, Asia, northern and southern Africa, or Eastern Europe. The diversity of

65
issues addressed by feminists in different places at different times raises the general
question of what makes an issue feminist. Is it only the contingent fact that some
feminists somewhere have been concerned about it, or can feminist issues be
characterized in some more general or principled way?
What Makes Something an Issue for Feminism?
Since lei-mums are distinguished by Do commitment to ending women's
subordination, institutions, values, practices, and way of thinking or speaking becomes
problematic for us whenever they seem to cause, perpetuate, intensify, or rationalize
the sub-ordination at women. Feminist issues may be identified, therefore. as concerns
about anything perceived to contribute to women’s subordination. Such concerns may
be raised about any aspect of social life, from daily practices, to cultural and religious
values, to legal and political institutions, to the so-called master categories through
which we conceptualize human and nonhuman nature, knowledge and value. This
book explores, questions feminists have raised about specific public and policies and
personal practices, focusing on possible between these policies and practices, on the
one hand and the subordination of women, on the other.
Identifying feminist issues in terms of their salience to women's subordination
obviously leaves room for debate as to whether some issue is property a matter of
feminist concern. It opens the possibilities both that some legitimately feminist issue
may not yet be acknowledged as such because its connection with women's
subordination rebearing on women’s subordination. Feminists indeed have often
disputed whether certain issues should fall within the scope of feminist concern, In the
late 1960s, for example, some feminists denied that lesbiasism was a feminist issue.
One of the selections in this book argues that feminists should not concern ourselves
within militarism. I have often been uncertain whether the treatment of animals in
properly an issue for feminism its moral and political concerns verity years ago, ii was
common to conceptualize so-called women's issues as a limited and some thought,
relatively unimportant sub-set of more general "human" issues. As late as 1980, for
instance, the New Zealand representative to a U.N. conference on women asserted
that "to talk, feminism lo a woman who has no water, home or food is to talk
nonsense." This Now Zealander was making thus seemingly commonsense assertion
that what she saw as women's basic and presumably nongender-specific "human"
needs should be addressed before our supposedly "special" needs as women. This
assertion assumes not only That issues of subordination are secondary lo issues of
housing, nutrition, and disease but also that each can be addressed independently of
the other.
Feminists today are increasingly rejecting this way of thinking. recognizing that
as I have argued elsewhere moral or public policy issues cannot be separated cleanly
into those that are and those that are not of special concern to women. On the one
hand, since men’s and women’s lives are inextricably intertwined, there are no no
women’s issues that are not also men’s issues The availability or otherwise of child
care and abortion, for instance, has significant consequences for the lives of men as
well as women, affecting, among other matters, women’s dependence on men and
men’s power over women. On the other hand, since men and women typically are not

66
what lawyers Call “similarly situated” relative to each other, there is a gendered aspect
to virtually all mural and public policy issues. Thus, to lake the New Zealand
representative’s 1980 example, access to the necessities of water, home, and food is
often more difficult for women than lot men precisely because of women's subordinate
status—and the availability of these necessities typically has different meanings for
men's and women’s lives. For instance, when drinking water is carried by women for
long distances, the advent of piped water has more immediate and dramatic
consequences ton women than for men because women can now spend less time
carrying water and because Children's mortality resulting from waterborne diseases is
reduced. As long as infant mortality rates are high, birth rates are also high—with
deleterious consequences for women's health and opportunities for a life that goes
beyond child-bearing and childrearing Similarly, malnutrition and starvation ailed
women and girls worldwide far more severely than men arid boys because more of the
available food is given to males. Thus, feminist issues often cannot be contrasted with
such supposedly general or human issues as housing, nutrition, and disease because
these are themselves feminist issues, For this reason, it is usually incoherent to assert
that feminist issues we more or less urgent than human issues: feminist issues are
obviously human issues, and -human- issues invariably turn out to have a feminist
dimension because of the gender aspect of any issue.
Feminist issues in North America Today
Since the revival of Western feminism in the late 1960s the situation of most women in
North America has changed dramatically. Whether you regard women's present
situation as better or worse than it used to be depends in part on your personal values;
on whether, for instance, you think it is better to live alone on a limited income or to
enjoy more material security while serving a man whose comfort and convenience
must come before your own. It also depends on which group of women you take as
representative.
Generally speaking, the situation of younger middle-class women today seems
to be better than that of their mothers a generation ago. College-educated women
today have many more career opportunities open to them than their mothers did; they
also have a greater degree of reproductive freedom, they experience less pressure to
marry or to be heterosexual, and if they choose to live with a male partner, he is more
likely than their fathers to take some responsibility for day-to-day child care. By
contrast, the situation of many working-class women, including many women of color,
has deteriorated. Fewer working-class women have the option of staying at home wilt
their young children than they did a generation ago, and the jobs open to them are
typically low paying, insecure, and often hazardous. Abortion is legally available to at
adult women, but in a number of U.S. states it is unobtainable in practice, and in many
other states there are considerable obstacles to abortion access. Thus, young and/or
working-class women often have much greater difficulty in securing abortions than dc
adult women who are middle class. In all classes and age groups, rates of reported
battery, rape, and incest are rising, though it is unknown how much, if at all, the actual
incidence of these assaults is increasing.

67
 If it is difficult to generalize about women's contemporary situation in North
America, it is still more difficult to estimate how far feminism should be credited with
recent improvements—or perhaps blamed for recent deteriorations—when so much
else has changed in women's economic and social environment. These concurrent
changes include overall declines for alt workers in real wages, in social services, and
in. full-time, as opposed to part-time, employment—all of which provide economic
incentives for women to enter the paid labor force that are independent of any feminist
motivations. Similarly, though antifeminists often blame feminism for a supposed
breakdown in family values, including the rise in children born outside marriage (now a
quarter of all U.S. births), changes in U.S. families since the early 1970s have occurred
in a context in which the gap between rich and poor has widened dramatically and the
cities have disintegrated, especially those areas inhabited by people of color. In such a
context, it is understandable that some mothers, exhausted by the combination of
financial and domestic responsibilities, should challenge what they take to be feminist
dogma by seeking a reliable man to take care of them.
In spite of the unevenness in contemporary women's situations and the
uncertainty over just how much has been achieved by a quarter-century of feminist
activism, some things are clear. Women are. still evaluated primarily by a standard of
sexual attractiveness that prizes youth, slenderness, blondness, and the absence of
visible disabilities. We are stigmatized if we are not perceived as heterosexual and, to
a lesser extent, if we lack a male partner. A substantial gap between the earnings of
full-time male and female workers remains, though it has diminished on average since
the early 1970s and is much wider at the lower end of the educational spectrum.
Women (and our children) predominate in the increasing ranks of the poor.
Reproductive freedom is incomplete and even more limited for poor women. Child care
facilities have spread rapidly, sometimes franchised, but they receive relatively little
public subsidy. Women, including full-time employed women, still do most of the
necessary wok involved, in childrearing and household maintenance. Many older
women live in poverty, many girls are subjected to incest, and many women of all ages
are beaten, harassed, and raped.
North American feminists are virtually unanimous in their agreement that all
these represent important problems that contemporary feminism must continue to
address. Many of these issues are absent from this collection, however. This is nut
because they are any less urgent than those on which this book focuses; they are
°related merely because they are omitted merely because they are less controversial
among feminists.
As noted already, disagreement is endemic to feminism. Some of the debates in
which Western feminists have engaged have been quite theoretical, even esoteric. In
addition to the perennial question of whether women are the same as or different from
men, feminist in the 1970 disputed the "ultimate" causes of women's subordination,
and in the 1980s they argued but how the concept -woman" should be deconstructed
and whether it could survive its deconstructed. Although the answers given to these
broad theoretical questions certainly have practical Implications, such issues
nevertheless often seemed remote 'from the daily concerns or non-academic feminists.

68
By contrast, the controversies explored in this book locus much more directly on issues
of immediate concern to all contemporary feminists as we reflect on our political
agendas and our daily practices. Most of them address issues at public policy. Should
violent pornography be banned? Should so-called surrogacy contracts be enforced?
Should sex work be regulated by law? Many of these controversies, however, also
involve questions of personal responsibility and individual choice. Even it I have a legal
right to do so, should I abort my female fetus? Should I eat meal or join the military or
put my limited political energies Into working against nuclear weapons rather than
providing shelters for battered women?
Even though these issues are debated in many contexts, the discussions in this
book are distinguished by the fact that they address the issues in tire light of an explicit
to ending women's subordination. As they debate specific moral and political
controversies, they simultaneously explore how this distinctively feminist commitment
intersects with other ideals and values such as freedom, equality and community Thus,
the discussions in this book not only clarify the feminist implications or certain concrete
social issues; at a more philosophical level they also enrich our understanding of the
ways in which a principled commitment to feminism may influence as well as be
influenced by prevailing interpretations of contemporary ideals and values.

Feminist Contradictions
Why do some issues arouse more controversy than others among feminists?
Answering this question by identifying some of the underlying sources of feminist
disagreement may clarity what is really at stake in some controversial Issues and even
contribute to resolving them.
One factor contributing to the problematic status within feminism of some public
policies and personal practices is our ignorance of certain matters of fact, which hinder
our evaluation of the impact on women of some of the institutions and practices
discussed in this book. Psychologists and social scientists disagree, for instance, about
the significance of violent pornography in causing sexual assault; similarly, the cause
relationships between women's subordination; on the one hand, and the mistreatment
of animals or the degradation of the environment, on the other, remain insufficiently
explored. Although the incompleteness of relevant data may partially explain the
existence of controversy among feminists, it fails to explain the intensity with which
ferniest dispute many of these issues. This intensity is more likely the result of conflict
among the deeply held values and even metaphysical attitudes to which feminists are
committed. A striking feature of most of the issues addressed in this book is that they
involve sexual and often a procreative dimension. For instance, though at first sight
militarism appears to involve women primarily as fighters or taxpayers, it turns out to
include such questions as whether the values of militarism are compatible with those of
mothering and whether women soldiers may be sufficiently or, alternatively, too
sexually attractive to men. Because the Western tradition has consistently regarded
women primarily as mothers and as sexual objects, it is not surprising that procreative
and sexual issues have always been prominent among feminist concerns, and it is only

69
to be expected that many feminists should experience contradictory feelings about
these it sues. For instance, we may internalize dominant views of mothering and/or
sexual attractiveness as central to women's identities even while opposing the
reduction women to mothers and sexual objects. When these factors are
supplemented with the general North American preoccupation with and anxiety about
sexuality, recently e) pressed in terms of "family values," it is inevitable that feminist
discussions about it sues involving sexuality and mothering should acquire an intense
emotional charge given our present cultural context as well as our history, it is quite
predictable that advocacy of lesbian sadomasochism, for instance, will precipitate
acute moral distress among feminists as we seek to balance our commitments to
opposing, on the on hand, the sexual repression of women and, on the other hand, the
eroticization women's subordination.
Many of the issues currently dividing North American feminists involve conflicts
value that go beyond mothering and sexuality. For instance, the issue of pornograph
certainly involves sexuality, but it also seems to set concern for women's welfare
against respect for freedom of expression, both values that feminists have good
reasons for endorsing. Similarly, feminist opposition to militarism and other forms of
violence seems to conflict with feminist goals of promoting women's economic and
phys cal independence when these are expressed through desires for a career in the,
military or a determination to defend oneself physically. Such conflicts of principle lead
to apparently self-contradictory conclusions, such as the need to "fight against
violence" or even "fight for peace."
Another significant reason that some issues have become especially
controversies for contemporary feminists is that they involve challenges to institutions
or practice such as mothering, soldiering, or heterosexuality, in which many women,
including some feminists, assert that they are willing participants. Unlike practices such
as sexual harassment, rape, incest, and sexual discrimination in employment, which
are universally condemned by feminists, many women, including feminists, do not
necessarily perceive themselves as either victims or victimizers when they participate
in some of the institutions and practices evaluated in this book. Those who regard
themselves as having chosen freely to participate in these institutions and practices
naturally be-come defensive when other feminists challenge that participation—and
these feminists are often distinctly hostile to other feminists' suggestions that their
choice to participate in these institutions and practices may have been less than fully
informed or unfortunately. Issues of individual choice and responsibility are always
morally and emotionally loaded because they touch the core of our conception of
ourselves as free and responsible moral agents. They are also a notorious
philosophical quagmire, involving such problematic notions as self-deception,
unconscious motivation, foreseen but un-intended consequences, coercive offers, and
even "false consciousness." Unfortunately, feminists can sometimes find no way
around this quagmire.
Policies and practices are also likely to become controversial among feminists
when they affect different groups of women differently, thus triggering conflicts among
various loyalties and priorities. Even issues such as rape that are problematic for all

70
women typically affect some groups differently from others; for instance, women who
cannot afford cars are especially vulnerable to rape by strangers. Many of the policies
and practices explored in this book are particularly clear in their varying implications for
different groups of women, and many raise issues of race or class, age or disability, as
well as gender. For example, women hired to be so-called surrogate mothers are likely
to be poor, whereas women who hire them are likely to be wealthy—or at least married
to wealthy men. In a racist society, moreover, "surrogacy" also has a racial dimension.
Women, invariably white, who can afford to hire so-called surrogate mothers are
unlikely to employ women of color as "surrogates"—unless the situation is one of a so-
called full surrogacy, where the woman is hired to gestate a previously fertilized ovum.
In that case, we may well see the ghosts of African American slave women wetnursing
the white babies of plantation owners.
Typically, therefore, the issues about which feminists disagree are highly
charged emotionally as well as morally, and they are politically complex. Usually they
cannot be reduced to simple "pro" and "con" positions because they have many more
than two sides. These issues may involve conflicts of interest and loyalty among
overlapping social groups, incompatibilities among important feminist values or
principles, desires thought to be "unfeminist," or perceived needs to utilize political
means that are in contradiction with socially desirable ends. What such issues all have
in common is a capacity to generate moral dilemmas—or trilemmas or multilemmas—
between courses of action that are all to some extent distasteful from a feminist point of
view.
The experience of confronting such difficult choices, and the sense that any
consequent action is likely to be open to some feminist objection, has led feminists to
coin the phrase "living with contradictions." It is a phrase that simultaneously expresses
the moral discomfort that feminists feel so frequently and our determination to carry on
anyway with our lives. This book is intended both to illuminate the contradictions
feminists face and suggest some means of reducing them.
Addressing Feminist Contradictions Since the late 1960s, academic
philosophers have devoted unprecedented attention to practical moral and political
concerns. Often they have described these concerns as issues in applied ethics
because they have hoped to resolve them by appealing to—or applying—general
moral or ethical principles articulating ideals such as freedom, justice, rights, or the
general welfare. Typically, however, the hopes of these philosophers have remained
unfulfilled. Although philosophers have sometimes made considerable progress in
clarifying specific moral and political issues, this progress has rarely resulted from the
simple application of general ethical principles.
One reason for this failure is that to cover a wide range of cases, ethical
principles typically are formulated at a high level of abstraction and consequently leave
much room for individual discretion—and therefore for disagreement—in determining
how to apply them. For instance, even the simplest moral injunctions, such as "Don't
kill," "Don't steal," and "Don't break promises," permit considerable latitude in deciding
what counts as stealing or breaking promises and how far the scope of the prohibition
against killing should extend. In addition, individual discretion is always required to de-

71
termine which principle or principles are appropriate for a given situation and, in cases
of conflict between them, which principles should take precedence over others. Is it
morally justified, for instance, to steal or break a promise to save a life or even to take
one life to save more?
Most philosophers now agree that practical moral and political issues cannot be
re-solved through the simple application of general moral principles. The assumption
that what people ought to do in specific situations may somehow be deduced from
independently validated ethical principles is regarded increasingly as mistaken, resting
on a misleadingly positivist model of moral justification. Ethical principles are not
accepted prior to or independently of people's intuitive sense of what they should do in
particular situations; instead, such principles are derived from efforts to refine and
systematize that sense. The consideration of particular cases thus plays an
indispensable role in formulating moral principles, it is also a central part of the process
by which people commit themselves to some principles rather than others. Thus the
relationship between general moral principles and specific moral decisions must be
understood as one of mutual interdependence rattier than one-way entailment.
Accepting this re-conceptualization of the relation between general principles
and specific decisions, most contemporary philosophers have abandoned the dream of
finding some quick and foolproof decision procedure for the resolution of practical
moral and political problems. Although they recognize the usefulness of general
principles in drawing attention to the full moral implications of practical issues, thus
suggesting considerations salient to their resolution. few philosophers continue to
assume that some sufficiently creative and sophisticated formulation of a few key
principles will magically untangle moral perplexities. Instead, they acknowledge that
there are no moral shortcuts capable of bypassing detailed and careful reflection on
specific situations from as many points of view as possible.
At the end of the 1960s, as the present wave of Western feminism was rising,
many feminists were as optimistic as their philosophical contemporaries about the
possibility of finding a relatively simple decision procedure for resolving social problems
involving women. In 1970, for instance, New York Radical Women issued a set of
principles that read in part as follows:
We take the woman's side in everything.
We ask not if something is "reformist," "radical," "revolutionary," or "moral."
We ask: is it good for women or bad for women?
This principle is attractively simple and has a wonderful rhetorical ring, though it
also sounds outrageously partial. However, the preceding discussion of the relationship
between general principles and specific issues should lead us to suspect that even for
those prepared to adopt it, the principle of putting women's interests first does not pro-
vide a simple solution for feminists' moral and political questions.
One reason for the inadequacy of the principle is obvious: Women are not a
homo-generous group. We represent a variety of nationalities, ethnicities, classes, and
abilities and disabilities. We are single, married, divorced, widowed, mothers, childfree,
bi-sexual, lestbian, heterosexual, and celibate. Some of us are madams, and some of

72
us are madams our interests sometimes coincide and sometimes conflict. Thus, what
is good or bad for one group of women may not be good or bad for another.
New York Radical Women were not oblivious to this difficulty, and they
responded to it by defining "the best interests of women as the best interests of the
poorest, most insulted, most despised, most abused woman on earth." Even thus
clarified, however, the principle is insufficient to resolve many moral and political
problems since it is often far from evident just who this most abused woman is.
Previous attempts to determine which women are "most oppressed" have been divisive
and destructive for feminism. They are also in principle inconclusive because the ways
in which women are subordinated vary qualitatively as well as quantitatively. Even
within the contemporary United States, for instance, the subordination of a working-
class Chicana lesbian is very different from that of an elderly white widow or an African
American law professor. Al-though it would be foolish to deny that some women have
more privileges than others, there are no uncontroversial criteria for ranking the
oppressions suffered by different, and overlapping, groups of women.
Does this recognition of the limitations of the principle formulated by New York
Radical Women mean that feminists have no guide at all through the moral and
political thickets that confront us? Not necessarily. Even though this principle is no
more capable than other, more orthodox moral or political principles of providing a
mechanical decision procedure for resolving moral and political problems involving
women, it does have certain strengths as well as limitations. Most notably, it expresses
the sound moral intuition that in addressing moral and political problems, we must give
the interests of more disadvantaged women special consideration. The principle cannot
indicate any clear path through moral thickets, but it does point in the right general
direction.
When it is interpreted as giving special weight to the needs and interests of
women with special disadvantages, New York Radical Women's principle turns out to
be far more impartial than it appeared initially. Although it was deliberately and
provocatively formulated to challenge dominant conceptions of impartiality by its
expressed bias in favor of women, the principle's special concern for disadvantaged
women means that when good faith efforts are made to apply it to specific situations,
the interests of most men usually will not be disregarded. This is because women who
might reasonably be included among the poorest, most insulted, despised, and
_abused typically regard their interests as inseparable from those of their husbands,
sons, fathers, and other males of their group—which is not to say that the women's
interests are identical with the men's. Just as most "human" (and "class," "race," and
"national") issues are simultaneously feminist, so most issues that are feminist in the
sense of raising concerns about women's subordination are unlikely to be exclusively
feminist. That is to say, their connection with women's subordination is usually not their
only problematic aspect. For instance, concerns about the wages and working
conditions of women mi-grant workers in agriculture clearly overlap with concerns
about the wages and conditions of their male co-workers, illuminating the complex
ways in which issues of male domination intersect with issues of race and class
domination.

73
 Because women's situations are so various and the forms of oppression we
suffer are usually multiple, most feminist issues are inextricably involved with questions
of economic justice and racial or other kinds of bias. Thus, committing ourselves to
ending the subordination of insulted, despised. and abused women requires us also to
challenge various injustices that affect men, though in somewhat different ways. To put
the most abused women first is not, in the end, to disregard the ways in which many
men are abused.
Recognizing that the subordination of women is inextricably interconnected with
is-sues of economic justice, racial bias, environmental damage, and individual freedom
demonstrates not only that feminism is central to most other issues of contemporary
social concern. Nor does it mean only that these other issues are impossible to resolve
without a wholehearted commitment to ending women's subordination. Such a
recognition also teaches that this feminist commitment can never be single- or simple-
minded. Our commitment to ending women's subordination inevitably leads us to con-
front complex, multidimensional problems that require us-to balance a variety of values
and to evaluate the claims and interests of a variety of groups or-even species,
including a variety of groups of women.
There is no magic formula for reaching fair and workable resolutions of these
pressing and complicated problems. The best we can do is resolve to be as open and
sensitive as We can to the diversity of interests and range of values involved. This in
turn requires us to commit ourselves to seeking as many different perspectives as
possible. If we are sincerely concerned with ending the subordination of all women,
feminists can-not afford unquestioned assumptions, orthodoxies, or dogmatic
commitments to positions alleged to be "politically correct." Instead, we must find ways
of hearing the voices of women muted in the dominant culture, and we must respond to
those voices by giving special attention and weight to the concerns they express. This
book is intended as a contribution to that undertaking.
In a truly feminist world, we would not have to address many of the issues with
which we find ourselves presently confronted. We should not have been socialized to
prefer meat over grains or boys over girls, and we would not have learned to become
aroused by sexual practices that perpetuate male dominance. We should not have to
consider how to defend ourselves against violent assault, whether to abort a disabled
or female fetus, or what to do about pornography that eroticizes the subordination of
women. We should never feel compelled to choose between our gender identity and
our ethnic or class identity. Feminists’ long term ideal is the creation of a world in which
these and similar issues do not arise. In the short term, however, we must struggle to
live as honourably, courageously, and cheerfully as we can with the contradictions
inevitably generated by a painfully prefeminist world.

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 BORN FREE AND EQUAL: SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND GENDER IDENTITY IN INTERNATIONAL
HUMAN RIGHTS LAW (UN HUMAN RIGHTS OFFICE OF THE HIGH COMMISSIONER)
HR/PUB/12/06 (2012)
EXCERPTS

After decades during which the words “sexual orientation” and “gender identity” were
rarely uttered in formal, intergovernmental meetings at the United Nations, a debate is
unfolding at the Human Rights Council in Geneva on the rights of lesbian, gay,
bisexual and transgender people. The discussions at the Council have focused political
attention on discriminatory laws and practices at the national level and on the
obligations of States under international human rights law to address these through
legislative and other measures.
In June 2011, the Council adopted resolution 17/19 – the first United Nations resolution
on human rights, sexual orientation and gender identity. The resolution was approved
by a narrow margin but, significantly, received support from Council members from all
regions...... The legal obligations of States to safeguard the human rights of LGBT and
intersex people are well established in international human rights law on the basis of
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and subsequently agreed international
human rights treaties. All people, irrespective of sex, sexual orientation or gender
identity, are entitled to enjoy the protections provided for by international human rights
law, including in respect of rights to life, security of person and privacy, the right to be
free from torture, arbitrary arrest and detention, the right to be free from discrimination
and the right to freedom of expression, association and peaceful assembly.....
SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS
– Five Steps –
1. Protect people from homophobic and transphobic violence. Include sexual
orientation and gender identity as protected characteristics in hate crime laws.
Establish effective systems to record and report hate-motivated acts of violence.
Ensure effective investigation and prosecution of perpetrators and redress for victims

75
of such violence. Asylum laws and policies should recognize that persecution on
account of one’s sexual orientation or gender identity may be a valid basis for an
asylum claim.
2. Prevent the torture and cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment of LGBT persons in
detention by prohibiting and punishing such acts and ensuring that victims are provided
with redress. Investigate all acts of mistreatment by State agents and bring those
responsible to justice. Provide appropriate training to law enforcement officers and
ensure effective monitoring of places of detention.
3. Repeal laws criminalizing homosexuality, including all laws that prohibit private
sexual conduct between consenting adults of the same sex. Ensure that individuals are
not arrested or detained on the basis of their sexual orientation or gender identity, and
are not subjected to baseless and degrading physical examinations intended to
determine their sexual orientation.
4. Prohibit discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity. Enact
comprehensive laws that include sexual orientation and gender identity as prohibited
grounds of discrimination. In particular, ensure non-discriminatory access to basic
services, including in the context of employment and health care. Provide education
and training to prevent discrimination and stigmatization of LGBT and intersex people.
5. Safeguard freedom of expression, association and peaceful assembly for LGBT and
intersex people. Any limitations on these rights must be compatible with international
law and must not be discriminatory. Protect individuals who exercise their rights to
freedom of expression, association and freedom of sassembly from acts of violence
and intimidation by private parties.
Five CORE LEGAL OBLIGATIONS OF STATES WITH RESPECT TO
PROTECTING THE HUMAN RIGHTS OF LGBT PERSONS
1. Protect individuals from homophobic and transphobic violence
Hate-motivated violence against LGBT people is typically perpetrated by non- State
actors – whether private individuals, organized groups, or extremist organizations.
Nevertheless, failure by State authorities to investigate and punish this kind of violence

76
is a breach of States’ obligation to protect everyone’s right to life, liberty and security of
person, as guaranteed by article 3 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and
articles 6 and 9 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
2. Prevent torture and cruel,inhuman and degrading treatment of LGBT persons
States have an obligation under international law to protect individuals from torture and
other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment. This includes the obligation to prohibit
torture and other forms of ill-treatment and to provide redress for such acts. The failure
to investigate and bring to justice perpetrators of torture is itself a breach of
international human rights law. Furthermore, the use of forced anal examinations
contravenes the prohibition against torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading
treatment. These rights are guaranteed by article 5 of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights, article 7 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and
article 2 of the Convention against Torture.
3. Decriminalize homosexuality
Laws that criminalize homosexuality give rise to a number of separate but interrelated
violations. Such laws violate an individual’s right to be free from discrimination, which is
enshrined in article 2 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and core
international human rights treaties, as well as the rights to be protected against
unreasonable interference with privacy and arbitrary detention, protected by articles 12
and 9 of the Universal Declaration and articles 17 and 9 of the International Covenant
on Civil and Political Rights. Furthermore, laws that impose the death penalty for
sexual conduct violate the right to life, as guaranteed by article 3 of the Universal
Declaration and article 6 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
Such laws, even if they are never enforced, breach State obligations under
international human rights law.
4. Prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity
Everyone has the right to be free from discrimination, including on the basis of their
sexual orientation and gender identity. This right is protected by article 2 of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights as well as the non-discrimination provisions of

77
core international human rights treaties. In addition, article 26 of the Universal
Declaration provides that everyone is equal before the law and is entitled without
discrimination to the equal protection of the law.
LGBT individuals experience discrimination in many different aspects of daily life. They
suffer from both official discrimination, in the form of State laws and policies that
criminalize homosexuality, bar them from certain forms of employment, or deny them
access to benefits, and unofficial discrimination, in the form of social stigma, exclusion,
and bias including at work, at home, at school and in health care institutions. Yet
international human rights law prohibits discrimination on the basis of sexual
orientation and gender identity. Sexual orientation and gender identity – just like race,
sex, colour, or religion – are impermissible bases for distinction. International law
defines discrimination as any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference or other
differential treatment that is directly or indirectly based on a prohibited ground of
discrimination and that has the intention or effect of nullifying or impairing the
recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of rights guaranteed under
international law. Differences in treatment based on prohibited grounds are considered
discriminatory, unless a State can show that there is a justification for the difference in
treatment that is reasonable and objective.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social Cultural and
Rights all include lists of prohibited grounds of discrimination in their non-discrimination
guarantees. These lists do not explicitly include “sexual orientation” or “gender
identity”, but they all conclude with the words “other status.” The use of the phrase
“other status” shows that the lists were intended to be open-ended and illustrative: in
other words, the grounds of discrimination are not closed. According to the Committee
on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: The nature of discrimination varies according
to context and evolves over time. A flexible approach to the ground of “other status” is
thus needed in order to capture other forms of differential treatment that cannot be
reasonably and objectively justified and are of a comparable nature to the expressly

78
recognized grounds in article 2, paragraph 2. These additional grounds are commonly
recognized when they reflect the experience of social groups that are vulnerable and
have suffered and continue to suffer marginalization.....
The Convention against Torture does not include a list of grounds of discrimination.
Instead, article 1 provides that the intentional infliction of severe pain or suffering for a
variety of purposes, including reasons “based on discrimination of any kind”,
constitutes torture. In its General Comment No. 2, the Committee against Torture
explained that the obligation of States Parties to prevent torture includes the obligation
to ensure that “their laws are in practice applied to all persons, regardless of” a variety
of personal characteristics, including “sexual orientation” and “transgender identity.
5. Respect freedom of expression, association and peaceful assembly
Limitations on the right to freedom of expression, association and peaceful assembly
that are based on the sexual orientation or gender identity of an individual violate rights
guaranteed by articles 19 and 20 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and
articles 19, 21 and 22 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
Limitations on these rights must be compatible with the non-discrimination provisions of
international law...... Laws that prohibit “public promotion of homosexuality” or
“homosexual propaganda” may silence any discussion of sexuality in the public sphere.
In some countries, LGBT marches, parades and other gatherings are refused permits
or are met with threats and violence from spectators. Many groups face a denial of
permission to register officially as a non-governmental organization or association.
States often invoke “public morality” to justify limitations on the rights to freedom of
association, expression and assembly of individuals and organizations. The
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights provides that these rights may be
restricted when the restrictions are provided for by law, are necessary in a democratic
society and are for a legitimate purpose. The legitimate purposes listed in articles 19,
21 and 22 are similar, and all include protecting public health and morals. However,
laws restricting these rights “must themselves be compatible with the provisions, aims

79
and objectives of the Covenant” and must “not violate the non-discrimination provisions
of the Covenant.”

80
Arvind Narrain, 'That despicable specimen of humanity’: Policing of homosexuality in
India in Kalpana Kannabiran (ed), Challenging the Rule(S) of Law: Colonialism, Criminology
and Human Rights in India (2008) Sage India

1. Introduction: Of nuts, sluts and perverts

Queer theory is suggesting that the study of homosexuality should not be a study of a minority-
the making of the lesbian/gay/bisexual subject- but the study of those knowledges and social
practices that organize 'society' as a whole by sexualizing -heterosexualizing or homosexualizing
-bodies, desires, acts, identities, social relations, knowledges, culture and social institutions.

Steven
Siedman 1
What is unique about criminology, indeed its defining characteristic is 'the central
question of the causes of crime and the ultimate focus on the offender......It is this defining
characteristic I wish to take issue with here. Arguably it is this which creates a kind of vortex in
this area of intellectual endeavour. It is the ultimate question against which criminology is
judged. Can the causes of crime be identified and explained? Moreover once identified,
can they be modified? ' Carol Smart 2

The distance between queer theory and criminology appears to be an unbridgeable

chasm based upon the very different starting points of the two disciplines. Much as
queer theory tries to avoid studying the homosexual and focus instead upon the
knowledge and social practices which organize sexuality in society, criminology returns
to the task of identifying the homosexual. Smart's frustration is with how obsessively
criminology returns to the question of who the criminal/homosexual is.
In a provocative piece titled, 'Was Lombrosio a queer ?' Tomsen engages with what he
calls the hidden sexuality of much of early criminological work. Tomsen highlights the
homoeroticism of criminology's concern for young male offendors. As he puts it
criminology is invested in 'Photographing and intricate measuring of the physical details
of hundreds of young naked offenders'. He notes, 'the generation of of an elaborate and
arcane account of masculine bodies with certain anatomical features'. 3 Positivist
criminology clearly was heavily invested in the male body as a locus of understanding
crime and its causes.
However the early interest in the sexuality of the male offending body was in
Groombridge's analysis ceded to both law and medicine. It was the criminalizing project
of law as well as the pathologizing perspective of medicine which took over the project
of regulating deviant sexuality. This was fine tuned through the legal category of the
anti- sodomy statute and the medical category of homosexuality as a perversion.
The return of the homosexual to the field of criminology was with the emergence of the
sociology of deviance. This field of study was characterized by Liazos as the study of

1 Steven Siedman, Queer theory/sociology cf. Nic Groombridge, Perverse Criminologies: The
closet of Doctor Lombrosio, Social and Legal Studies 1999 8(4) 531 at 533.
2 Carol Smart, Law, Crime and Sexuality, Sage publications, London, 1995, p.33.
3 Stephen Tomsen, Was Lombrosio a queer ? cf. Nic Groombridge, Perverse Criminologies: The
closet of Doctor Lombrosio, Social and Legal Studies 1999 8(4) 531 at533.

81
'nuts, sluts and perverts'.4 In Liazos's critique, inspite of the explicit aim of the labelling
school being to 'humanize and normalize the deviant' the very opposite effect is achieved
by the very use of the term 'deviance'. As he puts it, “ deviant still seems different. I
began to suspect this reverse effect from the many essays and papers I read while
teaching the 'deviance' course. The clearest example is the use of the word 'tolerate'.
Students would write that we must not persecute homosexuals, prostitutes, mental
patients and others, that we must be tolerant of them. But one tolerates only those who
one considers less than equal, morally inferior, and weak; those equal to oneself, one
accepts and respects; one does not merely allow them to exist, one does not 'tolerate'
them.” 5
However the terms in which criminology studied homosexuality changed radically with
the emergence of the queer rights movement. The emergence of a vibrant queer
movement has challenged the very understanding of the homosexual as a
“criminal/deviant type.” A period of sustained struggle, has resulted in a change in the
perception of the homosexual from being a criminal to a (still tenuously recognized)
rights bearing subject. This had its legal implications in the decriminalization of
sodomy in a number of jurisdictions and the increasing acceptance of same sex
marriage and partnership laws.6 The acknowledgment of the freedom to engage in
homosexual relationships as an essential part of the right to be human has meant that
today the queer movement has to some extent succeeded in getting the gaze of
criminality to focus not on the homosexual but on those who threaten homosexual rights
i.e. the queer basher. There has been a 'recoding of the homosexual as completely
normal and homophobia as uniquely deviant.'7 There is a discursive shift of the
homosexual from being the object of 'deviance studies' to being the latest addition to the
'list of victims studied by realist and critical criminology/victimology' 8
Tomsen notes how the issue of the hate crime has emerged as a key category of
mobilization for gay and lesbian communities. This has led to interventions with the
police to bring about some degree of change in the police – minority relationships
towards more sensitive policing and more effective investigation of hate crimes
perpetrated against the queer community. 9 However as Tomsen notes, this shift is not
entirely unproblematic as what the campaigning for anti hate crime laws leaves
fundamentally unquestioned in the relationship of queer struggle to the criminal justice
system.
Leslie Moran uses the work of David Garland to draw attention to the changing nature

4 Alexander Liazos, The poverty of the Sociology of Deviance: Nuts, Sluts and Perverts , Social
problems , Vol20 No 1 pp103-120
5 Ibid.
6 See the changes in South Africa,Netherlands, some states in the USA , France, Canada and a
number of other jurisdictions which recognize some forms of same sex partnership/ marriage.
7 Nic Groombridge, Perverse Criminologies: The closet of Doctor Lombrosio, Social and Legal
Studies 1999 8(4) 531
8 Ibid. p.538
9 Stephen Tomsen, Homophobic violence, cultural essentialism and shifting sexual identities.
Social and Legal Studies 2006 Vol 15(3) 389 See also

82
of the criminal justice system. The criminal justice system in the understanding of David
Garland is moving towards a new emphasis on the punitive aspects of justice. ' Welfare,
reform, rehabilitation and due process have either diminished or disappeared as key
organizing criteria. State practice is now oriented towards punishment and segregation.
Collective well being is now borne of selective exclusion and containment.'10
Moran raises the question of if there is indeed an intimate link between law and
violence what does it mean to advocate for hate crimes legislation? Moran sees this as a
realignment of queer struggles with demands for punitive segregation. As he puts it,
'Lesbian and gay activism demanding that homophobic hate be taken seriously is a
demand for law's violence. This is a politics of law that is in stark contrast to that found
in much of lesbian and gay activism and legal scholarship that has, to date in so many
instances, documented the operation of law as violence against lesbians and gay men
and offered critiques of that violence. ...... The demand for criminalization of
homophobic hate as a demand for punitive segregation raises the question of law's
violence as a resource for lesbians and gay men.11 In Moran's analysis, the contradictions
and limits involved in the uncritical use of 'law's violence' could very well return to
'haunt lesbians and gay men who become the objects of law's violence.' 12
Groombridge makes the point that much of the interest in the interface between the
criminal justice system and the regulation of sexuality has come from the field of legal
studies. Sociology and criminology have by contrast exhibited lesser interest in the
question of the regulation of homosexuality.13 Some of the interesting work in the field
of the regulation of homosexuality has come from scholars within a broad socio-legal
tradition. This has led to a focus on questions of policing of homosexuality as a practise
of governance14, understanding the harm of unenforced criminal laws15 and looking at
the constitutive role of law16.
In the Indian context, the relevance of criminology to the Indian queer person is still to be
demonstrated. Indian criminology has not taken seriously the issue of hate crimes against those
who violate gender and sexuality norms inspite of ample evidence that gender transgression
results in brutal violence.17 The criminalization of homosexuality in India results in a situation

10 David Garland, The culture of control cf. Leslie Moran, Affairs of the heart: Hate crime and the
politics of crime control, Law and Critique 2001 12 p 331 at 336.
11 Ibid. p. 341.
12 Ibid. p. 343
13 Groombridge, op. cit. p. 542.
14 Leslie Moran, The Homosexual(ity) of law, Routledge, London, 1996
15 Christopher Leslie, Creating criminals: the injuries inflicted by 'Unenforced' sodomy laws, 35
Harv. C.R.-CL.L.Rev 103, Cass Sunstien, On the expressive function of law, 144 U. Pa. L. Rev. 2021,
Kendall Thomas, Beyond the privacy principle, 92 Colum. L. Rev. 1431.
16 Ryan Goodman, Beyond the enforcement principle: Sodomy laws, social norms and social
panoptics, 89 Calif. L.Rev.643(2001)
17 See PUCL-K, Human rights violations against the transgender community, Bangalore, 2003,
http://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/TS/PUCL/PUCL%20Report.html. Also see the submissions to
the Committee to Reform the Police Act titled, 'Sexual Minorities and the Police In India : Towards a regime
of accountability' , www.altlawforum.org

83
where hate crimes against queer people enjoy absolute impunity. 18
If such is indeed the focus of criminology, how does one then speak from the standpoint of the
person who stands criminalized, i.e. the queer person?19 If we examine the Indian context, it is
the criminalization of what the law calls 'unnatural offences' that holds sway . In other words, in
Indian law, queer people or those who challenge the norms of gender and sexuality are
criminals by law. In such a context what would an intervention from the queer standpoint look
like?
In such a context, work within the discipline of criminology will have to focus consistent
attention on the socio-political process by which homosexual acts came within the ambit of
criminal law, what the impacts of this law has been on queer people and hence the urgent
necessity of doing away with this law. Of most interest to scholars within the Indian context is
the emerging literature on the constitutive role of law as well as the harm that enforced
criminal laws do. The Indian legal framework regulating homosexuality should be examined
from the perspective of some of the new insights generated by socio- legal scholars.
What can be done from the queer standpoint is to illuminate the series of moves by which the
law succeeded in criminalizing non normative sexual acts and succeeded in ascribing these acts
to a person, namely the homosexual. The story of the way the law inscribed its power over the
homosexual body is equally a story of the complicity of the medical discourse. What was the
consequence of this system of power for those who bore the brunt of it needs to be told.
Finally the story of power is also the story of resistance to power and invoking Foucault, what
is significant is how power' attempt to define and control is resisted by the homosexual. Power
by is nature is never absolute and the homosexual resists the project of the 'expert knowledges'
by taking on the very identity of the homosexual as a political resistance identity. It is important
to understand the series of steps by which the homosexual is transformed from being a mute
subject of the criminal law to a vocal resister to the criminal law.

2. The construction of the homosexual in judicial discourse

The policing of homosexuality happens in many social and political contexts-- the family,
marriage20, the medical establishment21 and media play a strong role in the simultaneous

18 None of the recommendations made to the Committee to Reform the Police Act were accepted
indicating a fundamental inability to take seriously the issues affecting queer people.
19 The identity queer is 'meant to encompass a multiplicity of desires and identities, each and all of which
question the naturalness, the rightness, and the inevitability of heterosexuality. Historically used as a derogatory
term to describe homosexual people in the West, and home to the rather unflattering meanings of “odd” or
“strange” in the English language, “queer” might seem a perplexing choice of name for a community or movement.
Yet it is its very infamy that makes the term attractive for so many. By proudly calling themselves queer,
homosexual people not only re-appropriate a word historically used as part of a language of oppression, the also
reject the power of the oppressor to judge them in the first place.' See Bhan et. al., Because I have a voice, Yoda
Press, Delhi, 2005. p.3.
20 It has been argued that the regulatory role the institutions of both family and marriage needs
close study in the way that it polices queer desire and expression. The PUCL-K Report in the context of
narratives of extreme violence inflicted by family members against those who identity as hijra and kothi
notes , ' what emerges strongly from the above narratives is that the family as a social institution polices

84
stigmatization of homosexual relations and the stabilization of heterosexual relations as the
norm.
The family, medical establishment and the criminal law play different roles in regulating
deviant sexuality and thereby stabilizing heterosexuality. There is an inter-connection between
these different modes of regulation. As Nicola Lacey argues, ' The coercive power of the
criminal law in the public sphere are supplanted in the private sphere by the more subtle but no
less ideologically powerful dominion of the family. Seen in this way, the family is not beyond
the purview of the state, but is itself an important means of regulating sexual morality.' 22
Each of these institutions has its particular history in terms of how homosexuality is regulated.
A focus on any one institution will tell only a partial story of how queer sexualites are regulated.
For example a key gap which emerges through a focus on the law is a relative neglect in
understanding the role of the family. The importance of examining the family as a node of
regulation cannot be under estimated as it is the family which is the locus of oppression
particularly when it comes to the case of lesbian women. It is the coercion into the institution of
marriage which results in the tragic phenomenon of lesbian suicides.23
While noting the importance of critical work which will understand the dynamics of both the
medical establishment and the family as nodes of regulation and the incompleteness of any
study which does not examine these two institutions, this article will examine one strand of
regulation ie the criminal law.
Nicola Lacey identifies the registers of the moral and retributive system within which we can
locate the criminal law. From the first point of view, 'criminal law is a system of quasi-moral
judgement which reflects a society's basic values; in which criminal punishment serves the
retributive function of meting out to offenders their just deserts; and in which the criminal law
has a strongly symbolic function.... So secondly, we have to acknowledge that criminal law
has a regulatory, instrumental or utiltiarian aspect: in other words it prohibits certain things on
grounds of public health or safety, or for economic or political reasons, and sees the purpose of
punishment as deterring that behavior.'24
The uniqueness of the criminal law as normative system of regulation is that the norm set in
place is enforced by the brute power of the state. The power of the criminal law in policing
deviant behavior lies precisely in the fact that it is backed up by the power of the state. It is the
combination of a moral and regulatory function which makes the criminal law a potent force in

gender non- conformity in terms of attitudes, identity and behavior, and thereby reinforces the
heterosexist regime. The narratives indicate that instead of protecting the child from the violence inflicted
by wider society the family mirrors and in fact provides an arena to act out the intolerance of the wider
society. Those who violate the existing social codes which prescribe how a man is to behave are subject
to daily humiliation, beatings and expulsion from the family.' PUCL-K, Human rights violations against
the transgender community, Bangalore, 2003. p. 56.
21 The medical establishment regulates homosexuality through the diagnostic category of ego
dystonic homosexuality. Those who are diagnosed as ego dystonic homosexuals are medically treated
for the same. See Vinay Chandran et. al., Its not my job to tell you that its okay to be gay, cf. Bhan et.
al., Because I have a voice, Yoda Press, Delhi, 2005., pp49-69.
22 Nicola Lacey et. al., Reconstructing criminal law, Lexis-nexis, London, 1998. p. 466.
23 See Deepa V.N., Queering Kerala , cf. Bhan et. al., Because I have a voice, Yoda Press, Delhi,
2005., pp175 -196.
24 Nicola Lacey et. al., Reconstructing criminal law, Lexis-nexis, London, 1998. p. 4.

85
the regulation and control of queer sexualities.

2.1 The pre history of Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code
It was colonial law which introduced a new element in the policing of sexuality. What in pre-
colonial times was policed by a multiplicity of authorities right from the family to the samaj,
was now supplemented by a legal order which brought in new notions of what was acceptable
sexuality and what was not.

The most direct legal command on the notion of unacceptable sexuality was Section 377 of the
Indian Penal Code, 1860:
Section 377
Unnatural sexual offences: - Whoever voluntarily has carnal intercourse against the
order of nature with any man, woman or animal, shall be punished with imprisonment
for life, or imprisonment ...which may extend to ten years, and shall also be liable to
fine.
Explanation- Penetration is sufficient to constitute the carnal intercourse necessary to the
offence described in this section.

The predecessor to Section 377 of the IPC was the Draft Code of 1837 which defined certain
new offences, such as the offence of unnatural lust. Clause 361 of the Code stated that,
‘Whoever intending to gratify unnatural lust, touches for that purpose any person or any animal
or is by his own consent touched by any person for the purpose of gratifying unnatural lust,
shall be punished with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to
fourteen years, and must not be less than two years.’ Clause 362 stipulates the punishment for
the same offence when it is committed or attempted without the other person’s consent.

More interesting than the provision itself is Lord Macaulay’s reticence even as he went about
the task of putting in place a notion of sexual morality. Commenting on the provision, he noted:

“Clauses 361 and 362 relate to offences respecting which it is desirable that as little as
possible be said…we are unwilling to insert either in the text or in the notes anything
which could give rise to public discussion on this revolting subject, as we are decidedly
of the opinion that the injury which could be done to the morals of the community by
such discussion would more than compensate for any benefits which might be derived
from legislative measures framed with greatest precision.”25

The interpretation of Section 377 of the IPC has a history that is now over 147 years old. The

25 Report on the Indian Penal Code, c.f. Vasudha Dhagamwar, Law, Power and Justice, Sage Publications,
New Delhi, 1992, p.117. Lord Macaulay’s fear that the very existence of the text of the provision would give rise to
unnecessary discussion around the revolting subject, seems be be justified at the end of the 20 th century as the
successor to Clause 361, Section 377 has given rise to enormous discussion around the issue of non -normative
sexuality.—this to the footnote

86
judicial decisions under Section 377 are by and large confined to decisions of High Courts,
with very few Supreme Court decisions. In the series of decisions by High Courts and the
Supreme Court from 1884 right up to the twenty first century the homosexual has emerged as a
figure with certain characteristics.26 Section 377 The sections that follow will explore various
aspects of this discourse.

2.2.Conflation of sodomy with non consensual sex

The reported judicial decisions under Section 377 are by and large prosecutions of non
consensual sex between men on one hand and children, women and other adult men on the
other hand.27 While this may be the judicial history of Section 377, its important to note that
what the judiciary does while dealing with cases of non consensual sex is to conflate the cases
within the broader rubric of homosexuality as an offence in itself.

In Emperor vs Mohamed Yousif28, which was a case of a young lad who was forcibly
sodomized by the accused, the court held that 'sodomy is one of those offences for which there
can be hardly any extenuating circumstances; and even if so it cannot justify an over lenient
sentence of four months rigorous imprisonment.'

In Fazal Rab Choudary vs State of Bihar29, which was also a case involving a young boy, the
court noted, 'The offence is one under Section 377 IPC, which implies sexual perversity. No
force appear to have been used. Neither the notions of permissive society nor the fact that in
some countries homosexuality has ceased to be an offence has influenced our thinking.'

In TK Gopal vs State Karnataka30, which was a case in which the accused was tried for rape
under Section 376, the judge goes on to make remarks about homosexuality. The judge notes,
'Sexual offences, however constitute an altogether different kind of crime, which is the result of
a perverse mind. The perversity may result in homosexuality or in the commission of rape.
Those who commit rape are psychologically sadistic persons exhibiting this tendency in the
rape forcibly committed by them.

In Mirro vs Emperor31, which was also a case involving a boy who was forcibly taken away for
unnatural offence, the court noted that ,'It seems clear to us, that he is not only a desperate

26 Even while we study the decisions what needs to be kept in mind is that what finally becomes available
for scrutiny are only reported decisions of the Supreme Court and the High Court. For example the vital decision of
the Delhi High Court dismissing the petition challenging the constitutional validity of Section 377 on the narrow
ground of locus standi was not reported.( Order Dated 2 nd September 2004 of the Delhi High Court in Writ Petition
No. 7455/2001.) Apart from this, there is also a vast body of sessions courts decisions which generally escape
academic scrutiny.
27 See Alok Gupta, The History and Trends in the Application of the Anti –Sodomy Law in the
Indian Courts, The Lawyers Collective, Vol 16, No.7, p.9.
28 AIR 1933,Sind 87.
29 (1982) 3SCC 9.
30 AIR 2000 SC 1669.
31 AIR 1947 All 97

87
character but is a man of depraved morality.'

In Mihir vs State32, which was a case involving a minor girl, the Court noted, 'Unnatural carnal
intercourse is abhorred by civilized society, which is reckoned as a crime and therefore is
punishable with strict sentence. Unlike an offence of rape u/ Sec 376, consent of the victim is
immaterial.'

There is a discursive continuity in terms of understanding homosexuality within the framework

of perversion and offence from the earliest case in 1933 to the latest one in 2000. The coming
into force of the Constitution with its commitment to fundamental rights marks no turning point
in judicial discourse as it continues to conflate both consensual and non consensual sodomy
under the heading of unnatural offences, thereby tarring both with the same brush of crimes
which are 'abhorred by civilized society.' .

2.3 Widening the reach of criminal law

The task before the judiciary was to understand what exactly were the series of acts which
were criminalized under Section 377 of the IPC. In the past 146 years the judiciary has
succeeded in progressively getting more and more sexual acts within the ambit of the
criminal law.

In 1884 the Court was confronted with a case of a man who 'forced open a child's mouth and put
his private parts and completed his lust'. The Court held that 'to constitute the offence of
sodomy, the act must be in that part where sodomy is usually committed' and on the basis of this
reasoning held that the act of oral intercourse is not an act which is criminalized under Section
377.33

However by 1914, the Court in the much cited, Khanu vs Emperor noted, ' “the natural object
of sexual intercourse is that there should be the possibility of conception of human beings,
which in the case of coitus per os [oral intercourse] is impossible”. It then went on to define
sexual intercourse as “the temporary visitation of one organism by a member of the other
organisation, for certain clearly defined and limited objects. The primary objective of the
visiting organisation is to obtain euphoria by means of a detent of the nerves consequent on the
sexual crisis. But there is no intercourse unless the visiting member is enveloped at least
partially by the visited organism, for intercourse connotes reciprocity. Looking at the question
in this way it would seem that [the] sin of Gomorrah is no less carnal intercourse than the sin of
Sodom.'34

The decision in Khanu laid the parameters by which Section 377 would be interpreted right up
to contemporary times. The significance of the Khanu principle that the object of Section 377

32 Cr.L.J. 1992 488.

33 Government vs Bapoji Bhatt, 1884 Mys. L. R. 280.
34 Khanu vs Emperor , AIR 1925 Sind 286

88
was to criminalize forms of sex which were penetrative and which did not result in procreation
formed the basis for all future judicial decisions. One can speculate that judges in India were
also responding to a global trend, the attempt of which was to criminalize all forms of sex
between men.

The global trend began in Britain with what was called the Labouchere Amendment. In Britain
on August 6, 1885, as the House of Commons was considering raising the age of consent for
heterosexual intercourse, Member of Parliament Henry Labouchere proposed a law that would,
for the first time, make any form of sex between men a crime. Anal sex had been illegal, but
Labouchere's amendment extended punishment to "any act of gross indecency" in public or in
private.' 35 The move in Britain resulted in states in the USA, also criminalizing oral sex
between men. As Eskridge notes, 'By 1921, all of the states containing big cities, except Texas,
had updated their criminal laws to make consensual oral sex a felony.'36

The post colonial era witnessed a further expansion of the ambit of Section 377 keeping in
mind the principle laid down by Khanu. In Lohana Vasantchand37, the Court, expanded on the
logic of Khanu to lay down the imitative test. Under this test, 'what is important is whether there
was an act of imitating the actual act of sexual intercourse or carnal intercourse. If it was an
imitative act of sexual intercourse to appease his sex urge or the sexual appetite it would be an
unnatural offence punishable under Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code.'

The logic of Khanu and Lohana Vasantlal was followed in Brother John Anthony's38 case
wherein the court had to decide the question whether 'the act of committing intercourse between
the thighs is carnal intercourse against the order of nature.' The court decided that 'in
intercourse between the thighs, the visiting male organ is enveloped at least partially by the
organism visited, the thighs, the thighs are kept together and tight. ... The word 'insert' means
'place, fit, thrust'. Therefore, if the male organ is 'inserted' or thrust between the thighs there is
'penetration' to constitute unnatural offence' This decision followed the Govindan decision
where to the Court decided that 'thigh sex also amounted to an offence under Section 377. 39

What started out in Macaulay's own words as as offence about which as little should be said has
produced a judicial discourse which has sought to lay down the acts which comprise the offence
under Section 377. The immediate aftermath of the coming into force of the Penal Code
witnessed a judicial unwillingness to interpret Section 377 beyond the ambit of anal sex.
However post the Labouchere's amendment in England and the changes in the laws throughout
the USA, the judiciary clearly articulated that Section 377 also included the act of oral sex. The
post colonial era saw the extension of the criminalizing ambit of Section 377 to also include
thigh sex. The journey from colonial law to the post colonial era has been a journey wherein the
reach of Section 377 has extended to include all forms of sex which do not result in

35 http://www.planetout.com/news/history/archive/labouchere.html
36 William Eskridge, Gay Law, Harvard University Press, Harvard, 1999, p. 25.
37 Lohana Vasantlal Devchand vs State , AIR 1968 Guj 252.
38 Brother John Anthony vs State , 1992 Cri.L. J 1352.
39 State of Kerala vs Govindan , 1969 Cri L J 818.

89
procreation if one follows the logic of Khanu. If one follows the logic of Lohana Vasantal, then
Section 377 will extend to all cases of imitative sexual intercourse. Thus any sex which
simulates penile vaginal sex will come within the ambit of Section 377.

While all the case law discussed above is actually centered around non consensual sex acts
between adult men and children, the logic of the law is wide enough to encompass consensual
sex between adults who also fall within the ambit of the legal principles as they are articulated
in the cases discussed so far.

2.4 From sodomy to the sodomite: The role of medical jurisprudence.

Foucault has famously noted,

'As defined by the ancient civil or canonical codes sodomy was a category of forbidden
acts; their perpetrator was nothing more than the juridical subject of them. The
nineteenth -century homosexual became a personage, a past, a case history, and a
childhood, in addition to being a type of life, a life form, and a morphology, with an
indiscreet anatomy and possibly a mysterious physiology.'40

Medical jurisprudence plays a vital role in going beyond the task of identifying whether the act
took place, to assigning qualities to the person on whom the act is performed. The role of
medicine is to go beyond the legal language and actually construct the physiognomy of the
homosexual.

In a very early decision in 1884, (the somewhat aptly named) J. Straight was called upon to
adjudicate whether a person who habitually wore women's clothes and exhibited physical signs
of having committed the offence had indeed committed the offence. The Sessions Court judge
noted that
'The man is not a eunuch in the literal sense, but he was called for by the police when on
a visit to his village, and was found singing dressed as a woman among the women of a
certain family. Having been subjected to examination by the Civil Surgeon... he is
shown to have the characteristic mark of a habitual catamite- the distortion of the orifice
of the anus into the shape of a trumpet and also to be affected with syphilis in the same
region in a manner which distinctly points to unnatural intercourse within the last few
months.'41

Justice Straight decided that while he 'appreciate[d] the desire of the authorities at Moradabad to
check these disgusting practices, he was unable to convict Khairati as 'neither the individual
with whom the offence was committed, nor the time of committal nor the place is ascertainable'.

In another case from 1934 Sind, Mr Minawalla who was caught having consensual sex with
another man tried to escape conviction by showing through medical evidence that he was not a
catamite. As the judge notes, 'Minawalla has made an attempt to rely on the evidence of a

40 Michel Foucault, The history of sexuality vol 1, Penguin, London , 1976, p. 42.
41 Queen Empress vs Khairati, I.L.R. 6 All 205

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medical man who deposes that the anus of a catamite is generally of a funnel shape and the anus
of a Minawalla did not exhibit this peculiarity. But he admits that this indication is not
infallible42

The reported judgements cited above do not give us the full details of the way medical
knowledge has constructed the sodomite. It would only be the full record of the trial court
which would help us understand the nature of the medical examination and what it was trying
to achieve. What in some ways completes the picture of the nature of medical knowledge and
the 'truth' it is trying to establish is a post independence textbook on Forensic Medicine being
used by medical students in contemporary India.

As per the text book, sodomy which is an unnatural offence can be divided into passive,
habitual passive agent and active agent. The signs of the person being either of the categories
above would depend upon physical signs which would be present on the body of the sodomite.
To give an example 'in a habitual sodomite a complete relaxation of the sphincter occurs with
dilation of the opening which may be 4 to 5cm in diameter through which rectum can be seen'
43
The text book exhibits a degree of medical advancement since the Khairati judgment as the
author notes that ' a funnel shaped anus is very rare, and is usually an anatomical variant.'44

It is this knowledge, which is brought to bear upon a person to determine whether he is a

habitual sodomite. The sodomite as a personage clearly owes much to the medical discourse.
The role of medicine lay in extending the understanding of sodomy from being a mere series of
acts to the sodomite as a species. The role of medical evidence in prosecution under Section 377
lies in establishing that the homosexual had an indiscreet anatomy which becomes the basis for
apprehending in medical terms who the homosexual is.

What is interesting to note in both the Khairati and the Minawalla judgements is that the
medical evidence, while it did set the ground for understanding the act of sodomy by giving the
sodomite a physiognomy, was finally not of conclusive value in arriving at a decision. When
medical evidence was to be appreciated by the Court, in the former context it was not enough
to convict the accused and in the latter context it lacked enough credibility to acquit the
accused. Medical evidence as a form of knowledge was not enough to construct the dangerous
person who stood convicted on the basis of the 'truth' established by medicine.45 Medical
knowledge did indeed supplement the law’s search for guilt but was unable to supplant the
needs of the law’s evidential requirements. Thus though J. Straight sees the vice which Khairati
exhibits as disgusting, he cannot convict because of the nature of legal proof. Juridical power is
not yet supplanted by the institution of disciplinary power.

42 D.P. Minawalla vs Emperor, AIR 1935 Sind 78.

43 Narayan Reddy, Essentials of forensic medicine and toxicology, Suguna Devi, 2003. pp. 334.
44 Ibid.
45 In Foucault's terms, 'The idea of dangerousness meant that the individual must be considered by society at
the level of his potentiality and not at the level of his actions; not at the level of the actual violations of an actual
law, but at the level of the behavioral potentialities they represented', Michel Foucault, Power, Penguin Books,
London, 1994, p5

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Thus the legal system refused to punish those who are sodomites, but instead asked for proof
of sodomy. If offenders such as Khairati are to be punished, then the law needs to be changed to
punish the person for being a sodomite.It is in this context that one needs to understand the
1897 amendment to the Criminal Tribes Act of 1871, which was sub-titled ‘An Act for the
Registration of Criminal Tribes and Eunuchs’. Under the provisions of this statute, Any eunuch
so registered who appeared “dressed or ornamented like a woman in a public street….or who
dances or plays music or takes part in any public exhibition, in a public street….[could] be
arrested without warrant and punished with imprisonment of up to two years of with a fine or
both.'46 It is only by reversing the fundamentals of the criminal justice system (presumption of
innocence) and enacting a law which is an exception to the Indian Penal Code that one could
successfully prosecute crimes which were based on status.

