1.

) THE TEACHER AND TEACHING PROFESSION

The teaching profession requires commitment. An effective educator needs to be committed not only to
their students, but to the teaching profession as a whole. This means abiding by the rules and
regulations, embracing the principles of the teaching profession, as well as the requirements.

According to research, professional commitment is an attitude that someone has toward her job. It’s her
point of view and her active participation for the profession. Teacher commitment helps to differentiate
those who are devoted to their profession and those who are not. The individuals who are committed
are not only committed to their students and their school, but are also lifelong learners who are
committed to the teaching profession. Here we will take a closer look at a few of the essential
components of being a professional who is dedicated to the teaching career.

Committed Teachers Put their Students First in the Teaching Profession

Oftentimes, teachers come to be in the profession because of the pull that they feel toward the
students. They feel a devotion to educate, and therefore their first priority as a teacher is to their
students and their learning. Committed teachers always put their students’ wants, needs, and interests
first. They meet the needs of each individual learner by providing a variety of unique teaching methods
and techniques. They strive to motivate and engage students, and they understand that not every child
will learn in the same way. Above all, they advocate for their students to ensure they are getting
everything that they need in order to be a successful, educated student.

Committed Teachers are Devoted to their School

You know a teacher is committed to her school when you see her devote personal time to be an active
member of their community and schools’ organization. These committed individuals volunteer their free
time to be on committees and teach after-school programs. They are the coaches you see on the school
grounds, and the chaperones at the school dances and events. They use their free time to help their
school out in anyway possible. They are dedicated and devoted to their school’s success.

Committed Teachers are Lifelong Learners

Committed teachers devote their time to continuing education. Just as a doctor never stops learning new
techniques to help save lives, teachers who are dedicated to their profession never stop learning new
strategies to engage