The practise to which the Khairati judgement raises attention is that there was an increasing
association in judicial discourse and police practice between certain acts and individuals. As
Gupta puts it, 'There has been a tendency in Indian courts to create an association between the
sexual acts and certain kinds of persons, who are more likely to commit the act- thereby giving
a character and face to sodomy in the form of the homosexual'47 Medical jurisprudence has
played no small role in this process.

2.5) Same sex desire and the judicial archive: Encounters with Section 377
'Another requirement of mine, was that these personages themselves be obscure, that
nothing would have prepared them for any notoriety, that they would not have been
endowed with any of the established and recognized nobilities- those of birth, fortune,
saintliness, heroism or genius; that they would have belonged to those billions of
existences destined to pass away without a trace; that in their misfortunes, their passions,
their loves and hatreds, there would be something grey and ordinary in comparison with
what is usually deemed worthy of being recounted; that nonetheless they be propelled by
a violence, an energy, an excess expressed in the malice, vileness, baseness, obstinacy or
ill-fortune this gave them in the eyes of their fellows – and in proportion to its very
mediocrity – a sort of appalling or pitiful grandeur.48

Almost all the judicial decisions scrutinized so far have had to do with sexual intercourse
between adults and children. The question which comes to mind, is in the long history of the
enforcement of Section 377 surely there must be some decisions which speak of consenting
carnal intercourse between adults? Further, is there space in the law's narration for the emotions
which one associates with consensual sex, namely desire and pleasure? Is it indeed possible to
put pleasure back into a judicial archive which ceaseless focuses on the question of sexual

46 Sec PUCL-K, Human rights violations against the transgender community, Bangalore, 2003 for
an analysis of the Criminal Tribes Act.
47 Alok Gupta, Section 377 and the Dignity of Indian Homosexuals , Economic and Political
Weekly, Vol XLI No 46 4815
48 See op. cit. Foucault, p. 160.

92
intercourse? What would such a retelling look like?

A look into the judicial archive finds three appellate court decisions in which the protagonists
are consenting young men. All three decisions speak of ordinary lives, which achieve a
notoriety due to the protagonists being caught within the dragnet of power. At the same time
these ordinary, in fact everyday acts of living disrupt the presumed heteronormativity of the
social and legal order.

The three obscure couples whose lives take on a kind of pitiful grandeur by mere virtue of
having the misfortune to get prosecuted under Section 377 are Minawalla and Tajmahomed49,
Nowshirwan Irani and Ratansi50, and Ratan Mia and Abdul Nur. 51 These three experiences
need to be reclaimed from the law so that we can 'read these statements as an archive... to
dignify them as the textual site of a struggle to reclaim for history an experience buried in the
forgotten crevice of our past.'52
a) Minawalla and Tajmahomed
In the case involving the prosecution of DP Minawalla and Tajmahomed, Minawalla was
spotted at 1am near Capitol Cinema looking cautiously around him and then entering a lorry
where normally a lad called Tajmahomed slept. The complainant who saw Minawalla enter the
lorry told his companions that 'something peculiar was going to happen' and after waiting for
ten minutes crept up to the lorry. From the rear they saw, 'the Parsi on his knees and
Tajmahomed on the top of him: they were committing an unnatural offence. Both had let their
lower garments down, and the Parsi's face was pressed to the ground.' Based on what they saw
the complainant accosted both Minawalla and Tajmahomed to the police station where
Minawalla was charged with abetting an offence under Section 377 and Tajmahomed with
committing the offence under Section 377.

The trial court sentenced Tajmahomed to four months rigorous imprisonment, and Minawalla
for abetment to a fine of Rs 100 and imprisonment till the rising of the Court. While there is no
appeal from Tajmahomed, Minawalla appeals the decision of the trial court in the High Court of
Sind. In his appeal he contends that while he was there at the scene of the alleged crime, he only
went in to the lorry as he was told that the caretaker was in the van and he wanted to wake him
as he wanted to get the gate opened to make a telephone call to get a doctor as his child was ill.
On entering the lorry and trying to wake the caretaker, he was violently accosted by the
complainant who stole his watch. Then he took the complainant to the police station where the
complainant out of spite accused him of an offence under Section 377. To buttress his claim that
he was not a sodomite, Minawalla in the course of his defence even submitted himself to the
indignity of a medical examination where the doctor deposed that 'the anus of a catamite is
generally of a funnel shape and the anus of Minawalla did not exhibit this peculiarity.' The
judge was not convinced either by Minawalla's defence or by the medical evidence produced
by Minawalla and upheld the sentence of the trial court – imprisonment till the rising of the

49 D.P. Minawalla vs Emperor, AIR 1935 Sind 78

50 Nowshirwan vs Emperor , AIR 1934 Sind 206
51 Ratan Mia and another vs State of Assam, 1988 Cri. L. J. 980
52 Ranajit Guha,Ed., Subaltern Studies V, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1987, p.142

93
court.

One could read this story as an archive of same sex desire when it came in conflict with the law
in colonial India. The picture which emerges through this narrative is that Minawalla is a
relatively well off person ( he can afford a lawyer to go on appeal) and his lover Tajmahomed is
a working class lad. We do not know if this is their first encounter but can speculate that since
Minawalla seemed to know that someone was in the lorry, this was not the first such encounter.
The fact that the encounter had to take place, late at night in a furtive manner in the back of a
truck, speaks to the clear social disapprobation attached to sexual relationships between men
which also happened to be cross class. The fact that Minawalla was married makes clear that
sexual desire already had a procreative marital context and that there were strictures against
sexual desire overstepping its pre-determined bounds.

The fact that Minawalla felt strongly enough to appeal a decision whose penalty was purely
symbolic (imprisonment till the rising of the court) indicates the extent of social disapprobation
and the keenness to establish his innocence. The effort to construct an alternative story as well
as use medical evidence indicates the importance of this symbolic acknowledgment that
Minawalla was after all a good family man and not tainted by the accusation of being a
sodomite(He goes out at night to get medicine for his child and is shocked at how that is
constructed as looking for sex)

In this archive the subaltern who does not speak is of course Tajmohammed, the working class
lad who did not have the financial resources to file an appeal and who suffered imprisonment
for at least four months. 53 Tajmahomed's lover abandons him to the law, and takes no further
interest in him, the moment the law closes in on both of them. If sexual desire acted upon only
in the anonymity of darkness is somehow detected and exposed to the harsh light of the public
gaze, the only option if one is to preserve one's respectable status ( married, middle class) is to
deny that such desire ever existed and that such an act was ever committed. There is no space in
society for desire between two men which has a sexual component. If self preservation dictates
that one should abandon one's sexual partner so be it.

Ranajit Guha's conclusion in Chandra's death would be equally apposite in this case, 'Whatever
the truth of the beginning of this affair, there is nothing in these depositions to illuminate any
secrets of the heart. They only throw a lurid light on its end as the heartless rejection of a
[wo]man by the man who got [her] him into trouble.'54

b) Nowhshirwan Irani and Ratansi

In this case Nowshirwan Irani a young Irani shopkeeper was charged with having committed an
offence under Section 377 with a young lad aged around 18 called Ratansi. The prosecution
story is that Ratansi visited the hotel of the appellant and had tea there. He then went to the pier

53 We do not know if Tajmahomed got bail as if he did not imprisonment would have been for the
entire period of trial.
54 Ranajit Guha, op. cit. p. 156.

94
to take a boat, but on finding that he had no money came back to Masjid Street where he saw
Nowshirwan standing on the road a little distance from the hotel. Nowshirwan asked Ratansi to
come to his house and when he did, he locked the door and started taking liberties with the
youngster who resented the overtures and wanted to go away. Nowshirwan removed his
trousers, loosened the trousers of Ratansi and made the lad to sit on top of his organ. Ratansi got
up from his lap, but in the meantime Nowshirwan had spent himself, wiped his organ and put on
his pants. The reason this incident came to light was that a police officer Solomon along with
his friend Gulubuddin saw the incident through the keyhole, marched in and took both Ratansi
and Nowshirwan to the police station.

The judge was not convinced by the story of the prosecution that Ratansi had been subject to
carnal intercourse forcibly by Nowshirwan. The judge was convinced that Ratansi was made to
pose as a complainant and hence made hopelessly discrepant statements. The Judge was not
prepared to rely on the evidence of Solomon and Gulubuddin the two eyewitnesses whose
conduct he found strange. Further the medical evidence could neither prove forcible sexual
intercourse ( the prosecution story) nor did it prove an attempt to commit the act of sodomy. In
the opinion of the Judge, ''as the appellant had not even if we take the worst view against him
gone beyond a certain stage of lascivious companionship, I do not think he deserves to be
convicted for any of the offences with which he was charged or could have been charged.'

The story of Nowhiwan and Ratansi is once again a story of sexual desire acting itself out
between two men of different class backgrounds. The limited material present in the appellate
decision gives us a clue that even the judge was convinced as to the consensual nature of the
relationship. As the judge notes, 'Moreover the medical evidence militates against the story of a
forcible connexion on the cot, the appellant who is a fairly hefty young man having intercourse
in the manner stated originally. There is not the slightest symptom of violence on the hind part
of the lad.' He concludes that, 'If he was in the house of the accused behind locked doors, I have
not the slightest hesitation in believing that he had gone there voluntarily.'

The story of Nowshirwan and Ratansi is the story of two men who desire each other.
Nowshirwan as per the judicial narrative makes the first move and asks Ratansi why he has
stopped coming to the hotel. Rantansi leaves the hotel only to come back in the same direction.
When he comes back, Nowshirwan is waiting on the road and asks him to come to his house.
Ratansi consents. Once again due to a misfortune of an over zealous police man or a police man
with a grudge, what should have been an intimate act between two consenting parties in their
bedroom becomes a public scandal.

A consenting act between two men is sought to be twisted by the prosecution into a story of
Ratansi being forced into having sex with Nowshirwan. Ratansi is coerced by the demands of
those around him to pose as a complainant against the very person with whom he had earlier
had a consenting sexual relationship.

The fact that it is a consenting relationship does nothing to exculpate Ratansi from ironically
becoming a victim of judicial ire. There is indeed a special fury reserved by the Judge for

95
Ratansi.

In the Judges' words, [Ratansi] 'appears to be a despicable specimen of humanity. On his own
admission he is addicted to the vice of a catamite. The doctor who has examined him is of the
opinion that the lad must have been used frequently for unnatural carnal intercourse.' In the
course of appreciating the medical evidence, the judge notes, “There was not the slightest
symptom of violence on the hind part of the lad''

Thus the story of an encounter between two people of the same sex who desire each other and
decide to have sex in the privacy of a home, gets reduced in the judicial reading to the act of a
perverse failed sexual connection. The use of terms like 'animal like' and 'despicable' places the
sexual act within the framework of moral abhorrence. The judicial framing of the failed sexual
connection, takes us very far from the terms within which the encounter took place i.e.
conditions of mutual desire, erotic connection and pleasure.

c) Ratan Mia and Abdul Nur

The facts in this case speak to the fact that both Ratan Mia and Abdul Nur were convicted
under Section 377 and sentenced to imprisonment for six months and a fine of Rs100. The only
other fact which the case divulges is that at the time of committing the offence, Abdul Nur was
aged around 15 ½ and Ratan Mia was aged around 20 years. The judge upheld the conviction,
but reduced the sentence to seven days rigorous imprisonment based on the fact that they were
both first time offenders and were below the age of 21.

The limited facts divulged by the appellate court decision only reveals that in this case the judge
was unable or unwilling to construct one of the petitioners as the perpetrator and the other as the
victim or one as the perpetrator and the other as the abettor. The judge rather chose to see both
Ratan Mia and Abdul Nur as equally culpable under the law.

The story of Ratan Mia and Abdul Nur will remain a fragment, until the trial court decision is
unearthed. A fragment which testifies to the fact that two individuals shared a consenting
sexual relationship with each other and that their relationship ran aground of the law
whereupon both were subjected to public scrutiny and punishment for the act of consensual sex.

d) Towards the history of the queer subaltern ?

The three decisions discussed above, provide eloquent testimony to not only the existence of
same sex desire in both colonial and post colonial India but also to the fact that expressions of

96
same sex desire were punished by the law. 55 At its furthermost extremes as in the case of
Nowshirwan and Ratansi, even a consensual sexual relationship in private can run aground of
the law. The legitimacy of the policing of same sex sexual relationships indicates how a sexual
relationship between two consenting parties in a public space was apt to be viewed and targeted.
Same sex desire when it is constructed within a judicial matrix takes on the form of a 'crime.'
The production of these same sex acts within the matrix of law elides the question of what those
acts which so tragically ran aground of the law might have meant for their protagonists. What
indeed were the emotions and feelings associated with the sexual act? Why was it so important
for the three pairs of young men to engage in these acts ? What does it tell us about how those
who desired others of the same sex found each other ?

Equally we will never know what has been the social consequence of the naming and shaming
which results from prosecution. How has the family and wider society reacted to this
prosecution? What has been the social impact of the law beyond the question of its impact in
court? How have marital relationships, kinship ties been affected? What has been the impact on
others within that time period who also desired those of the same sex ?

Was there indeed a wider group of people who did desire each other and engage in sexual acts
who have remained below the ken of historiography? Are Nowshirwan and Ratansi, Minawalla
and
Tajmahomed and Ratan Mia and Abdul Nur tragic illustrations of a wider phenomenon of same
sex desiring people who have remained outside the ken of even subaltern history? To answer
these questions we might have to focus our attention on the birth of the modern queer rights
movement and how that has resulted in the production of material which allows for the raising
of new questions.

3. Section 377 in contemporary times: Challenging conventional understandings

It is remarkable that in the entire tortured history of the evolution of judicial doctrine under
Section 377 the judges have never seen it fit to interpret Section 377 on the touchstone of the
Indian Constitution. The right to equality, freedom of expression and the right to live with
dignity have not impacted the evolution of judicial doctrine under Section 377 for the last fifty-
six years. The colonial law has been completely immune to any influence from the
Constitutional law of democratic India. 56

Since judicial doctrine has itself shown little capacity for change, one has to look outside the
law for the raising of new questions. Most of the material which helps us to understand the

55 In all three decisions cited above we are relying on the judgement of the appellate court. However even
if we did have access to the entire trial court judgement, there would be aspects to which the case might never have
alluded.
56 The first attempt to challenge the judicial frame of reference is through the Naz Foundation vs
Union of India , CRP No 7455/2001, which challenges the constitutionality of Section 377 of the IPC.
For a discussion of the same see Arvind Narrain, Queer: Despised sexualities, law and social change,
Books for Change, Bangalore, 2004.

97
manifold impacts of Section 377 has been produced in the post-colonial era, or to be more
particular, the last two decades of the 20th century. This is obviously connected to the point that
the last two decades of the 20th century has seen the increasing growth and rise of a politics
which stresses that sexual orientation and gender identity are indeed political concerns.
While this is not the space to chart out the complex reasons accompanying the growth of the
struggle based on sexual orientation and gender identity,57 what would be useful to
conceptualize is the forms of knowledge which the rise of the struggle based on sexual
orientation and gender identity has led to. The production of these forms of knowledge are
really the first attempts to challenge the exclusive power of the law to define the meaning of
Section 377 of the IPC.
Perhaps the most important form of knowledge generated through the process of the queer
struggle is the Fact Finding Report.58 While Fact Finding Reports have always been used in the
human rights movement, to document the abuse and violation suffered by various communities,
it is only in the last decade of the 20th century that the abuses suffered by sexuality minorities
was focused on.59 'Fact Finding Reports by focusing on narratives of queer people and the
violence inflicted by the law point to the impact of Sec 377 outside the frame of the decided
case.
In a cultural context where the issues pertaining to queer people have been by and large
invisible, the Fact Finding Report and other human rights documentation has brought to the fore
the abuses suffered by queer communities under Section 377. This is of vital significance as it
provides a completely different vantage point from which Section 377 can be viewed. The
history of decided case law under Section 377 indicates that there were three cases of
prosecution of consenting same sex couples in India. Without minimizing the terror which the
sudden and arbitrary use of the law in the three cases can evoke its important to raise the
question of what were the wider impacts of Section 377 upon the queer community.

1) From the expressive function of Section 377 to a criminology of the self

Cass Sunstien argues that one needs to also understand the law in terms of 'making statements
as opposed to controlling behavior directly'.60 If one applies this understanding to the anti
sodomy law it can be seen as apart from directly penalizing same sex behavior expresses a
deep repugnance for certain kinds of sexual identities. 61 Law in this instance functions as way
of setting in place a social norm. In Dan Kahan's understanding, 'The expressive theory gives us
the power not only to explain but also to appraise criminal law..... Sodomy laws, even when
unenforced, express contempt for certain classes of citizens. The injustice of this message

57 See Bhan et al.,Eds., Because I have a voice, Yoda Press, Delhi, 2005.
58 The history of the Fact Finding Report in India as a tool of human rights advocacy can be
traced back to Mahatma Gandhi who authored the first fact finding report on the Rowlatt Act.
59 See the Fact Finding Reports, Aids Bedhbhav Virodhi Andolan, Less than Gay: A citizen's report
on the status of homosexuality in India, New Delhi, 1991, Aids Bedhbhav Virodhi Andolan, For people
like us, New Delhi, 1999. PUCL-K, Human rights violations against sexuality minorities, 2001, PUCL-K,
Human Rights violations against the transgender community, 2003.
60 Cass Sunstien, On the expressive function of law, 144 U. Pa. L. Rev. 2021.
61 See Alok Gupta, Section 377 and the Dignity of Indian Homosexuals , Economic and Political
Weekly, Vol XLI No 46 4815 for the argument that Sec 377 targets not just acts but the very identity of
the homosexual.

98
supplies a much more urgent reason to oppose the persistence of these rarely enforced laws than
does their supposed impingement on anyone's liberty to engage in particular sexual practices.'62
The fact that law symbolically expresses contempt for queer people has also been acknowledged
by the South African Constitutional Court which in striking down the anti sodomy law in
South Africa made the point that the anti sodomy law reduced 'gays and lesbians to the status of
unapprehended felons.' 63 T\
The Bowers vs Hardwick decision 64 which upheld the validity of the anti sodomy law can be
read as 'a graphic contemporary sign of the vengeance with which the language of the law is
inscribed or 'written' on the bodies of gay and lesbian Americans. 65
In the Indian context, the expressive role of the Section 377 has been best highlighted in activist
discourse. The most high profile use of the expressive role of Section 377 was by noted author
Vikram Seth who in an interview noted, ' Whereas in India even if the law is rarely used, the
fact that it can be used and is on the books means that you are by definition a criminal ... What I
don't appreciate is being treated like a criminal in my own country.'66
What is also important to note that in the construction of a culture which stigmatizes
homosexuality, other social systems such as medicine, media and family play a mutually
reinforcing role. The stigma of the law continues to play an important role in guiding and
moulding the actions of actors from diverse contexts such as medical practitioners, media
people and even family and parents of queer people. To give an example, in an interview with
doctors who are 'treating' homosexuality, the standard response was that anyway homosexuality
is illegal in India. This response can be multiplied in diverse social settings, thereby illustrating
the abiding strength of the way the law marks the bodies of queer people with the stigma of
illegality even in ordinary social discourse. 67
Ryan Goodman tries to make a stronger case for the impact of Section 377 by arguing that the
anti sodomy statute does not just express a social opinion but instead constitutes a social reality
for lesbian and gay people. In Goodman's argument, gays and lesbians internalize the
prohibition of the law and self police themselves He bases his argument on what he calls the
notion of social panoptics, that is 'many lesbian and gay individuals believe that sodomy statutes
directly or indirectly proscribe various displays of public affection between same sex partners.
For these individuals, laws frame and help produce conditions of hostility and create the need
for self monitoring in public space.'68
There are thus another realm of questions which has to do with the impact of Section 377 on
the everyday lives of people who dont necessarily come within the formal framework of

62 Dan M Kahan, The secret ambition of detterence, 113 Harv. L. Rev 414,421(1999)
63 National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality vs Ministry of Justice, 998 (12) BCLR 1517 (CC)107
64 478 U.S. 186(1986). This decision was over ruled in Lawrence vs Texas, 123 S. Ct.2472(2003).
For an insightful analysis of the kind of social change which the Lawrence Court simply endorsed see,
Cass Sunstein, What did Lawrence hold? Of Autonomy, Desuetude, Sexuality and Marriage,
http://www.law.uchicago.edu/Lawecon/index.html
65 Kendall Thomas, Beyond the privacy principle, 92 Colum. L. Rev. 1431.
66 Outlook, Oct 2, 2006.
67 See Vinay Chandran et. al. Its not my job to tell you that its okay to be gay, cf. Bhan et. al.,
because I have a voice, Yoda Press, 2005.
68 Ryan Goodman, Beyond the enforcement principle: Sodomy laws, social norms and social
panoptics, 89 Calif. L.Rev.643(2001) at 686.

99
criminal law. The vast realm of people with same sex desire who don't necessarily become the
subject of a judicial decision, but whose lives are nonetheless marked by the fear and anxiety
which Section 377 generates. Consequences can range from mental distress to an internal
policing of one's actions and a conscious modification of one's actions. This is a realm of
'impacts' of Section 377 which though far more difficult to measure are nonetheless very 'real'.
They function within the mind and are best described as a 'criminology of the self'. 69

2) Beyond the enforcement principle: The harm of Section 377 of the IPC
However much as the articulation of the symbolic harm of the anti-sodomy law is important its
vital to connect the existence of the anti- sodomy law to the specific harms inflicted on queer
people. Ryan Goodman argues that the mistake which is often made with respect to the anti-
sodomy law is that we connect it to the question of enforcement, which is really the end points
of the criminal law ie arrest and conviction. the exclusive focus on the end points of the criminal
law, misses out on the way Section 377 as a social norm, results in another series of harms
which fall outside the ken of traditional legal scholarship.

2.1 The social harm of Section 377

There were two cases of arrest under Section 377 in the city of Lucknow in 2001 and 2006 70. A
close attention to the arrests in 2001 will illustrate the wider social impact of Section 377.
In July 2001, police in the city of Lucknow, on the basis of a complaint raided a well-known
public park , arrested over 10 people including the staff of a HIV/AIDS NGO that was running
condom distribution campaigns. They also raided the offices of the two NGO's and arrested
four activists under Section 377 along with other charges of criminal conspiracy, abetment, and
obscenity. There was no evidence of sodomy.
The effect of Section 377 in terms of the end points of criminal law can be measured in terms of
the arrest of four men, the release on bail after detention for 47 days, and the continuing trial of
the four men. In indirect terms, what the arrests did is suspend HIV/AIDS condom distribution
as well as send out a message that men who desire other men and who frequent a public park
are liable to be arrested. This of course results in fewer number of people deciding to brave the
public parks for fear of police harassment. Since Section 377 reflects a worldview which is
embedded in a wider social context as well, its important to understand what the social impact
of the arrest might be, apart from understanding it in terms of the categories of arbitrary arrest,
prolonged incarceration and lengthy trial.

One gets an insight into what the social impact of arrest under Sec 377, from the narratives of
one of the arrested men. He notes, '“10 people are kept in jail and all over the city malicious
reports are being written about them. These 10 people are emotionally and physically tortured.
Their reputation has gone down forever. What is one of the most important things for anyone?

69 Elizabeth Stanko, Homophobic violence and the Self 'At Risk': Interrogating the Boundaries,
Social and Legal Studies Vol6(4), 513-532.
70 See the Preliminary report of the Fact Finding Team on the arrest of four men in Lucknow under
IPC 377, http://www.yawningbread.org/apdx_2006/imp-249.htm

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Food, money, empowerment etc., isn't it? Now, it would be next to impossible for these 10
people to go to any place in Lucknow where they can get a job... These people are compulsorily
out as rapist MSM71 (conspirers of sodomy) not in the family but in the society and in the city
too. That is not very good experience. Their sister[s] would not be getting married easily.
Brothers would be looked down upon. Fathers and mothers would be commented on
negatively.”72

What emerges from the above narrative is the clear implication that the case cannot be
understood, purely in terms of judicial impacts. There will be societal impacts which are very
harmful to those who are arrested. The narrative of the law is unable to capture this aspect. Thus
its very possible that Minawalla and Tajmahomed suffered a very similar consequence in pre-
independent India, but we would never know because the social context for the expression of
this viewpoint did not exist. However with the politicization of concerns around sexuality, a
social context which is receptive to the 'voice' of the homosexual has emerged. It is in this
context, that the social consequences of arrest under Section 377 become visible.

2.2 State violence and Section 377

As has often been noted in the literature around anti-sodomy laws, what sodomy laws do is has
to be understood not merely in terms of enforcement, but in terms of the acts which its existence
does enable.73 Thus in conceptualizing the harm that anti-sodomy laws do, one should not
exclusively focus on the three couples who have been arrested and made the subjects of a
judicial case but try and understand the broader spectrum of harm which has been enabled by
the law.

One has also to understand that many times the enforcement of Section 377 functions merely at
the level of the filing of an FIR or the mere threat to file an FIR, both of which once again
escape academic scrutiny. Therefore to understand the role that Section 377 plays in the
everyday lives of people, legal analysis needs to encompass law in its different manifestations
right from the judgement to the FIR and to capturing the violations which happen which leave
no legal trace.

The contemporary era provides us some material to assess this type of harm which results from
the anti sodomy law. The PUCL-K Report for example documents human rights violations
against sexuality minorities in terms of extortion, illegal detention, abuse and outing. What is
common to all four forms of violation is that they leave no legal trace. These forms of violence
which are often very severe, elude the grasp of the legal system, making it very difficult to
arrive at an understanding of the extent or nature of the violence.

The PUCL-K Report gives us some inklings of the severity of the violence perpetrated by the

71 MSM is a public health term standing for men who have sex with men.
72 http://groups.yahoo.com/group/khush-list/.
73 Ryan Goodman, Beyond the enforcement principle: Sodomy laws, social norms and social
panoptics, California L. Rev. Vol89 (2001) 643.

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police. In one narrative of the severe harassment of a transgender sex worker,
'In the police station, she was pushed into a room with her husband. Around 15-20 police men
stripped her in the presence of a senior police officer who was in the police station at at that
time. ...All the 15-20 police men stood around her, sexually abusing her by touching her all over
her naked body. They humiliated her further by forcing her to spread her thighs and touching
her sexual organs.'74
Similarly in a case involving arbitrary detention,
'On 8 June, 2000, the police arrested Narayana, a self-identified kothi on suspicion of theft. He
was not informed of the charge against him, neither was there any implicating prima facie
evidence. “I kept pleading that I was innocent, but was kept in the lockup was then taken by a
public bus to Hubli for investigation and shamefully handcuffed to the seat. Even after the real
thief was arrested on the third day and the goods recovered, I was still not released.
Subsequently I was taken handcuffed to the cruising areas and told to identify the other kothis.
... I was finally released after eight days of verbal abuse and public humiliation and was
threatened with serious consequences if I did not frequently report to the police station..” 75

The violence inflicted by the police against queer people can be traced back to their perception
of queers as people whose lives are anyway illegal under the law. If the law is examined as a
factor,what is clear about Section 377 is that is propagates the notion that there are people who
practice unnatural sex which is a punishable offence. Once the act and the person are conflated
then one is dealing with people who are dirty and unclean in terms of their sexual behaviour.
The behavior could be described as animal like. From there it is a short step to deal with
homosexuals and hijras as animals. Therein lies the perverse logic of Section 377.

This logic is internalized by law enforcement officials who feel that there is an official sanction
to dealing with certain groups of people as less than human, as mere animals in fact. In fact in
the first PUCL-K Report, the Joint Commissioner of Police noted that, ´Homosexuality is an
offence under Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code and it is the duty of the police to prevent
any kind of offence from happening. If the cop on duty questions or prevents any form of crime,
he is only doing his job. Where is the question of harassment or atrocity? These are not cases of
human rights violation because these groups are not legally recognized.´76 Another police
officer simply concluded that it was ´animal like behaviour.´ 77

2.3 Privatized violence by non state actors

What is troubling about violence against the queer community is that it has its roots as much in
civil society as in the state. Even with respect to perpetrators queer people are not just fearful
of violence by the arms of the state but are equally troubled by the possibility of violence by
civil society vigilante groups.

74 People's Union for Civil Liberties- Karntaka, Human Rights Violations Against the Transgender
Community: A case study of hijras and kothis in Bangalore, 2003, Bangalore. p.29.
75 PUCL-K, Human rights violations against sexuality minorities in India: A case study of
Bangalore, Bangalore, 2000. p. 19. www.pucl.org
76 PUCL-K, Human rights violations against sexuality minorities in India, PUCL-K, 2001, p22.
77 Ibid.

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However the violence by private actors is still underwritten by state sanction for such brutal
violence. In Thomas's words, 'the fact that homophobic violence occurs within the context of
'private' relations by no means implies that such violence is without 'public origins or
consequence. The apparently private character of homophobic violence should not blind us to
the reality of the state power that enables and underwrites it. The functional privatization of
state power that structures the triangular relationship between victim, perpetrator, and state does
not render the phenomenon of homophobic violence any less a matter of constitutional
concern.'78
Kendall Thomas views this as privatized violence which is violence which the state implicitly
sanctions by the continuted existence of the anti sodomy law. The state´s culpability is really in
allowing the continued existence of laws which stigmatize the very existence of some of its
citizens. In fact as, Kendall Thomas in his analysis of the US context notes, ´sodomy laws have
an effect outside the traditional understandings of law, because citizens feel empowered by the
background of these laws to commit acts of extreme violence against individuals who are or are
presumed to be lesbian or gay.´79

The private actors referred to as goondas in the Indian context, take the law into their own hands
and become vigilantes for preserving a hierarchical and unequal citizenship based upon one´s
sexuality. The first PUCL-K Report notes, ´ During one such raid ( by goondas) , they threw
stones at the hamam and forced the doors open in order to compel the hijras inside to have sex
with them. They spoke about a goonda who would come to the hamam and force them into
degrading behaviour such as using the same condom first for anal and oral sex. He would also
insist on making them eat the pan straight out of his mouth. If at any point they refused to
cooperate they were warned that their faces would be slashed by a knife or disfigured by acid; in
quite a few cases they bore marks showing that their faces had been actually slashed and
disfigured. In such cases the hijras cannot seek help from the police whose protection favours
those with economic and social power.´80

Thus the effects of the anti sodomy laws reach beyond the question of mere enforcement and
constitute a cultural background which makes possible a situation where even private citizens
feel empowered to commit illegal acts of criminal intimidation, forcible and illegal entry, sexual
harassment and violence in the confidence that no action will be taken against them.

2.4 Policing the borders of 'normal' sexuality: The role of Section 377
The effects of an anti sodomy law are thus seen to have ´locally diffuse and variegated effects´
which the doctrine of enforcement cannot adequately capture or comprehend. It ranges from
creating a cultural and social background of intolerance to actually empowering police and even
goondas to commit otherwise illegal acts. The illegality of these acts of brutal violation is
overlooked based on the perception of those whose rights are being violated as mere animals.

78 Kendall Thomas, op. cit.

79 Kendall Thomas, Beyond the privacy principle , 92 Colum l Rev 1431 (1992) at 1461.
80 PUCL-K , Human Rights violations against sexuality minorities, PUCl-K, 2001, p. 50.

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This perception is further accentuated by the low socio-economic status which most hijras and
kothis inhabit. When poor people are of little consequence when it comes to respect for their
basic human rights, poor people who exhibit dirty animal like behavior are of no consequence at
all. There is nobody to speak for them and in fact one does society a favour by teaching them a
lesson.
Cognizant of the reality that 'perhaps one of the most serious problems faced by sexual
minorities, particularly those from a lower socio-economic background is the issue of brutal
torture and rape by members of the law enforcement agency'81 a memorandum was submitted
by thirty nine organizations working on sexuality issues to the Committee set up to reform the
Police Act. The Reccomendations made by the organizations implicitly recognize that the key
issue is power which the state has to monitor and regulate what it considers deviant sexuality. 82
The issue of violence faced by queer people on a day to day basis raises the question of the
politics of Section 377. What are the larger political frameworks within which Section 377 is
embedded and what is the role that it plays in keeping in place normative sexuality?
As Plummer notes in another context, 'gay oppression is not the intended outcome of specific
groups who hate gays for various reasons. Rather it is the unintended price that has to be paid
for organizing society in certain ways. This attention should be directed not to why 'individuals
suffer from homophobia' but rather to why we have societies built around strong families, clear
gender roles, rigid class and status structures and a belief system which equates morality with
sexuality.'83
The redressal of homophobic violence is bound up not only with the question of state power

81 See the Memorandum entitled ' Sexual minorities and the Police in India: Towards a regime of
accountability' submitted by thirty nine organizations working on sexuality issues to the Committee
headed by Soli Sorabjee set up to Reform the Police Act.
82 Some of the key recommendations are to do with the structuring of police discretion and
ensuring police accountability. 1 Structural changes
a) Setting up of a State Security Commission At least one person who is a member of the
Commission to have experience on gender and sexuality issues
b) Setting up a mechanism for inquiry against the police
c) Setting up and ensuring the functioning of Human Rights Cell in each district
2) Structuring police discretion and ensuring police accountability
a) NHRC guidelines on arrest to be followed
b) Supreme Court judgments cited above to be incorporated into guidelines
c) Model Autopsy Report recommended by the NHRC to be adopted
d) Human Rights violations against sexual minorities to be construed as professional misconduct
3. Measures specific to sexual minorities
a) Training to all police officers on the ambit of Sec 377 and its restricted nature.
b) Training on the concerns and issues of sexual minorities.
c) Training on identifying and preventing 'hate crimes against sexual minorities
d) Training to police officers to seperate law from morality and to strictly follow the law.
4. Measures to ensure diversity with the force
a) The police force must represent the diverse range of Indian society and include within it gays,
lesbians, hiras and bisexuals.

83 Kenneth Plummer, Homosexual categories: Some research problems in the labelling

perspective of homosexuality, cf. Peter Nardi et. al., Socail perspectives in Lesbian and Gay Studies,
Routledge, London, 1998. p. 91.

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but is also simultaneously bound up with some of the institutions which are taken for granted in
mainstream society. The second PUCL- K Report makes clear that 'the scale, nature and extent
of violence against hijra and kothi sex workers... cannot be explained easily.' The Report seeks
to show how, ' the institutions of the family, the law, the medical establishment and the media
through their reiteration of a discourse which is extremely intolerant to gender non conformity
are actually complicit in the pervasive violence which hijras and kothis are subject to.'84
To redress violence against the queer community one needs to understand the multi faceted
nature of the forces which underpin the brutal violence which is unleashed under the symbolic
figurehead of Section 377. If the campaign against Section 377 is to have a meaningful impact
it must engage the various sites which go towards regulating queer sexuality.

4. Conclusion
The entry point into the contemporary debates on Section 377 in the Indian context is offered
not so much from the discipline of criminology but rather from the socio-legal tradition in the
law. The pioneering work around the role of unenforced sodomy laws and the literature which
attempts to go beyond the black letter enforcement tradition enables us to rethink the meaning
of Section 377. The colonial era and much of the history of independent India has not generated
activist material mirroring the queer perspective material which allowed for the raising of the
questions around Section 377 which form a part of contemporary debate.
The colonial discourse on Section 377 has enjoyed an undisturbed continuity in the way in
which homosexuality has been conceptualized and dealt with. For over 146 years the judiciary
has consistently used terms ranging from 'despicable', 'abhorred' to 'mental aberration' to
describe the homosexual. For most of that history, the homosexual 'voice' has been absent, with
the only way of really trying to understand the queer standpoint being a 'reading' of queer
desire and feelings into judicial decisions.
It should also be noted that there are records to understand the nature of the judicial decision,
but no material to makes sense of what the law meant in an everyday sense till the last two
decades of the last century. It is only the rise of the struggle based on sexual orientation and
gender identity which has altered the social and political context. This has made possible the
generation of new material, which has provided fresh insights into the everyday impact of
Section 377.
Apart from the question of understanding the impact of Section 377, the key question to be
answered is why well after a half a century of independence, Section 377 still continues to hold
sway? The fact that this system of bio-power is still in place in post independence India and
the fact that it remains imperviousness to any form of social change requires us to revisit the
question as to the social function served by the anti-sodomy law. In the changed context of an
independent India, what is the notion of India which it seeks to uphold? What role does it play
in keeping in place the 'normality' of everyday life and in keeping in place the structure of
family and community? Is the idea of heterosexuality as normal really underpinned by the

84 People's Union for Civil Liberties- Karntaka, Human Rights Violations Against the Transgender
Community: A case study of hijras and kothis in Bangalore, 2003, Bangalore., p.53.

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continued stigmatization of the homosexual as abnormal ? The future relevance of the
criminological enterprise will depend upon how seriously these questions are engaged with.

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 Vishal Jeet vs Union of India and Ors
Supreme Court 2 May, 1990
(Under Article 32 of the Constitution of India). Vishal Jeet petitioner-in-person.
JUDGMENT: S. RATNAVEL PANDIAN, J. This writ petition under Article 32 of the
Constitution of India at the instance of an Advocate is filed by way of a Public Interest
Litigation seeking issuance of certain directions, directing the Central Bureau of Investigation
(1) to institute an enquiry against those police officers under whose jurisdiction Red Light areas
as well Devadasi and Jogin traditions are flourishing and to take necessary action against such
erring police officers and law breakers; (2) to bring all the inmates of the red light areas and also
those who are engaged in 'flesh trade' to protective homes of the respective States and to
provide them with proper medical aid, shelter, education and training in various disciplines of
life so as to enable them to choose a more dignified way of life and (3) to bring the children of
those prostitutes and other children found begging in streets and also the girls pushed into 'flesh
trade' to protective homes and then to rehabilitate them. The averments made in the writ petition
on the basis of which these directions are prayed for can be summarised thus:
Many unfortunate teen-aged female children (hereinafter referred to as 'the children') and girls
in full bloom are being sold in various parts of the country, for paltry sum even by their parents
finding themselves unable to maintain their children on account of acute poverty and unbearable
miseries and hoping that their children would be engaged only in household duties or manual
labour. But those who are acting as pimps or brokers in the 'flesh trade' and brothel keepers who
hunt for these teenaged children and young girls to make money either purchase or kidnap them
by deceitful means and unjustly and forcibly inveigle them into 'flesh trade'. Once these
unfortunate victims are taken to the dens of prostitutes and sold to brothel keepers, they are
shockingly and brutally treated and confined in complete seclusion in a tiny claustrophobic
room for several days without food until they succumb to the vicious desires of the brothel
keepers and enter into the unethical and squalid business of prostitution. These victims though
unwilling to lead this obnoxious way of life have no other way except to surrender themselves
retreating into silence and submitting their bodies to a11 the dirty customers including even
sexagenarians with plastic smile.
The petitioner has cited certain lurid tales of sex with sickening details alleged to have been
confessed by some children and girls either escaped or rescued from such abodes of ill-fame.
After giving a brief note on Devadasi system and Jogin tradition, the petitioner states that this
system and tradition which are still prevailing in some parts of the country should be put to an
end. The ultimate plea of the petitioner is that the young children and girls forcibly pushed into
'flesh trade' should be rescued and rehabilitated. With this petition, the petitioner has filed 9
affidavits said to have been sworn by 9 girls who claim to be living in the brothel houses,
pleading for rescue and a list of names of 9 girls who are mortally afraid to swear the affidavits.
Be it noted that no counter has been filed by any one of the respondents.
The matter is one of great importance warranting a comprehensive and searching analysis and
requiring a humanistic rather than a purely legalistic approach from different angles. The
questions involved cause considerable anxiety to the Court in reaching a satisfactory solution in
eradicating such sexual exploitation of children. We shall now examine this problem and
address ourselves to the merits of the prayers.
No denying the fact that prostitution always remains as a running sore in the body of civilisation

107
and destroys all moral values. The causes and evil effects of prostitution maligning the society
are so notorious and frightful that none can gainsay it. This malignity is daily and hourly
threatening the community at large slowly but steadily making its way onwards leaving a track
marked with broken hopes. Therefore, the necessity for appropriate and drastic action to
eradicate this evil has become apparent but its successful consummation ultimately rests with
the public at large.
It is highly deplorable and heart-rending to note that many poverty stricken children and girls in
the prime of youth are taken to 'flesh market' and forcibly pushed into the 'flesh trade' which is
being carried on in utter violation of all cannons of morality, decency and dignity of
humankind. There cannot be two opinions--indeed there is none--that this obnoxious and
abominable crime committed with all kinds of unthinkable vulgarity should be eradicated at all
levels by drastic steps.
Article 23 which relates to Fundamental Rights in Part of the Constitution and which has been
put under the caption 'Right against exploitation' prohibits 'traffic in human beings and begat
and other similar forms of labour' and provides that any contravention of Article 23(1) shall be
an offence punishable in accordance with law. The expression 'traffic in human beings' is
evidently a very wide expression including the prohibition of traffic in women for immoral or
other purposes. Article 35(a)(ii) of the Constitution reads that notwithstanding anything in this
Constitution, Parliament shall have, and the legislature of a State shall not have, power to make
laws for prescribing punishment for those acts which are declared to be offences under this part.
The power of legislation, under this article, is given to the Parliament exclusively, for, otherwise
the laws relating to fundamental rights would not have been uniform throughout the country.
The power is specifically denied to the state legislatures. In implementation of the principles
underlying Article 23(1) the Suppression of Immoral Traffic in Women & Girls Act, 1956
(SITA for short) has been enacted under Article
35 with the object of inhibiting or abolishing the immoral traffic in women and girls.
In this connection, it is significant to refer Article 39 which relates to 'Directive Principles of
State Policy' under Part IV of the Constitution. Article 39 particularises certain objectives.
Clause (f) of Article 39 was substituted by Forty-Second Amendment Act, 1976. Among the
objectives mentioned under Clauses (e) and (f) of Article 39, we will confine ourselves only to
certain relevant objectives under those two clauses which are sufficient for the purpose of this
case. One of the objectives under clause (e) of Article 39 is that the State should, in particular,
direct its policy towards securing that the tender age of children are not abused. One of the
objectives under clause (f) is that the State should, in particular, direct its policy towards
securing that childhood and youth are protected against exploitation and against moral and
material abandonment. These objectives reflect the great anxiety of the Constitution makers to
protect and safeguard the interests and welfare of the children of our country. The Government
of India has also, in pursuance of these constitutional provisions of clauses (e) and (f) of Article
39, evolved a national policy for the welfare of the children.
It will be apposite to make reference to one of the principles, namely, principle No. (9)
formulated by the
Declaration of the Rights of the Child adopted by the Gener- al Assembly of the United Nations
on November
20, 1959. The said principle reads thus:

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'The child shall be protected against all forms of neglect, cruelty and exploitation. He shall not
be the subject of traffic, in any form."
Before the adoption of SITA, there were enactments in some of the states for suppression of
immoral traffic, but they were not uniform nor were they found to be adequately effective.
Some states did not have any law on the subject. With the growing danger in society to healthy
and decent living with morality, the world public opinion congregated at New York in a
convention for suppression of traffic in persons for exploitation for immoral purposes. Pursuant
to the signing of that convention on May 9, 1950, our Parliament has passed an Act called
"Suppression of Immoral Traffic in Women and Girls Act, 1956 which is now changed as "The
Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956" to which certain drastic amendments are introduced by
the Amendment Acts of 46 of 1978 and 44 of 1986. This Act aims at suppressing the evils of
prostitution in women and girls and achieving a public purpose viz. to rescue the fallen women
and girls and to stamp out the evils of prostitution and also to provide an opportunity to these
fallen victims so that they could become decent members of the society. Besides the above Act,
:here are various provisions in the Indian Penal Code such as Sections 866-A (dealing with
procuration of minor girl), 366-B (dealing with offence of importation of girl from foreign
country), 372 (dealing with selling of minor for purposes of prostitution etc. ) and 373 (dealing
with the offence of buying minor for purposes of prostitution etc.). The Juvenile Justice Act,
1986 which provides for the care, protection, treatment, development and rehabilitation of
neglected or delinquent juveniles contains a specific provision namely Section 13 which
empowers a police officer or any other person or organisation authorised by the State
Government in this behalf to take charge of any neglected juveniles and bring them before the
Board constituted under this Act which Board under section 15 has to hold an enquiry and make
such orders in relation to the neglected juveniles as it may deem fit.
Inspite of the above stringent and rehabilitative provisions of law under various Acts, it cannot
be said that the desired result has been achieved. It cannot be gainsaid that a remarkable degree
of ignorance or callousness or culpable indifference is manifested in uprooting this cancerous
growth despite the fact that the day has arrived imperiously demanding an objective multi-
dimensional study and a searching investigation into the matter relating to the causes and effects
of this evil and requiting most rational measures to weed out the vices of illicit trafficking. This
malady is not only a social but also a socioeconomic problem and, therefore, the measures to be
taken in that regard should be more preventive rather than punitive.
In our view, it is neither practicable and possible nor desirable to make a roving enquiry through
the CBI through- out the length and breadth of this country and no useful purpose will be served
by issuing any such direction, as requested by the petitioner. Further, this malignity cannot be
eradicated either by banishing, branding, scourging or inflicting severe punishment on these
helpless and hapless victims most of whom are unwilling participants and involuntary victims
of compelled circumstances and who, finding no way to escape, are weeping or wailing
throughout. This devastating malady can be suppressed and eradicated only if the law enforcing
authorities in that regard take very severe and speedy legal action against all the erring persons
such as pimps, brokers and brothel keepers. The Courts in such cases have to always take a
serious view of this matter and inflict consign punishment on proof of such offences. Apart
from legal action, both the Central and the State Government who have got an obligation to
safeguard the interest and welfare of the children and girls of this country have to evaluate

109
various measures and implement them in the right direction.
Bhagwati, J. (as he then was) in Lakshmi Kant Pandey v. Union of India, [1984] 2 SCC 244
while emphasizing the importance of children has expressed his view thus: "It is obvious that in
a civilized society the importance of child welfare cannot be over-emphasized, because the
welfare of the entire community, its growth and development, depend on the health and well-
being of its children. Children are a 'supremely important national asset' and the future well-
being of the nation depends on how its children grow and develop."
We, after bestowing our deep and anxious consideration on this matter feel that it would be
appropriate if certain directions are given in this regard. Accordingly, we make the following
directions:
1. All the State Governments and the Governments of Union Territories should direct their
concerned law enforcing authorities to take appropriate and speedy action under the existing
laws in eradicating child prostitution without giving room for any complaint of remissness or
culpable indifference.
2. The State Governments and the Governments of Union Territories should set up a separate
Advisory Committee within their respective zones consisting of the secretary of the Social
Welfare Department or Board, the Secretary of the Law Department, sociologists,
criminologists, members of the women's organisations, members of Indian Council of Child
Welfare and Indian Council of Social Welfare as well the members of various voluntary social
organisations and associations etc., the main objects of the Advisory Committee being to make
suggestions of:
(a) the measures to be taken in eradicating the child prostitution, and
(b) the social welfare programmes to be implemented for the care, protection, treatment,
development and rehabilitation of the young fallen victims namely the children and girls
rescued either from the brothel houses or from the vices of prostitution.
3. All the State Governments and the Governments of Union Territories should take steps in
providing adequate and rehabilitative homes manned by well-qualified trained social workers,
psychiatarists and doctors.
4. The Union Government should set up a committee of its own in the line, we have suggested
under direction No.(2) the main object of which is to evolve welfare programmes to be
implemented on the national level for the care, protection, rehabilitation etc. etc. of the young
fallen victims namely the children and girls and to make suggestions of amendments to the
existing laws or for enactment of any new law, if so warranted for the prevention of sexual
exploitation of children.
5. The Central Government and the Governments of States and Union Territories should devise
a machinery of its own for ensuring the proper implementation of the suggestions that would be
made by the respective committees.
6. The Advisory Committee can also go deep into devadasi system and Jogin tradition and give
their valuable advice and suggestions as to what best the Government could do in that regard.
7. The copies of the affidavits and the list containing the names of 9 girls are directed to be
forwarded to the Commissioner of Police, Delhi for necessary action. We may add that we are
not giving an exhaustive list of the members for the constitution of the committee. There- fore,
it is open to the concerned Government to include any member or members in the committee as
it deems necessary. We hope and trust that the directions given by us will go a long way

110
towards eradicating the malady of child prostitution, Devadasi system and Jogin tradition and
will also at the same time protect and safeguard the interests of the children by preventing of the
sexual abuse and exploitation. So far as the remaining prayer regarding rehabilitation of the
children of prostitutes is concerned, we understand that a similar issue is raised in a separate
writ petition bearing W.P. No. 824/88 pending before this Court and this Court is seized of the
matter and also has given an interim direction on 15.11.1989 for setting up a committee to go
into the question from various angles of the problems taking into consideration the different
laws relevant to the matter and to submit its report. (Vide Gaurav Jain v. Union of India and
Others, AIR 1990 SC 292. Therefore, we are not expressing any opinion on this prayer
regarding the rehabilitation of the children of prostitutes.

With the above directions, the Writ Petition is disposed of.

111
Conjugality, Property, Morality and Maintenance *
Introduction
— Flavia Agnes
This essay examines the economic rights of married women in India today. The four basic
concepts that are invoked while determining economic entitlements of women at the time of
divorce are—"title", "fault", "need" and "contribution". Matrimonial laws of most countries
have adopted the principle of "division of matrimonial property" at the time of divorce which
aban-dons the concepts of "title", "fault" and "need" and relies primarily upon "contribution". It
takes into consideration a woman's non-economic contribution in acquiring assets during the
subsistence of a marriage. In India, we lag far behind in this respect and still follow the old
English system of "separate property" (rather than the more contemporary "community of
property") where rights are based on "title" or at the most, upon economic contribution. Within
these constraints, women's economic rights revolve around the right of maintenance, the
granting of which is premised on her assessed "need" and "fault". Since this is the
* This essay was originally published in Economic and Political Weekly, Review of Women's
Studies, XLIV(44): 58-64, 31 October-6 November 2009.
only provision for economic claims within marriage, it is highly contested and a wide range of
issues surface during legal contests. The important ingredients are the husband's "obligation"
and the wife's "need", but situ-ated within a patriarchal order, the right of maintenance is pitted
against issues of sexuality and "sexual purity". Within pluralistic traditions and customary
practices which validate "relationships in the nature of mar-riage", the right of maintenance
comes into conflict within the mandate of a monogamous marriage under the Hindu Marriage
Act. The rights of Muslim women which are governed by a different set of rules and which have
raised several controversies has also been a matter of concern and heated debate. The claims of
women which are situated within these diverse premises are examined here.
Conjugality and Matrimonial Property
When we examine the economic entitlements which arise out of a mat-rimonial relationship, we
are confronted with a glaring void within the Indian matrimonial statutes which do not provide
for division of property upon divorce. Thus, fear of poverty, destitution or a lowering of
economic standards haunt most women during divorce proceedings. As we shall see, dominant
gender ideologies shape the extent to which women are punished or rewarded within these
proceedings. The husband is perceived as the primary "breadwinner" of the family and in order
to facilitate this process, a woman is expected to sacrifice her career and dedicate herself
completely to the task of looking after the well-being of her husband. Within the prevalent
patrilocal tradition, marriage also results in migration for women, which in turn may neces-
sitate resignation from a permanent job. A woman is also expected to be the homemaker with
additional responsibilities of childbearing and child rearing. In order to fulfil these obligations,
most women may have to opt out of a secure job either permanently or for a limited number of
years until these demands become less taxing. Even when she is required or permitted to be
gainfully employed, it would mainly be to augment the family income and her earnings are
treated as supplementary income of the family.
There are instances where the courts have penalised a woman for pursuing her career at the cost
of her primary role as the caretaker of the family, as this act in itself can be construed as cruelty,

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which is a ground for divorce.' At times the choice for women seems to be either to remain
married or hold on to the job. This is a concern confined not only to the private domain of
marriage and family, but spills over to the public domain of employment, where women were
expected to tender in their resignation at the time of their marriage or during their first
pregnancy.' Though the situation has improved considerably in recent years in the public sector,
within the private sector, employers may still force women to resign rather than pay them
maternity benefits or provide creche facili-ties. There is constant tension between the dual roles
of a woman as the homemaker and wage earner within the sharply divided realm of the
"private" and "public" spheres of women's lives. It requires a fine balanc-ing act to cope with
both. This tension is specific to women and is linked to their assigned roles within marriage;
men are spared these tensions as the primary breadwinners of the family. Ironically, a woman's
role as a homemaker has no economic value attached to it. Women's contribution to the
domestic household during the subsistence of their marriage does not get any recognition under
the matrimonial statutes. India follows the common law regime of "separa-tion of property".
Under this notion, property acquired by the husband is treated as his exclusive property. A wife
does not acquire any right, title or interest in the assets acquired by the husband during the
subsistence of the marriage. Since marriage is not viewed as an "economic partner-ship", a
woman is not entitled to claim division of property at the time of divorce. Her contribution in
creating these assets by performing domestic chores is not considered to be a relevant factor. If
the husband dies intestate, the widow is awarded a status no higher than that of the children,
thus completely ignoring her contribution to the household and family in the form of unpaid
work. She is treated as a "beneficiary" and can be willed out of his estate, in the event the
husband so desires. The only provision under the matrimonial statutes which addresses the issue
of property division, Section 27 of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 (HMA) is clad in quaint and
obscure language—"property pre-sented on or about the time of marriage which may belong
jointly to both the husband and the wife". Hence some courts have held that property acquired
subsequent to marriage by the spouses through their own efforts and which they hold jointly
would not fall within the purview of Section 27 of HMA. In Kamalahar Ganesh Sambhus v.
Master Tejas Kamalahar Sambhus3 even though the wife established that she had contributed
half the amount towards the construction of the house property, the Bombay High Court held
that this could not be the subject matter of an order under Section 27 HMA and set aside the
order of the family court on these grounds.4 A woman can claim a share in property which is
purchased in their joint names as per the rules governing general property laws which
foreground economic contributions. The right of residence in the matrimonial home is protected
by the recently enacted Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 (PWDVA).
While this is an important development, it does not provide any solace to a woman who wishes
to opt out of the marriage. There is no concept such as a "deserted wife's equity" or
"constructive trust" which are important premises of English matrimonial law. By introducing
these innovative concepts, in the absence of a statutory law, an English jurist, Lord M.R.
Denning was able to protect the rights of residence of deserted wives in their matrimonial
homes. In a series of cases ranging from the 1940s to the 1970s, he was able to protect the rights
of deserted wives not only against their husbands but also against his creditors. For instance in
1962 in Hine v. Hine, Denning ruled that family property had to be treated differently from
other forms of property and that the judge had the discretionary power to reallocate property

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rights between the parties.' The discretion transcends all rights, legal and equitable and enables
the court to make such order as may be fair and just. In National Provincial Bank Ltd. v.
Ainsworth, he held that the bank could not claim possession against the wife who was in
possession of the matrimonial home.6 He ruled that since the wife has a right to remain in the
matrimo-nial home by a notion of constructive trust, it is unlawful for the husband to enter into
any agreement designed to turn her out. Under the Indian statutes, divorced women are not
protected from eviction by landlords. A recent Supreme Court ruling, B.P. Achala Anand v. S.
Appi Reddy makes this amply clear, despite its positive proclamations.' In this judgment
delivered in 2004, the judiciary broke new grounds by invoking the English concept of
"deserted wife's equity" and awarded legal recognition to the woman's right of residence by
placing her in the position of a subtenant. It was held that she had a right to defend herself in
proceedings initiated by the landlord for eviction which would deprive her right of possession of
the matrimonial home. The court also expanded the scope of Section 27 HMA and ruled that
this section could be invoked to pass orders regarding the separate property of the parties or
even the ten-anted premises. The decision amounted to judicial lawmaking and the court
emphasised that it was using this power while responding to the demands of social and gender
justice and in order to "do complete justice". But all these proclamations did not benefit the
woman concerned as she had already been divorced while the case was pending. Since the terms
of divorce settlement did not contain a provision regarding the dwelling home, the apex court
ruled that she had no right to the matrimonial home. The Supreme Court, in Ruma Chakraborty
v. Sudha Rani Banerji, affirmed this position, where a divorced woman and her children were
evicted from their home which was rented in the husband's name, on the pretext that their right
of tenancy was terminated with the divorce since this right was not negotiated during the
divorce.8 The apex court held that although the right to matrimonial home exists for a deserted
woman, the same could not be extended to a divorced woman. The trend followed by most
countries runs counter to the position adopted by our Supreme Court in the cases discussed
above. The conti-nental law or the civil law of Europe, introduced in the nineteenth century, is
based on the premise of "community of property". Under this, upon marriage, the property of
the spouses acquired after marriage is deemed as the joint property of the spouses, with equal
powers of maintenance, management, improvement and disposal. Upon divorce, the property is
divided equally between the spouses. Most countries which had fol-lowed the common law
tradition of "separation of property", inherited from the English legal system during the colonial
rule, have gradually accepted the premise of "differed community of property". According to
this, the property remains separate until divorce with spouses having the power to manage their
respective property. But upon divorce, the property acquired during marriage is deemed as
"matrimonial property" and becomes divisible on an equal basis irrespective of title or financial
contribution. The United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, are examples of this shift
which occurred in the seventies when "no fault" divorce was introduced into the matrimonial
laws. English matrimonial law has also adopted this premise. While the courts initially started
by awarding one-third of the assets to the wife, the principle of equal distri-bution is gradually
being accepted under the English law. As per the "no fault" notion, a spouse does not have to
prove a "mat-rimonial fault" such as cruelty, adultery or desertion but divorce can be granted on
the basis of "breakdown of marriage" even when the other spouse is not guilty of a matrimonial
fault. As this concept would cause great economic hardships to innocent wives,9 it was deemed

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necessary to introduce the notion of division of property. Countries such as Singapore,
Malaysia, Iran, Fiji and Tanzania, among others, have adopted the system of division of
property or at least give recognition to woman's unpaid domestic labour in the division. In this
regard, India (and South Asia region as a whole) lags far behind. Thus, while there have been
attempts to introduce the notion of "no fault" divorce through judge-made laws, there has not
been any attempt to introduce division of property. '° In this regard, it is notable that the Law
Commission Report No. 217 (March 2009), which recommended the introduction of "no-fault
divorce", contains no suggestion regarding division of property during divorce proceedings. The
recommendation appears to have been made in response to popular demands, without serious
attention to the potentially adverse consequences it would have upon women who have not
committed any matrimonial fault which would entitle a husband to obtain a divorce.
Subsequently government introduced a bill in Parliament in August 2010 to bring in the remedy
of irretrievable breakdown of marriage within Hindu and Special Marriage Acts but due to
opposition to it from several women's rights groups the bill was referred to the Joint Select
Committee of the Parliament which in its 45th Report submitted to the Rajya Sabha in March
2011, urged the government to consider introduction of the principle of "division of matrimonial
property" into our matrimonial statutes. Again in 2012, the government introduced a revised
version of the bill with some cosmetic changes to the earlier bill but this too met with severe
criticism as it left the issue of division of matrimonial property to the discretion of the judges
and did not define matrimonial property.' In the Indian context, despite its derogatory
connotations, the discussion over economic rights of married women must be situated within the
notion of "maintenance" as it remains the only avenue for women to stake their claim of
financial entitlement upon divorce. Within Indian family law, women's economic claims arising
out of a marriage contract are confined to recurring monthly maintenance or a lump sum
settlement or alimony at the time of divorce. Many times settlements are negotiated through the
process of mediation. During these proceedings, if the hus-band is desperate to obtain a quick
divorce (in order to remarry) the wife does get some bargaining power to negotiate favourable
financial settle-ments. But on the other hand, the husband is able to twist the arm of the wife by
pressing for joint child custody or increased rights of access to the child. Afraid of the adverse
consequences of such an arrangement, the wife may forego financial claims in order to negotiate
exclusive custody of the child or limited access rights to the husband.
Constitutional Claims and Maintenance Rights
As a women's rights lawyer, I am often confronted with a provocative question—within the
gender neutral language of matrimonial laws, which refers to the "husband" and "wife" as
"spouses" how do we locate the specific claim of women to maintenance? I concede that
"maintenance" signifies a dependency which has no place in the gender-neutral termi-nology of
modern divorce theories. It is a need-based approach which reduces the wife to a subordinate
position and does not award recogni-tion to her as an equal partner in marriage. But we must
also accept that despite the egalitarian terminology marriages continue to be partnerships based
on unequal premises. The roles, responsibilities and obligations within marriage are gendered
and unequal. Mere change of terminology does not transform relationships of inequality into
egalitarian and equal partnerships. As per the constitutional mandate, equality can only be
between equals. Treating unequals as equals only serves to widen the disparity between the two
parties. The provision of maintenance is crucial to women who are in conflict marriages and to

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deserted and destitute women. Although maintenance can be claimed under the personal laws of
the parties, most poor and des-titute women opt to claim them under the summary proceedings
available under Section 125 of the Criminal Procedure Code, 1973 (Cr.PC).
This provision is a beneficial social legislation to prevent vagrancy and delinquency. The right
of a woman to maintenance needs to be located within citi-zenship claims enshrined in our
Constitution. It is grounded within the Constitutional paradigm of ensuring social justice and is
reflective of a social obligation which the state casts upon economically stronger mem-bers of
the family to provide shelter and sustenance to the "weaker" mem-bers, i.e., women, children,
the elderly and the disabled. The provision for additional safeguards and special privileges for
disadvantaged groups is grounded in Article 15 (3) of our Constitution. This was affirmed by
the Supreme Court in Captain Ramesh Chandra Kaushal v. Veena Kaushal in which the court
commented that Section 125 CrPC, which is specially enacted to protect women and children,
falls within the constitutional ambit of Article 15(3). 12 Within the institution of marriage based
on a patriarchal paradigm, as discussed above, for a vast majority of women, marriage results in
economic dependency. It is in this context that statutory law and judicial interpretations must
lean in favour of destitute women and vulnerable children by moving away from the rubric of
formal equality of Article 14 towards substantive equality guaranteed under Article 15(3) within
the Constitutional scheme, in order to set right a historical wrong. For most women, the right of
maintenance forms the central core of their matrimo-nial dispute. It is far easier to come to an
amicable settlement regarding divorce and custody while maintenance remains a contested
question.
Maintenance and Morality
Securing an order of adequate maintenance can be an extremely humiliat-ing experience for
women, as there is a high quotient of sexual morality that engulfs the question of maintenance.
Curiously, the core of what should be an economic dispute does not revolve around questions of
financial arrangements of the family unit, but hinges upon issues of sexual mores. In the context
of unequal power relations prevailing within marriages, women's economic rights are
determined within these codes. Morality dictates of a patriarchal marriage are deeply entangled
with the economic claims.
Allegations of adultery and immorality can constantly be hurled against women. This can
extend further to a denial of the marriage itself and con-sequentially, the legitimacy and even
paternity of children. Stipulations such as those contained in Clauses 4 and 5 of Section 125 of
Cr.PC also contribute to this process by linking maintenance to sexual morality:
(4) No woman shall be entitled to receive an allowance if she is living in adultery. (5) On proof
that any wife in whose favour an order has been made under this section is living in adultery ...
the magistrate shall cancel the order.
This stipulation provides the armour for husbands to entangle women in vicious and dilatory
litigation over what may be a pittance. A careful scrutiny of reported cases in any law journal
reveals the extent to which allegations of sexual promiscuity are made to subvert women's
claims. To give an example, Divorce and Matrimonial Cases (DMC), a popular journal widely
relied upon by lawyers practicing matrimonial law, reported in Volume I of 2001,
approximately forty five cases under the title "main-tenance". In almost half of these cases,
sexuality and morality were the core issues that were contested. This challenge on the ground of
sexual purity of women entangles women in protracted litigation despite Section 125 Cr.PC

116
being a summary proceedings." The cases referred in law journals constitute only the tip of the
iceberg since they have survived a first round of litigation in the trial courts and were appealed
in the higher courts and only thereafter merited report-ing in the law journal. In each of these
cases, the women were assaulted and driven out. Most of these cases also contained allegations
of dowry harassment. But none of these women had filed a criminal complaint under Section
498A (Cruelty to Wives) of the Indian Penal Code. All they did was file an application for
maintenance and it is then that the husbands lashed out with allegations of sexual promiscuity.
The layered and multiple contexts through which sexual morality sur-faces, as per the norms of
patriarchy, serve only one end: to challenge the legitimacy of women's claims. Scanning
through the judgments, one can see a positive trend emerging, where the courts have upheld the
women's claims and disallowed the husbands' contentions. But despite this change, Clauses 4
and 5 of Section 125, Cr.PC provide the scope for husbands to engage destitute and deserted
women in protracted and humiliating litigation. The false and frivolous interventions entangle
women in cir-cuitous legal rigmaroles which are time consuming, financially draining and
emotionally charged.
Concubines, Mistresses and Maintenance
Hindu marriages were rendered monogamous by the enactment of the Hindu Marriage Act in
1955. But husbands can flout this mandate of monogamy with impunity. To add insult to injury,
during litigation, the fact of a bigamous marriage can be used as armour to defeat women's
claims. In other words, a husband may claim that since the litigant is a second wife his marriage
to her is not legally binding and, hence, he is not obligated to pay her maintenance. This plea is
advanced so routinely, that the Supreme Court in Vimala v. Veeraswamy14 was constrained to
hold that when a husband pleads that the marriage is bigamous, the previous marriage would
have to be strictly proved. In a similar man-ner, the Bombay High Court dismissed the plea of
bigamous marriage in Rajlingu v. Sayamabai" as a mere afterthought. This leaves us perplexed
as to how a matrimonial misconduct or "guilt" can be flagrantly invoked by a husband to defeat
the woman's economic claim, without any adverse criminal or civil consequences visiting him
during court proceedings. This type of flouting of a legal mandate and its subsequent invocation
to gain financial edge against a vulnerable person can take place only within a blatantly sexist
social order. Despite some progressive interpretations and innovative legal maxims, the path to
justice has not progressed in a linear trajectory. There is a great a deal of judicial latitude which
allows contradictory verdicts to emerge on the same issue, not just between various high courts
but also within the same court. For example, in a ruling of the Bombay High Court on the rights
of a woman in a bigamous marriage, in 1976, Justice M.H. Kania held that since the Hindu
Marriage Act is a social legislation, it could not have been the intention of the legislature that
even in a case where a Hindu woman was duped into contracting a bigamous marriage, she
should be deprived of her right to claim maintenance. 16 Similarly, in a leading case, Vimala v.
Veeraswamy,17 the Supreme Court held:
Section 125 Cr.PC is meant to achieve a social purpose. The objective is to prevent vagrancy
and destitution. When an attempt is made by the husband to negate the claim of the neglected
wife by depicting her as a kept mistress on the plea that he was already married, the court insists
on strict proof of the earlier marriage. A provision in the law which disentitles the second wife
from receiving maintenance from her husband, for the sole reason that the marriage ceremony,
though performed in the customary form, lacks legal sanctity, can be applied only when the

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husband satisfactorily proves the subsistence of a legal and valid marriage. This is so
particularly when S.125 Cr.PC is a measure of social justice intended to protect women and
children. In the absence of clear proof that the respondent is living with another woman as
husband and wife, the court cannot be persuaded to hold that the marriage duly solemnised
suffers from any legal infirmity.
In a landmark ruling in 2004, Rameshchandra Daga v. Rameshwari Daga,'8 the Supreme Court
upheld the maintenance rights of another woman in a similar situation. The ruling was delivered
in an appeal filed by the husband against the judgment of the Bombay High Court. The
husband, a widower, had married Rameshwari who had obtained a cus-tomary divorce (chor
chittee) through a divorce deed. The wife alleged that this document was shown to the husband
prior to the marriage and he had accepted its validity. Later, when disputes arose and the wife
was driven out of the matrimonial home, she filed for judicial separation and claimed
maintenance. During these proceedings, the husband denied the marriage on the ground that the
woman had not been formally divorced. Rejecting the plea, both the Family Court at Mumbai as
well as the High Court had upheld the wife's and her daughter's right of maintenance. In the
final verdict, the Supreme Court upheld the woman's plea that the husband, an advocate, was
aware of the customary divorce at the time of his marriage. The court went further and chastised
him for denying the paternity of his daughter. "The facts of this case tell the tragic tale of an
Indian woman, who having gone through two marriages with a child born to her, apprehends
destitution as both marriages have broken down", the judges commented with a note of
compassion. The Supreme Court appears to have accepted that Hindu marriages, like Muslim
marriages, were bigamous prior to the 1955 enactment. There is also a tacit acceptance that the
ground reality has not changed much since the enactment. So though such marriages are illegal
as per the statutory provisions of the codified Hindu law, the Supreme Court has ruled that they
are not "immoral" and hence a finan-cially dependent woman cannot be denied maintenance on
this ground. In stark contrast is the Supreme Court ruling in 2005, in Savitaben Somabhai
Bhatiya v. State of Gujarati') Justice Arijit Pasayat and Justice S.H. Kapadia commented that
however desirable it may be to take note of the plight of the unfortunate woman, the legislative
intent being clearly reflected in Section 125 Cr.PC, there is no scope for enlarging it by intro-
ducing any artificial definition to include woman not lawfully married in the expression "wife".
The court further commented that it is inconse-quential that the man was treating the woman as
his wife. It is the inten-tion of the legislation which is relevant and not the attitude of the party.
A judgment of the Allahabad High Court conveys the extent of humili-ation a woman goes
through during such litigation:
If the man and woman choose to live together and indulge into (sic) sex, no marital status can
be conferred automatically by their so living upon such a woman. She is not entitled to the legal
status of a wife in the eyes of law and society. Law and society treat such women either as
concubine or a mistress.... The two may agree to live together to satisfy their animal needs. But
such a union is never called a marriage. A woman leading such a life cannot be bestowed with
the sacrosanct honor of wife. No marital obligations accrue to such a woman against her
husband. Such a wife must be termed as an adulteress.2°
While comments about the high moral standard may appear salutary, it does seem that the price
for immorality is to be paid only by the woman, while the man is left free to exploit both
women.

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Pluralistic Traditions and Harmonious Constructions
The advantage of the mandate of "legal monogamy' lies with the husband as he can escape from
the economic liability of maintaining his wife on the plea that the marriage suffered from a legal
defect or lacked legal sanctity. Since ancient Hindu law and customary practices validated the
institution of concubinage, even in present times, the plea that the woman concerned is a
"concubine" or "mistress" and not the "wife" can be advanced with ease in legal arguments, as
can be observed from the various rulings discussed above. The volume of case law on the
subject exemplifies the fact that husbands have taken undue advantage and grossly
misappropriated this mandate. An oft invoked legal ploy is to term the woman, the domestic
maid or a mistress and not the "wife" with rights and entitlements. After the Supreme Court
ruling in Rameshchandra Daga v. Rameshwari Daga it appeared that it would no longer be
possible for a Hindu husband to escape from his liability of maintaining his wife on the plea that
the wife is not formally divorced from her previous husband or on the plea that the woman is his
concubine since his own previous marriage is still subsisting. But the subsequent ruling in
Savitaben Somabhai Bhatiya v. State of Gujarat has again rendered the situation ambiguous. In
this context, two recent judgments delivered by the Delhi High Court, reported in 2008, bear
scrutiny. These judicial pronouncements have attempted to cross the stumbling block posed by
the stipulation of monogamy under Section 5 of the HMA by invoking innovative legal maxims
to protect the rights of women. In the first case, Suresh Kb/lar v. Vijay Kumar Khullar,il while
contracting the present marriage, the husband's first marriage was dissolved by a court of law.
The wife was innocent and oblivious of the fraudulent circumstances under which the husband
had obtained an ex pane decree of divorce against his first wife. After a few months of her
marriage, the subsequent wife, Suresh, was driven out of the matrimonial home. Thereafter, the
husband's ex parte decree of divorce from the first marriage was set aside on the ground of fraud
and, through this legal incident Suresh Khullar's marriage was rendered bigamous and invalid.
She filed a suit for damages against the husband and his first wife on the ground of fraud and
cheating, which was decreed by a civil judge. While upholding the right of the woman, the court
with respect to Section 18 of the Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, 1956 (HAMA), held as
follows: While interpreting a statute, the courts may not only take into consideration the
purpose for which the statute was enacted, but also the mischief it seeks to suppress. The court
invoked the legal maxim construction ut res magis vaIeat quam pereat, i.e., where alternative
constructions are possible the court must give effect to that which will be responsible for the
smooth working of the system for which the statute has been enacted rather than one which will
put a road block in its way. The court commented that if this interpretation is not accepted, it
would amount to giving a premium to the husband for defrauding the wife. Therefore, it was
held that for the purpose of claiming maintenance under Section 18 of HAMA, the woman
should be treated as the legally wedded wife. The second ruling was pronounced in Narinder Pal
Kaur Chawla v. Manjeet Singh Chawla." The wife had approached the court for mainte-nance
under Section 18 HAMA in 1997 and pleaded that her husband had duped her by suppressing
his earlier marriage. The couple had lived together for 14 years and had two daughters. The
husband pleaded that since his earlier marriage was valid and subsisting, his marriage with
Narinder Pal Kaur was void. After a prolonged and contentious litigation, she was able to secure
an order of interim maintenance of Rs.1500/- p.m. But when the case was finally decided in
2005, the trial court dismissed her petition on the ground that she could not be treated as a

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"Hindu wife" under Section 18 of HAMA as she did not have the status of a legally wed-ded
wife. In appeal, the Delhi High Court upheld the right of the wife and held that even if the
woman cannot be treated as a "Hindu wife" she is entitled to a lump settlement by way of
damages. It appears that women who were deprived of their status and rights through the
mandate of monogamy introduced by the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 had to suffer for 50 years
before some recognition could be awarded to them. The Protection of Women from Domestic
Violence Act (PWDVA), 2005, does bestow some social status and legal rights on women who
were once part of a prevailing social system and yet legally could be branded concubines or
mistresses by transforming the concu-bines of yesteryear into present day cohabittees. Their
right to protection from domestic violence and rights of maintenance and residence have been
awarded statutory recognition. While some may dismiss the term cohabit-tee as a western or
urban phenomenon, this term can now be invoked to protect the rights of thousands of women,
both urban and rural, who were earlier scoffed at as "mistresses" or "keeps" in judicial discourse
because of some technical defect in their marriage. The PWDVA does not clearly prescribe
whether the new term "cohabittee" will safeguard the rights of women who were earlier
denigrated as concubines and mistresses. That is left for judicial interpretation. But it does help
to bring the debate to a new plane.
Economic Entitlements of Muslim Women
The economic rights of Muslim women at divorce have taken a very dif-ferent trajectory as
compared to other matrimonial laws. This is because under Christian and Hindu traditions,
marriage was viewed as an indis-soluble sacrament, while Muslim law, from its origin, viewed
marriages as contractual and dissoluble." The notion of a lifelong dependency which is linked to
the notion of permanency of marriage has no place within Islamic jurisprudence. The right of
maintenance is, therefore, confined to the period of subsistence of marriage. Even the codified
statute, the Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act of 1939, did not contain any provision for
post-divorce maintenance. Within this context, the economic rights of Muslim women are con-
fined to mehr, which is a Quranic right. This is a unique feature of Muslim law which is not
found in any other matrimonial statute. The husband is bound to assure an amount as a mark of
respect to the wife at the time of marriage which provides a future security for her. The mehr
stipulation forms part of the marriage contract and is an essential ingredient of a Muslim
marriage. While other laws presume that the husband will provide for the wife, under Muslim
law the husband is bound to make a covenant or a contractual agreement to this effect. Mehr is
viewed as a debt and an obligation of the husband towards his wife and it can be enforced in a
court of law. Mehr can either be prompt (payable upon consummation of marriage) or differed,
payable on demand during the marriage or, in any case, upon its dissolution. The high amount
of mehr stipulated in the nikahnama was meant to act as a deterrent to unilateral and arbitrary
divorce because the husband would then be obliged to settle his mehr dues to the wife. Under
the Shariat law, the woman has a charge over her husband's property for the payment of her
mehr, even after his death. In post-independence India, mehr has been reduced to a token
amount in most Muslim communities. The protection offered by this provision has been
corroded and instead, many communities have accepted the Hindu custom of dowry, hence
mehr has ceased to be a future security or a deterrent against arbitrary divorce. But the fact that
mehr amounts were high can be ascertained from the cases reported in law journals during the
pre-independence period among the affluent Muslim families. The legal precedents also indicate

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that the rights of mehr and pre-marriage agree-ments (which are recognised under the Muslim
law but not under Hindu or other matrimonial laws) were not illusory but secured women viable
economic safeguards to women. A large number of Muslim women seem to have approached
the British Courts for enforcement of the contractual obligation of mehr.24 But during the post-
independence period, when mehr amounts became illusory, the husbands' use of the provision
of arbitrary triple talaq led women to face great hardships as they were not entitled to post
divorce maintenance. When a deserted Muslim wife approached the court for maintenance
under Section 125 Cr.PC which is a secular provision uni-formly applicable to all women, the
husbands would pronounce talaq during the course of the litigation. Thereafter they would argue
that their obligation towards the wife ended upon payment of the customary right of mehr and
that they had no further obligation to maintain their wives. In order to deal with this problem,
when the Criminal Procedure Code (Cr.PC) was amended in 1973, an explanation to the word
"wife" was provided to include "ex-wife" under Section 125 Cr.PC. So even after the talaq, the
courts could order maintenance to the wife under Section 125 Cr.PC, unless the wife had
received substantial amount as mehr which. would prevent her from destitution. Two historical
rulings by the Supreme Court pronounced by Justice Krishna lyer in 1979 and 1980 confirmed
this view without creating a Muslim backlash. 25 It was held that an illusory amount under
customary or personal law does not absolve a husband from the purview of this beneficial
provision. In a subsequent judgment of the Supreme Court pronounced in 1981 by Justice
Murtaza Fazal Ali, it was held that the court is not bound to cancel the order of maintenance on
payment of mehr. 26 But the Shahbano judgement pronounced by a Constitutional Bench
headed by Chief Justice Chandrachud in 1985, while upholding the right of a divorced Muslim
woman made certain adverse comments against Islam and also urged the state to enact a
uniform civil code.27
It must be remembered that the enactment of a compulsory civil code had been a contentious
issue for the Muslim community even during the Constituent Assembly Debates in 1947-1949.
It was seen as an attempt to enforce the Hindu law upon an insecure Muslim minority and hence
was placed in the Directive Principles of State Policy to be enacted when the Muslim
community would feel secure enough within secular India, to accept a uniform civil code.28
Against this background, the judgment led to a backlash and led to a demand from the Muslim
orthodoxy for a separate statute to exclude divorced Muslim women from the purview of
Section 125 Cr.PC which would be based on Islamic jurisprudence as per the rules of Islamic
jurisprudence. Relenting under the political pressure exerted by the Muslim religious leadership,
the ruling Congress headed by the then Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi, enacted the Muslim
Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act (MWA), 1986. Through this enactment, the right
of a divorced Muslim woman was taken out of the purview of the general law of maintenance
under Section 125 of the Cr.PC and placed under this new legislation. This statute came to be
viewed by secular and women's rights groups as the most glaring instance of the defeat of the
principle of gender justice for Indian women as well as the defeat of secular principles within
the Indian polity. It seemed that the Act would deprive divorced Muslim women of the rights
granted under a secular provision, Section 125 Cr.PC on the basis of religion alone and thus
violate the Constitutional mandate of equality. The Act was a departure from the directive
principle enshrined in Article 44 of the Indian Constitution—"the state shall endeavour to enact
a Uniform Civil Code". The right wing, Hindu fundamentalist political parties such as the

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Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and the Shiv Sena used this incident to fuel anti-Muslim
communal hysteria culminating in the demo-lition of the Babri Masjid in 1992 and communal
riots in the country.29 After the enactment, several women's rights and human rights groups
filed writ petitions in the Supreme Court challenging the constitutional validity of the Act.
While the writ petitions were pending, several high courts began to interpret the Act
innovatively and in women's favour. They held that a divorced Muslim woman has the right to a
"fair and reason-able settlement" for her lifetime, in addition to maintenance during the iddat
period.3° Further, the courts commented that a fair and reasonable provision for the woman's
future needs (mataaoon bil ma'aroofe) is a Quranic injunction. The High Courts of Gujarat and
Kerala were among the first to herald the new tidings. They affirmed that the new Act was to
protect the rights of divorced Muslim women and not to deprive them of their rights. They
further stressed that any ambiguity within its clauses must be interpreted in such a manner as to
reconcile with the proclamation contained in the title of the Act, that is, an Act for the
protection of divorced Muslim women. Banishing divorced women to a life of destitution would
not amount to protecting their rights as stipulated by the statute, they declared. The first
significant judgment on this issue was pronounced by the Gujarat High Court, on 18 February
1988, within a year and a half of the enactment. But even before this, the dice was cast in
women's favour, by a woman judicial magistrate in Lucknow on 6 January 1988. The woman
concerned, Fathima Sardar, was awarded Rs. 85,000/- as fair and reason-able provision and
maintenance during the iddat period. Justice M.B. Shah, while presiding over the Gujarat High
Court explained:
The determination of fair and reasonable provision and maintenance would depend upon the
needs of the divorced woman, standard of life enjoyed by her during her marriage and the
means of her former husband. The amount must include provision for her future residence,
clothes, food and other articles for her livelihood.3'
In the same year, the Kerala High Court reaffirmed this position in Ali v. Sufaira and Aliyar v.
Pathu in the months of July and August respectively and reaffirmed this position again in
Ahmed v. Aysha in 1990. 32 The authoritative judgment of the Supreme Court on this issue was
pronounced in 2001 in Daniel Latifi v. Union of India.33 The Supreme Court confirmed that the
MWA has substituted the earlier right of recurrent maintenance under Section 125 Cr.PC with a
new right of a lump sum provision to be made and paid to the woman soon after her divorce. If
the husband fails to make the settlement, a divorced Muslim woman has the right to approach
the magistrate's court for enforcement of the right under Section 3 of the MWA. The court held
that a Muslim husband is liable to make a reasonable and fair provision for the future of his
divorced wife, which must be made within the iddat period. The court further clarified that the
liability of the Muslim husband to the divorced wife to pay maintenance under the Act is not
confined to the iddat period. A Muslim wife is entitled to a fair and reasonable provision with
respect to her future needs. In cases where the husband is unable to pay the entire amount, the
Full Bench of the Bombay High Court, in Karim Abdul Rehman Shaikh v. Shehnaz Karim
Shaikh,34 held that the amount can be paid in installments and until the payment is made, the
magistrate can direct monthly payment to the wife even beyond the iddat period. In Nizar v.
Hyrunneessa,35 the Kerala High Court rejected the plea that since the wife had remarried, she is
not entitled to a fair and reasonable settlement for the future. The court held that the remarriage
of a divorced woman is not a criterion in determining a "fair and reasonable" settlement. The

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only aspect to be considered is the liability of the former husband to make a reasonable and fair
provision to the divorced wife and fix the quantum sum as contemplated under Section 3(3) of
the Act. The court awarded Rs. 90,000/-, calculating the amount on the basis of Rs. 1,500/-p.m.
The amount awarded as fair and reasonable settlement cannot be set aside on a plea that the
divorced wife is leading an adulterous life.36 The lump sum provisions for future security,
which the courts so care-fully crafted out of the controversial legislation, seem to provide a
better safeguard against destitution than the meager handouts to which they were entitled under
the earlier anti-vagrancy provision under Section 125 Cr.PC. In a significant number of cases a
concerned and sensitive judici-ary carved out a space for the protection of women's rights from
what appeared to be an erroneously conceived, badly formulated and blatantly discriminatory
statute, without invoking a political backlash. Endorsing the spirit of Islam and the Shariat and
drawing upon the Islamic concept of mataaoon bil ma'am* (fair and reasonable provision), the
courts opened a new portal for the protection of divorced Muslim women by reading into the
statute notions of justice and equity. Doing precisely what the Act in its title proclaimed, i.e.,
protection of rights of divorced Muslim women, the judiciary turned what had initially appeared
to be a misnomer and a mockery into a factual reality and ushered in a silent revolution in the
realm of Muslim woman's rights. A reading of the judgments indicates that the Act had rid itself
of the agenda of alleviating vagrancy and destitution among divorced women (the defining
feature of Section 125 Cr.PC) and had extended itself to the claims of women from higher
social strata. The statute, enacted in haste, at the insistence of the conservative leadership,
seemed to have boomeranged. Since the Muslim law permits bigamy, a husband cannot escape
the liability of paying maintenance to the wife on the ground that the marriage is bigamous or
the woman is a keep or a mistress. While analyzing the provision of a "fair and reasonable
settlement at the time of divorce" in the context of the present discussion of rights to
matrimonial property, it appears that the provision is based on both, past "contribution" and
future "need" but does not stretch itself to the premise of equal division of property upon
divorce. It also endorses the "clean break" theory where rights are determined upon divorce
without future obligations of continued maintenance. The economic rights of Christian and
Parsi women are similar to the provisions of women under the Hindu law and hence do not
warrant a separate discussion though there are some interesting cases that are reported. Here it is
relevant to mention that one of the first rulings on the issue of women's right to the matrimonial
home delivered by the Bombay High Court was in a case under Parsi matrimonial law, the Parsi
Marriage and Divorce Act, 1936, Banoo Jai Daruwalla v. Jai C. Daruwalla. 37 The judge in this
case relied upon the observations of Lord Denning in Bendall v. Mc Whiner (as cited in Banoo
Daruwalla) that it is the duty of the court to ensure that the wife is not thrown out of the
matrimonial home. Since it was not possible for the wife to reside in the matrimonial home
along with the husband, the wife was awarded Rs. 275 per month as maintenance.
Jurisprudential Questions and Tools of Interpretation
The Supreme Court rulings in cases such as Daniel Latifi provide us with a good example of
how best to positively interpret a statute without evoking a backlash or a political controversy.
These rulings endorse the spirit of Islam while upholding the human rights of women without
posing the issue as "women versus minorities" and hence serve Muslim women better than more
confrontational rulings such as the Shahbano judgment. The controversy which followed this
judgement ultimately led Shahbano herself to renounce her claim on the grounds that if

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claiming maintenance from her ex-husband was against the tenets of her religion, she would
rather be a good Muslim than claim her rights as a woman. Subsequent political events such as
the Gujarat riots have taught a very painful les-son to Muslim women that they are violated,
raped, maimed and killed not only as women but also as Muslims. It is the composite identity as
"Muslim" and "women" that they need to cope with. Their struggle must evolve a composite
strategy against patriarchy, community, communal forces and the state. While interpreting
statutory provisions which are enacted for their benefit, the courts must keep this composite
identity of Muslim women in view. The Shahbano judgment faltered in this respect while
upholding the rights of an individual woman. A different kind of challenge confronts the
judiciary while determining the rights of women from other communities. Confronted with
contradic-tory viewpoints regarding the criterion for determining the "legislative intent" of a
beneficial provision, what are the crutches that trial court judges have at their disposal while
delivering "constitutional justice?" Justice A.K. Sikri and Justice Aruna Suresh attempt to
provide an answer:
Where alternative constructions are possible the court must give effect to that which will be
responsible for the smooth working of the system for which the statute has been enacted rather
than the one which would put hindrances in its way. If the choice is between two interpretations,
the nar-rower of which would fail to achieve the manifest purpose of the legislation should be
avoided. We should avoid a construction which would reduce the legislation to futility and
should accept the bolder construction based on the view that Parliament would legislate only for
the purpose of bringing about an effective result.38
In this tussle between the old world, feudal value systems reflected in the ancient Hindu law—
the law of the Smritis—alongside pluralistic traditions validated by customs at one end and the
newer statutory provi-sions of the modern (often colonially) codified Hindu law at the other,
what are the avenues for harmonious constructions of legal principles? How do we revisit the
provisions of the early Hindu law in the context of its modern day manifestations within the
statutory framework of contemporary Hindu law, while delivering justice? The same bench,
comprising of Justice A.K. Sikri and Justice Aruna Suresh, has provided certain tools of
interpretations in this respect: The principles of Hindu Personal Law have developed in an
evolutionary way out of concern for all those subject to it so as to make fair provision against
destitution. There is clear evidence to indicate that the law of maintenance stems out of the
secular desire and so as to achieve the social objectives for making bare minimum provision to
sustain the members of relatively smaller social groups. Organically and originally the law itself
is irreligious. Its fountain spring is humanistic. In its operational field although it lays down the
permissible categories under its benefaction, which are so entitled either because of the tenets
supported by clear public policy or because of the need to subserve the social and individual
morality measured for maintenance.39
Beyond protection of individual rights, the courts also have a mandate to evolve the science of
jurisprudence as Chief Justice S.B. Sinha, Justice Ramesh Madhav Bapat and N.V. Ramana of
the Andhra Pradesh High Court suggest that
It the interpretation of law is not merely for the determination of a particular case but also in the
interest of law as a science. As such, interpretation of law must be in accordance with justice,
equity and good conscience and more so, in furtherance of justice.4°

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This call to move with the times and blend the ancient with the modem in pursuit of justice is
the call of duty. The judicial oath mandates this. The primary aim of the courts is to "do justice"
as Justice P.N. Bhagwati and Justice Ranganath Misra succinctly pointed out:
The role of the court is not that of silent spectator or of a passive agency. When a dispute is
brought before the court where maintenance of a neglected wife or a minor child is in issue, the
court must take genuine interest to find out the truth of the matter.4'
In this context, the recent ruling of the Supreme Court in D. Velusamy v. PatchaiammaI,42
which denied maintenance to women who are in a marriage like relationship with married men
and termed such women as "mistresses" and "keeps" is a cause of concern. But the issue is still
wide open as another ruling by another bench of Supreme court in Chanmuniya v. Virendra
Kumar Singh Kushwaha, 2011 (1) SCC 141, has upheld the right of women in technically
defective marriages by holding that the term "wife" must be given a broad and expansive
interpretation and has referred the issue to a larger bench.
Conclusion
I began this essay by discussing the importance of understanding the theoretical underpinnings
of concepts of "need" and "contribution" that are used in assessing maintenance settlements.
While "need" presumes dependency, "contribution" presumes equality. While lamenting the fact
that we do not subscribe to the theory of "division of property" at the time of divorce and while
discussing the economic entitlement of maintenance which is "need" based, it is not my
argument here that an equality model of marriage as a partnership would protect women better.
The needs of women and their dependency will continue even when we accept the theory of
property distribution based on the model of equality. I am argu-ing not for equality under
Article 14 of the Constitution but for additional protections and economic security in terms of
matrimonial assets under Article 15 (3) of the Constitution. In the context of equal distribution
of property in the US, feminist scholar Martha Fineman, argues:
The material circumstances of divorcing women and children are being det-rimentally ignored
by supplanting a focus on "contribution" as the primary distributive concept. The ascendancy of
"contribution" may represent a nice neat instance of conceptual progress to legal academics and
law reformers, but for many divorcing spouses, as well as the practising professionals to whom
they turn for advice, adverse material circumstances and the needs they generate, have not been
left behind.'"
She suggests that one source of controversy about property distribution rules is the existence of
two competing and perhaps incompatible and unrealistic, political visions of contemporary
marriage. The first is the more modem view that marriage as an institution has been transformed
so as to be more consistent with formalistic notions of equality between the sexes. The second is
the more traditional policy stance that "family" continues to be the solitary institution which
addresses problems of dependency that inevitably arise in the context of families, such as caring
for the young, the sick and the aged and meeting these demands as the care taker cre-ates further
"needs" for the primary care taker, which in most cases is the woman. Highly skeptical of the
"contribution" model which is based on the assumption that marriage is a partnership between
equals, she argues for a "need-based" framework." At a conceptual level, quality standards in
the distribution of property may be linked to broader ideals of placing equal value and
promoting freedom of choice in marriage. Making equality the ongoing concept of underlying
divorce may be considered part of a series of conscious symbolic choices about how best to

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ensure a more just society. But when equality rhetoric is translated into specific rules governing
distribution of property, the results must be measured and assessed in more than sym-bolic
terms. Symbolic expression may be important, but Fineman argues that care should be taken so
that as translated into legislation having direct impact on the lives of many people, the results
also meet the standards of fairness and justice.'" I end with a similar approach of cautiousness
and scepticism and urge that this must reflect in our campaigns for law reforms.

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 C. B. Muthamma vs Union Of India
1980 SCR (1) 668
BENCH:KRISHNAIYER, V.R. and SHINGAL, P.N.
The Judgment of the Court was delivered by KRISHNA IYER,J. This writ petition by Miss
Muthamma, a senior member of the Indian Foreign Service, bespeaks a story which makes one
wonder whether Articles 14 and 16 belong to myth or reality. The credibility of constitutional
mandates shall not be shaken by governmental action or inaction but it is the effect of the
grievance of Miss Muthamma that sex prejudice against Indian womanhood pervades the
service rules even a third of a century after Freedom. There is some basis for the charge of bias
in the rules and this makes the ominous indifference of the executive to bring about the
banishment of discrimination in the heritage of service rules. If high officials lose hopes of
equal justice under the rules, the legal lot of the little Indian, already priced out of the expensive
judicial market, is best left to guess. This disturbing thought induces us to make a few
observations about the two impugned rules which appear prima facie, discriminatory against the
female of the species in public service and have surprisingly survived so long, presumably,
because servants of governments are afraid to challenge unconstitutional rule making by the
Administration.
Miss Muthamma, the petitioner complains that she had been denied promotion to Grade I of the
Indian Foreign Service illegally and unconstitutionally. She bewailed that, to quote her own
words;
"....one of the reasons for the petitioner's supersession is the long standing practice of hostile
discrimination against women. Even at the very threshold when the petitioner qualified for the
Union Public Services at the time of her interview, the Chairman of the U.P.S.C. tried to
persuade (dissuade) the petitioner from joining the Foreign Service. On subsequent occasion he
personally informed the Petitioner that he had used his influence as Chairman to give minimum
marks in the viva. As the time of entry into the Foreign Service, the petitioner had also to give
an undertaking that if she were to get married she would resign from the service.
That on numerous occasions the petitioner had to face the consequences of being a woman and
thus suffered discrimination though the Constitution specifically underArticle 15 prohibits
discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth and Article 14 of the
Constitution provides the principles of equality before law........ That members of the
Appointments Committee of the Union Cabinet and the respondent No. 2 are basically
prejudiced against women as a group. The Prime Minister of India has been reported in the
Press as having stated-it will not be irrelevant here to mention that most of the women who are
in the service at senior levels are being very systematically selected for posts which have
traditionally been assigned a very low priority by the Ministry."
If a fragment of these assertions were true, unconstitutionality is writ large in the administrative
psyche and masculine hubris which is the anathema for part III haunts the echelons in the
concerned Ministry. If there be such gender injustice in action, it deserves scrupulous attention
from the summit so as to obliterate such tendency.
What is more manifest as misogynist in the Foreign Service is the persistence of two rules
which have been extracted in the petition. Rule 8(2) of the Indian Foreign Service (Conduct &
Discipline) Rules, 1961, unblushingly reads:
"Rule 8(2) : In cases where sub-rule (1) does not apply, a woman member of the service shall

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obtain the per-
mission of the Government in writing before her marriage is solemnized. At any time after the
marriage, a woman member of the Service may be required to resign from service, if the
Government is satisfied that her family and domestic commitments are likely to come in the
way of the due and efficient discharge of her duties as a member of the service."
Discrimination against women, in traumatic transparency, is found in this rule. If a woman
member shall obtain the permission of government before she marries, the same risk is run by
government if a male member contracts a marriage. If the family and domestic commitments of
a woman member of the Service is likely to come in the way of efficient discharge of duties, a
similar situation may well arise in the case of a male member. In these days of nuclear families,
inter-continental marriages and unconventional behaviour, one fails to understand the naked
bias against the gentler of the species. Rule 18 of the Indian Foreign Service (Recruitment
Cadre, Seniority and Promotion) Rules, 1961, run in the same prejudicial strain:
"(1)............
(2).............
(3).............
(4) No married woman shall be entitled as of right to be appointed to the service."
At the first blush this rule is in defiance of Article
16. If a married man has a right, a married woman, other things being equal, stands on no worse
footing. This misogynous posture is a hangover of the masculine culture of manacling the
weaker sex forgetting how our struggle for national freedom was also a battle against woman's
thraldom. Freedom is indivisible, so is Justice. That our founding faith enshrined in Articles 14
and 16 should have been tragically ignored vis-a-vis half of India's humanity, viz., our women,
is a sad reflection on the distance between Constitution in the book and Law in Action. And if
the Executive as the surrogate of Parliament, makes rules in the teeth of Part III, especially
when high political office, even diplomatic assignment has been filled by women, the inference
of die-hard allergy to gender parity is inevitable.
We do not mean to universalise or dogmatise that men and women are equal in all occupations
and all situations and do not exclude the need to pragmatise where the requirements of
particular employment, the sensitivities of sex or the peculiarities of societal sectors or
the handicaps of either sex may compel selectivity. But save where the differentiation is
demonstrable, the rule of equality must govern. This creed of our Constitution has at last told on
our governmental mentation, perhaps partly pressured by the pendency of this very writ
petition. In the counter affidavit, it is stated that Rule 18(4) (referred to earlier) has been deleted
on November 12, 1973. And, likewise, the Central Government's affidavit avers that Rule 8(2)
is on its way to oblivion since its deletion is being gazetted. Better late than never. At any rate,
we are relieved of the need to scrutinise or strike down these rules.
The petitioner has, after the institution of this proceeding, been promoted. Is it a case of post
hoc ergo propter hoc ? Where justice has been done, further probe is otiose. The Central
Government states that although the petitioner was not found meritorious enough for promotion
some months ago, she has been found to be good now, has been upgraded and appointed as
Ambassador of India to the Hague, for what it is worth. Her surviving grievance is only one.
During the interval of some months between her first evaluation and the second, some officers
junior to her have gone above her. In the rat race of Indian official life, seniority appears to be

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acquiring a religious reverence. Since the career ahead of the petitioner may well be affected by
the factum of prior birth into Grade I of the Service, her grievance turning on seniority cannot
be brushed aside. Her case, with particular focus on seniority, deserves review vis-a-vis those
junior to her who have been promoted in the interval of some months. The sense of injustice
rankles and should be obliterated so that every servant in strategic position gives of his or her
best to the country. We have had the advantage of the presence of the learned Solicitor-General,
appearing for the Union of India. With characteristic fairness he has persuaded his client to
agree to what we regard as a just gesture, viz., that the Respondent-Union of India will shortly
review the seniority of the petitioner, her merit having been discovered and her seniority to
Grade II being recognised. We direct accordingly.
Subject to what we have said above, we do not think it necessary to examine the averments of
mala fides made in the petition. What we do wish to impress upon Government is the need to
overhaul all Service Rules to remove the stain of sex discrimination, without waiting for ad hoc
inspiration from writ petitions or gender charity.
We dismiss the petition but not the problem.

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 Air India Etc. Etc vs Nergesh Meerza & Ors
1981 SCC (4) 335
At the moment, we would like first to complete the history of the circumstances leading to the
present controversy between the parties. It appears that there was a good deal of disparity
between the pay-scales and the promotional avenues of the male cabin crew consisting of AFPs,
FPs and In-flight pursers on the one hand and the AHs, Check AH, Deputy Chief AH, Addl.
Chief AH and Chief AH on the other. The case of the AHs was sponsored by the ACEU which
made a demand for alteration of the service regulations prejudicial to AHs. This was some time
prior to 1964. The said dispute was ultimately referred to a National Industrial Tribunal
presided over by Mr. Justice G.D. Khosla who gave his award on 28.7.1965 making some
recommendations in order to improve the service conditions of AHs.
In fact, the main issue canvassed before the Khosla Tribunal centered round the question of the
age of retirement of the AHs and matters connected therewith. A perusal of the Khosla Award
shows that the parties entered into a settlement with respect to all other disputes excepting the
retirement benefits on which the Tribunal had to give its award. In para 252 of the Award the
dispute regarding the retirement age is mentioned thus:
"252. At present, the retirement age of the Air India employees is governed by Service
Regulations Nos. 46 and 47. Service Regulation No. 46 is as follows:
46. Retirement Age:
... ... ... ...
(C) An Air Hostess, upon attaining the age of 30 years or on marriage, whichever occurs earlier.
... ... ... ...
253. Regulation No. 47 provides for a further extension of the employee beyond the age of
retirement for an aggregate period not exceeding two years except in the case of Air Hostesses
where the services can be extended upto a period of 5 years. The extension is granted on the
employee being found medically fit."
Thus, according to the Regulations prevalent in A.I. an AH had to retire at the age of 30 or on
marriage whichever was earlier subject to an extension being granted for a period of 5 years if
the employee was found to be medically fit. While considering this demand, the Tribunal seems
to have upheld the view of the Corporation and found no reason to interfere with Regulation
Nos. 46 and 47. In this connection, the Tribunal observed as follows:-
"In my view, no case has been made out for raising the age of retirement and in cases where the
efficiency of the employee is not impaired, there is suitable provision under regulation 47 for
extending his service upto the age of 60. As observed above, there have been no complaints of
any employee being made to retire under the provision of clause (ii) of regulation 46."
Giving the reasons for its conclusion the Award in Para 256 runs thus:-
"With regard to air hostesses, the contention of the Management is that they are in a special
class. They have to deal with passengers of various temperaments, and a young and attractive
air hostess is able to cope with difficult or awkward situations more competently and more
easily than an older person with less personal prepossessions. On this point there can be no two
opinions. It was also pointed out that air hostesses do not stay very long in the service of Air
India, and young and attractive women are more inclined to look upon service in Air India as a
temporary occupation than as a career. Most of them get married and leave the service. Counsel
for the Corporation placed before me a table (Exhibit M 14) which shows that the average

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service of an air hostess for the 5 years between 1960 and 1965 was only two years. Only 2 air
hostesses reached the age of 30. None was retired at the age of 30 and in all, 70 air hostesses
resigned before reaching the age of retirement. The total number of air hostesses at present is 87
and, therefore, it will at once be seen that most of them chose to leave service of their own free
will."
It would thus be seen that one of the dominant factors which weighed with the Tribunal was that
there were only 87 AHs out of whom quite a large number retired even before reaching the age
of 30 years. The Tribunal was also impressed by the argument of the Corporation that AH had
to deal with passengers of various temperaments and a young attractive AH was more suitable
for doing the job. With due respect to Justice Khosla we may not agree with some of the reasons
he had given, but the position has now completely changed as more than 15 years have passed
and at present AI employees as many as 737 AHs. However, the matter rested there and the
AHs seem to have lost their first battle before the Khosla Tribunal.
Thereafter, it appears the same dispute arose between the employees of I.A.C. which, as
indicated above, had to be referred to another Tribunal, viz. Mahesh Tribunal, before whom a
part of the dispute between several workmen was settled but the dispute which was not settled
including the question of the age of retirement of AHs was referred to this Tribunal some time
in November 1970 and the Award was given on 25th February 1972. Before this Tribunal also,
the stand taken by the ACEU was that the age of retirement of AH should be fixed at 45 instead
of 30 or 35 and the bar of marriage should be removed. The A.l., however, stuck to its original
stand that having regard to the strenuous work to be put in by an AH, the age of retirement
should be kept at
30. In this connection, the Mahesh Tribunal indicated the stand of the parties thus :
"The ACEU contends that age of retirement of air hostesses should be fixed at 45 instead of 30
or 35 as at present; that this demand for increase in the age of retirement is in accordance with
Geneva Convention and that the bar of marriage on air hostesses should be removed.
The Air India's contention is that the nature and underlying object of the job of an air hostess
requires that their age of retirement should be kept at 30 as at present. It has also been pointed
out that after 30, the General Manager of the Corporation has the discretion to extend the age of
retirement of an air hostess by one year at a time till she reaches the age of 40 years. As for the
retirement on Marriage, the Air India's contention is that it is necessary and a desirable
provision as otherwise after marriage they will not be able to fulfil adequately the main purpose
of their employment.
The rule regarding extension of service in the Settlement between the ACEU and the Indian
Airlines of January 10, 1972 is better worded and it should be adopted by the Air India also in
its entirety." This appears to be the position upto the year 1972.
Subsequent events, however, show that both A.I. and I.A.C. Iater realised that the Rules
regarding the age of retirement and termination of AHs work serious injustice and made several
amendments. We would A first take up the various amendments made by the l.A.C.
The previous regulation regarding the retirement age of I.A.C. AH was regulation No. 12 which
may be extracted thus:-
"Flying Crew shall be retained in the service of the Corporation only for so long as they remain
medically fit for flying duties.. Further, an Air hostess shall retire from the service of
Corporation on her attaining the age of 30 years or when she gets married whichever is earlier.

131
An unmarried Air Hostess may, however, in the interest of the Corporation be retained in the
service of the Corporation upto the age of 35 years with the approval of the General Manager."
(Vide counter-affidavit of Wing Commander N.C.
Bharma) This regulation was further amended on 13.7.68 which ran thus:
"An Airhostess shall retire from the service of the Corporation on her attaining the age of 30
years or when she gets married, whichever is earlier. The General Manager, may, however,
retain in service an unmarried Air Hostess upto the age of 35 years."
Then followed the Settlement dated 1O.1.1972 between the I.A.C. and ACEU under which AH
was to retire at the age of 30 or on marriage. The General Manager, however, could retain an
unmarried AH in service upto the age of 40 years. Thus, the only difference that the Settlement
made was that the discretion to extend the age of retirement of AH was increased by S years,
i.e. from 35 years to 40 years. Ultimately, however, the old Regulation underwent a further
change and by virtue of a Notification published in the Gazette of India on 12.4.1980 in Part
Hl, Section 4, para 3 of the amended regulation 12 was further amended thus:
"An Air Hostess shall retire from services of the Corporation upon attaining the age of 35 years
or on marriage H if it takes place within four years of service or on first pregnancy, whichever
occurs earlier."
This amendment seems to have made a slight improvement in the condition of service of AHs
inasmuch as the age of retirement was fixed at 35 years and the bar of marriage was restricted
only to a period of four years, that is to say, if an AH did not marry within a period of 4 years of
her entry into service, she could retire at the age of 35. This amendment was not in supersession
of but supplemental to the ACEU Settlement dated 1O.1.1972. In other words, the position was
that an AH if she did not marry within 4 years, could go upto 35 years extendable to 40 years, if
found medically fit. This was the historical position so far as the retirement age of AHs working
with IAC is concerned. As regards AHs employed by AI the latest position is to be found in
Regulations 46 and 47, the relevant portions of which may be extracted thus :-
"46. Retiring Age:
Subject to the provisions of sub-regulation (ii) hereof an employee shall retire from the service
of the Corporation upon attaining the age of 58 years, except in the following cases when he/she
shall retire earlier:
(c) An Air Hostess, upon attaining the age of 35 years or on marriage if it takes place within
four years of service or on first pregnancy, whichever occurs earlier.
47. Extension of Service.
Notwithstanding anything contained in Regulation 46, the services of any employee, may, at the
option of the Managing Director but on the employee being found medically fit, be extended by
one year at a time beyond the age of retirement for an aggregate period not exceeding two years,
except in the case of Air Hostesses and Receptionists where the period will be ten years and five
years respectively."
Thus, an AH under A.I. was retired from service in the following contingencies:
(1) on attaining the age of 35 years;
(2) on marriage if it took place within 4 years of the service, and (3) on first pregnancy.
The age of retirement of AH could be extended upto ten years by granting yearly extensions at
the option of the Managing Director. Thus, if the Managing Director chose to exercise his
discretion under Regulation 47 an AH could retire at the age of 45 years.

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Thus, the only difference regarding the service conditions pertaining to the age of retirement or
termination is that whereas the services of an I.A.C. AH could be extended upto 4() years, those
of the A.I. AH could be extended upto 45 years, subject to the conditions indicated above. This
appears to be the position regarding the service conditions of the AHs belonging to both the
Corporations which form the cornerstone of their grievances before us.
Having given a brief history of the dispute between the parties we would now indicate the
contentions advanced before us by the petitioners (AHs) and the counsel for the Corporations
and other respondents. As the service conditions of AHs employed by the two Corporations are
almost identical the arguments put forward by them also are almost the same with slight
variations which will be indicated by us when we deal with the arguments.
Mr. Atul Setalvad appearing for the AHs in Transfer case No. 3 of 1981 has submitted some
important and interesting points of law which may to summarised as follows:-
(1) The AHs employed by one Corporation or the other form the same class of service as the
AFPs and other members of the cabin crew. Both the male pursers and the AHs are members of
the same cabin crew, per forming identical or similar duties and hence any discrimination made
between these two members who are similarly circumstanced is clearly violative of Art. 14 of
the Constitution of India. (2) Even if the AHs are a separate category or class, there is an inter
se discrimination between the AHs posted in the United Kingdom and those serving in the other
Air India flights.
(3) That the AHs have been particularly selected for hostile discrimination by the Corporation
mainly on the ground of sex or disabilities arising from sex and therefore, the regulations
amount to a clear infraction of the provisions of Art. 15 (1) and Art. 16of the Constitution of
India.
(4) The termination of the services of AHs on the ground pregnancy or marriage within four
years is manifestly unreasonable and wholly arbitrary and violative of Art. 14 of the
Constitution and should, therefore, be struck down.
(5) The contention that a woman in view of strenuous work that she is called upon to perform,
becomes tired or incapable of doing the work of catering to the passengers is based on pure
speculation and being against the well established facts and norms set up by the Geneva
Convention is clearly inconsistent with the concept of emancipation of women. No material has
been placed before the Court to prove that the efficiency of the AHs is in any way impaired at
the age of 40 or 45 years so as to make a gross discrimination between the male pursers and
AHs.
(6) Apart from the discrimination regarding the age of retirement, the AHs have been
completely deprived of promotional opportunities available to the male members of the cabin
crew.
For the aforesaid reasons, it was contended that regulations 46 and 47 of Air-India Employee's
Service Regulations and Regulation No. 12 of the Indian Airlines (Flying Crew) Service
Regulations must be struck down as being discriminatory and ultra vires.
The counsel appearing for the petitioners in the writ petitions more or less adopted the
arguments of Mr. Atul Setalvad in one form or the other.
In answer to the contentions raised by Mr. Setalvad and the counsel who followed him, Mr.
Nariman appearing for A.l. and Mr G.B. Pai for the l.A.C., adumbrated the following
propositions:-

133
(1) That having regard to the nature of job functions, the mode of recruitment of AHs, their
qualifications, their promotional avenues and the circumstances in A which they retire AHs fall
within a category separate from the class to which the pursers belong and if AHs from a
separate class or category by themselves, then there can be no question of discrimination or
contravention of Art. 14 which would apply if there is discrimination between the members of
the same, class inter se.
(2) The recruitment of the AHs is actually sex based recruitment made not merely on the ground
of sex alone but swayed by a lot of other considerations: hence Art. 15 (2)of the Constitution
was not attracted. To buttress this argument reliance was placed by Mr. Nariman on the
Declaration made by the Government under the 1976 Act.
(3) As the conditions mentioned in Regulation 46 of A.I. Regulations and 12 of the IAC
Regulations have been upheld by the Khosla and Mahesh Awards, they have statutory force and
unless they are per se arbitrary or discriminatory, the court ought not to interfere with them
particularly when those two Awards are binding on the parties even though their period may
have expired.
(4) Having regard to the circumstances prevailing in India and the effects of marriage, the bar of
pregnancy and marriage is undoubtedly a reasonable restriction placed in public interest. (5) If
the bar of marriage or pregnancy is removed, it will lead to huge practical difficulties as a result
of which very heavy expenditure would have to be incurred by the Corporations to make
arrangements for substitutes of the working AHs during their absence for a long period
necessitated by pregnancy or domestic needs resulting from marriage.
(6) The court should take into consideration the practical aspects of the matter which
demonstrate the fact that a large number of AHs do not stick to the service but leave the same
well before the age of retirement fixed under the Regulation.
Finally, as a very fair and conscientious counsel Mr. Nariman placed a few proposals which
might mitigate the inconvenience caused to the AHs and remove a large bulk of their
grievances. It was submitted by Mr. Nariman that he would in all probability persuade the
management to accept the proposals submitted by him which will be referred to when we deal
with the contentions of the parties at length.
We shall now proceed to deal with the respective contentions advanced before us indicating the
reply of the respondents to the arguments raised by the petitioners.
It was vehemently argued by Mr. Setalvad that having regard to the nature of the duties and
functions performed during the flight by AFPs and AHs both the groups constitute the same
class or category of service under the Corporation and hence any difference or discrimination
between the members in the same class is clearly violative of Art. 14 of the Constitution. A
second limb of the argument which flows from the first contention was that the AHs were
selected for hostile discrimination by the Corporation in the matter of retirement, termination
and promotional avenues which was manifestly unreasonable so as to attract Art. ]4 of the
Constitution.
The counsel for the Corporation, however, countered the arguments of the petitioners on two
grounds :-
(1) That in view of the mode of recruitment, qualifications, retiral benefits and various other
factors the AHs constitute a special category or class of employees different from the AFPs and,
therefore, they could not be in any way equated with them.

134
(2) That in fact the recruitment of AHs was sex-based land swayed by a number of other
considerations and not based on sex only.
In order to appreciate the arguments of the parties on this point it may be necessary to refer to
the law on the subject which is now well settled by a long course of decisions of this Court. It is
undisputed that what Art. 14 prohibits is hostile discrimination and not reasonable classification.
In other words, if equals and unequals are differently treated, no discrimination at all occurs so
as to amount to an infraction of Art. 14 of the Constitution. A fortiori if equals or persons
similarly circumstanced are differently treated, A discrimination results so as to attract the
provisions of Art. 14.
In our opinion, therefore, the inescapable conclusion that follows is that if there are two separate
and different classes having different conditions of service and different incidents, the question
of discrimination does not arise. On the other hand, if among the members of the same class,
discriminatory treatment is meted out to one against the other, Art. 14 is doubtless attracted.
In Kathi Raning Rawat v. The State of Saurashtra(1) Sastri, C.J. observed thus:
"Though the differing procedures might involve disparity in the treatment of the persons tried
under them, such disparity is not by itself sufficient, in my opinion, to outweigh the
presumption and establish discrimination unless the degree of disparity goes beyond what the
reason for its existence demands as, for instance, when it amounts to a denial of a fair and
impartial trial."
Fazal Ali J. as he then was, pithily observed as follows :-
"I think that a distinction should be drawn between 'discrimination without reason' and
'discrimination with reason'. The whole doctrine of classification is based on this distinction and
on the well-known fact that the circumstances which govern one set of persons or objects may
not necessarily be the same as those governing another set of persons or objects, so that the
question of unequal treatment does not really arise as between persons governed by different
conditions and different sets of circumstances."
Similar observations were made by Mukherjee, J. who remarked thus :-
"The legislature is given the utmost latitude in making the classification and it is only when
there is a palpable abuse of power and the differences made have no rational relation to the
objectives of the legislation, that necessity of judicial interference arises."
The most apposite decision on the subject is the case of All India Station Master's & Assistant
Station Master's Association & Ors. v. General Manager, Central Railways & Ors.(l) where the
law on the subject was succinctly stated by Das Gupta, J. who speaking for the Court as follows
:-
"So multifarious are the activities of the State that employment of men for the purpose of these
activities has by the very nature of things to be in different departments of the State and inside
each department, in many different classes. For each such class there are separate rules fixing
the number of personnel of each class, posts to which the men in that class will be appointed,
questions of seniority, pay of different posts, the manner in which promotion will be effected
from the lower grades of pay to the higher grades, e.g., whether on the result of periodical
examination or by seniority, or by selection or on some other basis and other cognate matters.
Each such class can be reasonably considered to be a separate and in many matters independent
entity with its own rules of recruitment, pay and prospects and other conditions of service which
may vary considerably between one class and another.

135
It is clear that as between the members of the same class the question whether conditions of
service are the same or not may well arise. If they are not, the question of denial of equal
opportunity will require serious consideration in such cases. Does the concept of equal
opportunity in matters of employment apply, however, to variations in provisions as between
members of different classes of employees under the State ? In our opinion, the answer must be
in the negative."
The same view was reiterated by another decision of this Court in The General Manager,
Southern Railway v. Rangachari(2) where Gajendragadkar, J. pointed out thus:
" Would it. for instance, be open to the State to prescribe different scales of salary for the same
or similar posts, different terms of leave or superannuation for the same or similar post ? On the
narrow construction of Art. 16(1) even if such a discriminatory courses are adopted by the State
in respect of its employees that would not be violative of the equality of opportunity guaranteed
by Art. 16(1). Such a result could not obviously have been intended by the Constitution.. The
three provisions form part of the same constitutional code of guarantees and supplement each
other.
If that be so, there would be no difficulty in holding that the matters relating to employment
must include all matters in relation to employment both prior, and subsequent, to the
employment which are incidental to the employment and form part of the terms and conditions
of such employment.
... ... ...
It is common ground that Art. 16(4) does not cover the entire field covered by Art.
16(1) and (2). Some of the matters relating to employment in respect of which equality of
opportunity has been guaranteed by Art. 16(1) and (2) do not fall within the mischief of non-
obstante clause in Art. 16(4)."
(Emphasis ours) In State of Punjab v. Joginder Singh(1) Ayyangar, J while delivering the
majority judgment clearly elucidated the various spheres where Art. 14 could operate and
observed thus :-
"As we have stated already, the two Services started as independent services. The qualifications
prescribed for entry into each were different, the method of recruitment and the machinery for
the same were also different and the general qualifications possessed by and large by the
members of each class being different, they started as two distinct classes.
If the government order of September 27, 1957, did not integrate them into a single service, it
would follow that the two remained as they started as two distinct services. If they were distinct
services. There was no question of inter se seniority between members of the two services nor
of any comparison between the two in the matter of promotion for founding an argument based
upon Art. 14 or Art. 16(1). They started dissimilarly and they continued dissimilarly and any
dissimilarly in their treatment would not be a denial of equal opportunity for it is common
ground that within each group there is no denial of that freedom guaranteed by the two Articles.
The foundation therefore, of the judgment of the learned Judges of tile High Court that the
impugned rules created two classes out of what was formerly a single class and introduced
elements of discrimination between the two, has no factual basis if, as we hold, the order of
September 27, 1957, did not effectuate a complete integration of the two Services. On this view
it would follow that the impugned rules cannot be struck down as violative of the constitution.'
(Emphasis supplied) The same dictum was followed by this Court in a later case-Sham Sunder

136
v. Union of India and ors.(l)-where it was pointed out that Art. 16(1) would be attracted only if
there is a breach of equality between members of the same class of employees and Art. 14 did
not contemplate equality between members of separate or independent classes. In this
connection Bachawat, J. held thus:
"For purposes of promotion, all the enquiry-cum- reservation clerks on the Northern Railway
form one separate unit. Between members of this class there is no discrimination and no denial
of equal opportunity in the matter of promotion.. Equality of opportunity in matters of
employment under Art. 16(1) means equality as between members of the same class of
employees and not equality between members of separate, independent classes."
The same principle was reiterated by this Court in Western U.P. Electric Power and Supply Co.
Ltd. v. State of U.P. and Anr.(2) where Shah. J. observed thus:
"Article 14 of the Constitution ensures equality among A equals; its aim is to protect persons
similarly placed against discriminatory treatment. It does not however operate against rational
classification. A person setting up a grievance of denial of equal treatment by law must establish
that between persons similarly circumstanced, some were treated to their prejudice and the
differential treatment had no reasonable relation to the object sought to be achieved by the law."
In a recent decision of this Court in Ramesh Prasad Singh v. State of Bihar and Ors. (1) to
which one of us (Fazal Ali, J.) was a party, the same principle was reiterated thus :-
"Equality is for equals, that is to say, those who are similarly circumstanced are entitled to an
equal treatment but the guarantee enshrined in Articles 14 and 16 of the Constitution cannot be
carried beyond the point which is well settled by a catena of decisions of the Court."
Similarly, in The State of Gujarat and Anr. v. Shri Ambica Mills Ltd. etc.. (Z) Mathew, J.
speaking for the Court pointed out that classification is inherent in legislation and expounding
the concept of equality contained in Art. 14 observed thus :-
"It may be remembered that article 14 does not require that every regulatory statute apply to all
in the same business; where size is an index to the evil at which the law is directed,
discriminations between the large and small are permissible, and it is also permissible for
reform to take one step at a time, addressing itself to the phase of the problem which seems
most acute to the legislative mind."
... ... ... ...
"Classification is inherent in legislation. To recognize marked differences that exist in fact is
living law: to disregard practical differences and concentrate on some abstract . identities is
lifeless logic." (Morey v. Doud U.S. 457, 472) In State of Jammu and Kashmir v. Triloki Nath
Khosa and Ors.. (3) it was clearly pointed out that equality isonly for equals and even in cases
of promotion Art. 14 would apply only if promotional facility is denied to equals within the
same class. tn this connection, Chandrachud, J. (as he then was) pithily observed thus :-
"But the concept of equality has an inherent limitation arising from the very nature of the
constitutional guarantee. Equality is for equals. That is to say that those who are similarly
circumstanced are entitled to an equal treatment.
Since the constitutional code of equality and equal opportunity is a charter for equals, equality
of opportunity in matters of promotion means an equal promotional opportunity for persons
who fall, substantially, within the same class." In United States v. James Griggs Raines (1) it
was held that one to whom application of statute is constitutional cannot be heard to attack the
statute on the ground that impliedly if it applied to other persons it might be unconstitutional.

137
These observations, in our opinion, furnish a complete answer to the argument of the petitioners
that Article 14 is violated in the instant ease.
Similar observations were made in Vol. 16 (PP. 236-237) of Corpus Juris Secundum which are
extracted below :-
"A person ordinarily is precluded from challenging the constitutionality of governmental action
by invoking the rights of others and it is not sufficient that the statute or administrative
regulation is unconstitutional as to other persons or classes of persons; it must affirmatively
appear that the person attacking the statute comes within the class of persons affected by it."
Thus, from a detailed analysis and close examination of the eases of this Court starting from
1952 till today, the following propositions emerge :-
(1) In considering the fundamental right of equality of Opportunity a technical, pedantic or
doctrinaire app-
roach should not be made and the doctrine should not A be invoked even if different scales of
pay, service terms, leave, etc., are introduced in different or dissimilar posts.
Thus, where the class or categories of service are essentially different in purport and spirit, Art.
14 can- not be attracted. (2) Art. 14 forbids hostile discrimination but not reason able
classification. Thus, where persons belonging to a particular class in view of their special
attributes, qualities, mode of recruitment and the like, are differently treated in public interest to
advance and boost members belonging to backward classes, such a classification would not
amount to discrimination having a close nexus with the objects sought to be achieved so that in
such cases Art. 14 will be completely out of the way. (3) Art. 14 certainly applies where equals
are treated differently without any reasonable basis. (4) Where equals and unequals are treated
differently,Art. 14 would have no application.
(5) Even if there be one class of service having several categories with different attributes and
incidents, such a category becomes a separate class by itself and no difference or discrimination
between such category and the general members of the other class would amount to any
discrimination or to denial of equality of opportunity.
(6) In order to judge whether a separate category has been carved out of a class of service, the
following circumstances have generally to be examined:-
(a) the nature, the mode and the manner of recruitment of a particular category from the very
start,
(b) the classifications of the particular category.
(c) the terms and conditions of service of the members of the category,
(d) the nature and character of the posts and promotional avenues,
(e) the special attributes that the particular category possess which are not to be found in other
classes, and the like.
It is difficult to lay down a rule of universal application but the circumstances mentioned above
may be taken to be illustrative guidelines for determining the question.
Applying these tests we now proceed to examine the correctness of the first contention
advanced by Mr. Atul Setalvad and counsel for other petitioners and countered by the
Corporations.
A very large number of affidavits and documents have been filed by the parties in support of
their respective cases but in view of the arguments of the parties, the matter falls, in our opinion,
within a very narrow compass and we shall refer only to those affidavits and documents which

138
are germane for deciding the case on the basis of contentions advanced before us.
In order to test whether the category of AHs constitutes the same class as AFPS or is a separate
category by itself, we shall detail the materials placed before us by the parties on this aspect of
the matter. We shall first deal with the case of AHs employed by A.I.
To begin with, it is not disputed that at the initial recruitment a classification for appointment of
AH and AFP is essentially different. For instance, while in the case of AFP the necessary
qualifications are as follows:-
(1) SCC or its equivalent (2) Minimum three years training experience in any Airline or three
years Diploma in Catering from a recognised Institute or a Graduate.
(3) There is no requirement that AFP, should be unmarried .
(4) The AFP has to appear for a written I.C. test.
As against these basic requirements for entry into service for the class known as 'AFP', the
requirements for AHs are as follows:-
(1) SCC or its equivalent (2) AH must be unmarried B (3) No other requirement is needed for
entry into service so far as AH is concerned.
Mr. Setalvad however, argued that both AHs and AFPs being members of the same cabin crew
must be taken to belong to the same class. This argument fails to take into consideration the fact
that if at the threshold the basic requirements of the two classes, viz., AFP and AH, for entry
into service are absolutely different and poles apart even though both the classes may during the
flight work as cabin crew, they would not become one class of service. D Secondly, while AFP
starts with a grade of Rs. 385-535, the AH starts her career with the grade of Rs. 485-25-560-
40-770. This is also a very material difference which points to the AHs being a separate
category both in respect qualifications at the entry into service and also in respect of starting
salaries. E Another important distinction between AFPs and AHs is that whereas the total
number of posts in A.I. Of AFPs are 494, in the case of AHs is 737. Thus, to begin with, the two
classes differ in qualifications, in grades and also in the number of posts.
The matter does not rest there. Even the promotional avenues or channels of the two categories
of service are quite different and so is their seniority. So far as the AFPs are concerned, the
hierarchy is as follows:-
(1) A.F.P.
(2) F.P. (Grade: Rs. 485-25-560-40-720-50-1020) The total number of posts of FPs are 372.
Thus, by and large AH starts almost in the same grade as F.P. which is a higher post than AFP.
The third higher category is Check F.P. which has the same emoluments as FPs with the
difference that the Check FPs get an additional allowance of Rs. 200/- p.m. and the number of
posts are 61. The next promotional avenue is the post of Inflight Supervisor. The total posts are
69 and the Grade is Rs. 1100-501600-60- 1780- 100- 1880 No. of Grade Posts (5) Dy. Manger 8
1400-50-1600-60-1780 100-1880 (6) Manager 7 1720-60-1780-100-2180 (7) Manager, Cabin 1
1880- 100-2480 Crew It is asserted by the A.I. that it takes about 15 to 20 years for a F.P. to
reach the promotional posts of Inflight Supervisor and 25 years to reach the post of Dy.
Manager. As against this, n the hierarchy of AH is as follows:-
No. of Grade
posts
1. AH 737
2. Check AH 72

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 3. Dy. Chief AH 3 1100-50-1600-60-1780-
100-1880
4. Addl. Chief AH 3 1400-50-1600-60-1780-
100-1980
5. Chief AH 1 1720-60-1780-100-2180
It may be mentioned here that so far as the post of Dy. Chief AH is concerned, by virtue of an
agreement dated 30th May 1977 between the male members of the cabin crew it was decided to
phase them out. A serious exception has been taken against the Corporation for having acceded
to the demand for phasing out a post belonging to the category of AHs and that too without
taking the consent of AHs. A serious protest on this account was lodged by the AHs which is to
be found at page 166 of Vol. II of the Paperbook, the relevant portion of which of may be
extracted thus :
"We do not see how any Flight Purser or Assistant A Flight Purser could suggest a viable
proposal regarding our promotion considering this matter is in direct relation to Air Hostesses
and their future. In the past the Flight Pursers and the Assistant Flight Pursers took away our
promotional avenue to Deputy Chief Air Hostess without even consulting us."
At page 148 of Vol. II of the Paper Book, the affidavit details the circumstances under which
the post of Dy. Chief AH was agreed to be phased out. In this connection, the following extracts
are relevant :-
"The Association also went into the grades of different categories of cabin crew and found that
while the Deputy Chief Air Hostesses functioned on board the flight only as Check Air
Hostesses and/or Air Hostess her grade was much higher than that of a Flight Purser who was in
a higher status or cadre and had supervisory responsibilities. The management therefore was
approached by the association resulting in the said agreement of 30.5.1977 which is already
annexed hereto and marked Exhibit V above by which the category of Deputy Chief Air
Hostesses was made redundant." k.
We are also unable to understand how the Management could phase out a post available to the
AHs exclusively at the instant of Pursers when they had absolutely no concern with this
particular post nor had the Pursers any right to persuade the Management to abolish a post
which was not meant for them. The AHs have rightly protested that the Agreement to phase out
the post was unilaterally taken by the Management without even consulting the AHs although
they were the only ones who were most adversely affected by this decision. In para 25 of the
Affidavit at P. 58 of the same volume a statement is made regarding the circumstances under
which the post of Dy. Chief AH was phased out, which is extracted below:
"On May 30, 1977, as a result of discussions with the Air-India Cabin Crew Association
representing the flight pursers, assistant night pursers and air hostesses, it was decided that the
category of Deputy Chief Air Hostess would be phased out, i.e., as and when the then
existing Deputy Chief Air Hostesses retired or resigned the consequent vacancies would not be
filled. At present the promotional avenues for Air Hostesses are the post of Additional Chief Air
Hostess, Chief Air Hostess and Deputy Manager Air Hostesses."
Unfortunately, however, as the decision was taken as tar back as 1977 and no grievance was
made by the AHs before the High Court and as this is not a matter which is covered by Art.
32 of the Constitution, we are unable to give any relief to the AHs on this score. We would,
however, like to observe that in view of the limited promotional channels available to the AHs,

140
the A.I. should seriously consider the desirability of restoring the post of Dy. Chief AH and
thereby remove the serious injustice which has been done to the AHs in violation of the
principles of natural justice.
We have touched this aspect of the matter only incidentally as it was mentioned in the Affidavit
filed before us and appeared to us to be of some consequence.
Thus, from a comparison of the mode of recruitment the classification, the promotional avenues
and other matters which we have discussed above, we are satisfied that the AHs from an
absolutely separate category from that of AFPs in many respects having different grades,
different promotional avenues and different service conditions. Finally it may also be noted that
even though the AHs retire at the age of 35 (extendable) to 45 they get retiral benefits quite
different from those available to the AFPs. For instance, at pages 68-69 of Vol. II of the
Paperbook the following averments may be specially noticed :-
"The benefits particularly the retirement benefits for male cabin crew and female cabin crew in
service have been and are materially different and the expectations raised on the basis of these
benefits are also viewed differently. Thus, for instance, an Air Hostess, who is recruited
between the age of 19 and 25 on a higher pay scale than that of an Assistant Flight Purser and
who retires after service of 10 years, is entitled to the same quantum of free air passages, which
she was entitled to in the 10th year of her service, for a continuous period of five years
thereafter. Similarly, an Air Hostess who has completed IS years of service and retires thereafter
is entitled to free air passages for a continuous period of 10 years thereafter on the basis A of
the total number of free air passages she was entitled to in the IS years of her service. On the
other hand, Assistant Flight Pursers who are recruited between the ages of 21 and 26 are entitled
to retirement benefit of free air passage only if they voluntarily retire after 25 years of
continuous service or on attaining the age of superannuation, i.e., 58 years. If the retirement age
of air hostess were extended to 58 years, they would be subjected to the same discipline and
reaction of many of the existing air hostesses in Air India is that the differentiation in retirement
ages between men and women is fair and reasonable and to their advantage. In fact most of the
air hostesses are anxious to complete 10 years of service and retire to become eligible for these
benefits."
These benefits are further explained in a chart given in Ext. D which extracts the relevant
portions of Air India Employees Passage Regulations, 1960. The relevant portion of the
provisions may be extracted thus:
Category Scale of Period for
concession which conc-
ession
would be
admissible
------------------------------------------------------------
(a) Employees retiring one free passage Till the on reaching the every year or two of the age of
58 years or free passage every retired 55 years, as the alternate year and employee.
case may be, pro- not more than
vided they have two 90% rebated
rendered conti- passages every
nuous service for year.

141
 a minimum period
of 20 years.
(b) Employees retiring Two free passage Till the on reaching the every year and death of age of
58 years or not more than the retired 55 years, as the two 90% rebated employee.
case may be, pro- passage every
vided they have year.
rendered continuous
service for a
minimum of 25 years.

(c) Employees permit- One free passage Till the ted by Competent every year or death of
authority to retire two passage every the retired voluntarily after alternate year employee.
completion of a and not more
continuous service than two 90%
of not less than rebated passages
25 years. every year.
(d) Air Hostesses reti- one free passage For a ring after render- every year or period not ing
continuous two free passa- exceeding service for a mini- ges every alter- five years mum period
of 10 nate year and from the years, but less one 75% reba- or from 15 years. ted passage April
1, every year or 1974, two 75% rebated whichever passages every is later.
alternative year.
(e) Instructress, Air one free passage For a Hosstess/Lady every year or not Receptionists two
free passages exceeding
-retiring after every alternate ten years rendering continu- year and one 75% from the ous
service for a rebated passage date of minimum period of every year or two retirement 15 years.
or two 75% rebated or from passages every April 1, alternate year. 1974 whichever is later.
(f) Employees retiring
permanently due to -do- -do-
medical unfitness
provided that they
have retired after
rendering continu-
ous service for a
minimum period of
15 years.
Thus, although the AFPs also get retiral benefits which continue upto their death yet they get
these benefits only after having put in 20 years of service or reaching the age of superannuation
which in their case is 55 or 58 years;
whereas; the AHs get almost the same concessions, though for a lesser period, even after
serving the Corporation for a much shorter period. This is yet another distinctive feature of the
separate category of AHs.
Having regard, therefore, to the various circumstances, incidents, service conditions,
promotional avenues, etc. of the AFPs and AHs, the inference is irresistible that AHs though
members of the cabin crew are an entirely separate class governed by different set of rules,

142
regulations and conditions of service. Mr. Nariman submitted that job functions performed by
the AFPs and AHs being entirely different, is also an important circumstance to prove that AHs
is a class completely separate from the class of AFPs. We are, however, not impressed with this
argument because a perusal of the job functions which have been detailed in the affidavit,
clearly shows that the functions of the two, though obviously different overlap on some points
but the difference, if any, is one of degree rather than of kind. Moreover, being members of the
crew in the same flight, the two separate classes have to work as a team, helping and assisting
each other particularly in case of emergency. This aspect of the matter was highlighted by the
Mahesh Award which observed thus:
"The management claims that there cannot be and should not be, any inflexibility or rigidity
regarding the functions and duties of the different categories of cabin crew and the Management
should have full authority and discretion as regards the interchangeability of job allocations and
functions and duties of the different categories of cabin crew and for effecting from time to time
such interchanges of job allocations and of functions and duties as it might think fit.
... ... ...
There is not the slightest doubt that the Cabin Crew have to work as a team as pointed out by
Shri S.S. Hemmadi (AMW-5). Although there are different duties fixed for different categories,
it is necessary for each category to give help and do the work of other categories for the smooth
flight."
(vide pp. l 259-60 of the Mahesh Award) We entirely agree with the observations made in the
Mahesh Award and, therefore, do not attach much importance to this circumstance relied upon
by the Corporation.
In the same token, an additional argument advanced by Mr. Setalvad was that certain terms and
conditions of AHs were palpably discriminatory and violative of Art. 14. For instance, under the
Regulations concerned, AHs suffered from three important disabilities-(I) their services were
terminated on first pregnancy, (2) they were not allowed to marry within four years from the
date of their entry into service, and (3) the age of retirement of AHs was 35 years, extendable to
45 years at the option of the Managing Director, as against the retirement age of AFPs who
retired at the age of 55 or 58 years. There can be no doubt that these peculiar conditions do form
part of the Regulations governing AHs but once we have held that AHs from a separate
category with different and separate incidents the circumstances pointed out by the petitioners
cannot amount to discrimination so as to violate Art. 14 of the Constitution on this ground.
There is no complaint by the petitioners that between the separate class of AHs inter se there
has been any discrimination regarding any matter. In fact, the only point raised on this aspect
was that AHs employed by A.I. in U.K. have different conditions of service from AHs serving
A.I. in countries other than U.K. Doubtless this distinction is there but this is really a fortuitous
circumstance because A.I. was forced to comply with the local laws of U.K. in order to increase
the age of retirement of AHs posted in England. Surely we cannot expect A.I. to commit an
offence by violating the laws of U.K. In Navy, Army and Air Force Institutes v. Varely(1) the
variation between the hours of work by female employees in Nottingham and the hours of work
by male employees in London was held to be valid and did not violate the principle of Equality.
Phillips, J.. made the following observations:
"An example which we gave the other day was of a Case where all the conditions are satisfied
for the operation of an equality clause-because, for instance, there is a variation in that a woman

143
is paid less-but it is found on investigation that the employers can establish (and the burden of
proof, which is a heavy burden, is always on them) that the reason the man is paid more than the
woman has nothing whatever to do with sex but is due to the fact that the employers have in
force a system under which a long-service employee is paid more so the variation there is due,
not to a difference of sex, but to that material difference. It is important to note there that the
women, if she remains sufficiently long in the company's employ, will of course one day herself
qualify to receive a long-service increment. It is common ground in this case that the variation-
that is to say, the difference in the hours worked in London and those worked in Nottingham-is
not due to a difference of sex."
On a parity of reasoning in the instant case, therefore, the violation of Art. 14 is not due to any
fault of the Corporation which only seeks to abide by the local laws of United Kingdom nor
could it be said that the higher retirement age was fixed for AHs posted in U.K. Only on the
ground of sex.
Coming now to the next limb of the argument of Mr. Setalvad that even if there is no
discrimination inter se between AHs, the conditions referred to above are so unreasonable and
arbitrary that they violate Art. 14 and must, therefore, be struck down, we feel that the argument
merits serious consideration. Before, however, we deal with the various aspects of this
argument, we might mention an important argument put forward by the Corporation that the
class of AHs is a sex-based recruitment and, therefore, any, discrimination made in their service
conditions has not been made on the ground of sex only but due to a lot of other considerations
also. Mr. Setalvad tried to rebut this argument by contending that the real discrimination is
based on the basis of sex which is sought to be smoke-screened by giving a halo of
circumstances other than sex. Both parties placed reliance on the 1976 Act. It may be necessary
to examine the relevant section of the 1976 Act. Sub-sections (I) and (3) s. 4 of the 1976 Act
may be extracted thus:-
"4. (l) No employer shall pay to any worker, employed by him in an establishment or
employment, remuneration, whether payable in cash or in kind, at rates less favourable than
those at which remuneration is paid by him to the works of the opposite sex in such
establishment or of a similar nature ... ... ... ...
(3) Where, in an establishment or employment, the rates of remuneration payable before the
commencement of this Act for men and women workers for the same work or work of a similar
nature are different only on the ground of sex, then the higher (in cases where there are only two
rates), or, as the case may be, the highest (in cases where there are more than two rates), of such
rates shall be the rate at which remuneration shall be payable, on and from such
commencement. to such men and women workers :"
There is no doubt that the statutory mandate prohibits any employer from making a distinction
in wages between male and female. Had the matter rested here, there could have been no option
but to accept the argument of Mr. Setalvad. It would, however, appear that the benefit conferred
on the females under the 1976 Act is not absolute and unconditional. Section 16 clearly
authorises restrictions regarding remuneration to be paid by the employer if a declaration under
it is made by the appropriate Government, which may be extracted thus:
" 16. Where the appropriate Government is, on a consideration of all the circumstances of the
case, satisfied that the differences in regard to the remuneration, or a particular species of
remuneration, of men and women workers in any establishments or employment is based on a

144
factor other than sex, it may, by notification, make a r declaration to that effect, and any act of
the employer attributable to such a difference shall not be deemed to be a contravention of any
provision of this Act."
In the instant case, the Central Government has made a declaration by virtue of a Notification
dt. 15.6.79 published in the Gazette of India, Part II-Section 3, Sub- section (ii) dated 30.6.79,
which runs thus:-
"New Delhi, the I 5th June 1979.
S.C. 2258-ln exercise of the powers conferred by A section 16 of the Equal Remuneration Act,
1976 25 of 1976) the Central Government having considered all the circumstances relating to,
and terms and conditions of employment of Air Hostesses and Flight Stewards, are satisfied that
the difference in regard to pay, etc. Of these categories of employees are based on different
conditions of service and not on the difference of sex. The Central Government, therefore,
declares that any act of the employer attributable to such differences shall not be declared to be
in contravention of any of the provisions of the Act."
Thus, the declaration is presumptive proof of the fact that in the matter of allowances,
conditions of service and other types of remuneration, no discrimination has been made on the
ground of sex only. The declaration by the Central Government, therefore, completely
concludes the matter.
Even otherwise, what Articles IS (l) and 16 (2) prohibit is that discrimination should not be
made only and only on the ground of sex. These Articles of the Constitution do not prohibit the
State from making discrimination on the ground of sex coupled with other considerations. On
this point, the matter is no longer res integra but is covered by several authorities of this
Court. In Yusuf Abdul Aziz v. The State of Bombay and Husseinbhoy Laljee(l) sex was held to
be a permissible classification. While dealing with this aspect of the matter this Court observed
thus:-
Article 14 is general and must be read with the other pro visions which set out the ambit of
fundamental rights. Sex is a sound classification and although there can be no discrimination in
general on that ground, the Constitution itself provides for special provisions in the case OF
women and children. The two articles read together validate the impugned clause in section
497 of the Indian Penal Code."
The same view was taken by this Court in a later decision in Miss C.B. Muthamma v. U.O.I.
and ors.(2) where Krishna Iyer, J. speaking for the Court made the following observations:
"We do not mean to universalise or dogmatise that men and women are equal in all occupations
and all situations and do not exclude the need to pragmatise where the requirements of
particular employment, the sensitivities of . sex or the peculiarities of societal sectors or the
handicaps of either sex may compel selectivity. But save where the differentiation is
demonstrable, the rule of equality must govern."
For these reasons, therefore, the argument of Mr. Setalvad that the conditions of service with
regard to retirement, etc., amount to discrimination on the ground of sex only is overruled and it
is held that the conditions of service indicated above are not violative of Art. 16 on this ground.
This brings us now to the next limb of the argument of Mr. Setalvad which pertains to the
question as to whether and not the conditions imposed on the AHs regarding their retirement
and termination are manifestly unreasonable or absolutely arbitrary. We might mention here
that even though the conditions mentioned above may not be violative of Art. 14 on the ground

145
of discrimination but if it is proved to our satisfaction that the conditions laid down are entirely
unreasonable and absolutely arbitrary, then the provisions will have to be struck down.
This argument was sought to be rebutted by Mr. Nariman on the ground that the conditions
mentioned above formed the subject matter of the two Awards which have upheld the
conditions to be valid. It was also contended that even though the period of the Award has
expired, they continue to be binding on the parties and as these matters pertain to industrial
dispute, this Court should not disturb the settlement arrived at or the Awards given by the
National Tribunals and allow the disputes to be settled in the proper forum, viz., Industrial
courts. To buttress this argument, reliance was placed on certain observations in the two Awards
as also some authorities.
In this connection, while dealing with this particular demand of the AHs, the Khosla Award
observed thus:
"256. With regard to air hostesses, the contention of the Management is that they are in a special
class. They have to deal with passengers of various temperaments, and a young and attractive
air hostess is able to cope with difficult or awkward situations more competently and more
easily than an older person with less personal prepossessions. On this point there can be no two
opinions. It was also pointed out that air hostesses do not stay very long in the service of Air
India, and young and attractive women are more inclined to look upon service in Air India as a
temporary occupation than as a career. Most of them get married and leave the service.
... ... ... ...
260. In my view, no case has been made out for raising the age of retirement and in cases where
the efficiency of the employee is not impaired, there is suitable provision under regulation 47
for extending his service upto the age of 60. As observed above, there have been no complaints
of any employee being made to retire under the provision of clause (ii) of regulation 46...."
Similar demands were made before the Mahesh Tribunal which have been extracted earlier. The
observations of the Mahesh Tribunal may be extracted as follows:-
"There is no reason to have a different provision regarding the air hostesses in Air India. The
social conditions in Europe and elsewhere are different from the social conditions in India. The
work of an air hostess involves running hither and thither and flying at the same time. In case of
an air hostess, her appearance, glamour an weight are important. The working hours are also
odd. She has to walk up and down the aisles and has to be away from home for a number of
days at a time. All this will not suit an Indian married woman and also places the category of an
air hostess on an entirely different level from all those employed in a pharmaceutical concern.
The work of an air hostess is more arduous. lt seems, however, reasonable that the present
practice of restricting the extension beyond 30 years to one year at a time need not be a part of
the rules. The rule regarding extension of service in the settlement between the ACEU and the
Indian Airlines of January 10, 1972 is better worded and i; should be adopted by the Air India
also in its entirety. rt enables the General Manager to give extension for periods longer than one
year at a time, if he considers it proper. The bar of retirement on marriage should remain."
With due respect to Justice Khosla, we find ourselves unable to agree with most of the
observations that he has made and we shall give detailed reasons for the same a little later when
we deal with the validity of the impugned regulations.
It is true that even though the period of the Awards may have expired yet it continues to be
binding on the parties as an agreement. In South Indian Bank Ltd. v. A.R. Chacko(l) it was held

146
that even if the Award has ceased to be operative, it would continue to be binding on the parties
as a contract. In this connection, Das Gupta, J. made the following observations:-
"Quite apart from this, however, it appears to us that even if an award has ceased to be in
operation or in force and has ceased to be binding on the parties under the provisions of s. 19 (6)
it will continue to have its effect as a contract between the parties that has been made by
industrial adjudication in place of the old contract."
The same view was taken in Md. Qasim Larry, Factory Manager, Sasamusa Sugar Works v.
Muhammad Samsuddin and Anr.(2) and reiterated in Life Insurance Corporation of India v. D.J.
Bahadur and Ors.(3) where the following observations were made:-
"It is obvious from Section 18 that a settlement, like an award, is also binding. What I
emphasise is that an award, adjudicatory or arbitral, and a settlement during conciliation or by
agreement shall be binding because of statutory sanction. Section 19relates to the period of
operation of settlements and awards and here also it is clear that both settlements and awards, as
is evident from a reading of Section 19 (2) and (6), stand on the same footing.
... ... ... ...
The power of reasoning, t he purpose of industrial jurisprudence and the logic of the law
presented with terse force in this pronouncement cannot be missed. The new contract which is
created by an award continues to govern the relations between the parties till it is displaced by
another contract."
... ... ... ...
The law is lucid and the justice manifest on termination notice or notice of change the award or
settlement does not perish but survives to bind until reincarnation, in any modified form, in a
fresh regulation of conditions of service by a settlement or award."
In view of the authorities indicated above assuming that the two awards are binding on the
petitioners, the serious question for consideration is whether the agreement, which may be
binding on the parties, would estop them from challenging the Regulations on the ground that
the same are void as being violative of Articles 14 or 19 of the Constitution. It is well settled
that there can be no estoppel against a statute much less against constitutional provisions. If,
therefore, we hold in agreement with the argument of the petitioners that the provisions for
termination and retirement are violative of Art. 14 as being unreasonable and arbitrary, the
Awards or the agreements confirmed by the Awards would be of no assistance to the
Corporations.
We now proceed to determine the constitutional validity of the impugned Regulations. Taking
the case of A.I. AHs. it would appear that their conditions of service are governed by
Regulations 46 and 47, the relevant portions of which are extracted below:
"46. Retiring Age:
(i) Subject to the provision of sub-regulation (ii) hereof, an employee shall retire from the
service of the Corporation upon attaining the age of 58 years, except in the following cases
when/he/she shall retire earlier:
... ... ... ...
(c) An Air Hostess, upon attaining the age of 35 years or on marriage if it takes place within
four years of service or on first pregnancy, whichever occurs earlier;
... ... ... ...
(47) Extension of Service:

147
Notwithstanding anything contained in Regulation 46, the services of any employee, may, at the
option of the Managing Director but on the employee being found medically fit, be extended by
one year at a time beyond the age of retirement for an aggregate period not exceeding two years
except in the case of Air Hostesses and Receptionists where the period will be ten years and five
years respectively."
A perusal of the Regulations shows that the normal age of retirement of an AH is 35 years or on
marriage, if it takes place within four years of service, or on first pregnancy whichever occurs
earlier. Leaving the age of retirement for the time being, let us examine the constitutional
validity of the other two conditions, viz., termination if marriage takes place within four years
or on first pregnancy So far as the question of marriage within four years is concerned, we do
not think that the provisions suffer from any constitutional infirmity. According to the
regulations an AH starts her career between the age of 19 to 26 years. Most of the AHs are not
only SSC which is the minimum qualification but possess even higher qualifications and there
are very few who decide to marry immediately after entering the service. Thus, the Regulation
permits an AH to marry at the age of 23 if she has joined the service at the age of 19 which is by
all standards a very sound and salutary provision. Apart from improving the health of the
employee, it helps a good in the promotion and boosing up of our family planning programme.
Secondly, if a woman marries near about the age of 20 to 23 years, she becomes fully mature
and there is every chance of such a marriage proving a success, all things being equal. Thirdly,
it has been rightly pointed out to us by the Corporation that if the bar of marriage within four
years of service is removed then the Corporation will have to incur huge expenditure in
recruiting additional AHs either on a temporary or on ad hoc basis to replace the working AHs
if they conceive and any period short of four years would be too little a time for the Corporation
to phase out such an ambitious plan.
Having regard to these circumstances, we are unable to find any unreasonableness or
arbitrariness in the provisions of . the Regulations which necessitate that the AHs should not
marry within four years of the service failing which their services will have to be terminated.
Mr. Setalvad submitted that such a bar on marriage is an outrage on the dignity of the fair sex
and is per se unreasonable. Though the argument of Mr. Setalvad is extremely attractive but
having taken into consideration an overall picture of the situat;on and the difficulties of both the
parties, we are unable to find any constitutional infirmity or any element of arbitrariness in the
aforesaid provisions. The argument of Mr. Setalvad as also those who followed him on this
point is, therefore, overruled.
Coming now to the second limb of the provisions according to which the services of AHs would
stand terminated on first pregnancy, we find ourselves in complete agreement with the argument
of Mr. Setalvad that this is a most unreasonable and arbitrary provision which shocks the
conscience of the Court. The Regulation does not prohibit marriage after four years and if an
AH after having fulfilled the first condition becomes pregnant, there is no reason why
pregnancy should stand in the way of her continuing in service. The Corporations represented to
us that pregnancy leads to a number of complications and to medical disabilities which may
stand in the efflcient discharge of the duties by the AHs. It was said that even in the early stage
of pregnancy some ladies are prone to get sick due to air pressure, nausea in long flights and
such other technical factors. This, however, appears to be purely an artificial argument because
once a married woman is allowed to continue in service then under the provisions of

148
the Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 and The Maharashtra Maternity Rules, 1965 (these apply to
both the Corporations as their Head offices are at Bombay), she is entitled to certain benefits
including maternity leave. In case, however, the Corporations feel that pregnancy from the very
beginning may come in the way of the discharge of the duties by some of the AHs, they could
be given maternity leave for a period of 14 to 16 months and in the meanwhile there could be no
difflculty in the Management making arrangements on a temporary or ad hoc basis by
employing additional AHs. We are also unable to understand the argument of the Corporation
that a woman after bearing children becomes weak in physique or in her constitution. There is
neither any legal nor medical authority for this bald proposition. Having taken the AH in service
and after having utilised her services for four years, to terminate her service by the Management
if she becomes pregnant amounts to compelling the poor AH not to have any children and thus
interfere with and divert the ordinary course of human nature. It seems to us that the termination
of the services of an AH under such circumstances is not only a callous and cruel act but an
open insult to Indian womanhood the most sacrosanct and cherised institution. We are
constrained to observe that such a course of action is extremely detestable and adhorrent to the
notions of a civilised society. Apart from being grossly unethical, it smacks of a deep rooted
sense of utter selfishness at the cost of all human vahles. Such a provision, therefore, is not only
manifestly unreasonable and arbitrary but contains the quality of unfairness and exhibits naked
despotism and is, therefore, clearly violative of Art. 14 of the Constitution. In fact, as a very fair
and conscienticus counsel Mr. Nariman realised the inherent weakness and the apparent
absurdity of the aforesaid impugned provisions and in the course of his arguments he stated that
he had been able to persuade the Management to amendthe Rules so as to delete 'first
pregnancy' as a ground for termination of the service and would see that suitable amendments
are made to Regulation 46 (i) (c) in the following manner:
"(a) Regulation 46 (i) (c) will be amended so as to substitute for the words "or a first
pregnancy", the words "or on a third pregoancy".
(b) There will be a suitably framed Regulation to provide for the above and for the following:
(i) An air hostess having reason to believe that she is pregnant will intimate this to Air India and
will also elect in writing within a reasonable time whether or not to continue in service.
(ii) If such air hostess elects to continue in service on pregnancy, she shall take leave from
service for a period not later than that commencing from 90 days after conception and will be
entitled to resume service only after confinement (or premature termination of pregnancy) and
after she is certified by the Medical officer of AIR INDIA as being fit for resuming her duties as
an air hostess after delivery or confinement or prior termination of pregnancy. The said entire
period will be treated as leave without pay subject to the air hostess being entitled to maternity
leave with pay as in the case of other female employees and privilege leave under the
Regulations.
(iii)Every such air hostess will submit to an annual medical examination by the Medical Officer
of AIR INDIA for certification of continued physical fitness or such other specifications of
health and physical condition as may be prescribed by AIR INDIA in this behalf in the interest
of maintenance of efficiency.
(iv) It will be clarified that the provisions relating to continuance in service on pregnancy will
only be available to married women-an unmarried woman on first pregnancy will have to retire
from service."

149
The proposed amendment seems to us to be quite reasonable but the decision of this case cannot
await the amendment which may or may not be made. We would therefore, have to give our
decision regarding the constitutional validity of the said provision. Moreover, clause (b) (iv)
above, which is the proposed amendment, also suffers from the infirmity that if an unmarried
woman conceives then her service would be terminated on first pregnancy. This provision also
appears to us to be wholly unreasonable because apart from being revolting to all sacred human
values, it fails to take into consideration cases where a woman becomes a victim of rape or other
circumstances resulting in pregnancy by force or fraud for reasons beyond the control of the
woman and having gone through such a harrowing experience she has to face tennination of
service for no fault of hers. Furthermore, the distinction of first pregnancy of a married woman
and that of an unmarried woman does not have any reasonable or rational basis and cannot be
supported.
In General Electric Company v. Martha V. Gilbert although the majority of the Judges of the
U.S. Supreme Court were of the opinion that exclusion of pregnancy did not constitute any sex
discrimination in violation of Title VII nor did it amount to gender based discrimination; three
judges, namely Brennan, Marshall and Stevens, JJ. dissented from this view and held that the
pregnancy disability exlusion amounted to downgrading women's role in labour force. The
counsel for the Corporation relied on the majority judgments of Rehnquist, Burger, Stewart,
White and Powell, JJ. while the petitioners relied strongly on the dissenting opinion. We are
inclined to accept the dissenting opinion which seems to take a more reasonable and rational
view. Brennan, J. with whom Marshall, J. agreed, observed as follows:
"(1) the record as to the history of the employer's practices showed that the pregnancy disability
exclusion stemmed from a policy that purposefully downgraded women's role in the labour
force, rather than from gender neutral risk assignment considerations.
Stevens, J, while endorsing the view of Brennan, J.
Observed thus :-
"The case presented only a question of statutory construction, and (2) the employers rule placed
the risk of absence caused by pregnancy in a class by itself, thus violating the statute as
discriminating on the basis of sex, since it was the capacity to become pregnant which primarily
differentiated the female from the male."
In the instant case, if the Corporation has permitted the AHs to marry after the expiry of four
years then the decision to terminate the services on first pregnancy seems to be wholly
inconsistent and incongruous with the concession given to the AHs by allowing them to marry.
Moreover, the provision itself is so out rageous that it makes a mockery of doing justice to the
AHs on the imaginative plea that pregnancy will result in a number of complications which can
easily be avoided as pointed out by us earlier. Mr. Setalvad cited a number of decisions of the
U.S. Supreme Court on the question of sex but most of these decisions may not be relevant
because they are on the question of denial of equality of opportunity. In view of our finding,
however, that AHs form a separate class from the category consisting of AFPs, these authorities
would have no application particularly in view of the fact that there is some difference between
Articles 14, 15 and 16 of our Constitution and the due-process-clause and the 14th Amendment
of the American Constitution. This Court has held that the provisions of the American
Constitution cannot always be applied to Indian conditions or to the provisions of our
Constitution. While some of the principles adumbrated by the American decisions may provide

150
a useful guide yet this Court did not favour a close adherence to those principles while applying
the same to the provisions of our Constitution, because the social conditions in this country are
different. In this connection in the Stare of West Bengal v. Anwar Ali Sarkar, Mukherjea, J,
observed thus:-
"A number of American decisions have been cited before us on behalf of both parties in course
of the arguments; and while a too rigid adherenee to the views expressed by the Judges of the
Supreme Court of America while dealing with the equal protection clause in their oWQ
Constitution may not be necessary or desirable for the purpose of determing the true meaning
and scope of article 14 of the Indian Constitution, it cannot be denied that the general principle
enunciated in many of these cases do afford considerable help and guidance in the matter."
Same view was taken in a later decision of this Court in A.S. Krishna v. State of Madras where
it was held that the due process clause in the American Constitution could not apply to our
Constitution. In this connection Venkatarama Ayyar, J. Observed thus:-
"The law would thus appear to be based on the due process clause, and it is extremely doubtful
whether it can have application under our Constitution."
At any rate, we shall refer only to those authorities which deal with pregnancy as amounting to
per se discriminatory or arbitrary. In Clevel and Board of Education v. Jo Caro1 La Flour the
U.S. Supreme Court made the following observations:-
"As long as the teachers are required to give substantial advance notice of their condition, the
choice of firm dates later in pregnancy would serve the boards objectives just as well, while
imposing a far lesser burdern on the women's exercise of constitutionally protected freedom.
... ... ... ...
While it might be easier for the school boards to conclusively presume that all pregnant women
are unfit to teach past the fourth or firth month or even the first month, of pregnancy,
administrative convenience alone is insufficient to make valid what otherwise is a violation of
due process of law. The Fourleenth Amendmeat requires the school boards to employ
alternative administrative means, which do not so broadly infringe upon basic contitutional
liberty, in support of their legitimate goals..... While the regulations no doubt represent a good
faith attempt to acllieve a laudable goal, they cannnot pass muster under the Due Process Clause
of the Fourteenth Amendment, because they employ irrebuttable presumptions that unduly
penalize a female teacher for deciding to bear a child."
The observations made by the U.S. Supreme Court regarding the teachers fully apply to the case
of the pregnant AHs. In Sharron A. Frontiero v. L. Filliot L. Richaradson the following
observations were made:
"Moreover, since sex, like race and national origin, is an immutable characteristic determined
solely by the accident of birth, the imposition of special disabilities upon the members of a
particular sex because of their sex would seem to violate "the basic concept of our system that
legal burdens should bear some relationship to individual responsibility."
What is said about the fair sex by Judges fully applies to a pregnant woman because pregnancy
also is not a disability but one of the nlatural consequences of marriage and is an immutable
charaeteristic of married life. Any distinction therefore, made on the ground of pregnancy
cannot but be held to be extremely arbitrary.
ln Mary Ann Turner v. Department of Employment Security the U.S. Supreme Court severely
criticised the maternity leave rules which required a teacher to quit her job several months

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before the expected child. In this connection the court observed as follows:
"The Court held that a school board's mandatory maternity leave rule which required a teacher
to quit her job several months before the expected birth of her child and prohibited her return to
work until three months after child birth violated the Fourteenth Amendment...the Constitution
required a more individualized approach to the question of the teacher's physical capacity to
continue her employment during pregnancy and resume her duties after childbirth since "the
ability of any particular pregnant women to continue at work past any fixed time in her
pregnancy is very much an individual matter.
It cannot be doubted that a substantial number of women are fully capable of working well into
their last trimester of pregnancy and of resuming employment shortly after childbirth.
We conclude that the Utah unemployment compensation statute's incorporation of a conclusive
presumption of incapacity during so long a period before and after childbirth is constitutionally
invalid under the principles of the La Fleur case " We fully endorse the observations made by
the U.S.
Supreme Court which, in our opinion, aptly apply to the facts of the present case. By making
pregnancy a bar to continuance in service of an AH the Corporation seems to have made an
individualised approach to a women's physical capacity to continue her employment even after
pregnancy which undoubtedly is a most unreasonable approach.
Similarly, very pregnant observations were made by the U.S. Supreme Court in City of Los
Angeles, Department of Water and Power v. Marie Manhar thus:
"It is now well recognized that employment decisions cannot be predicated on mere
'stereotyped' impressions about the characteristics of males or females. Myths and purely
habitual assumptions about a woman's inability to perform certain kinds of work are no longer
acceptable reasons for refusing to employ qualified individuals, or for paying them less....The
question, therefore, is whether the existence or non- existence of "discrimination" is to be deter-
mined by comparison of class characteristics or individual charcteristics. A 'stereotyped' answer
to that question may not be the same as the answer that the language and purpose of the statute
command.
... ... ... ...
Even if the statutory language were less clear, the basic policy of the statute requires that we
focus on fairness to individuals rather than fairness to classes. Practices that classify employees
in terms of religion, race, or sex tend to preserve traditional assumptions about groups rather
than thoughtful scrutiny of individuals."
These observations also apply to the bar contained in the impugned regulation against
continuance of service after pregnancy. In Bombay Labour Union Representing the Workmen
of M/s. Inter national Pranchises Pvl. Ltd., v. M/s. International Pranchises Pvt. Ltd. this Court
while dealing with a rule barring married women from working in a particular concern
expressed views almost similar to the views taken by the U.S. Supreme Court in the decisions
referred to above in that case a particular rule required that unmarried women were to give up
service on marriage-a rule which existed in the Regulations of the Corporation also but appears
to have been deleted now. In criticising the validity of this rule this Court observed as follows :-
"We are not impressed by these reasons for retaining a rule of this kind. Nor do we think that
because the work has to be done as a team it cannot be done by married women. We also feel
that there is nothing to show that married women would necessarily be more likely to be absent

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than unmarried women or widows. If it is the presence of children which may be said to account
for greater absenteeism among married women, that would be so more or less in the case of
widows with children also. The fact that the work has got to be done as a team and presence of
all those workmen is necessary, is in our opinion no disqualification so far as married women
are concerned. It cannot be disputed that even unmarried women or widows are entitled to such
leave as the respondent's rules provide and they would be availing themselves of these leave
facilities."
These observations apply with equal force to the bar of pregnancy contained in the impugned
Regulation.
It was suggested by one of the Corporations that after a woman becomes pregnant and bears
children there may be lot of difficulties in her resuming service, the reason being that her
husband may not permit her to work as an AH. These reasons, however do not appeal to us
because such circumstances can also exist even without pregnancy in the case of a married
woman and if a married woman leaves the job, the Corporation will have to make arrangements
for a substitute. Moreover, whether the woman after bearing children would continue in service
or would find it difficult to look after the children is her personal matter and a problem which
affects the AH concerned and the Corporation has nothing to do with the same. These are
circumstances which happen in the normal course of business and cannot be helped. Suppose an
AH dies or becomes incapacitated, it is manifest that the Corporation will have to make
alternative arrangements for her substitute. In these circumstances, therefore, we are satisfied
that the reasons given for imposing the bar are neither logical nor convincing.
In view of our recent decision explaining the scope of Art. 14, it has been held that any arbitrary
or unreasonable action or provision made by the State cannot be upheld. In M/s. Dwarka Prasad
Laxmi Naraian v. The State of Uttar Pradesh & Ors. this Court made the following
observations:-
"Legislation, which arbitrarily or excessively invades the right, cannot be said to contain the
quality of reasonableness, and unless it strikes a proper balance between the freedom guaranteed
under article 19 (1) (g) and the social control permitted by clause (6) of article 19, it must be
held to be wanting in reasonableness."
In Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India, Beg, C.J. Observed as follows:
"The view I have taken above proceeds on the assumption that there are inherent or natural
human rights of the individual recognised by and embodied in our Constitution.. If either the
reason sanctioned by the law is absent, or the procedure followed in arriving at the conclusion
that such a reason exists is unreasonable, the order having the effect of deprivation or restriction
must be quashed."
and Bhagwati, J. Observed thus:
"Equality is a dynamic concept with many aspects and dimensions and it cannot be imprisoned
within traditional and doctrinaire limits.. Article 14 strikes at arbitariness in State action and
ensures fairness and equality of treatment. The principle of reasonableness, which legally as
well as philosophically, is an essential element of equality or non-arbitrariness pervades Article
14 like a brooding omnipresence.. It must be "right and just and fair" and not arbitrary, fanciful
or oppressive; otherwise, it would be no procedure at all and the requirement of Article
21 would not be satisfied."
In an earlier case in E.P. Royappa v. State of Tamil Nadu and Anr. Similar observations were

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made by this Court thus:
"In fact equality and arbitrariness are sworn enemies; one belongs to the rule of law in a
republic, while the other, to the whim and caprice of an absolute monarch. Where an act is
arbitrary, it is implicit in it that it is unequal both according to political logic and constitutional
law and is therefore violative of Article 14."
In State of Andhra Pradesh and Anr. v. Nalla Raja Reddy and Ors. this Court made the
following observations:
"Official arbitrariness is more subversive of the doctrine of equality than statutory
discrirnination. In respect of a statutory discrimination one knows where he stands, but the
wand of official arbitrariness can be waved in all directions indiscriminately."
The impugned provisions appear to us to be a clear case of official arbitrariness. As the
impugned part of the regulation is severable from the rest of the regulation, it is not necessary
for us to strike down the entire Regulation.
For the reasons given above, we strike down the last portion of regulation 46 (i) (c) and hold
that the provision 'or on first pregnancy whichever occurs earlier' is unconstitutional, void and is
violative of Art. 14 of the Constitution and will, therefore, stand deleted. It will, however, be
open to the Corporation to make suitable amendments in the light of our observations and on the
lines indicated by Mr. Nariman in the form of draft proposals referred to earlier so as to soften
the rigours of the provisions and make it just and reasonable. For instance, the rule could be
suitably amended so as to terminate the services of an AH on third pregnancy provided two
children are alive which would be both salutary and reasonable for two reasons. In the first
place, the provision preventing third pregnancy with two existing children would be in the
larger interest of the health of the AH concerned as also for the good upbringing of the children.
Secondly, as indicated above while dealing with the rule regarding prohibition of marriage
within four years, same considerations would apply to a bar of third pregnancy where two
children are already there because when the entire world is faced with the problem of population
explosion it will not only be desirable but absolutely essential for every country to see that the
family planning programme is not only whipped up but maintained at sufficient levels so as to
meet the danger of over population which, if not controlled, may lead to serious social and
economic problems throughout the world. The next provision which has been the subject matter
of serious controversy between the parties, is the one contained in regulation 46 (i) (c).
According to this provision, the normal age of retirement of an AH is 35 years which may at the
option of the Managing Director be extended to 45 years subject to other conditions being
satisfied. A similar regulation is to be found in the Rules made by the l.A.C. to which we shall
refer hereafter. The question of fixation of retirement age of an AH is to be decided by the
authorities concerned after taking into consideration various factors such as the nature of the
work, the prevailing conditions, the practice prevalent in other establishments and the like. In
Imperial Chemical Industries (India) Pvt. Ltd. v. The Workmen(1) this Court pointed out that in
fixing the age of retirement, changing the terms and conditions of service, the determination of
the age on industry-cum-region basis would undoubtedly be a relevant factor. In this
connection, Gajendragadkar, J. made the following further observations:
"There is no doubt that in fixing the age of retirement no hard and fast rule can be laid down.
The decision on the question would always depend on a proper assessment of the relevant
factors and may conceivably vary from case Similarly, in an earlier case in Guest, Keen,

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Williams Pvt. Ltd. v. P. J. Sterling and Ors.(1) this Court made the following observations:
"In fixing the age of superannuation industrial tribunals have to take into account several
relevant factors. What is the nature of the work assigned to the employees in the course of their
employment.. What is generally the practice prevailing in the industry in the past in the matter
of retiring its employees '?
These and other relevant facts have to be weighed by the tribunal in every case when it is called
upon to fix an age of superannuation in an industrial dispute.' It is, therefore, manifest that the
factors to be considered must be relevant and bear a close nexus to the nature of the organisation
and the duties of the employees.
Where the authority concerned takes into account factors or circumstances which are inherently
irrational or illogical or tainted, the decision fixing the age of retirement is open to serious
scrutiny.
The stand taken by A.l. regarding this particular provision is that there are several reasons
which prompted the Management to persuade the Government to make this Regulation. In the
first place, it was contended that in view of the arduous and strenuous work that the AHs have
to put in an early date of retirement is in the best interest of their efficiency and also in the
interest of their health. Another reason advanced by A.l. is that several years experience of the
working of AHs shows that quite a large number of them retire even before they A reach the age
of 35; hence a lower age for retirement is fixed in their case under the Regulation with a
provision for extension in suitable cases. These reasons are no doubt understandable and prima
facie appear to be somewhat sound. We are, however, not quite sure if the premises on the basis
of which these arguments have been put forward are really correct. In the present times with
advancing medical technology it may not be very correct to say that a woman loses her normal
faculties or that her efficiency is impaired at the age of 35, 40 or 45, years. It is difficult to
generalise a proposition like this which will have to vary from individual to individual. On the
other hand, there may be cases where an AFP may be of so weak and unhealthy a constitution
that he may not be able to function upto the age of 58, which is the age of retirement of AFP
according to the Regulation. As, however, the distinction regarding the age of retirement made
by the Regulation between AHs and AFPs cannot be said to be discriminatory because AHs
have been held by us to be a separate class yet we will have to examine the provision from other
points of view as well. Another line of reasoning which has been placed before us and which
smacks of a most perverse and morbid approach is to be found in para 9 of the counter-affidavit
in vol. II of the Paperbook where the following averments have been made:-
"With reference to paragraph 30 of the Affidavit, I repeat that Air Hostesses are recruited for
providing attractive and pleasing service to passengers in a highly competitive field and
consequently stress is laid on their appearance, youth, glamour and charm."
We are rather surprised that similar arguments made before the two Tribunals seem to have
found favour with them because at page 204 (para 256) the Khosla Award having been carried
away by the arguments of the Corporation made the following observations:
"They have to deal with passengers of various tem- peraments, and a young and attractive air
hostess is able to cope with difficult or awkward situations more competently and more easily
than an older person with less personal prepossession."
We fail to see how a young and attractive AH would be able to cope with difficult or awkward
situations more effectively than others because smartness or beauty cannot be the only hallmark

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of competency. Similar observations were made by the Mahesh Tribunal in the following terms.
"The management claims this on the ground that the cabin crew service has to be attractive to
passengers."
The argument that AHs should be young and attractive and should possess pleasing manners
seems to suggest that AHs should by their sweet smiles and pleasant behaviour entertain and
look after the passengers which cannot be done by women of older age. This argument seems to
us to be based on pure speculation and an artificial understanding of the qualities of the fair sex
and, if we may say so, it amounts to an open insult to the institution of our sacred womanhood.
Such a morbid approach is totally against our ancient culture and heritage as a woman in our
country occupies a very high and respected position in the society as a mother, a wife, a
companion and a social worker. It is idle to contend that young women with pleasing manners
should be employed so as to act as show pieces in order to cater to the varied tastes of the
passengers when in fact older women with greater experience and goodwill can look after the
comforts of the passengers much better than a young woman can. Even if the Corporation had
been swayed or governed by these considerations, it must immediately banish or efface the
same from its approach. More particularly such observations coming from a prestigious
Corporation like A.I. appear to be in bad taste and is proof positive of denigration of the role of
women and a demonstration of male chauvinism and verily involves nay discloses an element of
unfavourable bias against the fair sex which is palpably unreasonable and smacks of pure
official arbitrariness. The observations of Sastri, C. J. in Kathi Raning Rawat's case (supra) may
be extracted thus:
"All legislative differentiation is not necessarily discriminatory.. Discrimination this involves an
element of unfavourable bias .. If such bias is disclosed.. it may well be that the statute will,
without more, incur condemnation as violating a specific constitutional prohibition."
At any rate, it is not possible for us to entertain such an argument which must be rejected
outright. In fact, there is no substantial and weighty reason for upholding the impugned
provisions and this part of the line of reasoning adopted by the respondent-Corporations cannot
be countenanced.
In the same token it was contended by the counsel for the petitioners that whereas the retirement
age in a number of other international airlines is 50 to 55 years, there is no reasonable basis for
keeping the retirement age of A.l. AHs at 35, extendable to 45 years. In proof of this argument a
chart was submitted before us of the various international airlines to show that the age of
retirement of AHs of those airlines was much more than those of AHs employed by A.I.
In the first place, it is difficult to agree that the service conditions which apply to foreign
airlines, should protanto apply to the employees of A.I. because the conditions of service
including the age of retirement depend on various geographical and economic factors.
Sometimes a small country may be rich enough or in view of limited number of flights or small
population, it can afford to keep the AHs in service for a longer time. Local influences, social
conditions and legal or political pressures may account for the terms and conditions to be fixed
in the case of the AHs employed by international airlines other than A.I. In view of these
diverse factors, it is not possible to easily infer unfavourable treatment to the petitioners because
certain more favourable conditions of service are offered by international airlines of other
countries. For instance, the retirement age of AHs in KLM (Royal Dutch) and Ghana airlines is
50 years whereas in the case of Swiss airlines it is 57 and in the case of Malaysian airlines it is

156
45 years. In the case of Singapore airlines the retirement age of Check stewardess is 45 years.
Similarly, in other airlines like Austrian, Germanair, Lufthansa and Nigeria Airways the
retirement age of female AHs is SS whereas in the case of Air International, U.T.A. (France)
and Air France it is SO. In case of Sudan Airways and British Airways the retirement age is 60
whereas in Nordair (Canada) and Transair (Canada) airlines the age is 65 years.
A perusal of the scheme of retirement age given above would clearly show that several
considerations weigh with the Governments or Corporations concerned in fixing the retirement
age which would naturally differ from country to country having regard to the various factors
mentioned above. In fact, a similar grievance seems to have been made before the Mahesh
Tribunal which also pointed out that the social conditions in Europe and other countries being
different, the same rules could not apply to A.I. In this connection, the Tribunal observed thus:
"There is no reason to have a different provision regarding the air hostesses in Air India. The
social conditions in Europe and elsewhere are different from the social conditions in India."
In this view of the matter the argument on this score must be rejected. This Court has pointed
out that there cannot be any cut and dried formula for determining the age of retirement which is
to be linked with various circumstances and a variety of factors.
We might further mention that even before the Mahesh Tribunal, the stand taken by the AHs
was merely that their age of retirement should be extended to 45 years and they never put
forward or suggested any claim to increase the retirement age to 58 which clearly shows that
their present claim is not merely belated but an afterthought particularly because the Mahesh
Tribunal was dealing with this particular grievance and if the AHs were really serious in getting
their retirement age equated with that of the AFPs, i.e. 58, they would not have failed to put
forward this specific claim before the Tribunal. This is yet another ground on which the claim
of the AHs to be retired at the age of 58 cannot be entertained because as we have already
shown the Award binds the parties even though its period may have expired.
This brings us now to the question as to whether or not the impugned regulation suffers from
any constitutional infirmity as it stands. The fixation of the age of retirement of AHs who fall
within a special class depends on various factors which have to be taken into consideration by
the employers. In the instant case, the Corporations have placed good material before us to
show some justification for keeping the age of retirement at 35 years (extendable upto 45 years)
but the regulation seems to us to arm the Managing Director with uncanalized and unguided
discretion to extend the age of AHs at his option which appears to us to suffer from the vice of
excessive delegation of powers. It is true that a discretionary power may not necessarily be a
discriminatory power but where a statute confers a power on an authority to decide matters of
moment without laying down any guidelines or principles or norms the power has to be struck
down as being violative of Art. 14.
The doctrine of a provision suffering from the vice of excessive delegation of power has been
explained and discussed in several decisions of this Court. In Anwar Ali Sarkar's case (supra)
which may justly be regarded as the locus classicus on the subject, Fazal Ali, J. (as he then was)
clearly observed as follows:
"but the second criticism cannot be so easily met, since an Act which gives uncontrolled
authority to discriminate cannot but be hit by article 14 and it will be no answer simply to say
that the legislature having more or less the unlimited power to delegate has merely exercised
that power.

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... ... ... ...
Secondly, the Act itself does not state that public interest and administrative exigencies will
provide the occasion for its application. Lastly, the discrimination involved in the application of
the Act is too evident to be explained away."
and Mahajan, J. agreeing with the same expressed his views thus:
"The present statute suggests no reasonable basis or classification, either in respect of offences
or in respect of cases. It has laid down no yardstick or measure for the grouping either of
persons or of cases or of offences by which measure these groups could be distinguished from
those who are outside the purview of the Special Act. The Act has left this matter entirely to the
unregulated discretion of the provincial government."
Mukherjea, J. observed thus:
"In the case before us the language of section 5(1) is perfectly clear and free from any
ambiguity. It vests an unrestricted discretion in the State Government to direct any cases or
classes of cases to be tried by the Special Court in accordance with the procedure laid down in
the Act.. l am definitely of opinion that the necessity of a speedier trial is too vague, uncertain
and elusive a criterion to form a rational basis for the discriminations made But the question is:
how is this necessity of speedier trial to be determined ? Not by reference to the nature of the
offences or the circumstances under which or the area in which they are committed, nor even by
reference to any peculiarities or antecedents of the offenders themselves, but the selection is left
to the absolute and unfettered discretion of the executive government with nothing in the law to
guide or control its action. This is not a reasonable classification at all but an arbitrary
selection."
and Chandrasekhara Aiyar, J. elucidated the law thus:
"If the Act does not state what exactly are the offences which in its opinion need a speedier trial
and why it is so considered, a mere statement in general words of the object sought to be
achieved, as we find in this case, is of no avail because the classification, if any, is illusive or
evasive. The policy or idea behind the classification should at least be adumbrated, if not staled,
so that the Court which has to decide on the constitutionality might be seized of something on
which it could base its view about the propriety of the enactment from the standpoint of
discrimination or equal protection. Any arbitrary division or ridge will render the equal
protection clause moribund or lifeless. Apart from the absence of any reasonable or rational
classification, we have in this case the additional feature of a carte blanche being given to the
State Government to send any offences or cases for trial by a Special Court."
and Bose, J. held thus:
"It is the differentiation which matters; the singling out of cases or groups of cases, or even of
offences or classes of offences, of a kind fraught with the most serious consequences to the
individuals concerned, for special, and what some would regard as peculiar, treatment."
The five Judges whose decisions we have extracted constituted the majority decision of the
Bench.
In Lala Hari Chand Sard v. Mizo District Council and Anr. it was highlighted that where a
Regulation does not contain any principles or standard for the exercise of the executive power,
it was a bad regulation as being violative of Art. 14. In this connection, the Court observed as
follows:-
"A perusal of Regulation shows that it nowhere provides any principles or standards on which

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the Executive Committee has to act in granting or refusing, to grant the licence...There being no
principles or standards laid down in the Regulation there are obviously no restraints or limits
within which the power of the Executive Committee to refuse to grant or renew a licence is to
be exercised.. The power of refusal is thus left entirely unguided and untrammeled.
... ... ... ...
A provision which leaves an unbridled power to an authority cannot in any sense be
characterised as reasonable. Section 3 of the Regulation is one such provision and is therefore
liable to be struck down as violative of Art. 19 (1) (g)."
To the same effect is another decision of this Court in State of Mysore v. S.R. Jayaram where
the following observations were made:
"The Rules are silent on the question as to how the Government is to find out the suitability of a
candidate for a particular cadre... It follows that under the latter part of r.9 (2) it is open to the
Government to say at its sweet will that a candidate is more suitable for a particular cadre and to
deprive him of his opportunity to join the cadre for which he indicated his preference.
... ... ... ...
We hold that the latter part of r. 9 (2) gives the Government an arbitrary power of ignoring the
just claims of successful candidates for recruitment to offices under the State. It is violative of
Arts. 14 and 16 (1) of the Constitution and must be struck down."
Here also the Rules were struck down because no principle or guidelines were given by the
statute to determine the suitability of a particular candidate.
Regulation 46 (i) (c) provides that an AH would retire on attaining the age of 35 years or on
marriage if it takes place within four years of service. The last limb of this provision relating to
first pregnancy in the case of AHs has already been struck down by us and the remaining sub-
clause
(c) has to be read with Regulation 47 which provides that the services of any employee may, at
the option of the Managing Director, on the employee being found medically fit, be extended by
one year beyond the age of retirement, the aggregate period not exceeding two years. This
provision applies to employees who retire at the age of 58. So far as the AHs are concerned,
under the Regulation the discretion is to be exercised by the Managing Director to extend the
period upto ten years. In other words, the spirit of the Regulation is that an AH, if medically fit,
is likely to continue upto the age of 45 by yearly extensions given by the Managing Director.
Unfortunately, however, the real intention of the makers of the Regulations has not been carried
out because the Managing Directors has been given an uncontrolled, unguided and absolute
discretion to extend or not to extend the period of retirement in the case of AHs after 35 years.
The words 'at the option' are wide enough to allow the Managing Director to exercise his
discretion in favour of one AH and not in favour of the other which may result in
discrimination. The Regulation does not provide any guidelines, rules, or principles which may
govern the exercise of the discretion by the Managing Director. Similarly, there is also no
provision in the Regulation requiring the authorities to give reason for refusing to extend the
period of retirement of AHs. The provision does not even give any right of appeal to higher
authorities against the order passed by the Managing Director. Under the provision, as it stands,
the extension of the retirement of an AH is entirely at the mercy and sweet will of the Managing
Director. The conferment of such a wide and uncontrolled power on the Managing Director is
clearly violative of Art. 14, as the provision suffers from the vice of excessive delegation of

159
powers.
For these reasons, therefore, we have no alternative but to strike down as invalid that part of
Regulation 47 which gives option to the Managing Director to extend the service of an AH. The
effect of striking down this provision would be that an AH, unless the provision is suitably
amended to bring it in comformity with the provisions of Art. 14 would continue to retire at the
age of 45 years and the Managing Director would be bound to grant yearly extensions as a
matter of course, for a period of ten years if the AH is found to be medically fit. This will
prevent the Managing Director from discriminating between one AH and another.
So far as the case of the AHs employed by I.A.C. is concerned, the same reasons which we have
detailed in the case of AHs employed by A.T. would apply with slight modifications which we
shall indicate hereafter. So far as the organisation of AHs employed by T.A.C. is concerned, the
cabin crew consisting of males are known as flight stewards (F.S.) and those consisting of
females as AHs. There are 105 posts of FSs and 517 of AHs. It is also not disputed that job
functions of F.S. and the AHs are the same and in fact there are some flights in which the cabin
crew consists only of AHs. But like the A.I. AHs, the mode of recruitment, conditions of
service, etc, are quite different in the case of F.S.s and AHs. The I.A.C. also contended that FSs
and AHs are two different categories with different avenues of promotion. As in the case of A.I.
AHs, a declaration under the 1976 Act has also been made in the case of IAC, AHs.
The promotional avenues so far as the AHs are concerned are: AH, Dy. Chief AH, and Chief
AH. It is also alleged by the Management and not disputed by the petitioners, that FSs and AHs
have got separate seniority and their promotion is made according to the separate seniority of
each Further, while the AHs have to do a minimum period of three years, FSs are required to
serve for five years. Gratuity is payable to AHs after completion of S years' service whereas in
the case of FSs it is payable after completion of 15 years of service. Similarly, retiral
concessional passage is given to AHs after completion of four years of service whereas to FSs it
is given after completion of seven years of service. It may be specially noticed that while long
service memento is given to an AH after completion of ten years of service, to a FS it is given
after completion of 25 years of service. Retirement benefit is given to an AH on completion of
15 years of service whereas to an F.S. it is given after 30 years of service. Finally, retiral
benefits are given to an AH after completion of 10 years of service but in the case of F.S. after
twenty years of Service. These retiral benefits are really meant to compensate the AHs because
they have to retire at the age of 35, extendable up to 40, though the F.Ss retire at the age of 58
years.
We might stress at the risk of repetition that in State of Mysore v. M.N. Krishna Murthy and
Ors. this Court clearly held that where classes of service are different, inequality of promotional
avenues was legally permissible. In this connection, Beg, J. speaking for the Court observed as
follows:
"If, on the facts of a particular case, the classes to be considered are really different, inequality
of opportunity in promotional chances may be justifiable."
Thus, there can be no doubt that the case of I.A.C. AHs is exactly similar to the case of A.I.
AHs and hence the complaint of discrimination made by the petitioners has no substance.
The next argument is almost the same as in the case of A.I. AHs, namely, retirement on first
pregnancy and on marriage within four years and retirement at 35 years extendable to 40 years.
So far as the age of retirement and termination of service on first pregnancy is concerned a short

160
history of the Rules made by the I.A.C. may be given. Regulation 12 as it stood may be
extracted thus: "Flying Crew shall be retained in the service of the Corporation only for so long
as they remain medically fit for flying duties.. Further, an Air Hostess shall retire from the
service of Corporation on her attaining the age of 30 years or when she gets married whichever
is earlier. An unmarried Air Hostess may, however, in the interest of the Corporation be
retained in the service of the Corporation upto the age of 35 years with the approval of the
General Manager." It is obvious that under this Rule an AH had to retire at the age of 30 years
or when she got married and an unmarried AH could continue upto 35 years. The rule was
obviously unjust and discriminatory and was therefore amended by a Notification published in
the Gazette of India dated 13.7.1968. The amended rule ran thus:
"An Air Hostess shall retire from the service of the Corporation on her attaining the age of 30
years or when she gets married, whichever is earlier. The General Manager, may however,
retain in the service an unmarried Air Hostess upto the age of 35 years."
This amendment continued the bar of marriage but gave discretion to the General Manager to
retain an unmarried AH upto 35 years. In order, however, to bring the provision in line with the
A.I. Regulation, the I.A.C. Regulation was further amended by a Notification dated 12.4.80
published in Part III, Section 4, Gazette of India by which para 3 of Regulation 12 was
substituted thus:-
"An Air Hostess shall retire from the service of the Corporation upon attaining the age of 35
years or on marriage if it takes place within four years of service or on first pregnancy,
whichever occurs earlier."
It appears that by a Settlement dated 10-1-1972, which was accepted and relied upon by the
Mahesh Tribunal the following clause was incorporated in the Rule: "An Air Hostess shall retire
from the service of the Corporation on her attaining the age of 30 years or when she gets
married, whichever is earlier. The General Manager may, however, retain in service an
unmarried air hostess upto the age of 40 years."
The first part of this Regulation has become redundant in view of the Notification dated 12.4.80,
referred to above, but the latter part which gives the General Manager a blanket power to retain
an AH till the age of 40 years, still remains. As, however, the bar of marriage is gone, the Rules
of 1972 which empower the General Manager to retain an AH in service will have to be read as
a power to retain an AH upto the age of 40 years. Thus, the Notification as also the Rules suffer
from two serious constitutional infirmities which are present in the case of Regulation 46
framed by the A.I. The clauses regarding retirement and pregnancy will have to be held as
unconstitutional and therefore struck down. Secondly, for the reasons that we have given in the
case of A.I. AHs that Regulation 46 contains an unguided and uncontrolled power and therefore
suffers from the vice of excessive delegation of powers, on a parity of reasoning the power
conferred on the General Manager to retain an AH upto the age of 40 years will have to be
struck down as invalid because it does not lay down any guidelines or principles. Furthermore,
as the cases of A.I. AHs and I.A.C. AHs are identical, an extension upto the age 45 in the case
of one and 40 in the case of other, amounts to discrimination inter se in the same class of AHs
and must be struck down on that ground also.
The result of our striking down these provisions is that like A.I. AHs, I.A.C. AHs also would be
entitled to their period of retirement being extended upto 45 years until a suitable amendment is
made by the Management in the light of the observations made by us. For the reasons given

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above, therefore, the writ petitions are allowed in part as indicated in the judgment and the
Transfer case is disposed of accordingly. So long as the Rule of I.A.C. is not amended the
General Manager will continue to extend the age of retirement of I.A.C. AHs upto 45 years
subject to their being found medically fit. In the circumstances of the case, there will be no
order as to costs.

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 IN THE HIGH COURT OF DELHI AT NEW DELHI
SUJATA SHARMA Versus SHRI MANU GUPTA
CORAM:
HON'BLE MR. JUSTICE NAJMI WAZIRI
NAJMI WAZIRI, J.
1. The issue which is to be decided in this case is whether the plaintiff, being the first born
amongst the co-parceners of the HUF property, would by virtue of her birth, be entitled to be its
Karta. Her claim is opposed by defendants Nos. 1 to 4 while the defendants Nos. 5 to 9 have
given their „no objection‟ to it and their „NOC‟ has been filed along with the plaint. Therefore,
defendant Nos. 5 to 9 are virtually plaintiffs. Defendants No. 10 and 1 1 state that their position
is to be determined as per law. Ms. Mala Goel, the learned counsel for the plaintiff, submits that
the parties to the suit are the co-parceners of the D.R.Gupta & Sons, HUF.......
3. To determine the lis in this case, the following issues were framed vide order dated
15.09.2008:
..........
6. Assuming existence of a D.R. Gupta and Sons HUF, whether the plaintiff can be considered
to be an integral part of the HUF, particularly after her marriage in 1977,and whether the
plaintiff has ever participated in the affairs of the HUF as a coparcener, and its effect? (OPP)
7. Assuming existence of D.R. Gupta and Sons HUF, whether the plaintiff is a coparcener of
and legally entitled to be the Karta?(OPP)
8. What is the effect of the amendment in the Hindu Succession Act, in 2005 and has it made any
changes in the concept of Joint Family or its properties in the law of coparcenary? (OPP)
9. Relief.
5. Issues No. 2, 3, 4 and 7. Ms. Mala Goel, the learned counsel for the plaintiff submits that
pursuant to the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005 (hereinafter referred to as the
„amended Act‟) which amended the Hindu Succession Act, 1956, all rights which were
available to a Hindu male are now also available to a Hindu female. She submits that a daughter
is now recognised as a co-parcener by birth in her own right and has the same rights in the co-
parcenary property that are given to a son. She relies upon Section 6 of the Hindu Succession
Act, 1956 which reads as under: “6. Devolution of interest in coparcenary property. — (1) On
and from the commencement of the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005*, in a Joint
Hindu family governed by the Mitakshara law, the daughter of a coparcener shall,— (a) by
birth become a coparcener in her own right in the same manner as the son; (b) have the same
rights in the coparcenary property as she would have had if she had been a son; (c) be subject
to the same liabilities in respect of the said coparcenary property as that of a son, and any
reference to a Hindu Mitakshara coparcener shall be deemed to include a reference to a
daughter of a coparcener:
Provided that nothing contained in this sub-section shall affect or invalidate any disposition or
alienation including any partition or testamentary disposition of property which had taken
place before the 20th day of December, 2004.
(2) Any property to which a female Hindu becomes entitled by virtue of sub-section (1) shall be
held by her with the incidents of coparcenary ownership and shall be regarded, notwithstanding
anything contained in this Act or any other law for the time being in force in, as property
capable of being disposed of by her by testamentary disposition.

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(3) Where a Hindu dies after the commencement of the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act,
2005*, his interest in the property of a Joint Hindu family governed by the Mitakshara law,
shall devolve by testamentary or intestate succession, as the case may be, under this Act and not
by survivorship, and the coparcenary property shall be deemed to have been divided as if a
partition had taken place and,— (a) the daughter is allotted the same share as is allotted to a
son;
(b) the share of the pre-deceased son or a pre-deceased daughter, as they would have got had
they been alive at the time of partition, shall be allotted to the surviving child of such pre-
deceased son or of such pre-deceased daughter; and
(c) the share of the pre-deceased child of a predeceased son or of a pre-deceased daughter, as
such child would have got had he or she been alive at the time of the partition, shall be allotted
to the child of such pre-deceased child of the pre-deceased son or a pre-deceased daughter, as
the case may be.
Explanation. —For the purposes of this sub-section, the interest of a Hindu Mitakshara
coparcener shall be deemed to be the share in the property that would have been allotted to him
if a partition of the property had taken place immediately before his death, irrespective of
whether he was entitled to claim partition or not.
(4) After the commencement of the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005*, no court shall
recognise any right to proceed against a son, grandson or greatgrandson for the recovery of
any debt due from his father, grandfather or great-grandfather solely on the ground of the pious
obligation under the Hindu law, of such son, grandson or great-grandson to discharge any such
debt:
Provided that in the case of any debt contracted before the commencement of the Hindu
Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005*, nothing contained in this subsection shall affect—
(a) the right of any creditor to proceed against the son, grandson or great-grandson, as the case
may be; or (b) any alienation made in respect of or in satisfaction of, any such debt, and any
such right or alienation shall be enforceable under the rule of pious obligation in the same
manner and to the same extent as it would have been enforceable as if the Hindu Succession
(Amendment) Act, 2005 had not been enacted. Explanation. —For the purposes of clause (a),
the expression “son”, “grandson” or “great-grandson” shall be deemed to refer to the son,
grandson or greatgrandson, as the case may be, who was born or adopted prior to the
commencement of the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005*.
(5) Nothing contained in this section shall apply to a partition, which has been effected before
the 20th day of December, 2004.
Explanation. —For the purposes of this section “partition” means any partition made by
execution of a deed of partition duly registered under the Registration Act, 1908 (16 of 1908) or
partition effected by a decree of a court.”
6. She also relies upon the dicta of the Supreme Court in Tribhovan Das Haribhai Tamboli v.
Gujarat Revenue Tribunal and Ors. AIR 1991 SC 1538 which held that the senior most
member in a HUF would become the Karta. The relevant portion of the above judgment is
reproduced hereinunder:
“The managership of the Joint Family Property goes to a person by birth and is regulated by
seniority and the Karta or the Manager occupies a position superior to that of the other
members. A junior member cannot, therefore, deal with the joint family property as Manager so

164
long as the Karta is available except where the Karta relinquishes his right expressly or by
necessary implication or in the absence of the Manager in exceptional and extra-ordinary
circumstances such as distress or calamity effecting the whole family and for supporting the
family or in the absence of the father whose whereabouts were not known or who was away in
remote place due to compelling circumstances and that is return within the reasonable time was
unlikely or not anticipated.”
Ms. Mala Goel further relies upon the case of Ram Belas Singh vs. Uttamraj Singh and Ors.
AIR 2008 Patna 8, which held as under. This judgment deals with Section 6B of the Act: “9.
The suit out of which this civil revision has arisen had been filed in the year 2006 much after
coming into force of the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005 (Act XXXIX of 2005) which
substituted Section 6 of the Act and provided that in a joint Hindu family governed by
Mitakshara law the daughter of a coparcener shall by birth become a coparcener in her own
right in the same manner as the son and will have the same rights in the coparcenary property
as she would have if she had been a son and shall also be subject to the same liabilities in
respect of the said coparcenary property as that of a son and any reference to a Hindu
Mitakshara coparcener shall be deemed to include a reference to a daughter of a coparcener.
In the said circumstances, the law is made very clear that the term
"Hindu Mitakshara coparcener" used in the original Hindu Law shall now include daughter of
a coparcener also giving her the same rights and liabilities by birth as those of the son.”
7. The learned counsel for the plaintiff further submits that there is clear admission by the
defendant No. 1 of the existence of the aforesaid HUF insofar as the said defendant, Manu
Gupta, had written the letter dated 3.10.2006 (Ex.P-3) to the Military authorities/Mukul
Gupta/defendant No.6 as Karta of the said HUF. This letter was written ascertaining his right as
the Karta of the HUF by virtue of being the eldest living male member of the HUF; indeed, the
said letter refers to the aforesaid HUF four times over. Similarly, identical letters have been
written on 08.09.2006 (Ex. P-4) to defendant No. 9, viz. Shri Bharat Gupta. The learned counsel
also refers to Ex. PW3/C which is an extract from a note sheet. No. 36, Clause 2 whereof reads
as under: “(i) After perusing the record available in the file it reveals that Bungalow No.4,
University Road Kingsway Camp, Delhi admeasuring an area of 25750 Sq. yards or 5.32 acres
was held on Lease in Form „B‟ Cantt Court 1899 in Perpetuity dated 25.07.1906 duly
registered as number 2239 Book No. 1 Vol. No. 615 on pages 8 to 54 dated 31.08.1906 on
payment of an annual rent of Rs.12/- in favour of Sh. D.R. Gupta, who died on
01.10.71. (ii) The subject property has also been declared in the name of HUF and mutated in
favour of the Legal Heirs of Late Sh. D.R. Gupta namely (1) Sh. Kishan Mohan (2) Shri
Mohinder Nath Gupta (3) Shri Jatinder Nath Gujpta (4) Shri Ravinder Nath Gupta and (5) Sh.
Bhupinder Nath Gupta. (iii) The above named individuals have also been declared as joint
owners of the Lease hold rights of the subject property. Shri Kishan Mohan Gupta died on 17-
2-1984 and names of his Legal Heirs have been substituted in the names of his Legal Heirs have
been substituted in the record of this office.
In his deposition on 18.07.2013, PW-3, one Mr. N.V. Satyanarayan, Defence Estate Officer,
Delhi Circle, has admitted that the mutation of Bungalow No. 4, University Road, Delhi had
been done in the name of Shri R.N. Gupta (Karta); that it is borne out from the summoned
record, i.e., a copy of the letter dated 01.06.85, addressed to Mrs. Shanta K. Mohan, w/o Late
Sh. Kishan Mohan, 18, Anand Lok, New Delhi regarding mutation in the name of successor of

165
Late Sh. Kishan Mohan, Karta (JHUF) in respect of 4, University Road, Delhi and letter dated
5.8.2003 from his office addressed to Sh. R.N. Gupta (Karta) & others, 4, University Road,
Delhi on the subject “Mutation of Bungalow No.4, University Road, Delhi in the name of Legal
Heirs.” In this letter, it was contended that Mr. R.N. Gupta was the sole surviving son of Mr.
D.R. Gupta and that he was thus the Karta of the said JHUF.
8. It is not in dispute between the parties that the plaintiff is the eldest surviving member of the
HUF. Accordingly, she seeks a decree in terms of the relief sought in the suit.
9. The learned counsel for the plaintiff relies upon the case of Raghunath Rai Bareja and
Another vs. Punjab National Bank and Others (2207) 2 SCC 230 which held that, under the
Dayabhaga School of Law, an unborn son cannot have a right in the property because the said
son cannot perform Shradha whereas, under the Mitakshara School of Law, an unborn son in
the womb of his mother gets a share in the ancestral property. The rights of an unborn son in the
mother‟s womb under the Dayabhaga School of Law are premised on the ability of the child to
offer a rice ball or to conduct such necessary rituals for the benefit of the departed souls of his
ancestors. Under the Mitakshara School of Law, emphasis is on the right of inheritance of the
child and therefore, it rests upon consanguinity rather on upon the inheritance efficacy. It is
contended that Section 6 of the Hindu Succession Act extends this element of consanguinity to
female coparceners of a HUF under the Mitakshara School of Law to all aspects of inheritance,
which would include the right to manage a ritual or property as its Karta, being the eldest of the
coparceners. She submits that by virtue of the family settlement dated 01.04.1999 (Ex. PW1/5),
the rights of the parties, then existing, were settled. It was agreed that: “2. The parties hereto
confirm and declare that the oral family settlement dated 18.01.1999 was arrived at on the
following terms: 2.1 The parties acknowledge and confirmed that the parties hereto are the
members of the Hindu Undivided family D.R. Gupta and Sons (HUF) and each having share in
the movable and immovable properties presently owned by the Hindu Undivided Family as
under: (a)Shri Krishan Mohan Gupta (The eldest son of late Shri D.R. Gupta who died on 17th
Feb., 1984) and is survived by his wife Smt. Shanta K. Mohan And Mrs. Sujata Sharma & Mrs.
Radhika Seth, daughter, heirs to the party of the “First part” - 1/5th share. (b) Shri Mahendra
Nath Gupta as Karta (party of the “Second part ) - 1/5th share (c) Mr. Ravinder Nath Gupta
(party of the Third part) - 1/5th share (d) Shri Bhupinder Nath Gupta (party of the “Fourth) -
1/5th Share
(e) Mr. Jitender Nath Gupta (party of the “Fifth part”) - 1/5th share
2.2 The parties acknowledge and confirm that the Hindu Undivided family owns and possesses
the following movable and immovable properties. (a) Bunglow No.4, Universtiy Road, Delhi.
(b) Share of Motor and General Finance Ltd. (4308 shares) (c) Bank account of Hindu
Undivided family D.R. Gupta & Sons (HUF) with Bank of India, Asaf Ali Road, New Delhi. (d)
Bank account with Vijiya Bank, Ansari Raod, New Delhi. (e) Deposit with the Motor & General
Finance Ltd. Of Rs.6,400/- plus accumulated interest thereon. 2.3 The parties effected partition
of Hindu Undivided family D.R. Gupta & Sons (HUF) and that the parties being the member of
the said Hindu Undivided family were entitled to and were owners of the movable and
immovable properties of the said Hindu Undivided family mentioned in para 2.2 above to the
extent as under: a) Shri Krishan Mohan Gupta (The eldest son of late Shri D.R. Gupta, who
died on 17th Feb. 1983) and is survived by his wife Smt. Shanta K Mohan and Mrs. Sujata
Sharma & Mrs. Radhika Seth, daughter, heirs to the party of the “First part”. 1/5th share b)

166
Shri Mahendra Nath Gupta (as karta of the “Second
party”) 1/5th share c) Mr. Ravinder Nath Gupta (Party of the “Third part”) 1/5th share d) Mr.
Bhupinder Nath Gupta (Party of the “Fourth Part”) 1/5th share e) Mr. Jitender Nath Gupta
(Party of the “Fifth part”) 1/5th share
3.The Parties acknowledges that the party of the second, third, fourth, part are presently
residing in the Hindu Undivided family property No. 4, University Road, Delhi and that they
shall continue to reside therein till any three parties herein jointly decide and convey their
intention to the other parties herein that the said property No. 4 University Road, Delhi be put
to sale/development then the said property shall be put up for sale/development immediately by
all the parties. Party of the second, third and fourth part within six months thereof and
thereafter will vacate the said property.
4. Sale or development of the said property would be taken up only if the total consideration is
equal to or in excess of Rs. 20 Crores. It was further agreed that out of the total consideration
received, first one crore would be away at 1/3rd each to the 3 parties two, three and four who
are residing on the premises towards relocation expenses and the balance consideration then
would be divided in five equal parts. It was further agreed that under the said family oral family
settlement, in the event the parties of the second, third and fourth part are desirous of
purchasing the said property, either singly or jointly then the market value of the said property
shall be determined and the parties desirous of purchasing would be pay all the other parties
who are selling their share the value of their share as determined by the market price of the said
property. In case the purchase is made by any one or two of the parties of the second, third &
fourth part then the parties/party out of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th parties who are not the purchaser
and are being asked to vacate the premises occupied by them would be paid their share of the
relocation expenses as described in earlier in clause 4 of the agreement. It was further under
the said oral family settlement that till such time that the permission of (sic.) competent
authority to subdivide or to construct the said property is received the two families who are not
in occupation of the said property would not demand demarcation or setting aside of their share
in the property. However, once the permission to construct and subdivide is received then it
would be their right to demand demarcation and possession of their share in the said property.
In case on demarcation if any one(sic) or two or all out of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th parties move out
of their present constructed portion that they are occupying, then the affected party/parties
would be paid relocation expenses as described earlier in Clause 4 of the agreement. In such
event, the parties 2, 3 & 4 will be allowed a minimum, period of six months to vacate the
respective premises.”
10. The plaintiff is the daughter of Kishan Mohan Gupta, who is one of the acknowledged
coparceners of the said HUF and was thus a party. She had signed the settlement as a member
of the family and her signatures would have to be read as one of the parties. Her signatures
would testify that she has a share in the property otherwise her signature would not be
necessary.
11. Ms. Goel, the learned counsel, further submits that the share of a Karta is restricted by
restraints placed upon the Karta inasmuch as no rights can be created nor can the property be
appropriated to the detriment and exclusion of any of the co-parceners.
12. In the circumstances, issue Nos.2, 3, 4 and 7 are answered in the affirmative in favour of the
plaintiff.

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12. On behalf of defendant Nos. 10 and 11, the learned counsel, Mr. B. K. Srivastava, submits
in support of the plaintiffs claim, that the stipulation in Section 6(1) of the Hindu Succession
Act,1956, which devolves interest in co-parcenary right, is clear and unambiguous and does not
call for any interpretation; that any reference to Hindu Mitakshara Law would be deemed to
include a daughter with equal rights in the coparcenary, no other view regarding succession is
permissible in view of the overriding effect as per Section 4. For literal rule of interpretation, he
relies upon the dicta of the Supreme Court in Raghunath Rai Bareja and Another vs. Punjab
National Bank and Others (2007) 2 SCC 230. “40. It may be mentioned in this connection that
the first and foremost principle of interpretation of a statute in every system of interpretation is
the literal rule of interpretation. The other rules of interpretation e.g. the mischief rule,
purposive interpretation etc. can only be resorted to when the plain words of a statute are
ambiguous or lead to no intelligible results or if read literally would nullify the very object of
the statute. Where the words of a statute are absolutely clear and unambiguous, recourse
cannot be had to the principles of interpretation other than the literal rule, vide Swedish Match
AB vs. Securities and Exchange Board, India, AIR2004 SC 4219. As held in Prakash Nath
Khanna vs. C.I.T. 2004 (9) SCC 686, the language employed in a statute is the determinative
factor of the legislative intent. The legislature is presumed to have made no mistake. The
presumption is that it intended to say what it has said. Assuming there is a defect or an omission
in the words used by the legislature, the Court cannot correct or make up the deficiency,
especially when a literal reading thereof produces an intelligible result, vide Delhi Financial
Corporation vs. Rajiv Anand 2004 (11) SCC 625. Where the legislative intent is clear from the
language, the Court should give effect to it, vide Government of Andhra Pradesh vs. Road
Rollers Owners Welfare Association 2004(6) SCC 210, and the Court should not seek to amend
the law in the grab of interpretation.”
13. The learned counsel further relies upon Ganduri Koteshwar Ramma & Anr. v. Chakiri
Yanadi & Anr., (2011) 9 SCC 788 which, in the context of Section 6 of the Hindu Succession
Act, held that rights in the coparcenary property among male and female members of a joint
Hindu family are equal on and from 9.9.2005. He submits that the legislature has now conferred
a substantive right in favour of the daughters; that by Section 6, the daughter of the co-parcenar
shall have same rights and liabilities in the co-parcenary property as she would if she had been a
son; thus, on and from 9.9.2005, the daughter is entitled to a share in the HUF property and is a
co-parcenar as if she had been a son. The Supreme Court relied upon its own judgment in S.Sai
Reddy v. S. Narayana Reddy and Ors. (1991) 3 SCC 647 which held that the Hindu Succession
Act was a beneficial legislation and had been placed on the statute book with the objective of
benefitting a woman‟s vulnerable position in society. Hence, the statute was to be given a literal
effect. It is, however, required to be noted that the Court was then considering Section 29(a) of
the Act and not Section 6.
14. The learned counsel for the defendant further submits that it is necessary to take into
consideration Section 29(a) of Hindu Succession (Andhra Pradesh Amendment) Act, 1986
which is para materia to Section 6 of the Hindu Succession Act,1956. Therefore, the principle
laid down in S.Sai Reddy v. S. Narayana Reddy and Ors. (supra) which is referred to in
Ganduri Koteshwar Ramma & Anr. v. Chakiri Yanadi & Anr. (supra) ought to be followed.
Ergo, the right of the eldest male member of a coparcenary extends to the female members also.
In the present case insofar as the plaintiff is the eldest member of the co-parcenary, her being a

168
female cannot be seen a disqualification from being its Karta since this disqualification has been
removed by the amendment brought about under Section 6 in the year 2005. It is further
submitted that this Court in Sukhbir Singh vs Gaindo Devi, RFA(OS)30/1974 (CM Application
2730/2014) has held that Section 4 of the Hindu Succession Act,1956 overrides all customs,
texts, etc. to the extent that they provide anything contrary to what is contained in the Act.
15. However, the learned counsel for defendant Nos. 1 to 4 submits that section 4 has to be read
in the context in which it was enacted, i.e. only those customary rights have been overridden for
which there is a specific provision made in the Act; that Section 6 does not specifically refer to
the expression Karta of an HUF and that this right has to be gleamed from the text in Hindu
law. He also relied upon para 13 of the judgment in Tribhovan Das Haribhai Tamboli v.
Gujarat Revenue Tribunal and Ors. (supra) which reads as under: “13. In Raghavachariar's
Hindu Law Principles and Precedents, Eighth Ed., 1987 in Section 275 at p. 239 stated thus: So
long as the joint family remains undivided, the senior member of the family is entitled to
manage the family properties, and the father, and in his absence, the next seniormost male
member of the family, as its manager provided he is not incapacitated from acting as such by
illness or other sufficient cause. The father's right to be the manager of the family is a survival
of the patria potestas and he is in all cases, naturally, and in the case of minor sons necessarily
the manager of the joint family property. In the absence of the father, or if he resigns, the
management of the family property devolves upon the eldest male member of the family
provided he is not wanting in the necessary capacity to manage it.”
16. He submits that the S. Sai Reddy judgment only recognizes the right of the eldest male
member to be the Karta; that the amendment in 2005 only recognized the rights of a female
member to equal those of male members but it did not extend to granting them any right in the
management of HUF property; that the Hindu Succession Act,1956 only deals with succession
to the intestate properties of a Hindu and does not purport to address the issue of the
management of the estate.
17. The learned counsel for the defendant Nos.1 to 4 further refers to paras 8 & 9 of the written
statement regarding the powers and functions of a Karta which are of wide amplitude. Finally,
he submits that the limitation apropos customs under Section 4 is not comprehensive. He
submits that Section 6 defines the rights only with respect to the inheritance of property and not
its management; therefore, the undefined rights will have to be gleaned from customs as well as
from the interpretation of ancient texts regarding Hindu religion. He submits that insofar as the
right of management has not been specifically conferred on a female Hindu, the customary
practice would have to be examined. In support of his contention, the learned counsel relies
upon the judgement of the Supreme Court in Badshah v. Urmila Badshah Godse & Anr.
(2014) 1 SCC 188, more particularly paras 13, 14, 16, 20 & 22. He also contends that the
legislations regarding succession between Hindus were enacted for the purpose of removing
obstacles and enabling inheritance of property by people with mental disabilities or injuries.
Hence, the following enactments were made:- 1. Hindu Inheritance Act, 1928 2. Hindu Law of
Act, 1929 3. Hindu Amendment Right to Property Act, 1937
19. The learned counsel submits that even the Hindu Succession Act of 1956 has sought to
remove the obstacles in the succession of intestate properties between the Hindus. He submits
that in accordance with the Objective of the Act, Section 24 was regarding inheritance of a
remarried widow (which has since been repealed), while Section 14 empowers a female Hindu

169
to have an absolute right in property possessed by her before or after the commencement of the
said Act; therefore, that the Act never intended to extend the right of a female coparcenor to the
management of a HUF which, according to ancient Hindu text, vests in the eldest male member
of the coparcenary.
20. The learned counsel for defendant Nos. 10 and 11 promptly rebuts this contention by
referring to the objects and reasons of the Hindu Succession Act, 2005 which reads inter alia:
“2. Section 6 of the Act deals with devolution of interest of a male Hindu in coparcenary
property and recognises the rule of devolution by survivorship among the members of the
coparcener. The retention of the Mitakshara coparcenary property without including the
females in it means that the females cannot inherit in ancestral property as their male
counterparts do. The law by excluding the daughter from participating in the coparcenary
ownership not only contributes to her discrimination on the ground of gender but also has led to
oppression and negation of her fundamental right of equality guaranteed by the Constitution
having regard to the need to render social justice to women, the States of Andhra Pradesh
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Maharashtra have made necessary changes in the law giving equal
right to daughters in Hindi Mitakshara coparcenary property. The Kerala Legislature has
enacted the Kerala Joint Hindu Family System (Abolition) Act, 1976.
3. It is proposed to remove the discrimination as contained in section 6 of the Hindu Succession
act, 1956 by giving equal rights to daughters in the Hindu Mitakashara coparcenary property
as the sons have. Section 23 of the Act disentitles a female heir to ask for partition in respect of
a dwelling house wholly occupied by a joint family until the male heirs choose to divide their
respective shares therein. It is also proposed to omit the said section so as to remove the
disability on female heirs contained in that section.”
21. He also submits that there is a positive constitutional protection in favour of the women
under Articles 14, 15 and 16 as well as in the Directive Principles for the State Policy. The
effect of deletion of sub-Section 2 Section 4 of the unamended Act has been enunciated in a
judgment of this court in Nirmala & Ors. v. Government of NCT of Delhi & Ors.,
ILR(2010)Supp.(1) Delhi413 para13 of which reads as under: 13. The relevant sections of the
HSA are reproduced hereunder: Old Section 6 before substitution by the Amendment Act:
6. Devolution of interest of coparcenary property.- When a male Hindu dies after the
commencement of this Act, having at the time of his death an interest in Mitakshara
coparcenary property, his interest in the property shall devolve by survivorship upon the
surviving members of the coparcenary and not in accordance with this Act:
PROVIDED that, if the deceased had left him surviving a female relative specified in class I of
the Schedule or a male relative specified in that class who claims through such female relative,
the interest of the deceased in the Mitakshara coparcenary property shall devolve by
testamentary or intestate succession, as the case may be, under this Act and not by survivorship.
Explanation I: For the purposes of this section, the interest of Hindu Mitakshara coparcener
shall be deemed to be the share in the property that would have been allotted to him if a
partition of the property had taken place immediately before his death, irrespective of whether
he was entitled to claim partition or not.
Explanation 2: Nothing contained in the proviso to this section shall be construed as enabling a
person who has separated himself from the coparcenary before the death of the deceased or any
of his heirs to claim on intestacy a share in the interest referred to therein." New Section 6after

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the Amendment Act: 6. Devolution of interest in coparcenary property.-(1) On and from the
commencement of the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005, in a Joint Hindu family
governed by the Mitakshara law, the daughter of a coparcener shall,-
(a) by birth become a coparcener in her own right in the same manner as the son;
(b) have the same rights in the coparcenary property as she would have had if she had been a
son;
(c) be subject to the same liabilities in respect of the said coparcenary property as that of a son,
and any reference to a Hindu Mitakshara coparcener shall be deemed to include a reference to
a daughter of a coparcener:
Provided that nothing contained in this Sub-section shall affect or invalidate any disposition or
alienation including any partition or testamentary disposition of property which had taken
place before the 20th day of December, 2004.
(2) Any property to which a female Hindu becomes entitled by virtue of Sub-section (1) shall be
held by her with the incidents of coparcenary ownership and shall be regarded, notwithstanding
anything contained in this Act, or any other law for the time being in force, as property capable
of being disposed of by her by testamentary disposition.
(3) Where a Hindu dies after the commencement of the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act,
2005, his interest in the property of a Joint Hindu family governed by the Mitakshara law, shall
devolve by testamentary or intestate succession, as the case may be, under this Act and not by
survivorship, and the coparcenary property shall be deemed to have been divided as if a
partition had taken place and,-
(a) the daughter is allotted the same share as is allotted to a son;
(b) the share of the pre-deceased son or a pre-deceased daughter, as they would have got had
they been alive at the time of partition, shall be allotted to the surviving child of such pre -
deceased son or of such pre-deceased daughter; and
(c) the share of the pre-deceased child of a pre-deceased son or of a pre-deceased daughter, as
such child would have got had he or she been alive at the time of the partition, shall be allotted
to the child of such pre-deceased child of the pre-deceased son or a pre-deceased daughter, as
the case may be. Explanation.- For the purposes of this subsection, the interest of a Hindu
Mitakshara coparcener shall be deemed to be the share in the property that would have been
allotted to him if a partition of the property had taken place immediately before his death,
irrespective of whether he was entitled to claim partition or not.
(4) After the commencement of the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005, no court shall
recognise any right to proceed against a son, grandson or great-grandson for the recovery of
any debt due from his father, grandfather or great grandfather solely on the ground of the pious
obligation under the Hindu law, of such son, grandson or great-grandson to discharge any such
debt:
Provided that in the case of any debt contracted before the commencement of the Hindu
Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005, nothing contained in this Sub-section shall affect-
(a) the right of any creditor to proceed against the son, grandson or great-grandson, as the case
may be; or (b) any alienation made in respect of or in satisfaction of, any such debt, and any
such right or alienation shall be enforceable under the rule of pious obligation in the same
manner and to the same extent as it would have been enforceable as if the Hindu Succession
(Amendment) Act, 2005 had not been enacted.

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Explanation.-For the purposes of Clause (a), the expression "son", "grandson" or "great-
grandson" shall be deemed to refer to the son, grandson or great-grandson, as the case may be,
who was born or adopted prior to the commencement of the Hindu Succession (Amendment)
Act, 2005.
(5) Nothing contained in this section shall apply to a partition, which has been effected before
the 20th day of December, 2004. Explanation.-For the purposes of this section "partition"
means any partition made by execution of a deed of partition duly registered under the
Registration Act, 1908 (16 of 1908) or partition effected by a decree of a court........Ms. Mala
Goel, the learned counsel for plaintiff refers to the same locus classicus by Mulla on principles
of Hindu laws which states as under:
“By virtue of the new provision, a daughter of a coparcener in a joint Hindu family governed by
the Mitakshara law now becomes a coparcener in her own right and thus enjoys rights equal to
those hitherto enjoyed by a son of a coparcener. The implications of this fundamental change
are wide. Since a daughter now stands on an equal footing with a son of a coparcener, she is
now invested with all the rights, including the right to seek partition of the coparcenary
property. Where under the old law, since a female could not act as karta of the joint family, as a
result of the new provision, she could also become karta of the joint Hindu family”
22. The learned counsel for the plaintiff further relies upon the 174 th Report of the Law
Commission of India, which has argued that when women are equal in all respects of modern
day life, there is no reason why they should be deprived of the right and privilege of managing
HUF as their Karta. She argues that it is in this context, that Section 6 was so formulated that it
covers all aspects of succession to a coparcener which are available to a male member to be
equally available to a female member also.
23. Insofar as the plaintiff father had passed away prior to the aforesaid amendment and there
being no testamentary succession in her favour she would not have any rights into the co-
parcenary. Upon the query put to counsel he submits that if the survivor of Mr. Krishan Mohan
Gupta had been male then he would have rights in the co-parcenary.
24. In the present case, the right of the plaintiff accrued to her upon the demise of the eldest
Karta. Indeed, there is a correspondence in this regard between her and the Land and Building
Department. In any case, it is not denied that she is the eldest of the co-parceners. By law, the
eldest coparcener is to be karta of the HUF.
25. It is rather an odd proposition that while females would have equal rights of
inheritance in an HUF property, this right could nonetheless be curtailed when it comes to
the management of the same. The clear language of Section 6 of the Hindu Succession Act
does not stipulate any such restriction. Therefore, the submissions on behalf of defendant
Nos. 1 to 4 which are to the contrary are untenable.
26. In the case of Commissioner of Income Tax, Madhya Pradesh, Nagpur and Bhandara vs.
Seth Govindram Sugar Mills, AIR 1966 SC24 the Supreme Court had held that: “The decision
of the Orissa High Court in Budhi Jena v. Dhobai Naik followed the decision of the Madras
High Court in V.M.N. Radha Ammal v. Commissioner of Income-tax, wherein
Satyanarayana Rao J. observed : "The right to become a manager depends upon the
fundamental fact that the person on whom the right devolved was a coparcener of the joint
family... Further, the right is confined to the male members of the family as the female members
were not treated as coparceners though they may be members of the joint

172
family." 17. Viswanatha Sastri J. said : "The managership of a joint Hindu family is a creature
of law and in certain circumstances, could be created by an agreement among the coparceners
of the joint family. Coparcenership is a necessary qualification for managership of a joint
Hindu family."
18. Thereafter, the learned judge proceeded to state : It will be revolutionary of all accepted
principles of Hindu law to suppose that the senior most female member of a joint Hindu family,
even though she has adult sons who are entitled as coparceners to the absolute ownership of the
property, could be the manager of the family... She would be guardian of her minor sons till the
eldest of them attains majority but she would not be the manager of the joint family for she is
not a coparcener.
19. The view expressed by the Madras high Court in accordance with well settled principles of
Hindu law., while that expressed by the Nagpur High Court is in direct conflict with them. We
are clearly of the opinion that the Madras view is correct.”
27. What emerges from the above discussion, is that the impediment which prevented a
female member of a HUF from becoming its Karta was that she did not possess the
necessary qualification of co-parcenership. Section 6 of the Hindu Succession Act is a
socially beneficial legislation; it gives equal rights of inheritance to Hindu males and
females. Its objective is to recognise the rights of female Hindus as co-parceners and to
enhance their right to equality apropos succession. Therefore, Courts would be extremely
vigilant apropos any endeavour to curtail or fetter the statutory guarantee of
enhancement of their rights. Now that this disqualification has been removed by the 2005
Amendment, there is no reason why Hindu women should be denied the position of a
Karta. If a male member of an HUF, by virtue of his being the first born eldest, can be a
Karta, so can a female member. The Court finds no restriction in the law preventing the
eldest female co-parcener of an HUF, from being its Karta. The plaintiff‟s father‟s right in
the HUF did not dissipate but was inherited by her. Nor did her marriage alter the right to
inherit the co-parcenary to which she succeeded after her father‟s demise in terms of Section 6.
The said provision only emphasises the statutory rights of females. Accordingly, issues 5, 6 and
8 too are found in favour of the plaintiff.
29. In these circumstances, the suit is decreed in favour of the plaintiff in terms of the prayer
clause, and she is declared the Karta of „D.R. Gupta & Sons (HUF)‟.
30. Decree sheet be drawn up accordingly.
31. The suit is disposed off in the above terms.
NAJMI WAZIRI, J
DECEMBER 22, 2015

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 Municipal Corporation of Delhi vs Female Workers (Muster Roll) & ... on 8 March, 2000
AIR 2000 SC 1274
JUDGMENT, S. Saghir Ahmad, J.
1. Female workers (muster roll), engaged by the Municipal Corporation of Delhi (for short, 'the
Corporation'), raised a demand for grant of maternity leave which was made available only to
regular female workers but was denied to them on the ground that their services were not
regularised and, therefore, they were not entitled to any maternity leave. Their case was
espoused by the Delhi Municipal Workers Union (for short, 'the Union') and, consequently, the
following question was referred by the Secretary (Labour), Delhi Administration to the
Industrial Tribunal for adjudication:
Whether the female workers working on Muster Roll should be given any maternity benefit? If
so, what directions are necessary in this regard?
2. The Union filed a statement of claim in which it was stated that Municipal Corporation of
Delhi employs a large number of persons including female workers on muster roll and they are
made to work in that capacity for years together though they are recruited against the work of
perennial nature. It was further stated that the nature of duties and responsibilities performed
and undertaken by the muster roll employees are the same as those of the regular employees.
The women employed on muster roll, which have been working with the Municipal Corporation
of Delhi for years together, have to work very hard in construction projects and maintenance of
roads including the work of digging trenches etc. but the Corporation does not grant any
maternity benefit to female workers who are required to work even during the period of mature
pregnancy or soon after the delivery of child. It was pleaded that the female workers required
the same maternity benefits as were enjoyed by regular female workers under the Maternity
Benefit Act, 1961. The denial of these benefits exhibits a negative attitude of the Corporation in
respect of a humane problem.
3. The Corporation in their written statement, filed before the Industrial Tribunal, pleaded that
the provisions under the Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 or Central Civil Services (Leave) Rules
were not applicable to the female workers, engaged on muster roll, as they were all engaged any
on daily wages. It was also contended that they were not entitled to any benefit under the
Employees' State Insurance Act, 1948. It was for these reasons that the Corporation contended
that the demand of the female workers (muster roll) for grant of maternity leave as liable to be
rejected.
4. The Tribunal, by its Award dated 2nd of April, 1996, allowed the claim of the female
workers (muster roll) and directed the Corporation to extend the benefits under the Maternity
Benefit Act, 1961 to muster roll female workers who were in the continuous service of the
Corporation for three years or more. The Corporation challenged this judgment in a Writ
Petition before the Delhi High Court which was dismissed by the Single Judge on January 7,
1997. The letters Patent Appeal (LPA No. 64 of 1998), filed thereafter by the Corporation was
dismissed by the Division Bench on March 9, 1998 on the ground of delay.
5. Learned Counsel for the Corporation contended that the Division Bench was not justified in
rejecting the appeal on the ground of delay which ought to have been condoned as there was
only a 33 days' delay in filing the Letters Patent Appeal which was caused on account of the
opinion of different Departments which had to be obtained before filing the Letters Patent
Appeal. Since the High Court has already exercised its discretion and has not condoned the

174
delay in filing the appeal, we find it. difficult to enter into that controversy and examine the
reasons why the appeal was filed before the Division Bench after the expiry of the period of
limitation. However, since the question involved in this case is important, we deem it fit to
express ourselves on the merits of the matter as we have heard the counsel for the Corporation
on merits also.
6. Not long ago, the place of a woman in rural areas has been traditionally her home; but the
poor illiterate women forced by sheer poverty now come out to seek various jobs so as to
overcome the economic hardship. They also lake up jobs which involve hard physical labour.
The female workers who are engaged by the Corporation on muster roll have to work at the site
of construction and repairing of roads. Their services have also been utilised for digging of
trenches. Since they are engaged on daily wages, they, in order to earn their daily bread, work
even in advance stage of pregnancy and also soon after delivery, unmindful of detriment to their
health or to the health of the new-born. It is in this background that we have to look to our
Constitution which, in its Preamble, promises social and economic justice. We may first look at
the Fundamental Rights contained in Chapter III of the Constitution. Article 14 provides that the
State shall not deny to any person equality before law or the equal protection of the laws within
the territory of India. Dealing with this Article vis-a-vis the Labour Laws, this Court in
Hindustan Antibiotics Ltd. v. Workmen , has held that labour to whichever sector it may belong
in a particular region and in a particular industry will be treated on equal basis. Article 15
provides that the State shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion,
race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them. Clause (3) of this Article provides as under:
(3) Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making any special provision for women
and children.
7. In Yusuf Abdul Aziz v. State of Bombay AIR , it was held that Article 15(3) applies both to
existing and future laws.
8. From Part III, we may shift to Part IV of the Constitution containing Directive Principles of
State Policy. Article 38 provides that the State shall strive to promote the welfare of the people
by securing and protecting, as effectively as it may, a social order in which justice, social,
economic and political shall inform all the institutions of the national life. Sub-clause (2) of this
Article mandates that the State shall strive to minimise the inequalities in income and endeavour
to eliminate inequalities in status, facilities and opportunities.
Article 39 provides, inter alia, as under:
39. Certain principles of policy to be followed by the State - The State shall, in particular, direct
its policy towards securing -
(a) that the citizens, men and women equally, have the right to an adequate means of livelihood;
(b) & (c)...
(d) that there is equal pay for equal work for both men and women:
(e) that the health and strength of workers, men and women, and the tender age of children are
not abused and that citizens are not forced by economic necessity to enter avocations unsuited
to their age or strength;
(f)...
Articles 42 and 43 provides as under : "42, Provision for just and humane conditions of work
and maternity relief - The State shall make provision for securing Just and humane conditions of
work and for maternity relief.

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43. Living wage, etc., for workers - The State shall endeavour to secure, by suitable legislation
or economic organisation or In any other way, to all workers, agricultural, industrial or
otherwise, work, a living wage, conditions of work ensuring a decent standard of life and full
enjoyment of leisure and social and cultural opportunities and, in particular, the State shall
endeavour to promote cottage industries on an individual or co-operative basis in rural areas.
9. It is in the background of the provisions contained in Article 39, specially in Articles 42 and
43, that the claim of the respondents for maternity benefit and the action' of the petitioner in
denying that benefit to its women employees has to be scrutinised so as to determine whether
the denial of maternity benefit by the petitioner is justified In law or not.
10. Since Article 42 specifically speaks of "just and humane conditions of work" and "maternity
relief, the validity of an executive or administrative action in denying maternity benefit has to
be examined on the anvil of Article 42 which, though not enforceable at law, is nevertheless
available for determining the legal efficacy of the action complained of.
11. The Parliament has already made the Maternity Benefit Act, 1961. It is not disputed that the
benefits available under this Act have been made available to a class of employees of the
petitioner-Municipal Corporation. But the benefit is not being made available to the women
employees engaged 011 muster-roll, on the ground that they are not regular employees of the
Corporation. As we shall presently see, there is no justification for denying the benefit of this
Act to casual workers or workers employed on dally wage basis.
12. Section 2 of the Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 deals with the applicability of the Act. Section
3 contains definitions. The word "child" as defined in Section 3(b) includes a 'still-born' child.
"Delivery" as defined in Section 3(c) means the birth of a child. "Maternity Benefit" has been
defined in Section 3(h), which means the payment referred to In Sub-section (1) of Section 5.
"Woman" has been defined in Clause (o) of Section 3 which means "a woman employed,
whether directly or through any agency, for wages in any establishment." "Wages" have been
defined in Clause (h) of Section 3 which provides, inter alia, as under:
Wages means all remunerations paid or payable in cash to a woman. Section 5 provides, inter
alia, as under:
5. Right to payment of maternity benefit-
(1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, every woman shall be entitled to, and her employer
shall be liable for, the payment of maternity benefit at the rate of the average daily wage for the
period of her actual absence, that is to say, the period immediately preceding the day of her
delivery, the actual day of her delivery and any period immediately following that day.
Explanation - For the purpose of this sub-section, the average daily wage means the average of
the woman's wages payable to her for the days on which she has worked during the period of
three calendar months immediately preceding the date from which she absents herself on
account of maternity, the minimum rates of wages fixed or revised under the Minimum Wages
Act, 1948 or ten rupees, whichever is the highest.
(2) No woman shall be entitled to maternity benefit unless she has actually worked in an
establishment of the employer from whom she claims maternity benefit, for a period of not less
than eighty days in the twelve months immediately preceding the date of her expected delivery.
Explanation - For the purpose of calculating under this sub-section the days on which a woman
has actually worked in the establishment, the days for which she has been laid off or was on
holidays declared under any law for the time being in force to be holidays with wages during

176
the period of twelve months immediately preceding the date of her expected delivery shall be
taken into account.
(3) The maximum period for which any woman shall be entitled to maternity benefit shall be
twelve weeks which not more than six weeks shall precede the date of her expected delivery.
13. The object and reasons as set out in Govt. of India Gazette, Part II, Section 2, dated 6-12-
1960 (p-817), provide as under:
This clause entitles a woman to receive maternity benefit at the rate of her average daily wage
subject to a minimum of seventy-five naye paise per day for a maximum period of 12 weeks,
including six weeks following the day of her delivery. The qualifying condition is employment
for 240 days in the 12 months immediately preceding the expected date of delivery, but there is
no such restriction as to entitlement in the case of an immigrant woman who is pregnant when
she first arrives in Assam.
14. With regard to the period of 240 days, the Select Committee remarked as under:
The Committee are of the view that the qualifying condition of employment for a period of 240
days during the 12 months immediately preceding the expected date of delivery to entitle a
worker to maternity benefit is too rigorous and the period should be reduced to 160 actual
working days inclusive of the period of lay-off, if any.
15. Section 5A provides that if the Employees' State Insurance Act, 1948 is applied or becomes
applicable to the establishment where a woman is employed, such woman shall continue to be
entitled to receive the maternity benefits under this Act so long as she does not become
qualified to claim maternity benefits under Section 50 of that Act.
16. It may be stated that Section 50 of the Employees' State Insurance Act, 1948 provides as
tinder:
Maternity benefit - The qualification of an insured woman to claim maternity benefit, the
conditions subject to which such benefit may be given, the rates and period thereof shall be such
as may be prescribed by the Central Government.
17. Section 5B of the Maternity Act speaks of payment of maternity benefit in certain cases.
Section 6 provides notice of claim for maternity benefit and payment thereof. Section 8
provides that every woman entitled to maternity benefit under this Act shall also be entitled to
receive her employer a medical bonus of 250 rupees, if no prenatal confinement or post-natal
care is provided by the employer free of charge.
18. Section 9 contemplates leave for miscarriage or medical termination of pregnancy. Section
9A contemplates leave for tubectomy operation whereas Section 10 provides for leave for
illness arising out of pregnancy, delivery, premature birth of a child or misearirage. Section 11
provides as under:
11. Nursing breaks - Every woman delivered of a child who returns to duty after such delivery
shall, in addition to the interval for rest allowed to her, be allowed in the course of her daily two
breaks of the prescribed duration for nursing the child until the child attains the age of fifteen
months.
19. Section 12, which contains a very significant prohibition in regard to the service of a woman
employee, provides as under:
12. Dismissal during absence or pregnancy - (1) When a woman absents herself from work in
accordance with the provisions of this Act, it shall be unlawful for her employer to discharge or
dismiss her during or on account of such absence or to give -notice of discharge or dismissal on

177
such a day that the notice will expire during such absence, or to vary to her disadvantage any of
the conditions of her service.
2) (a) The discharge or dismissal of a woman at any time during her pregnancy, if the woman
but for such discharge or dismissal would have been entitled to maternity benefit or medical
bonus referred to in Section 8, shall not have the effect of depriving her of the maternity benefit
or medical bonus.
Provided that where the dismissal is for any prescribed gross misconduct, the employer may, by
order in writing communicated to the woman, deprive her of the maternity benefit or medical
bonus or both.
(b) Any woman deprived of maternity benefit or medical bonus, or both, or discharged or
dismissed during or on account of her absence from work in accordance with the provisions of
this Act, may, within sixty days from the date on which order of such deprivation or discharge
or dismissal is communicated to her, appeal to such authority as may be prescribed, and the
decision of that authority on such appeal, whether the woman should or should not be deprived
of maternity benefit or medical bonus, or both, or discharged or dismissal shall be final.
(c) Nothing contained in this sub-section shall affect the provisions contained in Sub-section
(1).
20. This section prohibits dismissal of a woman employee during or on account of her absence
on maternity leave. It ensures that the conditions of her service would not be varied to her
disadvantage during her absence.
21. Contravention of the provisions of this Act has been made an offence under Section 21 of
the Act which provides as under:
21. Penalty for contravention of Act by employer - (1) If any employer fails to pay any amount
of maternity benefit to a woman entitled under this Act or discharge or dismisses such woman
during or on account of her absence from work in accordance with the provisions of this Act, he
shall be punishable with imprisonment which shall not be less than three months but which may
extend to one year and with fine which shall not be less than two thousand rupees but which
may extend to five thousand Provided that the Court may, for sufficient reasons to be recorded
in writing, impose a sentence of imprisonment for a lessor term or fine only in lieu of
imprisonment.
(2) If any employee contravenes the provisions of this Act or the rules made thereunder, he
shall, if no other penalty is elsewhere provided by or under this Act for such contravention, be
punishable with imprisonment which may extend to one year, or with line which may extend to
five thousand rupees, or with both.
Provided that where the contravention is of any provision regarding maternity benefit or
regarding payment of any other amount and such maternity benefit or amount has not already
been recovered, the Court shall, in addition, recover such maternity benefit or amount as if it
were a fine and pay the same to the person entitled thereto.
22. Cognizance of offences has been provided for in Section 23, which is reproduced under:
23. Cognizance of offences - (1) Any aggrieved woman, an office-bearer of a trade union
registered under the Trade Unions Act, 1926 of which such woman is a member or a voluntary
organisation registered under the Societies Registration Act, 1860 or an Inspector, may file a
complaint regarding the commission of an offence under this Act in any Court of competent
jurisdiction and no such complaint' shall be filed after the expiry of one year from the date on

178
which the office is alleged to have been committed.
(2) No Court inferior to that of a Metropolitan Magistrate or a Magistrate of the first class shall
try any offence under this Act
23. Section 27 deals with the effect of laws and agreements inconsistent with this Act. Sub-
section (1) provides that the provisions of this Act shall have effect notwithstanding anything
inconsistent therewith contained in any other law or in the terms of any award, agreement or
contract of service. Sub-section (2) of this section, however, provides that it will be open to a
woman to enter into an agreement with her employer for granting her rights or privileges in
respect o/any matter which are more favourable to her than those she would be entitled to under
this Act.
24. The provisions of the Act which have been set out above would indicate that they are wholly
in consonance with the Directive Principles of State Policy, as set out in Article 39 and in other
Articles, specially Article 42. A woman employee, at the time of advanced pregnancy cannot be
compelled to undertake hard labour as it would be detrimental to her health and also to the
health of the foetus. It is for this reason that It is provided in the Act that she would be entitled
to maternity leave for certain periods prior to and after delivery. We have scanned the different
provisions of the Act, but we do not find anything contained in the Act which entitles only
regular women employees to the benefit of maternity leave and not to those who are engaged on
casual basis of on muster roll on daily wage basis.
25. The Industrial Tribunal, which has given an award In favour of the respondents, has noticed
that women employees have been engaged by the Corporation on muster roll, that is to say, on
daily wage basis for doing various of works in projects like construction of buildings, digging of
trenches, making of roads, etc., but have been denied the benefit of maternity leave. The
Tribunal has found that though the women employees were on muster roll and had been
working for the Corporation for more than 10 years, they were not regularised. The Tribunal,
however, came to the conclusion that the provisions of the Maternity Benefit Act had not been
applied to the Corporation and, therefore, it felt that there was a lacuna in the Act. It further felt
that having regard to the activities of the Corporation, which had employed more than a
thousand women employees, it should have been brought within the purview of the Act so that
the maternity benefits contemplated by the Act could be extended to the women employees of
the Corporation. It felt that this lacuna could be removed by the State Govt. by issuing the
necessary notification under the Proviso to Section 2 of the Maternity Act. This Proviso lays
down as under:
Provided that the State Government may, with the approval of the Central Government, after
giving not less than two month's notice of its intention of so doing, by notification in the
Official Gazette, declare that all or any of the provisions of this Act shall apply also to any other
establishment or class of establishments, industrial, commercial, agricultural or otherwise.
26. It consequently issued a direction to the management of the Municipal Corporation, Delhi to
extend the benefits of Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 to such muster roll female employees who
were in continuous service of the management for three years or more and who fulfilled the
conditions set out in section 5 of the Act.
27. We appreciate the efforts of the Industrial Tribunal in issuing the above directions so as to-
provide the benefit of the Act to the muster roll women employees of the Corporation. This
direction is fully in consonance with the reference made to the Industrial Tribunal. The question

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referred for adjudication has already been reproduced in the earlier part of the judgment. It falls
in two parts as under:
(i) Whether the female workers working on muster roll should be given any maternity benefit ?
(ii) If so, what directions are necessary in this regard.
28. The award made by the Industrial Tribunal completely answers the question In both the
respects.
29. Learned Counsel for the Corporation contended that since the provisions of the Act have not
been applied to the Corporation, such a direction could not have been issued by the Tribunal.
This is a narrow way of looking at the problem which essentially Is human in nature and anyone
acquainted with the working of the Constitution, which aims at providing social and economic
justice to the citizens of this country, would out rightly reject the contention. The relevance and
significance of the doctrine of social justice has, times out of number, been emphasised by this
Court in several decisions. In Messrs Crown Aluminium Works v. Their Workmen , this Court
observed that the Constitution of India seeks to create a democratic, welfare State and secure
social and economic justice to the citizens. In J. K. Cotton Spinning & Weaving Mills Co. Ltd.
v. Badri Mali , Gajendragadkar, J., (as his Lordship then was), speaking for the Court, said
(Para 19):
Indeed the concept of social justice has now become such an integral part of industrial law that
it would be idle for any party to suggest that industrial adjudication can or should ignore the
claims of social justice in dealing with industrial disputes. The concept of social justice is not
narrow, one sided, or pedantic, and is not confined to industrial adjudication alone. Its sweep is
comprehensive. It is founded on the basic ideal of social-economic equality and its aim is to
assist the removal of socio-economic disparities and inequalities; nevertheless, in dealing with
industrial matters, it does not adopt a doctrinaire approach and refuses to yield blindly to
abstract notions, but adopts a realistic and pragmatic approach.
30. A just social order can be achieved only when inequalities are obliterated and everyone is
provided what, is legally due. When who constitute almost half of the segment of our society
have to be honoured and treated with dignity at places where they work to earn their livelihood.
Whatever be the nature of their duties, their avocation and the place where they work; they must
be provided all the facilities to which they are entitled. To become a mother is the most natural
phenomena in the life of a woman. Whatever is needed to facilitate the birth of child to a
woman who is in service, the employer has to be considerate and sympathetic towards her and
must realise the physical difficulties which a working woman would face in performing her
duties at the work place while carrying a baby in the womb or while rearing up the child after
birth. The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 aims to provide all these facilities to a working woman
in a dignified manner so that she may overcome the state of motherhood honourably, peaceably,
undeterred by the fear, of being victimised for forced absence during the pre or post-natal
period.
31. Next it was contended that therefore the benefits contemplated by the Maternity Benefit Act,
1961 can be extended only to workwomen in an 'industry' and not to the muster roll women
employees of the Municipal Corporation. This is too stale an argument to be heard. Learned
Counsel also forgets that. Municipal Corporation was treated to be an 'industry' and, therefore, a
reference was made to the Industrial Tribunal, which answered the reference against the
Corporation, and it is this matter which is being agitated before us.

180
32. Now, it is to be remembered that the Municipal Corporations or Boards have already been
held to be "industry" within the meaning of "Industrial Disputes Act". In Budge Budge
Municipality v. P.R. Mukherjee (1953) 1 Lab LJ 195 (SC), it was observed that the Municipal
activity would fall within the expression "undertaking" and as such would be an industry. The
decision was followed in Baroda Borough Municipality v. Its Workmen , in which the Court
observed that those branches of work of the Municipalities which could be regarded as
analogous to the carrying-on a trade or business, would be "industry" and the dispute between
the Municipalities arid their employees would be treated as an "industrial dispute". This view
was reiterated in the Corporation of the City of Nagpur v. Its Employees . In this case, various
Departments of the Municipality were considered and certain Departments including General
Administration Department and Education Department were held to be covered within the
meaning of "industry". The Punjab and Haryana High Court in Municipal Committee, Bhiwani
v. Padam Singh 1973 Lab IC 1512, held that fire-brigade service, maintained by Municipal
Committee, was an "industry". But a contrary view was taken by the Bombay High Court in
Administrator of the City of Nagpur Municipal Corporation v. Presiding Officer, Labour Court,
Nagpur 1976 Lab IC 107, which held that the fire-brigade service, maintained by the Municipal
Corporation, was not an "industry". We are not, in this case, attempting to resolve the conflict
between the Punjab and Haryana High Court and the Bombay High Court but what we intend to
emphasise is that this Court has already held some of the Departments of the Municipal
Corporation to be an "industry". The High Courts have also held the running of dispensary as
also sanitary and conservancy activities to be an "industry". (See Sirur Municipality v. Its
Workmen (1960) 2 Lab LJ 657 : ; Municipal Council, Washim v. Manguji Zenduji Dhamane
1978 Lab IC 881. The Andhra Pradesh High Court in Rajendranagar Municipality v. B.V.
Perraju 1995 Lab IC 2102, has held that storing and distribution of water was a systematic
activity of the Corporation which would fall within the definition of "industry".
33. Taking into consideration the enunciation of law as settled by this Court as also the High
Courts in various decisions referred to above, the activity of the Delhi Municipal Corporation
by which construction work is undertaken or roads are laid or repaired or trenches are dug
would fall within the definition of "industry". The workmen or, for that matter, those employed
on muster roll for carrying on these activities would, therefore, be "workmen" and the dispute
between them and the Corporation would have to be tack led as an industrial dispute in the light
of various statutory provisions of the Industrial Law, one of which is the Maternity Benefit Act,
1961. This is the domestic scenario. Internationally, the scenario is not different.
34. Delhi is the capital of India. No other City or Corporation would be more conscious than the
City of Delhi that India is a signatory to various International covenants and treaties. The
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the United Nations on 10th of December,
1948. set in motion the universal thinking that human rights are supreme and ought to be
preserved at all costs. This was followed by a series of Conventions. On 18th of December,
1979, the United Nations adopted the "Convention on the Elimination of all forms of
discrimination against women". Article 11 of this Convention provides as under:
Article 11
1. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women
in the field of employment in order to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, the
same rights, in particular;

181
(a) The right to work as an inalienable right of all human beings;
(b) The right to the same employment opportunities, including the application of the same
criteria for selection in-matters of employment;
(c) The right to free choice of profession and employment, the right to promotion, job security
and all benefits and conditions of service and the right to receive vocational training and
retraining, including apprenticeships, advanced vocational training and recurrent training;
(d) The right to equal remuneration, including benefits, and to. equal treatment In respect of
work of equal value, 'as well as equality of treatment in the evaluation of the quality of work;
(e) The right to social security, particularly in cases of retirement, unemployment, sickness,
invalidity and old age and other incapacity to work, as well as the right to paid leave.
(f) The right to protection of health and to satisfy in working conditions, including the,
safeguarding of the function of reproduction.
2. In order to prevent discrimination against women on the grounds of marriage or maternity
and to ensure their effective right to work. States Parties shall take appropriate measures:
(a) To prohibit, subject to the imposition of sanctions, dismissal on the grounds of pregnancy or
of maternity leave and discrimination in dismissals on the basis of marital status;
(b) To introduce maternity leave with pay or with comparable social benefits without loss of
former employment, seniority or social allowances;
(c) To encourage the provision of the necessary supporting social services to enable parents to
combine family obligations with work responsibilities and participation in public life, in
particular through promoting the establishment and development of a network of child-care
facilities;
(d) To provide special protection to women during pregnancy in types of work proved to be
harmful to them.
3. Protective legislation relating to matters covered in this article shall be reviewed periodically
in the light of scientific and technological knowledge and shall be revised, repealed or extended
as necessary.
35. These principles which are contained in Article 11, reproduced above, have to be read into
the contract of service between Municipal Corporation of Delhi and the women employees
(muster roll); and so read these employees immediately become entitled to all the benefits
conceived under the Maternity Benefit Act, 1961. We conclude our discussion by providing that
the direction issued by the Industrial Tribunal shall be complied with by the Municipal
Corporation of Delhi by approaching the State Government as also the Central Government for
issuing necessary Notification under the Proviso to Sub-section (1) of Section 2 of the Maternity
Benefit Act, 1961, if it has not already been issued. In the meantime, the benefits under the Act
shall be provided to the women (muster roll) employees of the Corporation who have been
working with them on daily wages.
36. For the reasons stated above, the Special Leave Petition is dismissed

182
 SUPREMECOURTOFINDIA
Writ Petition(s)(Civil) No(s).341/2008
SABU MATHEW GEORGE VERSUS UNION OF INDIA & ORS.
Order dated 28/01/2015:
SC directed,as an interim measure, that the respondents, namely, Google, yahoo and Micro Soft
shall not advertise or sponsor any advertisement which would violate Section 22 of the
PCPNDT Act,1994. If any advertise is there on any search engine, the same shall be withdrawn
forthwith by the respondents. This order was further directed to be put on the policy page as
also on the page containing 'terms and conditions of service' by respondents.
On 05/07/2016: SC observed that “There can be no dispute that the respondents, namely,
Google India, Yahoo ! India and Microsoft (I) Pvt. Ltd. cannot, in the name of intermediaries,
cannot put anything that violates the laws of this country.”
0n 19/09/2016:
ORDER
In pursuance of our orders dated 5th July, 2016, and 25th July, 2016, an affidavit has been filed
by the competent authority of the Ministry of Electronics & Information Technology,
Government of India. It is submitted by Mr. Ranjit Kumar, learned Solicitor General of India
that there was a meeting with the three software companies, namely, Google India, Yahoo !
India and Microsoft Corporation (I) Pvt. Ltd. and, prior to the meeting, the companies were
asked to respond to the following questions:-
“(a) Whether respondents feel obligated to complywith the provisions of PC-PNDT
Act,especially section 22 of the Act as directed by this Hon'ble Court vide its order dated
28.01.2015?
(b) Whether Respondents are ready to publish a “Warning Message” on top of search result, as
and when any user in India submits any “key word searches” in search engines, which relates to
pre conception and pre natal determination of sex or sex selection?
(c) Whether Respondents are ready to block “auto-complete” failure for “key word” searches
which relates to pre-conception and/or pre-natal determination of sex or sex selection?
(d) Whether the words/phrases relating to pre-conception and pre natal determination of sex or
sex selection to be provided and regularly updated by the Government for the 'key word search'
or shall it be the onus of the Respondents providing search engine facilities?
(e) Whether it is feasible for the Respondents to place this Hon'ble Court order dated
28.01.2015 on their respective Home Page(s), instead of placing them on Terms of Service
(TOS) pages?
(f) What is the suggested timeline to incorporate “Warning Message”, blocking of the “auto-
complete” feature for key word search & related terms etc. relating to pre-conception and pre-
natal determination of sex or sex selection?
(g) Any other information as Respondents would like to share?”
The respondents-Companies have submitted their replies to the Union of India, which have been
brought by way of a chart as Annexure M1/4 to the affidavit filed by the said Ministry. We have
already reproduced the questions posed by the Union of India. As we find from the chart, all the
respondents have agreed to follow the law of this country and not to allow any advertisement or
publish any content on their respective search engines.

183
Mr. Ranjit Kumar, learned Solicitor General has pointed out to the responses to the questions
(a) to (g) in seriatim as submitted by the three Companies. We think it
appropriate to reproduce the responses. They read thus:-
Google India Pvt. Microsoft Yahoo India Pvt Ltd.
Ltd. Corporation India
Pvt. Ltd.

Yes Yes Yes.

(i) Stated to i) Informed (i) Stated that
have taken all their absolute their advertising
possible steps to compliance with policy prohibits
ensure compliance the mandate of advertising that
with PC-PNDT Act. Section 22 of PC & promotes
(Ref : PNDT Act being the pre-conception/
Communication prohibition of prenatal sex
dated 19th July, advertisement in selection techniques
2016, Page No.43) relation to (Ref: Communication
ii) Further conception and pre dated 29th July, 2016
submitted that the intent behind natal page 78 no. reply.1
sec.22 of the determination of sex or sex
PCPNDT Act is to selection. (Ref.)
expressly prohibit Communication
an advertisement dated 1st Aug.
that is a 2016, page no.63,
commercial para 2)
communication and ii) Submitted
does not extend to that the
other forms of prohibition does
content including not, however
“search results, extend to any
videos, blogs or content outside of
images” advertisements
(Ref : such as
Communication algorithmic search
dated 1st August, content images,
2016, Page no.40, the auto-complete
para no.5. function and the
related search
function that are
algorithmically/
organically
populated.

Yes Yes Yes

Agrees to publish Agrees to issue a Agrees to publish
Warning Message. public service Warning Message.
(Ref : Communication announcement on (Ref : Communication
dated 29th July 2016, the search result dated 29th July 2016,
Page no.80 reply.vi) pages Page no.80 reply.vi)

184
 (Ref :
Communication
dated 1st Aug.,
2016, Page no.64
Para IV-4)

Yes Yes. Yes.

(i) Agrees to (i) undertakes to Agrees for disabling
block certain restruct its of Auto complete
terms that auto-complete feature in
directly relate to options and in.yahoo.com that
pre-natal gender related searches directly relate to
detection & options on Bing pre-natal gender
selection from appearing as India for the key detection & selection
auto-complete words provided (Ref : Communication
suggestions or as by/under MeitY's dated 29th July, 2016,
related search Affidavit dated Page no.80 reply.vii)
terms on the local 15.09.2015 in para
domain. 4(a) – (u). (Ref :
(ii) Further Communication
submits that this dated 1st Aug,
will remain an 2016, Page no. 64,
iterative process, Para V-6)
which will require
updating.
(Ref :
Communication
dated 19th July
2016, Page no.46,
Pt.i)

(i) Has already (i) Has agreed to (i) Has agreed to

blocked the “key block the “key block the list of
word search terms” word search terms” keywords provided by
as provided as provided the Supreme Court and
by/under MeitY's by/under MeitY's the MeitY (as per the
Affidavit dated Affidavit dated Annexure A) to
15.09.2015. 15.09.2015 in para disable the auto
(ii) As there are 4(a) – (u), complete.
vast numbers of however puts onus (ii) Informed that
permutation and on the Government they update this list
combinations of to provide of key words based on
blocked terms, it additional key any reported
undertakes to word search terms violations of the Act
review and expand in future and that are brought to
this list. reserves its right their attention in
(Ref : to review the accordance with due
Communication same. process of law.
dated 19th July (Ref : (Ref : Communication
2016, Page no.45, Communication dated 29th July 2016,
Pt.ii) dated 1st Aug, Page no.80, Reply .V.
2016, Page no.67, iii)

185
 Para no.16

No No No
(i) Submits that the said order has (i) Submits that (i) Submits that the
already been the said order has said order has
placed as part of already provided already been placed
relevant Terms of the link to the as part of relevant
Service/Policy said order in its Terms of
Page. advertisement Service/Page.
(ii) Submits that policy pages (ii) Submits that
it maintains a (Ref: their home page has
clear Home Page Communication certain limitations,
with links to only dated 20th July, business objectives,
very specific 2016, Page no.71, business
information that Para no. 15-iii) expectations, and
is relevant to (ii) Submits that space and design
search engine displaying the constraints. As a
services. order or featuring result, and for
(iii) Further any link to the legitimate business
submits that a order on the 'Home reasons, they cannot
Warning Message Page' would display such notices
should be treated interfere with the or order on the home
as sufficient to deliberate, highly page.
serve the thoughtout design (Ref : Communication
objective or and functional to MeitY vide email
spreading layout of the Bing dated 19th July, 2016
awareness on the “Home Page”. from yahoo India
issue. (iii) Microsoft Private Limited)
(iv) Informed that informed that if
placing a message the said court
on the homepage order is put up on
would provide the home page or a
information on link to the same
this issue to is featured on the
users regardless page, it should
of their interest have the effect of
in this topic creating
(Ref : unnecessary
Communication concern/uncertaint
dated 19th July, y amongst the
2016, Page no.47, larger community
Pt. D-I) of users.
(Ref :
Communication
dated 20th July
2016, Page no.72,
Para no.15 -vi)

Requested 5 weeks On or before By September 15, 2016

time. September 15, 2016 (Ref : Communication
(Ref : (Ref : dated 29th July 2016,
Communication Communication 2016, Page no.80,
dated 19th July dated 1st Aug 2016, reply.vii)

186
2016, Page no.46, Page no.64, Para
pt.ii) IV.4)

Microsoft Yahoo India stated

undertakes to that they are
limiting the responsible for
visibility of managing and
suggestions on its operating
auto-complete “in.yahoo.com”. Yahoo
platform and India has advertising
related searches policies that impose
platform, against requirements for
the queries/ key advertisements to
words indicated in appear on
the Government's in.yahoo.com.
Affidavit, by Yahoo India informed
31.12.2016 for the that Yahoo.com (which
users located in is subject to US
India. Microsoft laws) is a website
also confirms that managed by Yahoo!
by 15.09.2016, it Inc., a separate
will share an legal entity
update with the incorporated in State
MeitY on the of Delaware; U.S.A.
progress made in Yahoo India is not
this regard. authorized to make
any statement on
behalf of Yahoo! Inc.
Yahoo India does not
have responsibility
over the operations
of Yahoo Inc., given
they are managed by
different legal
entity.
(Ref : Communication
dated 29th July 2016,
2016 Page no. ,
reply.ii)
Further, Yahoo India
informed that
Duckduckgo.com (DDG)
is a U.S.-based,
independent search
provider. Yahoo
India does not
control and also does
not have any
contractual
relationship with
DDG. Therefore, we
are not authorised to
make any statements

187
 on behalf of DDG.
(Ref : Communication
dated 29th July, 2016,
2016, Page no.79,
reply.iv)

Ref. Google India Ref. Microsoft Ref. Yahoo India

letter(s) dtd: 19th India letter(s) communications dtd.
July, 2016 and 1st dtd. 20Th July 2016 19Th July 2016, 29th
August, 2016 and 1st Aug., 2016 July 2016 (annexed
(annexed from Page (annexed from from Page No.78 to
No.38-62) opage No.63 to 77) 88)

Adwords-support@go Will provide by in-legalpoc@yahoo-inc

ogle.com 15.09.2016 .com

Explaining the same, it is submitted by the learned Solicitor General that all the three
Companies are bound to develop a technique so that, the moment any advertisement or search is
introduced into the system, that will not be projected or seen by adopting the method of “auto
block”. To clarify, if any person tries to avail the corridors of these companies, this devise shall
be adopted so that no one can enter/see the said advertisement or message or anything that is
prohibited under the Pre-conception and Pre-natal Diagnostic Techniques (Prohibition of Sex
Selection) Act, 1994 (for short, 'the Act'), specifically under Section 22 of the said Act.
Mr. Sanjay Parikh, learned counsel for the petitioner would contend that the Union of India
should have taken further steps to see that the law of the country is totally obeyed by these three
Companies, inasmuch as the commitment given by them or the steps taken by the Union of
India are not adequate. He has pointed out from the affidavit filed by the petitioner that there are
agencies which are still publishing advertisements from which it can be deciphered about the
gender of the foetus. Learned counsel would submit that Section 22 of the Act has to be read
along with the other provisions of the Act and it should be conferred an expansive meaning and
should not be narrowly construed as has been done by the respondents.
Mr. Ranjit Kumar, learned Solicitor General at this juncture would submit that he has been
apprised today only about the “proposed list of words” in respect of which when commands are
given, there will be “auto block” with a warning and nothing would be reflected in the internet,
as it is prohibited in India. We think it appropriate to reproduce the said “proposed list of
words”. It reads as under:-
“Proposed List of Words
Gender selection
Gender selection Kits
Gender selection service
Gender selection clinics
Gender selection technique
Prenatal sex selection
Prenatal sex selection kits

188
Prenatal sex selection service
Prenatal sex selection clinics
Prenatal sex selection technique
Prenatal sex determination
Prenatal sex determination kits
Prenatal sex determination service
Prenatal sex determination clinics
prenatal sex determination technique
Baby gender selection
Baby gender selection kits
Baby gender selection service
Baby gender selection clinics
Baby gender selection technique
Prenatal diagnostic tests for selection of sex
before or after conception
Prenatal conception test
Prenatal diagnostic
Prenatal foetoscopy for sex selection
Prenatal ultrasonography for sex selection
Sex selection procedure
Sex selection technique
Sex selection test
Sex selection administration
Sex selection prescription
Sex selection services
Sex selection management
Sex selection process
Sex selection conduct
Prenatal image scanning for sex selection
Prenatal diagnostic procedure for sex selection
Sex determination using scanner
Sex determination using machines
Sex determination using equipment
Scientific sex determination and sex selection
Gender test
Early Gender Test”
At this juncture, Mr. C.A. Sundaram, Mr. K.V. Vishwanathan, learned senior counsel, Mr.
Anupam Lal Das, learned counsel appearing for Google India, Microsoft Corporation (I) Pvt.
Ltd. and Yahoo India, respectively, have submitted that apart from the aforesaid words, if
anyone, taking recourse to any kind of ingenuity, feed certain words and something that is
prohibited under the Act comes into existence, the “principle of auto block” shall be
immediately applied and it shall not be shown. The learned counsel appearing for the search
engines/intermediaries have submitted that they can only do this when it is brought to their
notice. In our considered opinion, they are under obligation to see that the “doctrine of auto

189
block” is applied within a reasonable period of time. It is difficult to accept the submission that
once it is brought to their notice, they will do the needful. It need not be over emphasized that it
has to be an in-house procedure/method to be introduced by the Companies, and we do direct.
Regard being had to the submissions advanced at the Bar, especially the objections raised by
Mr. Parikh with regard to the expansive interpretation to be placed under
Section 22 of the Act, let the matter be listed for final disposal on 16th November, 2016.
In the meantime, the competent authority of the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare,
Government of India, shall file an affidavit.

190
 Vinod Soni and Anr. v. Union of India (UOI) On: 13.06.2005
Judges: V.G. Palshikar and V.C. Daga, JJ.
JUDGMENT, V.G. Palshikar, J.
1. By this petition, the petitioners who are married couple, seek to challenge the constitutional
validity of Preconception and Prenatal Diagnostic Techniques (Prohibition of Sex Selection)
Act of 1994 (hereinafter referred to Sex Selection Act of 1994). The petition contains basically
two challenges to the enactment. First, it violates Article 14 of the Constitution and second, that
it violates Article 21 of the Constitution of India. At the time of argument, the learned counsel
appearing for the petitioners submitted that he does not press his petition in so far as the
challenge via Article 14 of the Constitution of India is concerned.
2. We are, therefore, required to consider the challenge that the provisions of Sex Selection Act
of 1994 are violative of Article 21 of the Constitution of India. Article 21 reads thus:
"Protection of life and personal liberty - No person shall be deprived of his life or personal
liberty except according to procedure cstablished by law."
3. This provision of Article 21, according to the learned counsel has been gradually expanded to
cover several facets of life pertaining to life itself and personal liberties which an individual has,
as a matter of his fundamental right. Reliance was placed on several judgments of the Supreme
Court of India to elaborate the submission regarding expansion of right to live and personal
liberty embodied under Article 21. in our opinion, firstly we deal with protection of life and
protection of personal liberty. In so far as protection of life is concerned, it must of necessity
include the question of terminating a life. This enactment basically prohibits termination of life
which has come into existence. It also prohibits sex selection at pre conception stage. The
challenge put in nutshell is that the personal liberty of a citizen of India includes the liberty of
choosing the sex of the offspring. Therefore he, or she is entitled to undertake any such
medicinal procedure which provides for determination or selection of sex, which may come into
existence after conception. The submission is that the right to personal liberty extends to such
selection being made in order to determine the nature of family which an individual can have in
exercise of liberty quaranteed by Article 21. It inturn includes nature of sex of that family which
he or she may eventually decided to have and/or develope.
4. Reliance was placed, as already stated, on several judgments of the Supreme Court of India
on the enlargement of the right embodied under article 21. The right basically deals with
protection of life and protection of personal liberty. Personal Liberties have been or personal
life has been expanded during the passage of 55 years of the Constitution. It now includes right
to pollution free water and air as held in AIR 1991 S.C. page 420 It includes right to a
reasonable residence for which reliance is placed on a judgment in Shantistar Builders v.
Narayan Khmalal Totame reported in AIR 1990 S.C. page 630 This right to a reasonable
residence always postulates right to a reasonable residence on reasonable restrictions and for
reasonable price. This right cannot be and the Supreme Court's judgment in 1990 S.C. page 630
does not create a right to a reasonable residence in any citizen, free of any cost.
5. Then reliance is placed on a Supreme Court Judgment in AIR 1989 S.C. page 677 and two
earlier decisions whereby the Supreme Court has explained Article 21 and the rights bestowed
thereby include right to Food, clothing, decent environment, and even protection of cultural
heritage. These rights even if further expanded to the extremes of the possible elasticity of the

191
provisions of Article 21 cannot include right to selection of sex whether preconception or post
conception.
6. The Article 21 is now said to govern and hold that it is a right of every child to full
development. The enactment namely Sex Selection Act of 1994 is factually enacted to further
this right under article 21, which gives to every child right to full development. A chid
conceived is therefore entitled to under Article 21, as held by the Supreme Court, to full
development whatever be the sex of that child. The determination whether at pre conception
stage or otherwise is the denial of a child, the right to expantion, or if it can be so expanded
right to come into existence. Apart from that the present legislation is confined only to prohibit
selection of sex of the child before or after conception. The tests which are available as of today
and which can incidentally result in determination of the sex of the child are prohibited. The
statement of objects and reasons makes this clear. The statement reads as under.
"The pre-natal diagnostic techniques like amniocentesis and sonography are useful for the
detection of genetic or chromosomal disorders or congenital malformations or sex linked
disorders."
Then para 4 reads thus:
"Accordingly, it is proposed to amend the aforesaid Act with a view to banning the use of both
sex selection techniques prior to conception as well as the misuse of pre-natal diagnostic
techniques for sex selective abortions and to regulate such techniques with a view to ensuring
their scientific use for which they are intended."
7. It will thus be observed that the enactment proposes to control and ban the use of this
selection technique both prior to conception as well as its misuse after conception and it does
not totally ban these procedures or tests. If we notice provisions of section 4 of the Act it gives
permission in when any of these tests can be administered. Sub section 2 says that no prenatal
diagnostic techniques can be conducted except for the purposes of detection of any of the (1)
chromosomal abnormalities, (2) genetic metabolic diseases, (3) heamoglobinopathies, (4) sex-
linked genetic diseases, (5) congenital anomalies and (6) any other abnormalities or diseases as
may be specified by the Central Supervisory Board. Thus, the enactment permits such tests if
they are necessary to avoid abnormal child coming into existence.
8. Apart from that such cases are permitted as mentioned in sub clause 3 of section 4 where
certain dangers to the pregnant woman are noticed. A perusal of those conditions which are five
and which can be added to the four, existence on which is provided by the Act. It will therefore
be seen that the enactment does not bring about total prohibition of any such tests. It intends to
thus prohibit user and indiscriminate user of such tests to determine the sex at preconception
stage or post conception stage. The right to life or personal liberty cannot be expanded to mean
that the right of personal liberty includes the personal liberty to determine the sex of a child
which may come into existence. The conception is a physical phenomena. It need not take place
on copulation of every capable male and female. Even if both are competent and healthy to give
birth to a child, conception need not necessarily follow. That being a factual medical position,
claiming right to choose the sex of a child which is come into existence as a right to do or not to
do something which cannot be called a right. The right to personal liberty cannot expand by any
stretch of imagination,to liberty to prohibit coming into existence of a female foetus or male
foetus which shall be for the Nature to decide. To claim a right to determine the existence of
such foetus or possibility of such foetus come into existence, is a claim of right which may

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never exist. Right to bring into existence a life in future with a choice to determine the sex of
that life cannot in itself to be a right. In our opinion, therefore, the petition does not make even a
prima facie case for violation of Article 21 of the Constitution of India. Hence it is dismissed. In
view of the fact that the petition itself is rejected, the application for intervention is also
rejected.

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 S.R. Batra and Anr. v. Smt. Taruna Batra
BENCH: S.B. Sinha & Markandey Katju
JUDGMENT MARKANDEY KATJU, J.
Leave granted.
This appeal has been filed against the impugned judgment of the Delhi High Court dated
17.1.2005 in C.M.M. No. 1367 of 2004 and C.MM. No. 1420 of 2004.
Heard learned counsel for the parties and perused the record.
The facts of the case are that respondent Smt. Taruna Batra was married to Amit Batra, son of
the appellants, on 14.4.2000.
After the marriage respondent Taruna Batra started living with her husband Amit Batra in the
house of the appellant no.2 in the second floor. It is not disputed that the said house which is at
B-135, Ashok Vihar, Phase-I, Delhi belongs to the appellant no.2 and not to her son Amit Batra.
Amit Batra filed a divorce petition against his wife Taruna Batra, and it is alleged that as a
counter blast to the divorce petition Smt. Taruna Batra filed an F.I.R. under Sections
406/498A/506 and 34 of the Indian Penal Code and got her father-in-law, mother-in-law, her
husband and married sister-in-law arrested by the police and they were granted bail only after
three days.
It is admitted that Smt. Taruna Batra had shifted to her parent's residence because of the dispute
with her husband. She alleged that later on when she tried to enter the house of the appellant
no.2 which is at property No. B-135, Ashok Vihar, Phase-I, Delhi she found the main entrance
locked and hence she filed Suit No. 87/2003 for a mandatory injunction to enable her to enter
the house. The case of the appellants was that before any order could be passed by the trial
Judge on the suit filed by their daughter-in- law, Smt. Taruna Batra, along with her parents
forcibly broke open the locks of the house at Ashok Vihar belonging to appellant No. 2, the
mother- in-law of Smt. Taruna Batra. The appellants alleged that they have been terrorized by
their daughter-in-law and for some time they had to stay in their office.
It is stated by the appellants that their son Amit Batra, husband of the respondent, had shifted to
his own flat at Mohan Nagar, Ghaziabad before the above litigation between the parties had
started.
The learned trial Judge decided both the applications for temporary injunction filed in suit
no.87/2003 by the parties by his order on 4.3.2003. He held that the petitioner was in possession
of the second floor of the property and he granted a temporary injunction restraining the
appellants from interfering with the possession of Smt. Taruna Batra, respondent herein.
Against the aforesaid order the appellants filed an appeal before the Senior Civil Judge, Delhi
who by his order dated 17.9.2004 held that Smt. Taruna Batra was not residing in the second
floor of the premises in question. He also held that her husband Amit Batra was not living in the
suit property and the matrimonial home could not be said to be a place where only wife was
residing. He also held that Smt. Taruna Batra had no right to the properties other than that of her
husband. Hence, he allowed the appeal and dismissed the temporary injunction application.
Aggrieved, Smt. Taruna Batra filed a petition under Article 227 of the Constitution which was
disposed of by the impugned judgment. Hence, these appeals.
The learned Single Judge of the High Court in the impugned judgment held that the second
floor of the property in question was the matrimonial home of Smt. Taruna Batra. He further
held that even if her husband Amit Batra had shifted to Ghaziabad that would not make

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Ghaziabad the matrimonial home of Smt. Taruna Batra. The Learned Judge was of the view that
mere change of the residence by the husband would not shift the matrimonial home from Ashok
Vihar, particularly when the husband had filed a divorce petition against his wife. On this
reasoning, the learned Judge of the High Court held that Smt. Taruna Batra was entitled to
continue to reside in the second floor of B-135, Ashok Vihar, Phase-I, Delhi as that is her
matrimonial home.
With respect, we are unable to agree with the view taken by the High Court.
As held by this Court in B.R. Mehta v. Atma Devi and Ors., [1987] 4 SCC 183, whereas in
England the rights of the spouses to the matrimonial home are governed by the Matrimonial
Homes Act, 1967, no such right exists in India.
In the same decision it was observed "it may be that with change of situation and complex
problems arising it is high time to give the wife or the husband a right of occupation in a truly
matrimonial home, in case of the marriage breaking up or in case of strained relationship
between the husband and the wife."
In our opinion, the above observation is merely an expression of hope and it does not lay down
any law. It is only the legislature which can create a law and not the Court. The courts do not
legislate, and whatever may be the personal view of a Judge, he cannot create or amend the law,
and must maintain judicial restraint.
There is no such law in India, like the British Matrimonial Homes Act, 1967, and in any case,
the rights which may be available under any law can only be as against the husband and not
against the father-in-law or mother- in-law.
Here, the house in question belongs to the mother-in-law of Smt. Taruna Batra and it does not
belong to her husband Amit Batra. Hence, Smt. Taruna Batra cannot claim any right to live in
the said house.
Appellant No. 2, the mother-in-law of Smt. Taruna Batra has stated that she had taken a loan for
acquiring the house and it is not a joint family property. We see no reason to disbelieve this
statement.
Learned counsel for the respondent then relied upon the Protection of Women from Domestic
Violence Act, 2005. He stated that in view of the said Act respondent Smt. Taruna Batra cannot
be dispossessed from the second floor of the property in question.
It may be noticed that the finding of the learned Senior Civil Judge that in fact Smt. Taruna
Batra was not residing in the premises in question is a finding of fact which cannot be interfered
with either under Article 226 or 227 of the Constitution. Hence, Smt. Taruna Batra cannot claim
any injunction restraining the appellants from dispossessing her from the property in question
for the simple reason that she was not in possession at all of the said property and hence the
question of dispossession does not arise.
Apart from the above, we are of the opinion that the house in question cannot be said to be a
`shared household' within the meaning of Section 2(s) of the Protection of Women from
Domestic Violence Act, 2005 (hereinafter referred to as the 'Act').
Section 2(s) states:
"`shared household` means a household where the person aggrieved lives or at any stage has
lived in a domestic relationship either singly or along with the respondent and includes such a
household whether owned or tenanted either jointly by the aggrieved person and the respondent,
or owned or tenanted by either of them in respect of which either the aggrieved person or the

195
respondent or both jointly or singly have any right, title, interest or equity and includes such a
household which may belong to the joint family of which the respondent is a member,
irrespective of whether the respondent or the aggrieved person has any right, title or interest in
the shared household".
Learned counsel for the respondent Smt. Taruna Batra has relied upon Sections 17 and 19(1) of
the aforesaid Act, which state:
"17. (1)Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law for the time being in force, every
woman in a domestic relationship shall have the right to reside in the shared household, whether
or not she has any right, title or beneficial interest in the same.
(2) The aggrieved person shall not be evicted or excluded from the shared household or any part
of it by the respondent save in accordance with the procedure established by law.
19. (1) While disposing of an application under sub-section (1) of section 12, the Magistrate
may, on being satisfied that domestic violence has taken place, pass a residence order--
(a) restraining the respondent from dispossessing or in any other manner disturbing the
possession of the aggrieved person from the shared household, whether or not the respondent
has a legal or equitable interest in the shared household;
(b) directing the respondent to remove himself from the shared household;
(c) restraining the respondent or any of his relatives from entering any portion of the shared
household in which the aggrieved person resides;
(d) restraining the respondent from alienating or disposing off the shared household or
encumbering the same;
(e) restraining the respondent from renouncing his rights in the shared household except with
the leave of the Magistrate; or
(f) directing the respondent to secure same level of alternate accommodation for the aggrieved
person as enjoyed by her in the shared household or to pay rent for the same, if the
circumstances so require:
Provided that no order under clause (b) shall be passed against any person who is a woman".
Learned counsel for the respondent Smt. Taruna Batgra stated that the definition of shared
household includes a household where the person aggrieved lives or at any stage had lived in a
domestic relationship. He contended that since admittedly the respondent had lived in the
property in question in the past, hence the said property is her shared household.
We cannot agree with this submission.
If the aforesaid submission is accepted, then it will mean that wherever the husband and wife
lived together in the past that property becomes a shared household. It is quite possible that the
husband and wife may have lived together in dozens of places e.g. with the husband's father,
husband's paternal grand parents, his maternal parents, uncles, aunts, brothers, sisters, nephews,
nieces etc. If the interpretation canvassed by the learned counsel for the respondent is accepted,
all these houses of the husband's relatives will be shared households and the wife can well insist
in living in the all these houses of her husband's relatives merely because she had stayed with
her husband for some time in those houses in the past. Such a view would lead to chaos and
would be absurd.
It is well settled that any interpretation which leads to absurdity should not be accepted.
Learned counsel for the respondent Smt Taruna Batra has relied upon Section 19(1)(f) of the
Act and claimed that she should be given an alternative accommodation. In our opinion, the

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claim for alternative accommodation can only be made against the husband and not against the
husband's in-laws or other relatives.
As regards Section 17(1) of the Act, in our opinion the wife is only entitled to claim a right to
residence in a shared household, and a `shared household' would only mean the house belonging
to or taken on rent by the husband, or the house which belongs to the joint family of which the
husband is a member. The property in question in the present case neither belongs to Amit Batra
nor was it taken on rent by him nor is it a joint family property of which the husband Amit Batra
is a member. It is the exclusive property of appellant No. 2, mother of Amit Batra. Hence it
cannot be called a `shared household'.
No doubt, the definition of `shared household' in Section 2(s) of the Act is not very happily
worded, and appears to be the result of clumsy drafting, but we have to give it an interpretation
which is sensible and which does not lead to chaos in society.
In view of the above, the appeal is allowed. The impugned judgment of the High Court is set
aside and the order of Senior Civil Judge dismissing the injunction application of Smt

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D.Velusamy vs D.Patchaiammal
Bench: Markandey Katju, T.S. Thakur
Markandey Katju, J.
1. Leave granted.
2. Heard learned counsel for the appellant. None has appeared for the respondent although she has been
served notice. We had earlier requested Mr. Jayant Bhushan, learned Senior counsel to assist us as
Amicus Curiae in 2 the case, and we record our appreciation of Mr. Bhushan who was of considerable
assistance to us.
3. These appeals have been filed against the judgment of the Madras High Court dated 12.10.2009.
4. The appellant herein has alleged that he was married according to the Hindu Customary Rites with
one Lakshmi on 25.6.1980. Out of the wedlock with Lakshmi a male child was born, who is now
studying in an Engineering college at Ooty. The petitioner is working as a Secondary Teacher in
Thevanga Higher Secondary School, Coimbatore.
5. It appears that the respondent-D. Patchaiammal filed a petition under Section 125 Cr.P.C. in the year
2001 before the Family Court at Coimbatore in which she alleged that she was married to the appellant
herein on 14.9.1986 and since then the appellant herein and she lived together in her father's house for
two or three years. It is alleged in the petition that after two or three years the appellant herein left the
house of the respondent's father and started living in his native place, but would visit the respondent
occasionally.
6. It is alleged that the appellant herein (respondent in the petition under Section 125 Cr.P.C.) deserted
the respondent herein (petitioner in the proceeding under Section 125 Cr.P.C.) two or three years after
marrying her in 1986. In her petition under Section 125 Cr.P.C. she alleged that she did not have any
kind of livelihood and she is unable to maintain herself whereas the respondent (appellant herein) is a
Secondary Grade Teacher drawing a salary of Rs.10000/- per month. Hence it was prayed that the
respondent (appellant herein) be directed to pay Rs.500/- per month as maintenance to the petitioner.
7. In both her petition under Section 125 Cr.P.C. as well as in her deposition in the case the respondent
has alleged that she was married to the appellant herein on 14.9.1986, and that he left her after two or
three years of living together with her in her father's house.
8. Thus it is the own case of the respondent herein that the appellant left her in 1988 or 1989 (i.e. two or
three years after the alleged marriage in 1986). Why then was the petition under Section 125 Cr.P.C.
filed in the year 2001, i.e. after a delay of about twelve years, shall have to be satisfactorily explained by
the respondent. This fact also creates some doubt about the case of the respondent herein.
9. In his counter affidavit filed by the appellant herein before the Family Court, Coimbatore, it was
alleged that the respondent (appellant herein) was married to one Lakshmi on 25.6.1980 as per the Hindu
Marriage rites and customs and he had a male child, who is studying in C.S.I. Engineering college at
Ooty. To prove his marriage with Lakshmi the appellant produced the ration card, voter's identity card of
his wife, transfer certificate of his son, discharge certificate of his wife Lakshmi from hospital,
photographs of the wedding, etc.
10. The learned Family Court Judge has held by his judgment dated 5.3.2004 that the appellant was
married to the respondent and not to Lakshmi. These findings have been upheld by the High Court in the
impugned judgment.
11. In our opinion, since Lakshmi was not made a party to the proceedings before the Family Court
Judge or before the High Court and no notice was issued to her hence any declaration about her marital
status vis-à-vis the appellant is wholly null and void as it will be violative of the rules of natural justice.
Without giving a hearing to Lakshmi no such declaration could have validly be given by the Courts
below that she had not married the appellant herein since such as a finding would seriously affect her
rights. 5

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And if no such declaration could have been given obviously no declaration could validly have been
given that the appellant was validly married to the respondent, because if Lakshmi was the wife of the
appellant then without divorcing her the appellant could not have validly married the respondent.
12. It may be noted that Section 125 Cr.P.C. provides for giving maintenance to the wife and some other
relatives. The word `wife' has been defined in Explanation (b) to Section 125(1) of the Cr.P.C. as follows
:
“Wife includes a woman who has been divorced by, or has obtained a divorce from, her husband and has
not remarried.”;
13. In Vimala (K) vs. Veeraswamy (K) [(1991) 2 SCC 375], a three- Judge Bench of this Court held that
Section 125 of the Code of 1973 is meant to achieve a social purpose and the object is to prevent
vagrancy and destitution. Explaining the meaning of the word `wife' the Court held: “..the object is to
prevent vagrancy and destitution. It provides a speedy remedy for the supply of food, clothing and
shelter to the deserted wife. When an attempt is made by the husband to negative the claim of the
neglected wife depicting her as a kept-mistress on the specious plea that he was already married, the
court would insist on strict proof of the earlier marriage. The term `wife' in Section 125 of the Code of
Criminal Procedure, includes a woman who has been divorced by a husband or who has obtained a
divorce from her husband and has not remarried. The woman not having the legal status of a wife is thus
brought within the inclusive definition of the term `wife' consistent with the objective. However, under
the law a second wife whose marriage is void on account of the survival of the first marriage is not a
legally wedded wife, and is, therefore, not entitled to maintenance under this provision.”
14. In a subsequent decision of this Court in Savitaben Somabhat Bhatiya vs. State of Gujarat and others,
AIR 2005 SC 1809, this Court held that however desirable it may be to take note of the plight of an
unfortunate woman, who unwittingly enters into wedlock with a married man, there is no scope to
include a woman not lawfully married within the expression of `wife'. The Bench held that this
inadequacy in law can be amended only by the Legislature.
15. Since we have held that the Courts below erred in law in holding that Lakshmi was not married to the
appellant (since notice was not issued to her and she was not heard), it cannot be said at this stage that
the respondent herein is the wife of the appellant. A divorced wife is treated as a wife for the purpose of
Section 125 Cr.P.C. but if a person has not even been married obviously that person could not be
divorced. Hence the respondent herein cannot claim to be the wife of the appellant herein, unless it is
established that the appellant was not married to Lakshmi.
16. However, the question has also be to be examined from the point of view of The Protection of
Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005. Section 2(a) of the Act states :
“2(a) ‘aggrieved person’ means any woman who is, or has been, in a domestic relationship with the
respondent and who alleges to have been subjected to any act of domestic violence by the respondent”;
Section 2(f) states :
“2(f) ‘domestic relationship’means a relationship between two persons who live or have, at any point of
time, lived together in a shared household, when they are related by consanguinity, marriage, or through
a relationship in the nature of marriage, adoption or are family members living together as a joint
family”; Section 2(s) states : ‘shared household’ means a household where the person aggrieved lives or
at any stage has lived in a domestic relationship either singly or along with the respondent and includes
such a household whether owned or tenanted either jointly by the aggrieved person and the respondent,
or owned or tenanted by either of them in respect of which either the aggrieved person or the respondent
or both jointly or singly have any right, title, interest or equity and includes such a household which may
belong to the joint family of which the respondent is a member, irrespective of whether the respondent or
the aggrieved person has any right, title or interest in the shared household.”
Section 3(a) states that an act will constitute domestic violence in case it- “(a) harms or injures or
endangers the health, safety, life, limb or well-being, whether mental or physical, of the aggrieved

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person or tends to do so and includes causing physical abuse, sexual abuse, verbal and emotional abuse
and economic abuse”; or (emphasis supplied)
17. The expression “economic abuse” has been defined to include : “a) deprivation of all or any
economic or financial resources to which the aggrieved person is entitled under any law or custom
whether payable under an order of a court or otherwise or which the aggrieved person requires out of
necessity including, but not limited to, household necessities for the aggrieved person and her children, if
any, stridhan, property, jointly or separately owned by the aggrieved person, payment of rental related to
the shared household and maintenance” (emphasis supplied)
18. An aggrieved person under the Act can approach the Magistrate under Section 12 for the relief
mentioned in Section 12(2). Under Section 20(1)(d) the Magistrate can grant maintenance while
disposing of the

application under Section 12(1).

19. Section 26(1) provides that the relief mentioned in Section 20 may also be sought in any legal
proceeding, before a civil court, family court or a criminal court.
20. Having noted the relevant provisions in The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act,
2005, we may point out that the expression `domestic relationship' includes not only the relationship of
marriage but also a relationship `in the nature of marriage'. The question, therefore, arises as to what is
the meaning of the expression `a relationship in the nature of marriage'. Unfortunately this expression
has not been defined in the Act. Since there is no direct decision of this Court on the interpretation of this
expression we think it necessary to interpret it because a large number of cases will be coming up before
the Courts in our country on this point, and hence an authoritative decision is required.
21. In our opinion Parliament by the aforesaid Act has drawn a distinction between the relationship of
marriage and a relationship in the nature of marriage, and has provided that in either case the person who
enters into either relationship is entitled to the benefit of the Act. 1
22. It seems to us that in the aforesaid Act of 2005 Parliament has taken notice of a new social
phenomenon which has emerged in our country known as live-in relationship. This new relationship is
still rare in our country, and is sometimes found in big urban cities in India, but it is very common in
North America and Europe. It has been commented upon by this Court in S. Khushboo vs. Kanniammal
&amp; Anr. (2010) 5 SCC 600 (vide para 31).
23. When a wife is deserted, in most countries the law provides for maintenance to her by her husband,
which is called alimony. However, earlier there was no law providing for maintenance to a woman who
was having a live-in relationship with a man without being married to him and was then deserted by him.
24. In USA the expression `palimony' was coined which means grant of maintenance to a woman who
has lived for a substantial period of time with a man without marrying him, and is then deserted by him
(see `palimony' on Google). The first decision on palimony was the well known decision of the
California Superior Court in Marvin vs. Marvin (1976) 18 C3d660. This case related to the famous film
actor Lee Marvin, with whom a lady Michelle lived for many years without marrying him, and was then
deserted by him and she claimed palimony. Subsequently in many decisions of the Courts in USA, the
concept of palimony has been considered and developed. The US Supreme Court has not given any
decision on whether there is a legal right to palimony, but there are several decisions of the Courts in
various States in USA. These Courts in USA have taken divergent views, some granting palimony, some
denying it altogether, and some granting it on certain conditions. Hence in USA the law is still in a state
of evolution on the right to palimony.
25. Although there is no statutory basis for grant of palimony in USA, the Courts there which have
granted it have granted it on a contractual basis. Some Courts in USA have held that there must be a
written or oral agreement between the man and woman that if they separate the man will give palimony

200
to the woman, while other Courts have held that if a man and woman have lived together for a
substantially long period without getting married there would be deemed to be an implied or constructive
contract that palimony will be given on their separation.
26. In Taylor vs. Fields (1986) 224 Cal. Rpr. 186 the facts were that the plaintiff Taylor had a
relationship with a married man Leo. After Leo died Taylor sued his widow alleging breach of an
implied agreement to take care of Taylor financially and she claimed maintenance from the estate of
Leo. The Court of Appeals in California held that the relationship alleged by Taylor was nothing more
than that of a married man and his mistress. It was held that the alleged contract rested on meretricious
consideration and hence was invalid and unenforceable. The Court of Appeals relied on the fact that
Taylor did not live together with Leo but only occasionally spent weekends with him. There was no sign
of a stable and significant cohabitation between the two.
27. However, the New Jersey Supreme Court in Devaney vs. L' Esperance 195 N.J., 247 (2008) held that
cohabitation is not necessary to claim palimony, rather &quot;it is the promise to support, expressed or
implied, coupled with a marital type relationship, that are indispensable elements to support a valid claim
for palimony&quot;. A law has now been passed in 2010 by the State legislature of New Jersey that
there must be a written agreement between the parties to claim palimony.
28. Thus, there are widely divergent views of the Courts in U.S.A. regarding the right to palimony. Some
States like Georgia and Tennessee expressly refuse to recognize palimony agreements.
29. Written palimony contracts are rare, but some US Courts have found implied contracts when a
woman has given up her career, has managed the household, and assisted a man in his business for a
lengthy period of time. Even when there is no explicit written or oral contract some US Courts have held
that the action of the parties make it appear that a constructive or implied contract for grant of palimony
existed.
30. However, a meretricious contract exclusively for sexual service is held in all US Courts as invalid
and unenforceable.
31. In the case before us we are not called upon to decide whether in our country there can be a valid
claim for palimony on the basis of a contract, express or implied, written or oral, since no such case was
set up by the respondent in her petition under Section 125 Cr.P.C.
32. Some countries in the world recognize common law marriages. A common law marriage, sometimes
called de facto marriage, or informal marriage is recognized in some countries as a marriage though no
legally recognized marriage ceremony is performed or civil marriage contract is entered into or the
marriage registered in a civil registry (see details on Google).
33. In our opinion a `relationship in the nature of marriage' is akin to a common law marriage. Common
law marriages require that although not being formally married :-
(a) The couple must hold themselves out to society as being akin to spouses. (b) They must be of legal
age to marry.
(c) They must be otherwise qualified to enter into a legal marriage, including being unmarried.
(d) They must have voluntarily cohabited and held themselves out to the world as being akin to spouses
for a significant period of time.
(see `Common Law Marriage' in Wikipedia on Google) In our opinion a `relationship in the nature of
marriage' under the 2005 Act must also fulfill the above requirements, and in addition the parties must
have lived together in a `shared household' as defined in Section 2(s) of the Act. Merely spending
weekends together or a one night stand would not make it a `domestic relationship'.
34. In our opinion not all live in relationships will amount to a relationship in the nature of marriag8e to
get the benefit of the Act of 2005. To get such benefit the conditions mentioned by us above must be
satisfied, and this has to be proved by evidence. If a man has a `keep' whom he maintains financially and
uses mainly for sexual purpose and/or as a servant it would not, in our opinion, be a relationship in the
nature of marriage'

201
35. No doubt the view we are taking would exclude many women who have had a live in relationship
from the benefit of the 2005 Act, but then it is not for this Court to legislate or amend the law.
Parliament has used the expression `relationship in the nature of marriage' and not `live in relationship'.
The Court in the grab of interpretation cannot change the language of the statute.
36. In feudal society sexual relationship between man and woman outside marriage was totally taboo and
regarded with disgust and horror, as depicted in Leo Tolstoy's novel `Anna Karenina', Gustave Flaubert's
novel `Madame Bovary' and the novels of the great Bengali writer Sharat Chandra Chattopadhyaya.
37. However, Indian society is changing, and this change has been reflected and recognized by
Parliament by enacting The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005.
38. Coming back to the facts of the present case, we are of the opinion that the High Court and the
learned Family Court Judge erred in law in holding that the appellant was not married to Lakshmi
without even issuing notice to Lakshmi. Hence this finding has to be set aside and the matter remanded
to the Family Court which may issue notice to Lakshmi and after hearing her give a fresh finding in
accordance with law. The question whether the appellant was married to the respondent or not can, of
course, be decided only after the aforesaid finding.
39. There is also no finding in the judgment of the learned Family Court Judge on the question whether
the appellant and respondent had lived together for a reasonably long period of time in a relationship
which was in the nature of marriage. In our opinion such findings were essential to decide this case.
Hence we set aside the impugned judgment of the High Court and Family Court Judge, Coimbatore and
remand the matter to the Family Court Judge to decide the matter afresh in accordance with law and in
the light of the observations made above. Appeals allowed.

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HIRAL P. HARSORA AND ORS VERSUS KUSUM NAROTTAMDAS HARSORA
JUDGMENT
R.F. Nariman, J.
1. Leave granted.
2. The present appeal arises out of a judgment dated 25.9.2014 of a Division Bench of the
Bombay High Court. It raises an important question as to the constitutional validity of Section
2(q) of the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005, (hereinafter referred to as
“the 2005 Act”).
3. On 3.4.2007, Kusum Narottam Harsora and her mother Pushpa Narottam Harsora filed a
complaint under the 2005 Act against Pradeep, the brother/son, and his wife, and two
sisters/daughters, alleging various acts of violence against them. The said complaint was
withdrawn on 27.6.2007 with liberty to file a fresh complaint.
4. Nothing happened for over three years till the same duo of mother and daughter filed two
separate complaints against the same respondents in October, 2010. An application was moved
before the learned Metropolitan Magistrate for a discharge of respondent Nos. 2 to 4 stating that
as the complaint was made under Section 2(a) read with Section 2(q) of the 2005 Act, it can
only be made against an adult male person and the three respondents not being adult male
persons were, therefore, required to be discharged. The Metropolitan Magistrate passed an order
dated 5.1.2012 in which such discharge was refused. In a writ petition filed against the said
order, on 15.2.2012, the Bombay High Court, on a literal construction of the 2005 Act,
discharged the aforesaid three respondents from the complaint. We have been informed that this
order has since attained finality.
5. The present proceedings arise because mother and daughter have now filed a writ petition,
being writ petition No.300/2013, in which the constitutional validity of Section 2(q) has been
challenged. Though the writ petition was amended, there was no prayer seeking any interference
with the order dated 15.2.2012, which, as has already been stated hereinabove, has attained
finality.
6. The Bombay High Court by the impugned judgment dated 25.9.2014 has held that Section
2(q) needs to be read down in the following manner:-
“In view of the above discussion and in view of the fact that the decision of the Delhi High
Court in Kusum Lata Sharma's case has not been disturbed by the Supreme Court, we are
inclined to read down the provisions of section 2(q) of the DV Act and to hold that the
provisions of "respondent" in section 2(q) of the DV Act is not to be read in isolation but has to
be read as a part of the scheme of the DV Act, and particularly along with the definitions of
"aggrieved person", “domestic relationship" and "shared household" in clauses (a), (f) and (s) of
section 2 of the DV Act. If so read, the complaint alleging acts of domestic violence is
maintainable not only against an adult male person who is son or brother, who is or has been in
a domestic relationship with the aggrieved complainant- mother or sister, but the complaint can
also be filed against a relative of the son or brother including wife of the son / wife of the
brother and sisters of the male respondent. In other words, in our view, the complaint against
the daughter-in-law, daughters or sisters would be maintainable under the provisions of the DV
Act, where they are corespondent/s in a complaint against an adult male person, who is or has
been in a domestic relationship with the complainant and such corespondent/ s. It must, of
course, be held that a complaint under the DV Act would not be maintainable against daughter-

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in-law, sister-in- law or sister of the complainant, if no complaint is filed against an adult male
person of the family.”
7. The present appeal has been filed against this judgment. Shri Harin P. Raval, learned senior
advocate appearing on behalf of the appellants, assailed the judgment, and has argued before us
that it is clear that the “respondent” as defined in Section 2(q) of the said Act can only mean an
adult male person. He has further argued that the proviso to Section 2(q) extends “respondent”
only in the case of an aggrieved wife or female living in a relationship in the nature of a
marriage, in which case even a female relative of the husband or male partner may be arraigned
as a respondent. He sought to assail the judgment on the ground that the Court has not read
down the provision of Section 2(q), but has in fact read the proviso into the main enacting part
of the said definition, something that was impermissible in law. He has argued before us that the
2005 Act is a penal statute and should be strictly construed in the event of any ambiguity. He
further argued that in fact there was no ambiguity because the expression “adult male person”
cannot be diluted in the manner done by the High Court in the impugned judgment. He cited a
large number of judgments on the golden rule of literal construction, on how reading down
cannot be equated to re-reading in constitutional law, and on how a proviso cannot be
introduced into the main part of a provision so as to distort its language. He also cited before us
judgments which stated that even though a statute may lead to some hardship, that would not
necessarily render the provision unconstitutional nor, in the process of interpretation, can a
Court mend or bend the provision in the face of the plain language used. He also cited
judgments before us stating that given the plain language, it is clear that it is only for the
legislature to make the changes suggested by the High Court.
8. Ms. Meenakshi Arora, learned senior counsel appearing on behalf of the respondents,
countered each of these submissions. First and foremost, she argued that the 2005 Act is a piece
of social beneficial legislation enacted to protect women from domestic violence of all kinds.
This being the case, it is clear that any definition which seeks to restrict the reach of the Act
would have to be either struck down as being violative of Article 14 of the Constitution or read
down. According to her, given the object of the statute, which is discernible clearly from the
statement of objects and reasons, the preamble, and various provisions of the 2005 Act which
she took us through, it is clear that the expression “adult male person” is a classification not
based on any intelligible differentia, and not having any rational relationship with the object
sought to be achieved by the Act. In fact, in her submission, the said expression goes contrary to
the object of the Act, which is to afford the largest possible protection to women from domestic
violence by any person, male or female, who happens to share either a domestic relationship or
shared household with the said woman. In the alternative, she argued that the High Court
judgment was right, and that if the said expression is not struck down, it ought to be read down
in the manner suggested to make it constitutional. She also added that the doctrine of
severability would come to her rescue and that if the said expression were deleted from Section
2(q), the Act as a whole would stand and the object sought to be achieved would only then be
fulfilled. She referred to a large number of judgments on Article 14 and the doctrine of
severability generally. She also argued that within the definition of “shared household” in
Section 2(s) of the Act, the “respondent” may be a member of a joint family. She has adverted
to the amendment made to the Hindu Succession Act in 2005, by which amendment females
have also become coparceners in a joint Hindu family, and she argued that therefore the 2005

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Act is not in tune with the march of statutory law in other areas. She also countered the
submission of Shri Raval stating that the 2005 Act is in fact a piece of beneficial legislation
which is not penal in nature but which affords various remedies which are innovative in nature
and which cannot be availed of in the ordinary civil courts. She added that Section 31 alone was
a penal provision for not complying with a protection order, and went on to state that the
modern rule as to penal provisions is different from that sought to be contended by Shri Raval,
and that such rule requires the court to give a fair interpretation to the provisions of these
statutes, neither leaning in favour of the accuser or the accused. She also added that given the
beneficial statute that we have to strike down/interpret, a purposive construction alone should be
given, and as the offending expression “adult male person” is contrary to such purpose and
would lead to absurdities and anomalies, it ought to be construed in tune with the Act as a
whole, which therefore would include females, as well, as respondents. She also pointed out
that, at present, the sweep of the Act was such that if a mother-in-law or sister-in-law were to be
an aggrieved person, they could only be aggrieved against adult male members and not against
any opposing female member of a joint family – for example, a daughter-in-law or a sister-in-
law. This will unnecessary stultify what was sought to be achieved by the Act, and would make
the Act a dead letter insofar as these persons are concerned. She also argued that the Act would
become unworkable in that the reliefs that were to be given would only be reliefs against adult
male members and not their abettors who may be females.
9. Ms. Pinky Anand, learned Additional Solicitor General for India, more or less adopted the
arguments of the counsel who appeared for the Union of India in the Bombay High Court. It
was her submission that in view of the judgment in Kusum Lata Sharma v. State (Crl. M.C.
No.75 of 2011 dated 2.9.2011) of the Delhi High Court, laying down that the mother-in-law is
also entitled to file a complaint against the daughter-in-law under the provisions of the 2005
Act, and the SLP against the said judgment having been dismissed by the Supreme Court, her
stand was that it would be open to a mother-in-law to file a complaint against her son as well as
her daughter-in-law and other female relatives of the son. In short, she submitted that the
impugned judgment does not require interference at our end.
10. This appeal therefore raises a very important question in the area of protection of the female
sex generally. The Court has first to ascertain what exactly is the object sought to be achieved
by the 2005 Act. In doing so, this Court has to see the statement of objects and reasons, the
preamble and the provisions of the 2005 Act as a whole.... it is important first to discern the
object of the 2005 Act from the statement of objects and reasons:-
STATEMENT OF OBJECTS AND REASONS
1. Domestic violence is undoubtedly a human rights issue and serious deterrent to development.
The Vienna Accord of 1994 and the Beijing Declaration and the Platform for Action (1995)
have acknowledged this. The United Nations Committee on Convention on Elimination of All
Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) in its General Recommendation No. XII
(1989) has recommended that State parties should act to protect women against violence of any
kind especially that occurring within the family.
2. The phenomenon of domestic violence is widely prevalent but has remained largely invisible
in the public domain. Presently, where a woman is subjected to cruelty by her husband or his
relatives, it is an offence under section 498A of the Indian Penal Code. The civil law does not
however address this phenomenon in its entirety.

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3. It is, therefore, proposed to enact a law keeping in view the rights guaranteed under articles
14, 15 and 21 of the Constitution to provide for a remedy under the civil law which is intended
to protect the woman from being victims of domestic violence and to prevent the occurrence of
domestic violence in the society.
4. The Bill, inter alia, seeks to provide for the following:-
(i) It covers those women who are or have been in a relationship with the abuser where both
parties have lived together in a shared household and are related by consanguinity, marriage or
through a relationship in the nature of marriage or adoption. In addition, relationships with
family members living together as a joint family are also included. Even those women who are
sisters widows, mothers, single women, or living with the abuser are entitled to legal protection
under the proposed legislation. However, whereas the Bill enables the wife or the female living
in a relationship in the nature of marriage to file a complaint under the proposed enactment
against any female relative of husband or the male partner, it does not enable any female
relative of the husband or the male partner to file a complaint against the wife or the female
partner.
(ii) It defines the expression “domestic violence” to include actual abuse or threat or abuse that
is physical, sexual, verbal, emotional or economic. Harassment by way of unlawful dowry
demands to the woman or her relatives would also be covered under this definition.
(iii) It provides for the rights of women to secure housing. It also provides household, whether
or not she has any title or rights in such home or household. This right is secured by a residence
order, which is passed by the Magistrate.
iv) It empowers the Magistrate to pass protection orders in favour of the aggrieved person to
prevent the respondent from aiding or committing an act of domestic violence or any other
specified act, entering a workplace or any other place frequented by the aggrieved person,
attempting to communicate with her, isolating any assets used by both the parties and causing
violence to the aggrieved person, her relatives or others who provide her assistance from the
domestic violence.
(v) It provides for appointment of Protection Officers and registration of non-governmental
organizations as service providers for providing assistance to the aggrieved person with respect
to her medical examination, obtaining legal aid, safe shelter, etc.
5. The Bill seeks to achieve the above objects. The notes on clauses explain the various
provisions contained in the Bill.”
14. A cursory reading of the statement of objects and reasons makes it clear that the
phenomenon of domestic violence against women is widely prevalent and needs redressal.
Whereas criminal law does offer some redressal, civil law does not address this phenomenon in
its entirety. The idea therefore is to provide various innovative remedies in favour of women
who suffer from domestic violence, against the perpetrators of such violence.
15. The preamble of the statute is again significant. It states: Preamble “An Act to provide for
more effective protection of the rights of women guaranteed under the constitution who are
victims of violence of any kind occurring within the family and for matters connected therewith
or incidental thereto.”
16. What is of great significance is that the 2005 Act is to provide for effective protection of the
rights of women who are victims of violence of any kind occurring within the family. The

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preamble also makes it clear that the reach of the Act is that violence, whether physical, sexual,
verbal, emotional or economic, are all to be redressed by the statute. That the perpetrators and
abettors of such violence can, in given situations, be women themselves, is obvious.......
18. It will be noticed that the definition of “domestic relationship” contained in Section 2(f) is a
very wide one. It is a relationship between persons who live or have lived together in a shared
household and are related in any one of four ways - blood, marriage or a relationship in the
nature of marriage, adoption, or family members of a joint family. A reading of these definitions
makes it clear that domestic relationships involve persons belonging to both sexes and includes
persons related by blood or marriage. This necessarily brings within such domestic relationships
male as well as female in-laws, quite apart from male and female members of a family related
by blood. Equally, a shared household includes a household which belongs to a joint family of
which the respondent is a member. As has been rightly pointed out by Ms. Arora, even before
the 2005 Act was brought into force on 26.10.2006, the Hindu Succession Act,1956 was
amended, by which Section 6 was amended, with effect from 9.9.2005, to make females
coparceners of a joint Hindu family and so have a right by birth in the property of such joint
family. This being the case, when a member of a joint Hindu family will now include a female
coparcener as well, the restricted definition contained in Section 2(q) has necessarily to be given
a relook, given that the definition of ‘shared household’ in Section 2(s) of the Act would include
a household which may belong to a joint family of which the respondent is a member. The
aggrieved person can therefore make, after 2006, her sister, for example, a respondent, if the
Hindu Succession Act amendment is to be looked at. But such is not the case under Section 2(q)
of the 2005 Act, as the main part of Section 2(q) continues to read “adult male person”, while
Section 2(s) would include such female coparcener as a respondent, being a member of a joint
family. This is one glaring anomaly which we have to address in the course of our judgment.
19. When Section 3 of the Act defines domestic violence, it is clear that such violence is gender
neutral. It is also clear that physical abuse, verbal abuse, emotional abuse and economic abuse
can all be by women against other women. Even sexual abuse may, in a given fact
circumstance, be by one woman on another. Section 3, therefore, in tune with the general object
of the Act, seeks to outlaw domestic violence of any kind against a woman, and is gender
neutral. When one goes to the remedies that the Act provides, things become even clearer.
Section 17(2) makes it clear that the aggrieved person cannot be evicted or excluded from a
shared household or any part of it by the “respondent” save in accordance with the procedure
established by law. If “respondent” is to be read as only an adult male person, it is clear that
women who evict or exclude the aggrieved person are not within its coverage, and if that is so,
the object of the Act can very easily be defeated by an adult male person not standing in the
forefront, but putting forward female persons who can therefore evict or exclude the aggrieved
person from the shared household. This again is an important indicator that the object of the Act
will not be sub-served by reading “adult male person” as “respondent”.
20. This becomes even clearer from certain other provisions of the Act. Under Section 18(b), for
example, when a protection order is given to the aggrieved person, the “respondent” is
prohibited from aiding or abetting the commission of acts of domestic violence. This again
would not take within its ken females who may be aiding or abetting the commission of

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domestic violence, such as daughters-in-law and sisters-in-law, and would again stultify the
reach of such protection orders.
21. When we come to Section 19 and residence orders that can be passed by the Magistrate,
Section 19(1)(c) makes it clear that the Magistrate may pass a residence order, on being
satisfied that domestic violence has taken place, and may restrain the respondent or any of his
relatives from entering any portion of the shared household in which the aggrieved person
resides. This again is a pointer to the fact that a residence order will be toothless unless the
relatives, which include female relatives of the respondent, are also bound by it. And we have
seen from the definition of “respondent” that this can only be the case when a wife or a common
law wife is an aggrieved person, and not if any other woman belonging to a family is an
aggrieved person. Therefore, in the case of a wife or a common law wife complaining of
domestic violence, the husband’s relatives including mother-in-law and sister-in-law can be
arrayed as respondents and effective orders passed against them. But in the case of a mother-in-
law or sister-in-law who is an aggrieved person, the respondent can only be an “adult male
person” and since his relatives are not within the main part of the definition of respondent in
Section 2(q), residence orders passed by the Magistrate under Section 19(1) (c) against female
relatives of such person would be unenforceable as they cannot be made parties to petitions
under the Act.
22. When we come to Section 20, it is clear that a Magistrate may direct the respondent to pay
monetary relief to the aggrieved person, of various kinds, mentioned in the Section. If the
respondent is only to be an “adult male person”, and the money payable has to be as a result of
domestic violence, compensation due from a daughter-in-law to a mother-in-law for domestic
violence inflicted would not be available, whereas in a converse case, the daughter-in-law,
being a wife, would be covered by the proviso to Section 2(q) and would consequently be
entitled to monetary relief against her husband and his female relatives, which includes the
mother-in-law.
23. When we come to Section 26 of the Act, the sweep of the Act is such that all the innovative
reliefs available under Sections 18 to 22 may also be sought in any legal proceeding before a
civil court, family court or criminal court affecting the aggrieved person and the respondent.
The proceeding in the civil court, family court or criminal court may well include female
members of a family, and reliefs sought in those legal proceedings would not be restricted by
the definition of “respondent” in the 2005 Act. Thus, an invidious discrimination will result,
depending upon whether the aggrieved person chooses to institute proceedings under the 2005
Act or chooses to add to the reliefs available in either a pending proceeding or a later
proceeding in a civil court, family court or criminal court. It is clear that there is no intelligible
differentia between a proceeding initiated under the 2005 Act and proceeding initiated in other
fora under other Acts, in which the self-same reliefs grantable under this Act, which are
restricted to an adult male person, are grantable by the other fora also against female members
of a family. This anomaly again makes it clear that the definition of “respondent” in Section
2(q) is not based on any intelligible differentia having any rational relation to the object sought
to be achieved by the 2005 Act. The restriction of such person to being an adult male alone is
obviously not a differentia which would be in sync with the object sought to be achieved under
the 2005 Act, but would in fact be contrary to it.

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24. Also, the expression “adult” would have the same effect of stultifying orders that can be
passed under the aforesaid sections. It is not difficult to conceive of a non-adult 16 or 17 year
old member of a household who can aid or abet the commission of acts of domestic violence, or
who can evict or help in evicting or excluding from a shared household an aggrieved person.
Also, a residence order which may be passed under Section 19(1)(c) can get stultified if a 16 or
17 year old relative enters the portion of the shared household in which the aggrieved person
resides after a restraint order is passed against the respondent and any of his adult relatives.
Examples can be multiplied, all of which would only lead to the conclusion that even the
expression “adult” in the main part is Section 2(q) is restrictive of the object sought to be
achieved by the kinds of orders that can be passed under the Act and must also be, therefore,
struck down, as this word contains the same discriminatory vice that is found with its
companion expression “male”.
25. Shri Raval has cited a couple of judgments dealing with the provisions of the 2005 Act. For
the sake of completeness, we may refer to two of them.
26. In Sandhya Manoj Wankhade v. Manoj Bhimrao Wankhade, (2011) 3 SCC 650, this Court,
in a petition by a married woman against her husband and his relatives, construed the proviso to
Section 2(q) of the 2005 Act. This Court held: “No restrictive meaning has been given to the
expression “relative”, nor has the said expression been specifically defined in the Domestic
Violence Act, 2005, to make it specific to males only. In such circumstances, it is clear that the
legislature never intended to exclude female relatives of the husband or male partner from the
ambit of a complaint that can be made under the provisions of the Domestic Violence Act,
2005.” [Para 16]
27. In Indra Sarma v. V.K.V. Sarma, (2013) 15 SCC 755, the appellant entered into a live-in
relationship with the respondent knowing that he was a married person. A question arose before
this Court as to whether the appellant could be said to be in a relationship in the nature of
marriage. Negativing this contention, this Court held: “The appellant, admittedly, entered into a
live-in relationship with the respondent knowing that he was a married person, with wife and
two children, hence, the generic proposition laid down by the Privy Council in Andrahennedige
Dinohamy v. Wijetunge Liyanapatabendige Balahamy [(1928) 27 LW 678 : AIR 1927 PC 185]
, that where a man and a woman are proved to have lived together as husband and wife, the law
presumes that they are living together in consequence of a valid marriage will not apply and,
hence, the relationship between the appellant and the respondent was not a relationship in the
nature of a marriage, and the status of the appellant was that of a concubine. A concubine
cannot maintain a relationship in the nature of marriage because such a relationship will not
have exclusivity and will not be monogamous in character. Reference may also be made to the
judgments of this Court in Badri Prasadv. Director of Consolidation [(1978) 3 SCC 527] and
Tulsa v. Durghatiya [(2008) 4 SCC 520] We may note that, in the instant case, there is no
necessity to rebut the presumption, since the appellant was aware that the respondent was a
married person even before the commencement of their relationship, hence the status of the
appellant is that of a concubine or a mistress, who cannot enter into relationship in the nature of
a marriage.

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The long-standing relationship as a concubine, though not a relationship in the nature of a
marriage, of course, may at times, deserves protection because that woman might not be
financially independent, but we are afraid that the DV Act does not take care of such
relationships which may perhaps call for an amendment of the definition of Section 2(f) of the
DV Act, which is restrictive and exhaustive. Parliament has to ponder over these issues, bring in
proper legislation or make a proper amendment of the Act, so that women and the children, born
out of such kinds of relationships be protected, though those types of relationship might not be
arelationship in the nature of a marriage.” [Paras 57, 59 & 64]
28. It may be noted that in Badshah v. Urmila Badshah Godse & Anr., (2014) 1 SCC 188, this
Court held that the expression “wife” in Section 125 of the Criminal Procedure Code, includes a
woman who had been duped into marrying a man who was already married. In so holding, this
Court held: “Thus, while interpreting a statute the court may not only take into consideration the
purpose for which the statute was enacted, but also the mischief it seeks to suppress. It is this
mischief rule, first propounded in Heydon case [(1584) 3 Co Rep 7a :76 ER 637] which became
the historical source of purposive interpretation. The court would also invoke the legal maxim
construction of ut res magis valeat quam pereatin such cases i.e. where alternative constructions
are possible the court must give effect to that which will be responsible for the smooth working
of the system for which the statute has been enacted rather than one which will put a road block
in its way. If the choice is between two interpretations, the narrower of which would fail to
achieve the manifest purpose of the legislation should be avoided. We should avoid a
construction which would reduce the legislation to futility and should accept the bolder
construction based on the view that Parliament would legislate only for the purpose of bringing
about an effective result. If this interpretation is not accepted, it would amount to giving a
premium to the husband for defrauding the wife. Therefore, at least for the purpose of claiming
maintenance under Section 125 Cr.P.C, such a woman is to be treated as the legally wedded
wife.”[Para 20]
29. We will now deal with some of the cases cited before us by both the learned senior
advocates on Article 14, reading down, and the severability principle in constitutional law.
30. Article 14 is in two parts. The expression “equality before law” is borrowed from the Irish
Constitution, which in turn is borrowed from English law, and has been described in State of
U.P. v. Deoman Upadhyaya, (1961) 1 SCR 14, as the negative aspect of equality. The “equal
protection of the laws” in Article 14 has been borrowed from the 14th Amendment to the U.S.
Constitution and has been described in the same judgment as the positive aspect of equality
namely the protection of equal laws. Subba Rao, J. stated: “This subject has been so frequently
and recently before this court as not to require an extensive consideration. The doctrine of
equality may be briefly stated as follows: All persons are equal before the law is fundamental of
every civilised constitution. Equality before law is a negative concept; equal protection of laws
is a positive one. The former declares that every one is equal before law, that no one can claim
special privileges and that all classes are equally subjected to the ordinary law of the land; the
latter postulates an equal protection of all alike in the same situation and under like
circumstances. No discrimination can be made either in the privileges conferred or in the
liabilities imposed. But these propositions conceived in the interests of the public, if logically
stretched too far, may not achieve the high purpose behind them. In a society of unequal basic

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structure, it is well nigh impossible to make laws suitable in their application to all the persons
alike. So, a reasonable classification is not only permitted but is necessary if society should
progress. But such a classification cannot be arbitrary but must be based upon differences
pertinent to the subject in respect of and the purpose for which it is made.” [at page 34]
31. In Lachhman Dass v. State of Punjab, (1963) 2 SCR 353, Subba Rao, J. warned that over
emphasis on the doctrine of classification or an anxious and sustained attempt to discover some
basis for classification may gradually and imperceptibly deprive Article 14 of its glorious
content. That process would inevitably end in substituting the doctrine of classification for the
doctrine of equality. This admonition seems to have come true in the present case, as the
classification of “adult male person” clearly subverts the doctrine of equality, by restricting the
reach of a social beneficial statute meant to protect women against all forms of domestic
violence.....
34. In Subramanian Swamy v. CBI, (2014) 8 SCC 682, a Constitution Bench of this Court
struck down Section 6A of the Delhi Police Special Establishment Act on the ground that it
made an invidious distinction between employees of the Central Government of the level of
Joint Secretary and above as against other Government servants. This Court, after
discussing various judgments dealing with the principle of discrimination (when a classification
does not disclose an intelligible differentia in relation to the object sought to be achieved by the
Act) from para 38 onwards, ultimately held that the aforesaid classification defeats the purpose
of finding prima facie truth in the allegations of graft and corruption against public servants
generally, which is the object for which the Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988 was
enacted........In the words of Mathew, J. in Shri Ambica Mills Ltd. [State of Gujarat v. Shri
Ambica Mills Ltd., (1974) 4 SCC 656 : 1974 SCC (L&S) 381 : (1974) 3 SCR 760] : (SCC p.
675, paras 53-54) “53. The equal protection of the laws is a pledge of the protection of equal
laws. But laws may classify. … 54. A reasonable classification is one which includes all who
are similarly situated and none who are not.” Mathew, J., while explaining the meaning of the
words, “similarly situated” stated that we must look beyond the classification to the purpose of
the law. The purpose of a law may be either the elimination of a public mischief or the
achievement of some positive public good.....
35. In a recent judgment, reported as Union of India v. N.S. Ratnam, (2015) 10 SCC 681, this
Court while dealing with an exemption notification under the Central Excise Act stated the law
thus:- “We are conscious of the principle that the difference which will warrant a reasonable
classification need not be great. However, it has to be shown that the difference is real and
substantial and there must be some just and reasonable relation to the object of legislation or
notification. Classification having regard to microscopic differences is not good. To borrow the
phrase from the judgment in Roop Chand Adlakha v. DDA [1989 Supp (1) SCC 116 : 1989
SCC (L&S) 235 : (1989) 9 ATC 639] : “To overdo classification is to undo equality.” [para 18]
36. A conspectus of these judgments also leads to the result that the microscopic difference
between male and female, adult and non adult, regard being had to the object sought to be
achieved by the 2005 Act, is neither real or substantial nor does it have any rational relation to
the object of the legislation. In fact, as per the principle settled in the Subramanian Swamy
judgment, the words “adult male person” are contrary to the object of affording protection to

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women who have suffered from domestic violence “of any kind”. We, therefore, strike down the
words “adult male” before the word “person” in Section 2(q), as these words discriminate
between persons similarly situate, and far from being in tune with, are contrary to the object
sought to be achieved by the 2005 Act.
Having struck down these two words from the definition of “respondent” in Section 2(q), the
next question that arises is whether the rest of the Act can be implemented without the aforesaid
two words. This brings us to the doctrine of severability – a doctrine well-known in
constitutional law and propounded for the first time in the celebrated R.M.D. Chamarbaugwalla
v. Union of India, 1957 SCR 930. This judgment has been applied in many cases. .....While
adopting this course, we have kept in view well-recognised rule that if the offending portion of
a statute can be severed without doing violence to the remaining part thereof, then such a course
is permissible—R.M.D. Chamarbaugwalla v. Union of India [AIR 1957 SC 628] and Lt. Col.
Sawai Bhawani Singh v. State of Rajasthan[(1996) 3 SCC
105] ....
40. An application of the aforesaid severability principle would make it clear that having struck
down the expression “adult male” in Section 2(q) of the 2005 Act, the rest of the Act is left
intact and can be enforced to achieve the object of the legislation without the offending words.
Under Section 2(q) of the 2005 Act, while defining ‘respondent’, a proviso is provided only to
carve out an exception to a situation of “respondent” not being an adult male. Once we strike
down ‘adult male’, the proviso has no independent existence, having been rendered otiose.
41. Interestingly the Protection from Domestic Violence Bill, 2002 was first introduced in the
Lok Sabha in 2002. This Bill contained the definition of “aggrieved person”, “relative”, and
respondent” as follows: “2. Definitions. In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires,- a)
“aggrieved person” means any woman who is or has been a relative of the respondent and who
alleges to have been subjected to acts of domestic violence by the respondent;”
xxxx i) “relative” includes any person related by blood, marriage or adoption and living with the
respondent; j) “respondent’ means any person who is or has been a relative of the aggrieved
person and against whom the aggrieved person has sought monetary relief or has made an
application for protection order to the Magistrate or to the Protection Officer, as the case may
be; and”
42. We were given to understand that the aforesaid Bill lapsed, after which the present Bill was
introduced in the Lok Sabha on 22.8.2005, and was then passed by both Houses. It is interesting
to note that the earlier 2002 Bill defined “respondent” as meaning “any person who is…..”
without the addition of the words “adult male”, being in consonance with the object sought to
be achieved by the Bill, which was pari materia with the object sought to be achieved by the
present Act. We also find that, in another Act which seeks to protect women in another sphere,
namely, the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and
Redressal) Act, 2013, “respondent” is defined in Section 2(m) thereof as meaning a person
against whom the aggrieved woman has made a complaint under Section 9. Here again it will be
noticed that the prefix “adult male” is conspicuous by its absence. The 2002 Bill and the 2013
Act are in tune with the object sought to be achieved by statutes which are meant to protect

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women in various spheres of life. We have adverted to the aforesaid legislation only to show
that Parliament itself has thought it reasonable to widen the scope of the expression
“respondent” in the Act of 2013 so as to be in tune with the object sought to be achieved by
such legislations.
43. Having struck down a portion of Section 2(q) on the ground that it is violative of Article 14
of the Constitution of India, we do not think it is necessary to go into the case law cited by both
sides on literal versus purposive construction, construction of penal statutes, and the correct
construction of a proviso to a Section. None of this becomes necessary in view of our finding
above.......
46. We, therefore, set aside the impugned judgment of the Bombay High Court and declare that
the words “adult male” in Section 2(q) of the 2005 Act will stand deleted since these words do
not square with Article 14 of the Constitution of India.
Consequently, the proviso to Section 2(q), being rendered otiose, also stands deleted. We may
only add that the impugned judgment has ultimately held, in paragraph 27, that the two
complaints of 2010, in which the three female respondents were discharged finally, were
purported to be revived, despite there being no prayer in Writ Petition No.300/2013 for the
same. When this was pointed out, Ms. Meenakshi Arora very fairly stated that she would not be
pursuing those complaints, and would be content to have a declaration from this Court as to the
constitutional validity of Section 2(q) of the 2005 Act. We, therefore, record the statement of
the learned counsel, in which case it becomes clear that nothing survives in the aforesaid
complaints of October, 2010. With this additional observation, this appeal stands disposed of.
……………………J.
(Kurian Joseph)
……………………J.
New Delhi; (R.F. Nariman)
October 6, 2016

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 All India Democratic Women's ... vs Union of India & Ors
1989 AIR 1280
Bench: M Rangnath, Venkatachalliah, M.N. (J)
ORDER: This Court on 9.9.1988 after hearing counsel for the petitioners in the writ petition
made an ex parte order to the following effect:
"Issue notice returnable on Tuesday, the 13th September, 1988. In view of the allegations made
in Par a- graph 4 of the affidavit given by Vijay Trivedi, the Respondent No. 2 is prohibited
from performing any Chunri Ceremony within Sri Rani Satiji's Mandir and the respondents are
directed to enforce this order on the September, 1988 and on any other occasion thereafter until
further orders.
The entire collection of money shall be separately accounted for and should be deposited into a
nationalised bank, so that appropriate directions after hearing both the parties may be made by
this Court in regard to the same ..... " On 10th of September, 1988, the annual Satiji Mela was
scheduled to be celebrated within the said temple premises . The management of the temple,
respondent No. 2, in the writ petition has now applied for vacating the ad interim order and for a
direction to the District Magistrate, Jhunjhunu to return the keys of the Bhetpatras of the temple
and the boxes containing the articles of gold and silver and also for a direction to him not to
interfere in the matter of collection of money as also collection of articles of gold and silver of
deities located in the premises of the temple and to make such other orders as may be necessary
to meet the situation.
We have heard Dr. Singhvi in support of the petition, Mrs. Hingorani for the petitioners in the
writ petition asking for sustaining the interim order and Mr. Sharma f or the State of Rajasthan.
An affidavit has been filed by the District Magistrate of Jhunjhunu in the course of hearing
which has also been placed before us. Broadly two aspects require consideration: (1) whether
the 'Chunry' ceremony should be permitted to be performed within the temple and (2) whether
out of the amounts which are being deposited in the nationalised bank in terms of the interim
order, the expenses for maintenance of the temp le complex, performance of the daily rites as
also the usual charities should not be made. Under the Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act,
198 7, glorification of Sati is strictly prohibited and that act has been declared to be an offence.
Dr. Singhvi by referring to different dictionaries has tried to impress upon us that Chunry as
such is not connected with glorification of Sa ti and is a ceremony connected with the traditional
form of offering worship known as Sodash Upachar while Mrs. Hingorani and Mr. Sharma do
not accept the submission made by Dr. Singhvi and have maintained that in the State of
Rajasthan Chunry ceremony is always associated with glorifying Sati and the celebration is a
part of the traditional process of religious offerings in Sati temples. This certainly is not the
stage in the proceedings for a final view of the question as to whether performance of Chunry
ceremony amounts to glorification of Sati and the determination must be left to the final stage.
We do not think it would be appropriate f or us to express any view beyond this point at this
stage as the same may embarrass the bench which would ultimately hear the matter.
We are, therefore, of the view that the restraint imposed on holding the Chunry ceremony
within the temp le should continue without any variation. The contention of D r. Singhvi that
Chunry is a part of Sodash Upachar will have to be examined at length at the later stage.

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Now a look at the other aspect. There can be no two opinions that pending disposal of the writ
petition, the temple complex has to be maintained and out of the income earned maintenance
expense must be met. The submission advanced by Mrs. Hingorani that the temple should be
converted forthwith into rehabilitation camps for uncared f or ladies is certainly not one
requiring any serious consideration. There is no provision in the statute or in any other law
which would warrant such change of user of the premise s. Similarly if out of the income of this
institution any contribution was being made to sustain some social institutions of utility, the
support should not die out. The respondent No. 2 is free to move the District Magistrate of
Jhunjhunu in regard to these two aspects and in case the District Magistrate is satisfied that
appropriate fun ds should be released out of the deposits in the bank for one or both of the
purposes indicated above he would be free to direct such money as may be found necessary to
be withdrawn from the bank for being utilised for the purposes as may be specified by the
District Magistrate m his order to be mad e. This disposes of the Civil Miscellaneous Petition.

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 Bringing Rights Home: Review of the Campaign for a Law on Domestic
Violence*
This paper visits the issues of domestic violence in India and explains why the Protection of
Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005, was enacted, what ends were intended to be served
and what gaps in the existing legal framework it was intended to plug. It gives a brief
background to the feminist campaigns that led to revisions in criminal law, thus forcing the state
to inter-vene in cases of violence in the home and the problems in the criminal law regime that
led to the conceptualisation of a civil law to deal with domestic violence. It also discusses the
post-enactment developments and the moni-toring of the law. On 26 October 2006, the
Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (PWDVA) came into effect, with the stated
objective of providing "for more effective protection of the rights of women guaranteed under
the Constitution who are victims of violence of any kind occurring within the family".' This
invocation of the Constitution in the preamble of a law on domestic violence is significant, for
the application of constitutional principles to the private domain of the family and the home has
often been resisted by the lawmakers and the judiciary. As the Delhi High Court (in)famously
stated, in Harvinder Kaur vs Harmander Singh2 "introduction of Constitutional Law in the
home is most inappro-priate. It is like introducing a bull in a china shop. ... In the privacy
* This essay was originally published in Economic and Political Weekly, Review of Women's
Studies, XL1V(44): 50-57, 31 October-6 November 2009.
of the home and married life, neither Article 21 nor Article 14 have any place". When this
objection no longer holds, a new and more insidious objection has emerged—women are
misusing the law! While the legislature has enacted the law with a view to bring equality into
the home, its success depends on the extent to which the required support services are put in
place by the state, on how the law is interpreted by the judiciary and the extent to which women
are able to invoke the protection of the law or at least, internalise the view that violence in
intimate relationships is something that cannot be tolerated. The PWDVA is informed by the
vision that the "home" is a shared space even if there is no shared ownership and hence, it
imagines the "domes-tic" in a different manner. In the last three years, the appellate judiciary
has delivered a number of important judgments under the Act which have upheld this vision.
However, there have also been judgments that betray a lack of appreciation of the purpose and
function of this Act. For instance, in S. R. Batra and another vs Taruna Batra,3 the Supreme
Court considered the question whether the wife had a right to reside in the premises owned by
the mother-in-law, where she had been living with her husband after marriage. First, the court
interpreted the term "shared household" in the Act and held that since the house was owned by
the mother-in-law, the wife could not claim a right to reside in that house. Despite the Act
stating clearly that a woman has the right to reside in the shared household, "irrespective of
whether the respondent or the aggrieved person has any right, title or interest" in the same,4 the
judges felt that the concept of ownership of property was the only factor decisive of the right to
reside in the shared space. Second, the judges held that the phrase "lived or has lived" in the
definition of "shared household" would lead to absurd results, with the woman claiming several
places as her "shared household" on the ground that she had lived there at some point of time or
the other. Such a view completely negates the vision of the Act that the "shared household" is
tied to the concept of "domestic relationship" and there exists a right to reside in the shared
household notwithstanding that the woman or her husband/partner have no property right over
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the house. Additionally, there is a difference between living in a house as a cohabitee and living
as a visitor/guest-, in relation to the cohabitee, the expression "lived" ought to have been given
the same interpretation s "reside" which has a recognised legal meaning.5 Given that the object
of the provision was to prevent dispossession of women from their matrimonial homes,
interpreting the phrase "lived or has lived" as "resided" would prevent against absurdities from
taking place, as feared by the judges in this case. At the heart of the decision in Batra is a deep-
rooted commitment to the right to property, which trumps all other considerations. This narrow
conception of property and ownership is the foundation of capitalist societies, not shared by
other systems of jurisprudence. In Hindu law, for example, the notion of the coparcenary quite
clearly vested the right to ownership of property and the right of usage in a multiplicity of users,
who were entitled to use it by virtue of being in the domestic relationship. While ownership was
vested with three generations of males, the women of the coparcenary married into the family,
in their capacity of mothers and daughter-in-laws, had the undisputed right to reside in it. The
coparcenary was quite literally the "shared household"; a joint family was defined as being
"joint in food and worship". The PWDVA built on these notions and secularised this concept,
thus making the right to reside available to women of all religious communities. The broad
definition of the "shared household" in the PWDVA is in keeping with the family patterns in
India, where married couples continue to live with their parents in homes owned by the parents.
All this and much more was ignored by the court. Against this background, it is important to
revisit the issue of domestic violence in India and explain why the law was enacted, what ends
were intended to be served and what gaps in the existing legal framework it was intended to
plug. It needs to be appreciated, particularly by the judiciary, that every provision of the
PWDVA was meant to address a particular need. Thus, this paper is partly meant to be a
chronicle of the campaign for the law on domestic violence and partly an occasion to reflect on
how best the law has been able to serve the purpose with which it was enacted. Section 1 gives a
brief background to the feminist campaigns that led to revisions in crimi-nal law, thus forcing
the state to intervene in cases of violence in the home, while Section 2 details the problems in
the criminal law regime that led to the conceptualisation of a civil law to deal with domestic
violence. Sections 3 and 4, offer a detailed chronicle of the campaign for the PWDVA, the
drafting history and the legislative process that it went through. This is followed by a discussion
on the post-enactment developments and the monitoring of the law that, Lawyers Collective
(LC) has been a part of. The paper ends with some reflections on the current challenges that the
law is faced with.
Feminist Campaigns against Violence in the Home
While the PWDVA itself was the culmination of a sustained campaign spanning over a decade,
broadly speaking, it was also part of a longer history of feminist engagement with violence
against women, begin-ning in the 1970s. The campaign against dowry and related violence in
the mid-I970s was possibly the first time the issue of violence at home was discussed in public.
The agitations by feminist groups across the country were able to attract the attention of the
state to the growing incidents of the so-called death-by-fire. Such incidents were (and even now
are) seen as accidents and not investigated properly. The campaign highlighted the difficulties
in invoking the law in cases of dowry-related violence, for a range of reasons. For instance,
dying declarations by women were seldom treated as evidence against the husband and in-laws
and even cases that were registered on the basis of dying declarations were later dismissed by

217
the courts on the ground of inadequacy of evidence. Thus, charges of murder or abetment to
suicide could not be successfully invoked. Similarly, police would be reluctant to intervene,
arguing that it was not the task of the police to intervene in "family quarrels". The campaign led
to the Criminal Law (Second Amendment) Act in 1983, which introduced Section 498A in the
Indian Penal Code (IPC). Under this provision, "cruelty" to the wife by the husband or his
relatives was made a cognisable, non-bailable offence punishable with imprisonment up to three
years and a fine. Cruelty was defined as including both physical and mental cruelty and any
harassment associated with demand for dowry. Similarly, Section 304B was intro-duced in the
IPC in 1986 which created a new offence of "dowry death". This provision made it possible to
prosecute the husband and in-laws of a woman, if she died as a result of burns or any other
injury within seven years of marriage, under suspicious circumstances and if it could be shown
that she was subjected to cruelty or harassment by the husband/in-laws in relation to demand for
dowry. However, it was only after the new provisions were sought to be activated in the courts,
that the women's movement realised that the focus on dowry-related violence and death had
been rather narrow, for it ended up distracting attention from the other numerous instances of
violence that women were faced within the home, which were not necessarily dowry related.
While it was still possible to bring cases of everyday violence against women in the home
within the scope of Section 498A, it was not possible to use 304B, if the violence and the
eventual death were not linked with dowry. And also, only married women facing violence at
the hands of the husband or their families could claim relief under 498A. Thus a lot of other
forms of violence faced by unmarried women, old women and children could not be brought
under this section. It did not protect women from violence in natal relationships or in
relationships that have not received the legal sanction of marriage. The other problematic aspect
of this provision was the definition of "cruelty" itself. Cruelty was defined to mean any wilful
conduct which could have driven the woman to commit suicide or caused grave injury to her or
posed a danger to her life, limb or health (either mental or physical). The definition was worded
in such vague terms that it was difficult to bring issues of sexual violence, economic violence or
even threats of violence within the ambit of the section. The experi-ence with using this section
in cases showed that the threshold of the impact of violent conduct on the woman, required to
be proved was so high, that many forms of cruelty fell through the net. A woman had to prove
that she was driven to contemplate suicide or that her life was in danger, before she could access
the law. Ultimately, it was entirely on the discretion of the police as to whether the conduct of
the husband was of such a nature as mentioned above. Section 304B came into play only after
the woman was dead and Section 498A, which was meant to protect her from harassment and
violence was assailed by the problems discussed above, thus making the relevance of law for
women facing violence at home rather limited.
The Need for a Civil Law on Domestic Violence
It is relevant to note that criminal law is geared towards the preven-tion and deterrence of crime.
While classifying certain practices det-rimental to women as "crimes" is relevant from the point
of view of putting the issue on the agenda of the state, criminal law itself has little to offer with
respect to taking care of the woman's immediate needs of protection, shelter and monetary
relief. Also, relying on criminal law remedies alone to address domestic violence does not fully
recognise the responsibility of the state towards the victims of violence. On the other hand,
existing civil law remedies were unable to provide effective and timely reliefs to women facing

218
violence. A per-sistent problem in cases of domestic violence is that women are thrown out of
homes and then the house is sold or rented to dispossess the women indirectly. Although
sometimes, the court can be convinced to give injunction orders to prevent women from being
thrown out, pro-ceedings under civil law are slow-moving and time-consuming. Even when
injunction orders are available, the enforcement is weak due to absence of penalties for
violation. Additionally, there is no provision for granting injunction orders or protection orders
on an emergency basis, with the result that women do not have any relief during the course of
the proceedings. Often the remedy can only be exercised when it is coupled with a petition for
divorce. All these considerations made it imperative to conceptualise a law on domestic
violence that would be a combination of both civil and criminal law elements. A civil law that
would, on the one hand, restrain the abuser from committing violence and on the other, pro-vide
for the other needs of the woman faced with violence. At the same time, punitive provisions
would ensure the enforcement of the orders of the courts. While doing so, no change has been
made in the existing Criminal Law of Section 498A IPC. As a result, a woman can use either
the criminal law or civil law or both. The following sections describe in some detail the process
of framing such a law and some of the key issues that were encountered on the way.

The Campaign
The involvement of LC with the process of formulating a law on domestic violence began when
the National Commission for Women (NCW) requested LC to prepare a draft bill on domestic
violence in 1993. The first draft for a civil law on domestic violence was prepared and presented
to the NCW in 1994. But, a more focused campaign for the law began only in 1998. It was
realised that the first step should be to give greater visibility to the issue of domestic violence
and intro-duce the legal community to the issues at stake. For example, it was essential to create
a consensus among the lawyers and the judges that domestic violence was indeed a serious
issue, but without effective legal remedies. It was essential for the legal community to appreci-
ate the realities of domestic violence, the inadequacies in the then existing discourse of
cruelty/dowry harassment/dowry death and the demands of the women's movement with respect
to a specific law on domestic violence. This led to a national-level colloquium held in 1999 on
domestic violence, involving lawyers, academics, activists and most importantly, the appellate
judges. The colloquium entitled "Empowerment through Law" was an important milestone as
there was a wide acknowledgement that what set apart domestic violence from other forms of
violence against women, was that it occurred within the framework of intimate relationships in
a situation of dependency, making reporting and access to legal aid and other support services
difficult(' Moreover, the fact that domestic violence exists, was not even recognised by the law.
The bill drafted by LC was extensively discussed at the colloquium and given a more concrete
shape.
The Lawyers Collective Bill on Domestic Violence
The draft bill was visualised as an emergency law providing immedi-ate and effective relief to a
woman facing domestic violence. When a woman is faced with domestic violence, the primary
aim of any intervention—legal or otherwise—should be to stop the violence and provide for
ways to protect her from further violence. Additionally, she would require shelter, medical aid,
legal aid, monetary relief, etc., that will help her to build a life away from an abusive
relationship. In the absence of violence, a woman may be encouraged to think of her long-term

219
options including divorce, maintenance, reconciliation or criminal prosecutions. The following
were some of the salient aspects of the LC Bill.
DEFINITION OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE
The bill had a fairly broad definition of what constituted domestic violence. The experience
with using Section 498A in cases of domestic violence showed that it was extremely difficult to
convince judges of the existence of violence in a relationship. Although the term "cruelty" in
498A encompassed both physical and mental cruelty, it was difficult to bring the subtleties of
everyday violence in intimate relationships within the ambit of the law. Even when the judges
were convinced of the existence of "cruelty", they tended to play down the possible impact of it
and often asked the women to "forgive and forget". In order to address the judicial subjectivity
in determining what constituted as violence and to counter the trivialising discourses that
downplay the severity and seriousness of violence at home, the LC Bill included the unnamed
aspects of everyday violence. Thus, the definition of domestic violence named a range of harms,
injuries and threats that degrade and terrorise women. The definition included physical, sexual,
verbal, emotional and economic abuses, with each aspect further defined with illustration. The
point of providing such an expansive definition was not to put a seal on the conceptualisation of
"violence", but to indicate that certain forms of behaviour must be seen as exercise of sexual
power and hence, must be condemned. It is surprising that for a country that has non-violence as
its foundational faith, it took more than 50 years to put in place a definition of violence against
women.
DOMESTIC RELATIONSHIP
The bill was an innovation over the traditional understanding of domestic violence, in that it did
not limit the protection against violence to marital relationships alone. Thus, it introduced the
concept of "domestic relationship" which included all relationships based on consanguinity,
marriage, adoption and even relationships which were "in the nature of marriage". Including
relationships outside the marital context within the scope of this law was necessary in view of
the absence of compulsory registration of marriages in India, which leaves a majority of women
outside the domain of legal protection. Hence, the term "matrimonial relationship" was replaced
with "domestic relationship". The site of violence, the home, being the private domain was
intended to be brought within the purview of the law. Daughters who are thought to have little
or no rights in ancestral homes or in any event, are seen as outsiders and waiting to be married
off; widows who are seen as having no right to continue to live in the house after the death of
the husband; mothers and old parents, seen as a nuisance by children, are all vulnerable to abuse
in the home and hence, were included within the purview of the law.
SHARED HOUSEHOLD AND THE RIGHT TO RESIDENCE
The most important aspect of the bill was the concept of right to residence. Usually, this right
either vests in those owning the premises or those in whose name the premises are leased. As it
happens, in most cases, it is the male members of the family who have an effective control over
the premises. The unequal power relations in the private sphere increases the vulnerability of
women, who continue to be in violent relationships for fear of dispossession and destitution. As
has been observed, when a woman is thrown out of the house, there is little that she can do in
the absence of her formal legal title to the house or a stated right to reside in the house
belonging to the husband, partner, in-laws, etc. In fact, married women have less protection
against being thrown out of the house than tenants have against being evicted. While tenants

220
and trespassers can only be evicted by "due process of law", women could simply be pushed out
of the house. The objective of the law was, therefore, to provide the "due process" protection to
the women in domestic relationships. Given that women in non-matrimonial relationships were
to be covered by the law, the term "matrimonial household" was replaced with "shared
household". The bill gave the women the right to reside in the "shared household", even in the
absence of a formal title over it. What makes it the "shared household" is not the ownership
pattern of the home, but the fact of residence in the home in a conjugal or family relationship.
This does not create a substantive right over the property, but is a safeguard against
dispossession.
PROTECTION OFFICERS
In the feminist campaigns to have more and more laws to address vio-lence against women,
what was entirely missed was the fact that the entire justice delivery system—the police and the
courts—were largely inaccessible to the women. Prior to the enactment of the PWDVA, the
women faced with domestic violence could either approach the police or their natal families.
Because of the strict divide between the public and the private spheres and the deference that
the "family" has tra-ditionally enjoyed as a "private space", the police would be reluctant to
intervene. Even the natal families would often persuade or coerce the women to return to the
abusive home. Recognising this to be a major barrier between the women seeking justice and
the legal rem-edies, the bill provided for protection officers. It was proposed that the protection
officers would play the role of being the link between the aggrieved women and the legal
system. The role of the protection officer was envisaged as assisting the woman in accessing the
court and other support services (such as legal aid, medical facilities, shelter homes, etc.),
assisting the court during the course of the proceedings and in the enforcement of orders. The
protection officers were to be the "eyes and ears" or in other words, the "outreach arm" of the
court who would help the aggrieved women gather evidence to support her case in the court.
RELIEFS UNDER THE LAW
In keeping with the objectives of the law and the rights recognised, the bill provided civil reliefs
in the form of protection orders or "stop violence" orders, residence orders, including orders
restoring her to the shared household, preventing dispossession, restraining the respondent from
entering the shared household, etc., orders for monetary reliefs including maintenance;
compensation orders that are aimed at providing damages for the mental injury suffered by the
aggrieved person and temporary orders for custody of the children. The civil nature of the
reliefs was deemed appropriate in recognition of the fact that a woman facing domestic violence
requires holistic support, which cannot be met through a criminal proceeding or a divorce
petition.

Consultations on the Bill with Women's Groups

Between 1998 and 2001, LC began a dialogue within the women's movement on the draft
proposal. The dialogue involved a series of consultations and meetings with different women's
organisations in various parts of the country on each aspect of the law. The draft bill was also
widely circulated among lawyers for their feedback and criticisms. The draft proposal was, thus,
revised after every such consultation. It is instructive to visit some of the debates that ensued at
these meet-ings and the questions and doubts that were raised. For one, it helps to understand

221
the context of the law better and brings greater clarity vis-a-vis the nature and scope of the law.
It also attests to the fact that the law has emerged from a wide process of debate and
deliberation within the women's movement. A much debated issue was whether the proposed
law should be gender-neutral and extend its protection to men faced with violence in the home,
as well, The wide consensus from all groups involved was that the bill had to be gender-specific
in nature since the objective was to protect women due to the pervasive problem of gender
inequality. The violence faced by women is a gendered phenomenon that repro-duces and
reinforces gender inequality and hence, a gender-neutral law would defeat the purpose of a law
on domestic violence. And given the power equation in the home, the men could use a gender-
neutral law to dispossess women from the homes. It is in recognition of this gendered power
imbalance, that the Constitution enjoins upon the state to make "special provisions" for women
and children in its pursuit of prohibiting discrimination on grounds of sex.
Keeping in mind the fact that often children are also victims of domestic violence, one of the
initial drafts of the law allowed a child to bring an application under this law, if represented by a
parent or guardian. Accordingly, there was a definition of "applicant" in the draft. There were,
however, concerns raised by women's groups, that if such power of representation of a minor
child is given to both parents, there may be a possibility of the father (if he is the abuser) using
this law against the child's mother. The father could tutor the child to depose against the mother.
He could indirectly achieve what he is forbidden under the law to do, i.e., depriving the woman
of her right to reside in the house. Therefore, as a safeguard against misuse in the law, the draft
was amended to provide that only a mother who was herself an aggrieved person under the law
could bring an application on behalf of her minor child who has also faced domestic violence.
Another major area of contestation was whether women could be made respondents in a case of
domestic violence? Initially the bill had defined the "aggrieved person" as a woman and the
"respondent" as a man. However, it was felt that the new law had to be consistent with Section
498A which allowed a criminal complaint for cruelty to be filed against all relatives and the
husband including female relatives. Hence, a proviso was added to the definition of
"respondent" by which the aggrieved women were enabled to bring action against a "relative" of
the husband/male partner so that both men and women committing violence could be made
respondents and relief sought against them. The intention was to allow married women to file
applications under the law against their mother-in-law or sister-in-law or other female relatives
through marriage, if they were responsible for the violence. Similarly, an earlier draft of the bill
allowed dispossession orders to be passed against both men and women, if they are abusers.
However, a concern was expressed that a man might set his mother up as an aggrieved person
under this law to dispossess his wife of her residence—thereby indirectly achieving what the
law had sought to prevent. And also the opposite, with the dispossession of old mothers by their
sons through their wives or sisters. At the same time, it was important to ensure that the
protection of the law was not weakened in any way. The intention of this law was not to classify
offenders according to their sex. It emerged, however, that an effective compromise would be if
the order directing the respondent to remove himself from the shared household was not made
available against women respondents. After extensively debating the issue of possible misuse of
the law vis-a-vis reliefs against women offenders, it was agreed to include a proviso, which
limited the effect of dispossession to men alone,' while all other reliefs would equally apply
against both men and women.

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The Legislative Process
After going through a series of consultations and meetings, the final version of the bill was
submitted to the National Commission for Women, the Department of Women and Child
Development and other government agencies.
The Government Introduces its Own Bill
On 8 March 2002, the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) government, introduced a separate
bill entitled, "Protection from Domestic Violence Bill, 2001" (hereinafter, GOI Bill) in the Lok
Sabha. At one level, the GOI Bill was an acknowledgement that domestic violence was a
serious issue requiring specific legal intervention. There has been a consistent denial of the
existence of domestic violence against women and a refusal to address the issue. To that extent,
the introduction of the GOT Bill was a significant victory. However, in terms of content, the
GOI Bill not only fell short of what the women's movement had been asking for, but it was
feared that if enacted, it might have dangerous implications for women facing domestic
violence. The emphasis of the GOI Bill, it appeared, was the preservation of family rather than
preventing violence against women and protecting their right to a life free from violence. The
scope of the GOI Bill was much narrower than the LC Bill, in terms of categories of aggrieved
persons and limited with respect to the nature of reliefs available. The definition of domestic
violence in the GOI Bill, among other things required the conduct/assault of the respondent to
be "habitual" or what made the "life of the aggrieved person miserable by cruelty". This was
totally unacceptable as every single act of violence degrades the woman even if the abuser is not
"habitual" in his behaviour and she should be entitled to seek legal redress against the same. The
other elements of the definition were also vague as the bill did not define what would constitute
"cruelty" or how to assess "misery" of the aggrieved person. As per the GOI Bill, the respondent
was required to be a "relative" of the aggrieved person, the term "relative" defined as persons
related by blood, marriage or adoption. The implication of this was that women who were in
relationships other than legally valid mar-riage were excluded from the purview of the law.
Section 4(2) of the bill allowed the respondent to take the plea of self-defence in cases of
domestic violence. Normally, the plea of self-defence is available to the victims of a crime;
however, the GOI Bill gave the defence to the alleged perpetrator of the crime. The respondent,
thus, could get away even after brutally assaulting a woman on the pretext that such conduct
was meant for his own protection or for the protection of his or even another person's property.
A major shortcoming of the GO! Bill was that there was no declara-tion of rights of the
aggrieved person. There was no provision indicating that the woman in a domestic relationship
had the right to reside in the shared household. One of the major lacunae in our matrimonial
laws is the fact that none of them, whether Hindu, Muslim, Christian or Parsi, contain any such
declaration of a right to reside in the matrimonial home.8 As explained earlier, this is the root
cause of the vulnerability of a woman in her matrimonial home. To provide against such
situations, the LC Bill had conceptualised the right to reside in the shared household coupled
with the stop-violence orders. The GOI Bill, however, did not have any provision of immediate
relief to the woman. It also did not provide a time frame within which to complete the
proceedings. It is important that interim relief is provided immediately on application, by the
magistrate, pending the hearing. This may or may not be confirmed after the hearing. However,
the GOI Bill followed the usual practice as per the Code of Civil Procedure and, thus, it meant
that women will get relief only after summons was served to the respondents. As a result, it

223
could take months for the women to get relief as most often the respondents devise ways to
avoid service of summons. Thus, the critical importance of providing immediate interim relief
was not addressed by the GOl Bill. The GOI Bill also had a provision requiring mandatory
counselling for the aggrieved person and the alleged abuser. This was unacceptable as it put the
abuser and the victim on the same plane. Counselling is definitely one of the methods of
correcting abusive behaviour. But why empower the magistrate to insist on "mandatory"
counselling of the aggrieved person as well? Clearly the mandatory nature of the counselling
was not meant to help the woman address the trauma of violence. Rather it could easily be a
means to convince her to "adjust" to her situation and continue in an abusive relationship.
The Parliamentary Standing Committee
In response to the obvious outrage expressed by women's groups against the GUI Bill, it was
referred to the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Human Resource Development to
examine the provisions of the bill. Between May and December 2002, the committee heard the
views of the Department of Women and Child Development, invited memoranda from
individuals and organisations and also received oral evidence and presentations by different
women's groups. LC put forth its submissions before the committee, wherein it pointed out the
flaws and omissions in the GOI Bill and contrasted them with provisions of the LC Bill. It was
impressed upon the committee that arriving at settlements and salvaging marriages should not
be the function of a law on domestic violence. The report of the standing committee, submitted
in December 2002, reflected that most of the suggestions made by LC were accepted by the
committee. On the issue of not including women falling outside the narrow scope of the term
"relative" within the ambit of the Act, the response of the state was that "such women as have
been living in relationship akin to marriage without legal marriages were not included simply
because the prevailing cultural ethos of the nation did not encourage such relationship". The
committee in its report stated that there were, in fact, numerous cases of men and women living
together without valid marriages and yet having social sanction. Besides, the primary issue in
providing relief to women faced with domestic violence was the recognition of the woman's
human right to a dignified life and not the propriety of the relationship she was in. Thus, it
concluded that providing relief under the bill to a woman whose marriage is not legally valid
will not be in conflict with the existing laws and will not give any legal sanction to illegal
marriages. The committee also opined that there was no need to enable the respondent to take
the plea of self-defence in the bill and hence, the clause should be deleted. Similarly, the
committee accepted the sug-gestion that the bill ought to carry an unambiguous declaration of
the women's right to reside in the shared household and the magistrate should be obligated to
pass orders accordingly. In addition to accepting the major demands of the women's groups, the
committee also asked for better enforcement mechanisms to be incorporated in the bill and
asked the state to address the issue of violence against women through other means in addition
to the law. However, the campaign was not able to achieve anything substantial in the two years
following the recommendations of the standing com-mittee, as there was no initiative from the
government to reformulate the bill in accordance with the report of the standing committee. LC
continued with its efforts during this time, simultaneously trying to emphasise the need for this
law with the government and sustain-ing the consensus on the issue among the women's groups.
Petitions were sent to the minister of human resources development by different women's
groups, urging the government to introduce the bill in the Parliament with amendments

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suggested by the standing committee. However, in February 2004, the Lok Sabha was dissolved
and with it the bill also lapsed.
Lobbying with the New Government
In May 2004, the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) coalition came to power after the election.
It was regarded as a progressive step and a new beginning when the enactment of a civil law on
domestic violence was included in the Common Minimum Programme of the UPA coali-tion.
This was an important step as it gave a political significance to the issue of domestic violence.
In July the same year, a final draft of the bill, after extensive consultations, was presented to the
minister of human resources development, which was then accepted and referred to the
Department of Women and Child Development. For the next one year (July 2004—June 2005),
the bill kept moving back and forth between government departments and as a result, certain
things got left out from the final bill that was presented to the cabinet. One such instance was
the definition of the "applicant" that was removed from the bill. The implication of this deletion
is that it is still unclear as to how applications on behalf of minors can be moved under the Act.9
Similarly, there were certain additions that were not in keeping with our demands. For instance,
the provision for joint counselling of the parties in Section 14 and Section 15, authorising the
magistrate to take help from persons involved in "promoting family welfare" in any proceeding
under the Act, is a provision that could lead to coerced reconciliation, that had been opposed to
from the very beginning. Another significant provision dropped was the requirement to monitor
the functioning of the Act by the state governments. In June 2005, the draft Protection of
Women from Domestic Violence Bill received cabinet approval and the bill was tabled in the
Parliament in July. Members of LC, along with a number of other women's organ-isations were
present in the Parliament when discussions on the bill took place. Surprisingly, no questions
were asked about the need for a law on domestic violence by any political party. One did not
know if it was a reflection of a gradual social recognition of domestic violence as an issue of
immediate concern or i t was plain apathy towards a law which was being enacted simply to
fulfil an election promise. Certain members of the house expressed reservations regarding the
inclu-sion of "relationships in the nature of marriage" within the purview of protected categories
of women under the law. It was said that we were introducing concepts alien to Bharatiya
Sanshriti, which would send across the wrong message to the society. However, the bill was
unanimously passed by the Lok Sabha on 22 August 2005 and by the Rajya Sabha on 24 August
2005. It took another year for the assent of the President of India and the Protection of Women
from Domestic Violence Act, 2005, to come into force on 27 October 2006.
Post Enactment Developments
The PWDVA provides for an inbuilt mechanism to facilitate the entire system of access to
justice. It identifies specific functionaries such as the protection officers and services providers
whose primary duty is to assist women in accessing reliefs provided under the law. A crucial
step towards ensuring the success of any law is monitoring its imple-mentation. Monitoring a
law is essential in order to put in place the basic infrastructure required to guard against non-
implementation and also to assess whether the law is able to the fulfil the objective that it was
enacted for. LC has taken the initiative to monitor the implementation of the Act, in the absence
of any such initiative from the state. One hopes that eventually, this role would be taken up by
the government to monitor the progress of its own duties and obligations under the law.
First Monitoring and Evaluation Report (2007)

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The First Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) Report analysed the performance of the PWDVA,
in the first year of its existence. The primary inquiry of the report was to what extent the state
had put in place the necessary infrastructure needed for the implementation of the Act, like
appointment of protection officers, service providers, medical facilities, etc. And we also
wanted to know how the law was being used by lawyers and interpreted by the judiciary,
particularly what kind of orders were being passed by the lower courts. Knowing fully well that
it was too soon to make an assessment of the law, we decided not to arrive at conclusions but
only to document some of the trends that could be observed with respect to the implementation
of the Act. Looking at the available data, we observed that the implementation of the Act was
not uniform across the country. In most states, the protection officers were appointed at the
district level and in fact, existing administrative officials were doubling up as protection
officers. There were states like Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana, where protection officers had
not been appointed. Protection officers have a specific role to play in facilitating the women's
access to courts and a range of other services that the Act refers to. The absence of pro-tection
officers and negligible state-provided infrastructure meant that the aggrieved persons had to rely
on the police and the existing machinery of the courts for activating the law. In most of the
other states, women who could afford to hire lawyers approached the courts directly, while the
others approached the protection officers first. Sometimes the courts sought the assistance of the
protection officers, if the situation demanded. However, the lack of general information about
the existence of protection officers and/or their inadequate numbers was seen as a serious
handicap to women accessing the law. Andhra Pradesh seemed to have the best system in place,
where the police, protection officers, service providers and legal aid service authorities
coordinated their services to facilitate women's access to courts. The police, which continue to
be the first port of call for women in distress, were trained to set the Act in motion. Data from
the orders of the lower courts showed that primary users of the law were married women,
although in a small number of cases, the petitioners were widows and unmarried daughters. As
of 31 July 2007, 7,913 cases were filed across the country, under the PWDVA. Rajasthan had
the highest number of cases filed under the Act (3,440) although protection officers had not
been appointed in the state. Also, it was found that the most commonly granted relief was for
mainte-nance followed by residence orders and protection orders. This was possibly because
magistrates are familiar with granting maintenance orders under Section 125 of the Code of
Criminal Procedure (CRPC). But the overall pattern of orders sought and granted was too
diverse for drawing broad conclusions.
Second M&E Report (2008)
In the Second M&E Report, LC asked the same questions as the first one. In addition, LC
wanted to know the extent to which gaps identified in the first report were being fulfilled;
whether the "best practices" recommended in the First M&E Report still stood; how effective
was the infrastructure in facilitating women's access to court and other services and what was
the jurisprudence that was being evolved by the high courts and Supreme Court on the
PWDVA. By the second year of its existence, there were 22 reported judg-ments under the Act
delivered by various high courts. Significant among these was a judgment of the Delhi High
Court upholding the constitutional validity of the PWDVA on the ground that the gender-
specific nature of the law does not violate the guarantee of equality as it is a "class legislation"
aimed at protecting women as a class that is disproportionately vulnerable to violence.10 A

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judgment of the Madhya Pradesh High Court showed that the question of whether women could
be respondents under the law, which was a hotly debated issue prior to the enactment, had
contin-ued to be a contentious issue even after the law had come into force. The case, Ajay Kant
and Others vs Alka Sharma" arose in the context of an application filed by a wife against her
husband and mother-in-law after she was dispossessed from her matrimonial home, following
dowry-related harassment. Based on a literal interpretation of the provision, the court held that a
proceeding under the Act can only be initiated against an adult male person. The rationale
provided by the court makes it clear that the interpretation of the term "respon-dent" is actually
based on what the court perceives to be essential for safeguarding women's interests.
Interestingly, however, in its attempt to provide protection to women, the court failed to
recognise the specific gender-neutral language of the proviso to Section 2(q), which uses the
term "relative of husband or male partner". Thus defined, a relative can be a male or a female
and consequently, the Act also protects women from violence perpetrated by the female family
members of a male respondent. Significantly, a Madras High Court judgment held that the Act
could be invoked even in cases arising before the Act came into force. In Dennison Paulraj and
Others vs Mrs Mayawinola,'2 the wife was forced to leave the matrimonial home following
continuous harass-ment and dowry demands by her husband and in-laws. Although she left the
matrimonial home prior to the enactment of PWDVA (2005), she claimed that the threat and
harassment continued. The court concluded that the respondent had suffered part of the abuse
after the commencement of the Act in the form of anonymous phone calls threatening violence.
The court pointed out that in any case, the issue of retrospective application of penal statutes
does not hold true in the case of PWDVA as Section 31 penalises the breach of a protection
order rather than the act of domestic violence itself. The law received a very significant setback
with the delivery of the judgment in Batra vs Batra, (2007) 3 SCC 169, on December 2006 by
the Supreme Court of India. The court held that the right to reside in the shared household
would only be available if the household was owned by the husband/partner. Hence, women
who lived with their husbands in joint families who live in ancestral homes, not necessarily in
the name of the husband/partner, have been denied the right of residence in the shared
household. The judgment cannot be understood in any legal framework as it obliterates a clause
in the section to the effect that the right to reside will be without reference to the nature of
ownership of the property and will depend only on whether a relationship existed and whether
de facto the woman has resided in the household. It is a judgment which calls for legislative
undoing. In the First M&E Report, it was noted that in a number of cases the magistrate had
refused to grant residence orders to the aggrieved women based on the Batra judgment. The
second M&E, however, found that a few high court judgments had interpreted "shared
household" based on the factual context and not on the basis of semantics. In P Babu Venkatesh
and Ors vs Rani13 the Madras High Court held that the ratio laid down by the Supreme Court in
Batra could not be applied as the facts clearly demonstrated that the husband had transferred the
household into the name of his mother with the intention of defeating the rights of the wife,
after the matrimonial dispute arose. In arriving at its conclusion, the court recognised the fact
that before the wife's dispossession, both parties resided jointly in the said household. Similarly,
in Vandana vs Mrs Krishnamachari" the Madras High Court held that a narrow interpretation of
the provisions would leave many women in distress and without any remedy. The judgment
held that the question is not whether the woman had "lived" in the shared house-hold, but

227
whether she has a right to live in the same. In another case appearing before the Delhi High
Court," although the marriage was solemnised, the wife was not allowed to enter the
matrimonial home.
She filed a suit claiming the right to reside in the matrimonial home. The husband argued that
she had no such right as she had not "lived" in the matrimonial home. Although the judge
concluded that the woman did not have a right to reside as the house was owned by the mother-
in-law, it was held that she could be dispossessed only with "due process" of law and cannot be
physically thrown out. This judgment actually shows a keen appreciation of the rule of law and
respect for rights and, thus, makes available to the woman, safeguards that are otherwise
granted to tenants and trespassers.
Third M&E Report (2009)
The third report emphasised that the exercise of monitoring and evaluating needed to be taken
on a yearly basis in the initial years of the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act
2005 (PWDVA) until a uniform interpretation of the law evolved. In addition to presenting
court order analysis and infrastructure assessment, the Third M&E Report presented data on
knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) of the judiciary, protec-tion officers (POs) and police
on various aspects related to the PWDVA and women, and explored how they influence the
implementation of the law. Data was collected from Delhi and Maharashtra and for comparative
pur-poses data related to police officers and protection officers from Rajasthan was also
included. The report analyzed a number of judgments passed under the PWDVA by the high
courts and the Supreme Court. In terms of challenging the constitutionality of the Act, in
Dennison Paulraj and Ors v. Union of India, MANU/ TN/09757/2009; Writ Petition No. 28521
of 2008, the Court held that Article 15(3) allows the state to discriminate in favour of women
and children. In Menakuru Renuka and Ors v. Menahuru Mona Reddy and Ors, Crl. P. No.
4106/2008, the court examined the definitions of respondent, domestic relationship and other
provisions. It was held that the respondent can only be an adult male person, but an aggrieved
female can file a complaint against a relative of the husband or the male partner. In Neetu Mittal
v. Kanta Mittal and Ors, 152(2008)DLT691, the court held that the son can live in the house of
parents as a matter of right only if the house is an ancestral house, in which he has a share that
can be enforced through partition. In Nand Kishor v. Kavita and Anr, MANU/MH/0957/2009,
Criminal Application No. 2970 of 2008, the court held that it is not necessary in each and every
case to obtain report from the PO or SP to decide application for interim relief. In Sou. Ratnabai
Jaising Patil v. the State of Maharashtra, Criminal Appeal No. 359 of 2008, the High Court of
Bombay provided a number of directions to the government for effective implementation of
PWDVA in the state as one of the crucial legislations to address violence against women. It was
recommended in the report that trainings needed to be under-taken with significant stakeholders
to clarify that domestic violence is not restricted to just physical violence, but also sexual,
domestic and emotional abuse. It was identified that there was a clear need to further explain the
scope of "shared household" under the Act and the right to reside as providing a right of
residence, irrespective of ownership, title or interest in the premises. Clarification and revisiting
the definitions of aggrieved persons and respondents Was also needed. It was also noted by the
report that there was also a need to understand counselling as mandated by the law and its intent
to counter practices that might work against that intent. The report concluded that infrastructural
aid and institutional status was needed for POs. It was also necessary to review and ensure

228
uniformity in terms of qualifications of POs. There was a need for coordination between
stakeholders and budgetary allocations should increase. It concluded that the state needed to
adopt a comprehensive system for the monitoring and evaluation of the implementation of the
law on an annual basis. There was an urgent need to ensure accountability through developing a
robust system of mandatory reporting on specific indicators for all stakeholders, including the
judiciary.
Fourth M&E Report (2010)
In the Fourth M&E Report, orders from seven states have been anal-ysed namely, Delhi,
Maharashtra, Himachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Assam. In
Sanjay Bhardwaj and Ors v. The State and Anr,16 Crl. M.C. No. 491/2009, the court pointed
out that no law provides that a husband has to maintain a wife, living separately from him,
irrespective of the fact whether he earns or not. Emphasis was also given to the fact that the
parties in this case were both equally qualified.
Referring to the constitutional guarantee of equality between the sexes the court stated that a
similarly qualified but unemployed husband and wife cannot be treated differently. This
judgment provides an example of using the equality argument to deny the legitimate
entitlements of a wife. It also ignores the reality that very often, women leave their employment
after marriage and may require significant resIdlling before finding suitable employment and
income that is equal to the husband's, even if they are similarly qualified. The wife and children
are entitled to some sustenance and the assertion of the husband that he is earning an amount,
which is not sufficient to provide maintenance cannot be accepted. This principle was laid down
by the Karnataka High Court in R. Ramu v. Smt. Leelavathi, 2010 (1) Kar L_I 376. In contrast,
in the combined hearing of the cases of Amit Khanna v. Priyanha Khanna and Ors and Priyanha
Khanna v. State, Crl. M.C. No. 4066 of 2009 and 1416 of 2010 and Crl. M.A. No. 13807/2009,
the Delhi High Court reduced the maintenance awarded on the ground that evidence of vast
property owned by immediate family does not create a presumption in favour of the husband
having a similar standard of living. The appellate court, in this case, had enhanced the
maintenance amount based on the fact that the husband was a man of status and owner of vast
movable and immovable properties. Throughout this year, the courts took various decisions on
the issue of female respondents. In Varsha Kapoor v. Union of India and Ors, Writ Petition
(Crl.) No. 638 of 2010, the Delhi High Court sought to segregate the definition of "respondent"
under Section 2(q) into two independent and mutually exclusive parts: (i) Where the AP is in a
domestic relationship with the other person, such person has to be an adult male person, as per
the main provision and (ii) the proviso, however, is limited in nature as it is applied only to
cases where the AP is married or in a relationship in the nature of marriage. Only with regard to
such a limited and specific class of persons, the definition of "respondent" has been widened to
include a relative of husband or male partner. It was pointed out that leaving female relatives
out of the scope of the PWDVA would mean that the husband or male relatives would ensure
that the violence is perpetrated by the female relatives thereby frustrating the object of the law.
In Sri. Amruth Kumar Slo Rajgopal and Smt. Anandamma W/o Amruth Kumar v. Smt. Chithra
Shetty W/o B.A. Raghavendra and State of Karnataka, 2010 (1) KCCR 459, the Karnataka High
Court held that the right given to the aggrieved person to file complaint under the proviso does
not include the woman relative, as otherwise it would defeat the very object of the Act. In
Tehmina Qureshi v. Shazia Qureshi, M. Cr. C. No. 3312 of 2009, the Madhya Pradesh High

229
Court used the argument that since the main provision of Section 2(q) does not refer to
respondent as any adult member but uses the word "male" to qualify it, the expression "a
relative" in the proviso must also be considered not to include female relatives of the husband or
male partner. In the Fourth M&E Report, recommendations were made that all orders that are
passed under the Act must be digitised and put up on the official website, to enable monitoring
and evaluation of the implementation of the Act. The Supreme Court must lay down clear
guidelines on the basis of which maintenance should be awarded. While drafting these
guidelines, the contributions made by the woman as a homemaker and the other non-monetary
contributions to the relationship should be considered. Guidelines should be issued for
incorporating mechanisms within the orders to enforce them. The provisions of Section 125 (3)
Cr. P.0 should be incorporated. Once an order for maintenance is passed, an account must be
opened in the name of the woman in the bank and all payments must be made in that bank
account. This will avoid unnecessary disputes over the amount that was paid. LCWRI in its
Fourth M&E Report has suggested the following amendments to the PWDVA—the proviso to
Section 12 must be deleted and it should be left to the discretion of the judge to decide whether
or not to ask for a PO report. Likewise, Section 31 of the Act has to be amended to include
breach of all orders. Along with which, insertion of a provision to include monitoring and
evaluation of the law was also suggested. Appeals under Section 29 should be allowed only
from final orders to ensure timely disposal of cases.
Fifth M&E Report (2011)
The Fifth Monitoring and Evaluation Report of the Lawyers Collective Women's Rights
Initiative (LCWRI) presents a national picture of the status of implementation of the PWDVA
in India, through an analysis of infrastructure provided by different states, budgetary
allocations, orders passed by the magistrates and judgments of the higher judiciary and
interviews conducted with key stakeholders identified under the Act.
The collection of primary evidence in three states—Delhi, Maharashtra and Rajasthan—to
document changes from a baseline point (2009) to the endline point (2011) on select indicators,
has been a significant part of the annual tracking of the law. Among other things, the Report
also discussed the issue before the Supreme Court, of interpreting the law in consonance with
the rights of women in "domestic relations". In Virendra Chanmuniya v. Chanmuniya Kumar
Singh Kushwaha and Anr, MANU/SC/0807/2010, Justice Ganguly expressly opined that a
broad and expansive interpretation to the expression "wife" should also include cases where a
man and a woman have lived together as husband and wife for a reasonably long period of time.
In Velusamy v. D. Patchaiammal, MANU/ SCJ0872/2010, AIR2011SC479, the concept of
"relationship in the nature of marriage" was examined and it was concluded that it is akin to a
com-mon law marriage and held that not all live-in relationships belong to this category. The
judgment highlighted the fact that for a relationship to be recognised as being in the nature of
marriage, the parties should also have lived in a "shared household". It also led to the
controversy, where women in "live-in relationships" were referred to as "keep", betraying
entrenched patriarchal mindsets and the existence of negative stereotypes. The judgement in
Eveneet Singh vs. Prashant Choudhury, Kavita Choudhury vs. Eveneet Singh, CS (OS)
1307/2010, the Delhi High Court has effectively put Batra vs. Batra, (2007) 3 SCC 169, in the
context of facts and circumstances of each case. The High Court through this judgment
observed that excluding the right of residence against properties where the husband has no right,

230
share, interest or title, would severely curtail the extent of usefulness of the right to residence.
Any attempt at restricting the scope of this remedy, wi.11 breakdown the safeguard provided by
the law. On 31 January, 2011, the Supreme Court gave its decision in Sou. Sandhya Manoj
Wankhade v. Manoj Bhimrao Wankhade and Ors, MANU/SC/0081/2011, which finally laid to
rest the issue with respect to women respondents holding that female relatives of the
husband/male partners can be made respondents under the Act. The court considered the
definition of "respondent" defined under Section 2(q) of the Act of 2005 and held that "although
section 2(q) defines a respondent to mean any adult male person, who is or has been in a
domestic relation-ship with the aggrieved person, the proviso widens the scope of the said
definition by including a relative of the husband or male partner within the scope of a
complaint. The apex court further held that legislature never intended to exclude female
relatives of the husband or male partner from the ambit of complaint that can be made under the
provisions of PWDVA. One of the key findings of the 2011 survey is the lack of knowledge and
clarity about the Act and its implementation. An evidence of the same is the lack of the
knowledge of the difference in the interpretation of both right to property and right to reside
under the PWDVA by the stakeholders. The erroneous conclusion that the division of property
and divorce are reliefs that can be claimed under this Act need to be clarified as they are likely
to influence responses towards the women facing domestic violence. Findings of the 2011
survey have revealed in Delhi that over time, few POs seem to have mistakenly believed that
the DIR and the Home Visit Report are the same. In Maharashtra, initially there was some
confusion on this but, in 2011, this has been significantly reduced. However, courts must
distinguish between a "home visit" and a "DIR", as the latter does not necessarily need a home
visit. Home visits may be required only to clarify disputed facts at the stay of passing orders.
The PWDVA became operational in 2006. At this time, the central government did not allocate
any budget for the implementation of the Act. But some states on their own volition made
allocations in areas like training, capacity building and awareness generation and information,
education and communication (IEC) of different stakeholders which form extremely important
components for effective functioning of the Act. Of the 33 states and union territories, 13 states
have a plan scheme for implementing the PWDVA. Nineteen states do not have a scheme. No
information was received from Lakshadweep and the CBGA did not file the RTl in _Jammu and
Kashmir. Bihar, Jharkhand, Rajasthan and West Bengal have not committed resources for the
PWDVA. These are also states that report a higher incidence of violence according to the
National Family Health Survey, (2005-2006) Report. Findings of the Fifth M&E Report have
revealed that Kerala and Bihar have made certain interventions in this regard. However, support
to service providers is neglected. Madhya Pradesh is the only state that has budgeted funds for
shelter homes run by private organisations. The total budget for the effective enforcement of
PWDVA would be around Rs 1522 crores approx. This would include all essential personnel
and infrastructure necessary for implementation of PWDVA. Recently in 2012, through the
decision of the apex court in V.D. Bhanot vs. Savita Bhanot, (2012) 3 SCC 183 it was held that
the conduct of the parties even prior to the coming into force of the PWDVA in 2005, could be
taken into consideration while granting relief under the Act. Likewise, the bench also decided
that even if a wife, who had shared a household in the past, but was no longer doing so when the
Act came into force, would still be entitled to the protection of the PWDVA.
Concluding Thoughts

231
While "domestic violence" has now become a legally recognised category, violence against
women in domestic relationships still persists. We are often asked how law can protect a woman
from facing violence, inside the home as the home cannot be policed all the time. The question,
however, fails to understand the nature of rights and the role of law in negotiating relationships.
Law performs a normative function, whereby it indicates what behaviour must be deemed
unacceptable. Having a law on domestic violence has the merit of putting in place a norm that
violence against women is unacceptable and such a norm is backed by state sanctions. But
having a norm will not by itself end violence. It is also necessary to facilitate access to justice
by the endowment of material resources. Although the institution of protection officers had been
created for this purpose, no permanent cadre of protection officers has been created, thus
substantially diminishing the utility of the institution. Courts are unaccustomed to deal with
agencies such as the protection officers and treat them in a hierarchical manner, not realising
that it takes more than judges to protect women from violence. The other area of concern is that
in a number of cases the courts refer the matter for counselling as a first resort, with the
objective of reconciliation. Caution must be exercised in adopting the view that conciliation is
the first and most viable approach that the court should take, before initiating legal proceedings.
Cases where the issue at hand is domestic violence, an approach prioritising conciliation could
adversely affect the safety and security of the woman facing violence. Even in this respect, there
is lack of clarity regarding the role of the protection officers. Some protection officers (also the
police and magistrates) have the mistaken impression that their role is to mediate between the
parties in a dispute, rather than to prevent violence from occurring and safeguarding the
interests of the aggrieved women. By far the greatest challenge is to change the mindset of men
in domestic relationships who continue to believe that a man's home is his castle. The inevitable
backlash is upon us. We are told that women "misuse" the law. Decoded, this means that
women are actually using the law. When the disadvantaged use the law after centuries of
exclusion from the legal system, they are charged with "misusing" the law, as there was never
meant to be a law for them at all. What the backlash tells us is that society has not accepted the
fact that women's rights are human rights, that women have equal rights in the home and that
the "man's home" may not always be his impregnable castle. In that sense, the battle may not
have been won, but a major beginning has definitely been made. The true success of the Act is
reflected in the growing number of women accessing the courts. On last count, more than
22,000 orders have been passed by the courts between 1 April 2011 to 31 December 2012,
indicating a spreading awareness of the existence of the Act and the benefits it can bring. This is
not to suggest that all orders passed by courts are gender sensitive or that the law and the courts
have been able to eliminate violence in the home. The battle for gender justice persists; the tools
have been put in place.

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Judicial Meanderings in Patriarchal Thickets: Litigating Sex Discrimination in India*
Kalpana Kannabiran
The so-called "objective" interpretation is as much "subjective" in this sense as "constructive"
interpretation. The mind that interprets is not a tabula rasa; neither is it just a calculating
machine or an electronic brain. The interpreter is a thinking being and as such he will have to
interpret with a mind having a system of beliefs and from a standpoint which he happens to
occupy at the time of the interpretive activity. (Chattopadhyaya 1978: xi—xii)
This essay will attempt to present judicial meanderings on the issue of sex discrimination over
the last six decades through an examination of reported cases from the high courts and the
Supreme Court, with the limited aim of unpacking the deliberations on non-discrimination in I
courts in India. These cases by themselves do not exhaust the field and broad concerns of non-
discrimination, but point to one site where them have been protracted deliberations. In reading
case law, however, rather than focus on the ratio (or the final decision), which is the way in
which legal reasoning on non-discrimination would be pieced together, this is a sociological
reading that looks at the ethnographic detail that texts present,. the process and points of
deliberation and contestation among petitioners. respondents (most often the state) and courts
and the multiple implica-tions of jurisprudential resolution for gender-based discrimination. The
idea is to follow the plural threads of reasoning with respect to women's status, position,
vulnerabilities and rights and understand their ideological underpinnings, not merely trace the
march of ratios towards the judicial achievement of emancipation for women. The first thread in
legal reasoning on non-discrimination that we will follow is expressed through an oft-repeated
refrain in Article 15 jurisprudence on sex discrimination, which is that a particular claim is not
on grounds of sex alone. By this argument, when sex combines with property,' social
norms,2"different conditions of service"' and the like, the very fact that it is expressed in
combination removes it from the purview of Article 15 (1). This exemplifies the disaggregative
norm of interpretation that bases itself on a reductionist reading of the constitutional fragment
"on grounds only of sex, caste, language, place of birth or any of them".4 The second thread in
constitutional reasoning consists in the under-statement of discrimination as classification or
differentiation. This works sometimes to the immediate advantage of women, sometimes not,
but the interpretive reduction (whatever the immediate outcome) has philosophi-cal implications
in terms of our understanding of discrimination. The third thread explores the scope and
purpose of Article 15 (3)—the creation of special provisions for women and children. This
provision has been tossed around in courts in ways that are very telling of the orientation of the
judicial mind as to the location of women in the public domain. To anticipate my argument, on
the surface, interpretation is of course only a question of law. However, a closer and more
careful reading will demonstrate that both fact and law intermesh with notional elements that
are embedded in a patriarchal system, which puts in place an ideological apparatus for the
juridical understanding of sex-based discrimination.5

Differentiation, Classification and Discrimination

How does one draw a line between differentiation, classification and discrimination? The first
question that came up for resolution before the courts had two parts—both of which continued
to shadow the enuncia-tion of non-discrimination on grounds of sex for several decades, echoes

233
of which are audible even now. Order 25 of the Civil Procedure Code (CPC) lays down the
procedure to be followed by courts in the case of money suits. Under sub Rule 3 of Rule 1, the
court has the power to demand monetary security from the plaintiff, if the plaintiff happens to
be a woman and does not possess sufficient immovable property in India. On the other hand, the
rule requires male plaintiffs to give monetary security only if they are resident outside India and
do not have sufficient immovable property in India.° Was this provision an infringement of the
right against discrimination, Article 15(1)? Was it void under Article 13(1)? Or, could it be
argued that it was covered by Special Provisions under Article 15 (3)? In Mahadeb flew, the
court did not hold that there was no discrimination. But it said that since proprietary
considerations were superadded to sex, it did not constitute discrimination on grounds of sex
alone, observing that "possession of sufficient immovable property in India is not a
consideration bearing on sex at all".7 The next step in this reasoning led to the argument that the
introduction of a scheme segregating women and men students, retaining the more established
and reputed facility for men students and asking women students to travel back and forth
between the women's college and the "co-educational" institution for men, did not constitute
discrimination on grounds of sex alone, because it was sex coupled with the application of a
scheme for women students, "which covered development of women's college as a step towards
the advancement of female education ...".8 This, even though it obstructed women's entry into
an institution and, thereby, validated the creation of "special institutions" for men contrary to
the constitutional framework. Paradoxically, this also brought the scheme within the meaning of
"special provisions for women" under Article 15 (3) and not under "discrimination".
Differentiation that is invidious and amounts to discrimination can even come through
apparently benign legislation like the Court of Wards Act. A comparison between the provisions
of Section 8 (1) (b) and 8 01 (d) of the Uttar Pradesh Court of Wards Act clearly revealed that
there was discrimination against women. Clause 8 (1) (d) left it to the discretion of the
government to declare a female proprietor unfit to manage ha estate without any rules being laid
down to determine what constituted incapacity to manage the estate. She was not allowed to
represent ha case before the declaration was made. In the case of a man, not only did the law
require that certain conditions be fulfilled before he could be declared unfit to manage his
estate, but also that he be given the fullest opportunity to have his objection heard. The state of
Uttar Pradesh, in defence of this provision argued,
All differentiation is not discrimination and it is open to the state to classify citizens into
categories provided that the classification is reasonable and based on intelligible indicia. Since it
is a well known fact that women gen-erally are not such competent managers of property as
men and are much more liable to be led astray, therefore, for the purpose of management of
property, they may be legitimately put in a class by themselves.
The Allahabad High Court, rejecting this argument, stated that the denial of the right of
representation to women and the absence in Section 8 (1) (b) of the Courts of Wards Act of any
rules similar to those in Section 8 ( 1) (d) could not but be regarded as "hostile" to women. The
differen-tiation, it was held, attracted Article 15 protections, because it was based solely on the
sex of the proprietor.9 Where there was a shortfall of institutions offering higher education to
women alone, institutions that were hitherto open only to male students began opening their
doors to the increasing number of women students. At this time, Madras University acted on a
University Commission Report on the situation of women in co-educational institutions, which

234
stated that life for them in these institutions that had a predominantly male presence lacked the
"atmosphere of freedom necessary for their natural development". As a remedial measure and to
ensure discipline, women students were barred entry without express permission of the
Syndicate. In justification of its decision to regulate the entry of girl students, the university
argued—an argument that the court upheld, that it was not state-maintained and only state-aided
and, therefore, did not come within the meaning of the state. Further, in a twisted reasoning, the
court held that there were no regulations refusing admission to women students—"those
regulations are addressed to colleges and it is the colleges that are refused permission to admit
women when they do not provide sufficient facilities". Although the fact of "hostile
environments" was recognised explicitly as early as 1954, the remedy was the exclusion of
women from these environments as a measure of "discipline"."' Order 5 Rule 15 of the CPC
provides that when defendants cannot be found and there is no agent empowered to accept
service of summons, the service may be made on an adult male of his family." The court held
that the provision of Order 5 Rule 15 does not put women in a disadvantageous position but
rather exonerates them from the responsibility of fastening notice of service as service on the
other members of the family. Justifying its decision, the court observed,
The function of females in Indian society is that of housewives. Until recently it was in
exceptional cases that women took part in any other activity than those of housewives. Females
were mostly illiterate and some of them parda nashin. The legislature while enacting this rule
had in mind the special conditions of the Indian society and therefore enjoined upon the male
members and did not regard service on females as sufficient. i2
The distinction between classification/differentiation and discrimina-tion based on sex has
always been a troublesome one. The government of Bihar created two sex-segregated branches
in a cadre and issued pro-motion orders to each separately, which resulted in the superseding of
women with seniority. The court held that this violated the protections enshrined in Articles 14
and 16." As late as 1979, it was found that the cadre strength of women doctors in government
service was only one-fifth of the total cadre strength of government doctors in Bihar. The state,
with a view to address the needs of female patients decided to "earmark" and "allot" 125 seats
for women in medical colleges. This, it was argued, was not reservation but a mere
identification or classification of a "source" from which those seats were to be filled. The object,
the state asserted and the court concurred, was to fulfil the "needs of lady patients in the state","
not to make special provisions for women to access medical education. Although, in effect,
upholding the validity of reservation, the reasoning of the court understated its importance by
foregrounding the "needs of patients" and identifying women, not as a class that has not had
equality of opportunity in medical education, but as a "source" through which a public need will
be fulfilled. This reasoning resulted in a displacement of "special provisions" under Article 15
(3) from being a constitutional right of women to positive discrimination to the more diffuse
need for creation of medical facilities for women generally." While these are both necessary,
they belong to different classes of action. Rendering them interchangeable through
interpretation has far-reaching consequences for the jurisprudence on non-discrimination based
on sex.
It is also important to recognise that this is a doubled-edged weapon. Women's claims against
discrimination in one set of cases have been defeated on grounds that the impugned action is a
classification and by that token not discriminatory. In yet another set of cases, classification is

235
the medium through which special provisions and reservations for women are brought in. When
evaluating whether or not a particular method of differentiation is discriminatory, it is therefore,
important to ascertain whether that method will either lead to or reinforce existing hierarchies
and concentrations of power. To the extent that they reflect and corre-spond with systems of
social inequality, differentiation and classification may be the source of discrimination.16
Equality in Relationship
The question of sex discrimination in the context of relationships is expressed in the
jurisprudence on sex discrimination in two ways. First, in the context of spousal or filial
relationship—in relation to adultery, bigamy, restitution, privacy, divorce, maintenance,
property and guardian-ship, to name but a few and second, in the context of employment where
a relationship is "represented" in specific ways that discriminate against women, denying them
entitlements that in the normal course would accrue to all employees. From the first set of cases,
I will pick three issues rather arbitrarily and reflect on their implications for an understanding of
the ways in which courts have constructed conjugality and equality in relationships." Spousal
relationship presents a very serious problem. The discussion on bigamy in an early case frames
the issue of discrimination based on sex almost unconsciously, pointing to the social bases of
jurisprudence, mar-riage providing the most illustrative space for unpacking the social context.
The discussion on the Bombay Prevention of Hindu Bigamous Marriages Act, 1946, centred on
whether it was discriminatory to penalise Hindus for bigamous marriages while Muslims were
allowed to be polygamous. The argument justifying the practice of bigamy was,
A Hindu marries not only for association with his mate, but in order to perpetuate his family by
the birth of sons. It is only when a son is born to a Hindu male that he secures spiritual benefit
by having someone who can offer oblations to his own shade when he is dead and to the shades
of his ancestors and that there is no heavenly region for a sonless man. The institution of
polygamy is based upon the necessity of a Hindu obtaining a son for the sake of religious
efficacy.'
The court inserted women into this context, reinforcing it even while holding that bigamy was
not permissible.
Hindu marriage is a sacrament and not a contract and the sentimental love and devotion of a
Hindu wife for her husband is well-known. Legislature may well have thought that it would be
futile to make the offence of Hindu bigamy punishable at the instance of the wife because
Hindu wives may not come forward with any complaint at all.'9
The Sareetha case in Andhra Pradesh 20 years later, on the restitution of conjugal rights marked
a turn in the judicial discourse on conjugality, a turn that was not sustained in subsequent
cases.2° Examining the validity of Section 9 of the Hindu Marriage Act, the Andhra Pradesh
High Court observed with exceptional sensitivity, "A court decree enforcing restitu-tion...
constitutes the starkest form of governmental invasion of personal identity." Although
theoretically this section applied to men and women equally and by that token satisfied the
equality test, the court observed. "Bare equality of treatment regardless of the inequality of
realities was neither justice nor homage to constitutional principles." On the face of it, the
court's rejection of the right to restitution seems to be located within the framework of the right
to privacy, bodily integrity and dignity (Nussbaum 2005: 192-197). While these are indeed the
signposts, what the court seems to forewarn itself against is the danger of judicial com-plicity in
marital rape—"to coerce the unwilling party through judicial process to have sex against that

236
person's consent"—and interrogates the claim for restitution from that vantage point. There was,
however, a double somersault by the courts after Sareetha that rolled back the advance this
interpretation represented on the place of consent and choice in marriage. With reference to
restitution itself, in a context where marital rape can neither be named nor is a part of the
offence of rape under the Indian Penal Code (IPC), it became possible for the Delhi High Court
to assert that the introduction of the "cold principles restitution conjugality, a the validity High
Court ing restitu-of personal and women rt observed, realities was On the face to be located and
dignity posts, what judicial com-ough judicial interrogates the
after Sareetha on the place -tution itself, in is a part of the e possible for 'cold principles of
Constitutional Law" into the home was like "introducing a bull in a china shop" and "will have
the effect of weakening the marriage bond",21 a view that found reiteration in the otherwise
commendable report of the Law Commission as late as 2000.22 This is one facet of the turn-
about on Sareetha. Decisions on the law on adultery that followed close on the heels of the
Sareetha judgment point us to another facet of the turnaround. Section 497 of the IPC says,
Adultery: Whoever has sexual intercourse with a person who is and whom he knows or has
reason to believe to be the wife of another man, with-out the consent or connivance of that man,
such sexual intercourse not amounting to the offence of rape, is guilty of the offence of adultery
and shall be punished with imprisonment ... In such case the wife shall not be punishable as an
abettor. "
When the constitutional validity of this section was challenged on the grounds that it does not
confer similar rights of prosecution on the husband and the wife and penalises extramarital
relationships arbitrarily, the Supreme Court upheld the validity of this archaic section saying
that "merely because the section does not define adultery to include cases where a husband has
sexual relations with an unmarried woman it can-not be declared unconstitutional", going on to
observe that women are treated like chattel within marriage and that it is men who are the
seduc-ers, not women. This view, because it emanates from the crest of justice, the Supreme
Court, is the "constitutional interpretation". It is a fact that women are treated like chattel within
marriage in a patriarchal system. If that is not desirable (as the Supreme Court seems to be
saying), one way of removing women from the position of chattel is to reformulate the
definition and implications of extramarital relationships, tying it to notions of consent, choice
and dissolution of marriage--in other words, to use interpretation to step out of patriarchal
confines. Instead, the court regrets the fact that women are chattel within marriage and yet it
locks them firmly into the position of chattel by substituting constitutional morality with codes
of public morality,24 which allow one man to pros-ecute another for having a relationship with
his wife. And a wife cannot prosecute her husband, her lover or her lover's wife, because within
this framework, as chattel she is denied agency." The reduction of women to chattel and the
denial of agency are also evident in that a married woman under the law is not guilty of adultery
if she has obtained the consent of her husband.26 The unequal position of husband and wife
with respect to adultery under the Indian Divorce Act, 1869, was held by the Madras High
Court as a valid classification since a woman could bear offspring who would under the law be
treated as legitimate children of the husband, while a man "cannot bear a child" if he commits
adultery." Biology, by this token, is destiny. The absence of a holistic understanding of
discrimination in conjugal relationships and the disaggregated application of the law in this
sphere is an expression of the strategy of jurisprudential dissociation. The court either

237
subscribes to the wisdom of these provisions, as above or asserts that it is of little consequence,
since the court is "the arbiter merely of the constitutionality of the law".28 This strategy of
jurisprudential dis-sociation is a critical tool in the ideological condonation of gender-based
discrimination—embodying the interlocking of, to use Upendra Baxi's delineation, C2
(constitutional interpretation) and C3 ("the discursive sites for justification ... of practices and
performances of governance") (2004: 55). This strategy also expresses itself through the method
of disaggrega-tion where the social formation of gender-based discrimination is sliced into
different parts that are viewed as independent entities that have no bearing on each other. It was
not only Hindu wives who found themselves in an unequal position. What merits serious
reflection is the emergence of a radical, even strident, voice in the judiciary willing to look at
conjugal relations in the context of the Constitution in relation to Christian29 and Muslim30
women. With reference to Hindu women, however, the equivocation and quick resort to
scriptural/textual/dominant cultural prescriptions of subordination and acquiescence of the ideal
Hindu wife present a stark contrast. This doublespeak in relation to Indian women merits
serious con-sideration, particularly because there is a radical voice with a long history within
the Hindu community as well, one that speaks to a different notion of constitutional morality,
the Sareetha case echoing Rukmabai's struggle against the restitution of conjugal rights a
century earlier (Chakravarti 1989: 73-74 and Sarkar 2001: 194).
Discrimination at the Workplace
Jurisprudence on discrimination against women in the workplace focused on equal treatment,
equal pay for equal work, special provisions and an enunciation of the efficiency rules and the
relationship rules. An important thread in Article 15 jurisprudence on the workplace has to do
with what I call the "efficiency rules" and the "relationship rules". The Indian Railways found
that women employees are less susceptible to improper influence, were more patient and
courteous and less corrupt than male employees and decided to reserve clerical posts in
reservation offices for women with a view to increase efficiency.3' But this view of women's
efficiency in paid work, encouraging women and essentialising femininity in one stroke,
although problematic, is rare in the discourse on women in paid work. The airlines, for instance,
were very different. Air India and Indian Airlines wanted their hostesses to be young, "attrac-
tive", underweight and unmarried; if they married, pregnancy was barred. By this argument, a
narrowly prescribed, normative physical appearance against which women were measured in
literal terms ("medical fitness"), was throughout their period of service the precondition of
efficiency, which was achieved through an interlocking of bodily measurements with active
disparity in material conditions of service based on sex.32 Although there have been major
decisions that have struck down discriminatory provisions in the civil services33 and there was
recogni-tion at one level that "our struggle for national freedom was also a battle against
woman's thralldom",34 the centrality of marriage to the definition of womanhood remains a
disabling factor in women's entitlements to justice and remedies at work. While locking women
into stereotypes of the nurturing mother and the acquiescent wife who bear sole responsi-bility
for housework and childcare and prescribing behavioural norms that curtail their mobility
outside the home, these very stereotypes are transported through jurisprudence into the
workplace to limit women's access to equal opportunity and equal treatment.
The Efficiency Rules

238
Where sex-disaggregated data shows an overwhelming number of male offenders in comparison
to women offenders, should women with the requisite service be promoted as jail
superintendents of men's jails?35 In the case of Mrs R.S. Singh, the Punjab and Haryana High
Court were dealing with an order by the governor prohibiting women from employ-ment in
men's jails except as clerks and matrons. While Mrs R.S. Singh was eligible for appointment as
superintendent of jail, her name did not figure among the superintendents on the gradation list in
March 1966 and records of her employment carried a note that she was not encadred with the
superintendents. In general, she had been considered unfit for appoint-ment in a men's jail
where hardened and ribald prisoners were confined.36 Women employed in these institutions,
in this view, are potential victims of male crime, specifically male sexual crime, a possibility
that even the prison cannot offer women protection against.
It needs no great imagination to visualise the awkward and even hazard-ous position of a
woman acting as a warden or other jail official who has to personally ensure and maintain
discipline over habitual male criminals. Necessarily the inmates of these jails have a large
majority of hardened and ribald criminals guilty of heinous crimes of violence and sex ... The
difficulties which even male wardens and other jail officials experience in handling this motley
and even dangerous assemblage are too clear to need elaboration. A woman performing these
duties in a men's jail would be even in a more hazardous predicament."
Assuming the position of absolute neutrality, the court posed the question in reverse. Would it
be acceptable to employ men in all-women institutions? In prisons, educational institutions and
the like? Clearly no. So it is concluded that it was absolutely reasonable to differentiate classes
according to sex for purposes of employment.38 The reasons for both arrangements are not
similar but identical, namely, whether you speak of men in custody or a man in authority, the
state cannot assure good conduct. The solution, therefore, is to confine or exclude women as the
case maybe. The justification, however, is in the efficiency rule.
One of the paramount considerations for the public service must be the efficiency of its
employees. The State must select and appoint persons most suitable to discharge the duties of a
particular job which they are to hold ... It is evident that where disparities of either sex, patently
add to or detract from, the capacity or suitability to hold a particular post or posts, then the state
would be entitled to take this factor into consideration in conjunction with others.39
By a predictable elision, the best possible incumbents become the most suitable persons and sex
is seen not alone but in conjunction with propriety, decency, morals and decorum. In other
words, since sex-based discrimination is expressed through patriarchal notions of propriety,
morality and so on, it is impossible to posit a distilled notion of sex that is separated from its
semantic field. Any attempt to do this would render the articulation of discrimination on
grounds of sex vacuous. Each of these terms is defined in a manner that the presence of one or
more of these attributes "exonerates" women from citizenship (the purdah nashin wife) and their
absence disqualifies them from citizenship (the prostitute). The fact of women's dual
responsibilities at home and work and the orientation of employers towards notions of gender-
appropriate behaviour where women are concerned—even where the state is the employer—
lead to the extension of the efficiency argument to defeat women's claims to equality at work.
Take, for instance, a police department denying women typists promotion "on public grounds",
"due to the peculiar nature of the work of the stenographers of the department (touring along
with the offi-cers and working at odd hours)"4° or the Indian Army resisting the posting of a

239
lady officer as officer-in-charge of its legal cell on the grounds that the legal officer would be
required to attend the courts every day, have to travel at odd hours in the morning and evening
and handle courts martial and other "sensitive" courts of inquiry. The fair trade-off for the army
was "in case the lady officer is to be posted to the station she may be adjusted as an additional
officer".41 In both these cases, the court upheld the claim of the women against the state but
with a certain measure of unease. In the first case, holding that "whatever be the ultimate reason
behind the order and however 'laudable' it may be", that would not remove "the effect of the
order [which] involves an infringement" of her fundamental right under Article 1b (1);42 in the
second, that a "married lady officer with a child cannot be considered to be a 'lame duck'
incapable of discharging her duties efficiently".43
The Relationship Rules A school board in Tamil Nadu passed a resolution that "the service of
the teacher will be terminated with three months notice when she gets married for the following
reasons (i) When she takes maternity leave, the small children's education will be affected
without teacher for three months ..." Clearly, although there was no specific mention of women
teachers, it was a sex-specific rule and was struck down as violative of Articles 13, 14, 16 and
21 because it discriminated against teachers who chose to get married and who were not
Christian." Similarly, as late as the 1990s, the Municipal Corporation of Delhi, in a written
statement filed before the Industrial Tribunal, pleaded that the provisions under the Maternity
Benefit Act, 1961 or the Central Civil Services (Leave) Rules were not applicable to female
workers engaged on a muster roll because they were all only on daily wages. The corporation
also contended that they were not entitled to any benefit under the Employees' State Insurance
Act, 1948. Most of the women employed by the corporation were employed on a casual daily-
wage basis for years on end and engaged in hard physical labour with no protections in place
because they were designated as casual labour.45 This plea of the corporation was worth noting
in the light of the fact that India is a signatory of the Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), which explicitly speaks of the rights of
women in employment. The effect of this decision, however, is also the protection of the right
to reproductive choice and the right to relationships, both of which are extremely contested
areas of women's autonomy in contexts of discrimination. Nergesh Meerza is a telling case." In
a case of public employment, the employer's requirement of a four-year bar on marriage was
retained as being reasonable and salutary, since generally air hostesses joined service at 19 and
the regulation permits them to marry at 23.
[This] is by all standards a very sound and salutary provision. Apart from improving the health
of the employee, it helps a good deal in the promo-tion and boosting up of our family planning
programme. Secondly, if a woman marries near about the age of 20 to 23 years, she becomes
fully mature and there is every chance of such a marriage proving a success, all things being
equal ...47
The second provision on the termination of service on first pregnancy, the court found, shocked
its conscience.
It seems to us that the termination of the services of an AN [air host-ess] under such
circumstances is not only callous and cruel act but an open insult to Indian womanhood—the
most cherished and sacrosanct

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institution. We are constrained to observe that such a course of action is extremely detestable
and abhorrent to the notions of a civilised society ... and is therefore clearly violative of Article
14 of the Constitution.48
However, it said,
The rule could be suitably amended so as to terminate the services of an AH on third pregnancy
provided two children are alive which would be salutary and reasonable for two reasons. In the
first place, the provision pre-venting third pregnancy with two existing children would be in the
larger interest of the health of the AH concerned as also for the good upbringing of the children.
Secondly, ... a bar of third pregnancy where two children are already there [would be
acceptable] because when the entire world is faced with the problem of population explosion it
will ... be ... absolutely essential for every country to see that the family planning programme is
not only whipped up but maintained at sufficient levels so as to meet the danger of
overpopulation -49
Condemning the stress on their "appearance, youth, glamour and charm", the Supreme Court
observed that since
a woman in our country occupies a very high and respected position in the society as a mother,
a wife, a companion and a social worker such observations disclose an element of unfavourable
bias against the fair sex which is palpably unreasonable and smacks of pure official
arbitrariness."
In a case that involves women's entitlements as workers, there is a jurisprudential dissociation
the court effects between the claim and the claimant. The embodiment of the claimant in
essentialist, non-material terms creates a crisis of dissonance in the legitimate material claim
because, after all, the profane must not be allowed to disrupt the harmony of the sacred. And
what greater profanity is there than equality? Further, for women—even women in public
employment—there is no separation between the home and the world and any claim to privacy
is null and void. This construction elevates deeply discriminatory cultural stereotypes above
constitutionalism in a country where Tarabai Shinde's Stree Purusha Tulana (A Comparison
between Women and Men) inaugurated women's struggles against their reification and
subjugation more than a century ago (Shinde 1882, 1994).
Motherhood, pregnancy, childbirth, menstruation and marriage are for the male employer the
principal constituents of the identity of women in paid work and determinants of their worth.
For courts, these are the constituents of "modesty". The Life Insurance Corporation (LIC)
required women candidates to state the following: husband's name in full and occupation,
number of children, whether menstrual periods have always been regular and painless, number
of conceptions, date of last menstrua-tion, whether pregnant at the time of applying, date of last
delivery and abortion or miscarriage, if any. All completely irrelevant to a woman's
employment or capacity or competence at work. If the LIC intended to map the possibilities for
a healthy workforce neither pregnancy nor child-birth, nor menstruation is indicative of ill
health or morbidity. Answering these questions is no more painful or "embarrassing" or
"humiliating" than having to go through a pregnancy test before appointment. The court,
however, thought differently.
The modesty and self-respect may perhaps preclude the disclosure of such personal problems
like whether her menstrual period is regular or painless ... etc.... If the purpose of the declaration
is to deny the maternity leave and benefits to a lady candidate who is pregnant at the time of

241
entering the service [the legality of which we express no opinion since not challenged], the
Corporation could subject her to medical examination, including the pregnancy test."
Jurisprudential dissociation (evident in the parenthetical remark) converges with the status quo
yet again. More on the relationship rule. In 2002, the Indian Army had 980,000 active troops,
along with an Army Reserve of 800,000. In 1994, it was reported that there were 200 women in
the armed forces." Barring a couple in combat positions, all the rest were in the military nursing
service. The military nursing service had evolved rules in the interests of the efficiency of the
service, that after marriage, a person could remain in service only if she justified her
continuance by showing extra efficiency in the years preceding her marriage. In 1988, Indira
Kumari Kartiayoni, a Lt Nursing Officer in the military nursing service, got married after
obtaining the requisite permission. However, after her marriage, her service was discontinued
because she had failed to demonstrate "extra efficiency" in the two years before marriage. The
Supreme Court ruled that the appellant be given the opportunity to prove her efficiency in the
two years subsequent to marriage and be discontinued if found inefficient." What is the measure
of that extra efficiency? But most important of all, an unjust rule was upheld and also the setting
of different standards for women that work to their disadvantage as a class. The decision itself
gave immediate temporary reprieve without displacing the arbitrariness of the rule in any
manner whatsoever. For the women in the corps, however, it is not marriage that is the issue but
sexual harassment and too little meaningful, engaging work (Goel et al. 2000: 140-142). And
this is not the experience of women in the corps alone. The efficiency rules for women do not
draw their legitimacy from the Constitution as in the case of Scheduled Castes (SCs) and
Scheduled Tribes (STs) under Article 335.54 They are instead grounded in relationship rules or
in the nexus between sex and "other factors" that, as Kannabiran sug-gests, represent
patriarchy's inarticulate major premise—the capabilities of women are to be assessed
subjectively without respite and without any constitutional basis or justification.55 Parekh and
Pantham echo this view when they say, "Politically enforced norms or principles of social
organisation are rooted in the archaeologies of social knowledge, which serve as pre-theoretical
or pre-articulate frames of our notions of political rationality, justice, truth, rights, democracy
and moral beliefs" (1987: 9).
Equal Treatment
In the second air hostesses case, Yeshaswinee Merchant, the Supreme Court negated the claim
of equal treatment with respect to age at retirement and salary structure, upholding the early
retirement of women employed as air hostesses in Air India, a public sector undertaking.56
Justifying its decision, the court drew on its own observation in an earlier case that "there
cannot be any cut and dry formula for fixing the age of retirement" and that this "would always
depend on a proper assessment of the relevant factors and may conceivably vary from case to
case". Four years later, in 2007, the Supreme Court upheld women's claims to equal treatment
and equality of opportunity, questioning sex-role stereotyping and the application of the parens
patriae principle by the state to deny women access to equal treatment vis-a-vis employment
opportunities in the hospitality sector the appellant be given the opportunity to prove her
efficiency in the two years subsequent to marriage and be discontinued if found inefficient."
What is the measure of that extra efficiency? But most important of all, an unjust rule was
upheld and also the setting of different standards for women that work to their disadvantage as a
class. The decision itself gave immediate temporary reprieve without displacing the

242
arbitrariness of the rule in any manner whatsoever. For the women in the corps, however, it is
not marriage that is the issue but sexual harassment and too little meaningful, engaging work
(Goel et al. 2000: 140-142). And this is not the experience of women in the corps alone. The
efficiency rules for women do not draw their legitimacy from the Constitution as in the case of
Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) under Article 335.54 They are instead
grounded in relationship rules or in the nexus between sex and "other factors" that, as
Kannabiran sug-gests, represent patriarchy's inarticulate major premise—the capabilities of
women are to be assessed subjectively without respite and without any constitutional basis or
justification.55 Parekh and Pantham echo this view when they say, "Politically enforced norms
or principles of social organisation are rooted in the archaeologies of social knowledge, which
serve as pre-theoretical or pre-articulate frames of our notions of political rationality, justice,
truth, rights, democracy and moral beliefs" (1987: 9).
Equal Treatment
In the second air hostesses case, Yeshaswinee Merchant, the Supreme Court negated the claim
of equal treatment with respect to age at retirement and salary structure, upholding the early
retirement of women employed as air hostesses in Air India, a public sector undertaking.56
Justifying its decision, the court drew on its own observation in an earlier case that "there
cannot be any cut and dry formula for fixing the age of retirement" and that this "would always
depend on a proper assessment of the relevant factors and may conceivably vary from case to
case". Four years later, in 2007, the Supreme Court upheld women's claims to equal treatment
and equality of opportunity, questioning sex-role stereotyping and the application of the parens
patriae principle by the state to deny women access to equal treatment vis-a-vis employment
opportunities in the hospitality sector.
The air hostesses decision continues to validate unequal treatment even while women begin to
access equal opportunity and treatment in restau-rants and bars as a result of Anuj Garg. This is
a second aspect of juris-prudential dissociation—the possibility of the simultaneous operation of
contradictory lines of reasoning on the same issue, namely, discrimination based on sex.
Another important dimension of equal treatment is equal pay for equal work. Although this
principle is not expressly declared as a fundamental right in the Constitution, it is deducible
from Articles 14, 16 and 39 (d).58 The Orissa Government issued a circular to the effect that
women would be preferred for appointment as primary school teachers, irrespective of their
position on the merit list. In pursuance of this, the chairman of the selection board directed the
employment exchange to forward only the names of women candidates and specified that where
suitable women candidates were not found, the posts be kept vacant until such candi-dates were
found. This was challenged by an unregistered association of unemployed trained male
matriculates and intermediates of the district of Keonjhar. Drawing on the Report of the
Committee on the Status of Women in India, Towards Equality, the court, while acknowledging
the disadvantaged position that women were in and asserting the need for special provisions and
preferential treatment, also observed that the action of the chairman of the selection board
directing the employment exchange to sponsor only the names of women was unjustifiable, as
also his deci-sion to keep seats vacant if suitable women were not available because it would
amount to "100 per cent reservation".59 The Special Rules for the Kerala Last Grade Service
enumerates several categories of posts in that service. Rule 5 of the special rules deals with
appointment to various categories. The note along with Rule 5 read

243
in view of the arduous and special nature of duties and responsibilities attached to the posts
specified in the table below, only male candidates shall be eligible for appointment under this
rule to the said posts—peon, watchmen, duffadar, cleaner-cum-conductor, gatekeeper, court
keeper, process server, messenger, village man, chainman, maistry, plumber.
This note underwent changes from time to time so as to exclude women from more and more
categories. In place of 12, at the time the case was heard, 25 categories were included as
inaccessible to women and four more had been proposed.6° While directing the Kerala Public
Service Commission to appoint the petitioners in the next two vacancies that arose, the court
"alert [ed] the state and union government to the need for attention to affirmative action in the
area of sex discrimination".61 The frequent violation of women's right to equality by the state
and the need for courts to step in time and again to rectify this point to the normalisation of
discrimination against women in the public domain. The need for the court to state explicitly
"the distribution of state largesse can-not be made in violation of right to equality",62 or again,
"the government should be a model employer. Socialism being the goal of our Constitution
since 42nd Amendment ... discrimination/exploitation [by the govern-ment with respect to
public employment] has to be condemned",63 is telling. Equally eloquent is the absence of a
clearly identifiable judicial understanding of what sex discrimination is despite the concern and
constitutional commitment of courts to rule against it.
Special Provisions
Upholding the right of women to reservation in 1953, the High Court of Bombay asserted that
the "government may well take the view that women are very necessary in local authorities
because the point of view of women must be placed before the councillors before they decide
any question affecting the municipality"." The judges held,
The proper way to construe Article 15 (3) is that whereas under 15 (1) discrimination in favour
of men on ground of sex is not permissible, by reason of Article 15 (3) discrimination in favour
of women is permissible and when the state does discriminate in favour of women, it does not
offend against Article 15 (1).65
The same question, deliberated on in the case of Km Sharada Mishra,66 introduced an
additional twist in the interpretation of Article 15 (3). Reservation exclusively for men, even if
they are dependents of ex-army personnel, is violative of Article 14. There can be reservation
for depen-dents—male and female and an additional reservation (or a earmarking of a part of
the larger quota) for female dependents under Article 15 (3).67 However, the court's ruling
introduced the reasoning of "double advantage".68 The construction of "special provisions"
under Article 15 (3) does not make this contingent on the degree to which women gain space
under Article 14. Whether or not women in particular institutions succeed in securing a space
comparable to men, special provisions to increase their access aim at redressing the macro
processes of discrimination that women are subjected to and exist alongside the fulfilment of
Article 14.69 The only proviso that might possibly be read into this scheme is that when the
mind of the community becomes enlightened and women achieve equality of status and
opportunity, Article 15 (3) will become redundant and may be removed through a constitutional
amendment. As long as it remains part of the Constitution, however, the provision can scarcely
be read down through the introduction of arguments like "double advantage". In effect, what
this argument accomplishes is the denial of space in the open category to women and the
validation of reservation for men (declared unconstitutional and ultra vires of Article 14 in the

244
same judgment) with-out explicitly stating it. In 1995, the Supreme Court restored this right to
women in State of AP vs P B Vijayakumar, where it held that while 30 per cent of posts in the
said categories could be reserved for women, it was also open for women to compete for posts
in other categories on as equal basis with men." Special provisions, while initially set into
motion to redress the gender imbalance in employment and education because they address the
need t create space for women, often use arguments that construct femininity is their rationale.
While one side of this is the argument that women are not suited for "difficult, arduous work",
the other side is that women tend to be more honest, diligent, patient and courteous.71 Where
the creation of special provisions was challenged as being discriminatory against men the court
held that it was the state's prerogative to introduce classified through policy measures that were
aimed at restoring gender equity aai such classification could not be considered
discriminatory.72 However this matter of state prerogative, while essentially a corrective to the
constitutional commitment to equality and eliminate discriminate and exclusion, has also been
used arbitrarily, with women being treated as mere passive recipients or objects of state largesse
or protection.
This trend inverts the social justice intent of Article 15 (3), operationalising it in terms of the
very discrimination it sets out to eliminate .73
Speaking of the Gender Division of Labour
The gender division of labour inflects the litigation on non-discrimination, particularly with
reference to paid work. Reservations of up to 50 per cent were allowed to women on the lowest
rungs of the labour ladder, in this instance, scavenging, with the court justifying its "expansive"
view with the observation that women provide better sweeper and scavenger services than men
do.74 Women also perform important childcare functions, which need to be recognised
adequately by the state. Take the case of "school mothers" in the employ of the Tripura
Government. The children are picked up from their homes and dropped back by the school
mothers, who also attend to the emotional and physical needs of the children—all between the
ages of three and six—and manage the school nutrition programme, besides assisting the social
education worker. They perform a very important and necessary function, the court found, but
they were not adequately compensated for their work.75 And yet, in Messrs Mackinnon
Mackenzie and Company Limited vs Audrey D'Costa and Another, the Supreme Court, while
upholding the decision of the Bombay High Court on women stenographers' entitlement to
equal remuneration for work of the same or similar nature, went on to observe,
Men do work like loading, unloading, carrying and lifting heavier things which women cannot
do. In such cases there cannot be any discrimination on the ground of sex. Discrimination arises
only where men and women doing the same or similar kind of work are paid differently. 76
An oft-repeated view of the court that links masculinity with the inherent capability for
"arduous" work has two coexisting and mutually scinforcing parts: one, that men perform
"arduous" work, which women ire by definition incapable of matching," two, when men and
women are seen and known to perform the same and similar work (flight duties in airlines, for
instance), the duties that men perform are defined as "arduous" and compensated with longer
service and fair conditions of employment, merely because these are performed by men. There
is in this last instance no requirement for the employer to demonstrate, task by task, the
differences in work requirements for men and women.78 There are other somewhat amusing,
yet troubling, twists that the gender division of labour brings about in the sphere of employment

245
with consequences for questions of constitutionality. The Bimla Rani case. for instance, raised
the issue of equal pay for equal work. Although the employer argued that the work was
dissimilar and, therefore, justified differential wage rates, the petitioners pointed out the case of
Sujjan, "a lady who was included in the list of men workers and so was getting a higher
remuneration; but when it came to be known that she was wrongly designated as a male worker,
her remuneration was reduced".79 Nursing has historically been identified as a "female"
profession that draws on the nurturing, caring functions women must perform in patriarchal
societies It has been measured in terms of selflessness in "service" that can never be monetised
and, therefore, is always undervalued in terms of wages and eulogised rhetorically. Enter the
male nurse, who gets appointed as a "sister tutor" and who, by virtue of service of more than
two years. becomes senior to female sister tutors. On attaining seniority, can he be denied
promotion on the grounds that the post is designated "senior tutor (female)"? The respondent
contended that in a predominantly female insti-tution, a female sister would be more suited to
the duties of a senior roar and that the rule regarding eligibility is not based on sex alone but on
the suitability of a female candidate and the corresponding unsuitability cia male candidate for
the post. The court held that to prevent a male siser tutor to be promoted to the post of senior
tutor (female) on grounds that he is not female amounts to discrimination based on sex alone.8°
Can women claim the night? Section 66 (1) (b) of the Factories Act. 1948, provides that "no
woman shall be required or allowed to work in any factory except between the hours of 6 a.m.
and 7 p.m.". The mot was unwilling to concede the claim that this provision disci-Min:t■ig
unfairly against women.
It is undoubtedly true that according to the traditional view, all that a woman needed to know
was the four walls of her house ... Today. thing, have changed.... Yet, the very nature of their
commitment to the family ma the social environment require that they cannot be entrusted with
all those duties which men may be asked to perform. Normally, they are not sent to the borders
to fight. Lady constables are not asked to go on patrol duty at night. Lady waitresses in hotels
are not required to work during night. They may be good for managerial jobs. They may even
work as waitresses up to certain hours. But, special provisions so as to ensure that they are not
harassed can be and have been made. It is on account of this situation that the Constitution-
makers had made a provision in Article 15 (3). The Legislature was permitted to make special
provision for women and chil-dren. The purpose was to protect both of them against the
hazardous jobs and to save them in spheres where the Parliament considered it necessary.81
What is the relationship between the gender division of labour and gender hegemonies in the
workplace? In Yeshaswinee Merchant, while the All India Cabin Crew Association supported
the demand of air hostesses on parity in age at retirement, it opposed the proposal of
interchangeability of duties between male and female cabin staff. On closer examination, the
Bombay High Court found that the reason for this was that under the existing rules, only a male
member of the cabin crew could be a flight supervisor. If interchangeability were introduced,
junior male cabin crew would be under the authority of a female flight supervisor, a possibility
that all men in the association opposed. The court rejected this argument asserting that "the
hierarchy on board the aircraft will be based on seniority irrespective of sex",82 a decision the
Supreme Court set aside. The Kerala High Court observation in the Rajamma case that "the
attempt should not be to perpetuate discrimination but obliterate it",83 marks an unusual parity
between discursive frameworks and outcome. Despite these momentary glimmers, as late as

246
1990, advertisements for posts in the subordinate judiciary were issued explicitly barring
women from applying.84 Finally, the celebrated Visahha judgment on sexual harassment in the
workplace in 1997 and a spate of judgments following Visahha established the non-negotiability
of women's right to safe working conditions, free al sexual harassment." There was also, around
this time, a progressive interpretation of women's vulnerability to violence that was evident in
some remarkable decisions. For instance, the case where defamation was interpreted as violence
and the petitioner exempted from paying court fees coder a provision in the Bombay Court Fees
Act, 1949, which exempted women litigants from paying court fees in cases relating to
maintenance, property disputes, violence and divorce.86 However, in a later case involving the
Cochin Port Trust's policy against employing women as shore mazdoors (workers), the court
reiterated its pre-Visahha position that while women cannot be excluded from employment only
on the ground of sex, their right may be restricted if the conditions in which they are required to
work are hazardous to their health and well-being. While coming to that conclusion, the court
repeated the century-old wisdom of the 1908 case of Curt Muller vs The State of Oregon—
"protect her from the greed and passion of man"—and took note that women working at the
shipping wharf, away from the main office, isolated and alone, can be an object of violence on
their person, especially at night and that in the circumstances, the decision did not violate
Articles 14 and 15 (1) o1 the Constitution of India.87 This brings us back in a sense to where
we began. This extensive review of case law demonstrates troubling patterns in the
jurisprudence on sex discrimination that seem to point to the inescapability from discrimina-tion
based on sex. In general, the hazards of employment for women range from "difficult" work that
they are "naturally" unsuited for, like "the movement amidst moving cargo and in the midst of
huge cranes, forklifts, etc., demanding quick movement of feet"88 to the "sensitivities of sex
and peculiarities of societal sectors".89 Given this reality, courts have, with few valuable
exceptions, found it expedient to choose a "pragmatic" approach rather than a "dogmatic" one in
matters of equality based on sex,9° which translates on the ground into making peace with
public morality and hostile environments. By definition, this has meant dismantling possibilities
for the emergence of a constitutional morality of non-discrimination, especially based on sex
but also other grounds. This is accomplished by applying principles of equality mechanically
and situating the deliberation firmly within the patriarchal paradigm, which results in
conceptual contradictions in equal-ity jurisprudence. There is a discursive and structural
problem as well Legal language in current usage and legal reasoning, apart from the bare
construction of the article or section itself, singularly lacks the felicity to speak to women's life
worlds. It is not a language that women speak, even if for the sole reason that they do not
physically inhabit the bench beyond a token presence if at all. And to the extent that rights can
only be expressed and realised through language and voice, the problem is fundamental and
crippling.
Conclusion
Viewed in this manner, the swings in non-discrimination jurisprudence where it concern women
cease to be unexpected. B.R. Ambedkar antici-pated this difficulty clearly when he said,
"Constitutional morality is not a natural sentiment. It has to be cultivated. We must realise that
our people have yet to learn it".91And "our people" includes women and men, leaders and
citizens, litigants, lawyers and judges alike.92 There are faint glimmers of hope. The guidelines
on the issue of sexual harassment in the Visahha case were framed from the standpoint of the

247
situation of a working class Dalit woman's vulnerability vis-à-vis the dominant castes, the police
and the state or government. The purpose of the writ petition was to seek "the enforcement of
fundamental rights of working women under Articles 14, 19 and 21 of the Constitution of India
in view of the prevailing climate in which the violation of these rights is not uncommon".93 The
significance of this decision lies in the judicial recognition of the notion of "hostile
environments" as something obstructing women's equal entry to employment—a notion that
could be extended by courts to better understand the subjugation of women in patriarchal
societies, which are divided along multiple, intersecting lines of caste, class, religion and
gender, among others, not severally but together and in conjunction with each other. The first
step in breaking the cycle of interpretive disaggregation and dissociation is to attempt to
redefine sex and its contexts in radically new terms. In the recent Naz Foundation judgment, the
Delhi High Court deliberated on the meaning of the word "sex" in Article 15 (1). Does the term
"sex" refer to attribute (gender) or performance (sexual orientation)? Through a nuanced
reading of "sex" in Article 15 (1), the court held that "sexual orientation is a ground analogous
to sex and discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation is not permitted by Article 15".94
We could take this further. Article 15 (1) of the Constitution says, "The state shall not
discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or
any of them." Although it is true, as Martha Nussbaum argues, that constitutional interpretation
in some instances has driven a wedge between sex and gender through the use of the word
"only" (2005: 180), it is necessary to re-examine this article and explore the possibility that the
phrase "or any of them" has a meaning distinct from "only". While in legal usage the word
"only" in this context denotes "solely" (Gamer 1987: 390) and this is the way it has been
interpreted by courts in India, there has been no discussion either in the Constituent Assembly
or in case law on the concluding phrase of this clause, "or any of them" (Rao 1968: 182-192).
The word "or" in legal usage means both "and" and "or" (Gamer 1987: 394). Opening this
clause out and re-examining its import points us in a different direction. Namely, the state shall
not discriminate solely on the listed grounds and on any of the listed grounds, in the singular or
the plural and on grounds of any of the listed indices with factors that do not figure in this list—
factors that allude to the larger context. The specific conjunction of sex with any other factors or
listed grounds that are alleged to result in discrimination based on sex must then be examined
by the court. The emphasis will then from a mechanical reading to a substantive reading of the
constitu guarantee of non-discrimination. In other words, the word "only" need not drive a
wedge between and gender if it is read harmoniously with "or any of them", because would
open the possibility for reading sex either alone or in conjun with other factors drawn from the
social context in which sex operat whether these be religion, race, caste, language and place of
birth ( of which combines with sex to produce specific forms of discrim or they be the medium
through which discrimination is tra (property, "conditions of service", decorum and modesty).
On another track, in the matter of relationship, it is useful to Draft Article 42, which says,
The State shall endeavour to secure that marriage shall be based only on the mutual consent of
both sexes and shall be maintained through mutual cooperation, with the equal rights of
husband and wife as a basis. The State shall also recognise that motherhood has a special claim
on its care and protection. (Rao 1968: 325)
This article, dropped from the final draft of the Constitution with a debate, nevertheless
encapsulates an important aspect of constitution morality with regard to marriage and

248
conjugality—a notional change that needs to be resurrected in ways that inform judicial and
popu discourse on these questions. Its significance lies in that it has the potential to lift thinking
out of the cycle of reification and subjugation of women that the discourse on heterosexual
conjugality is trapped in even today.
In the final analysis, it is only radical constitutional interpretation rooted in
constitutional morality, which is strengthened by equal representation within the judiciary at all
levels along all axes, that will open up rich possibilities for an intersectional jurisprudence on
non-discrimination in India as the norm.

249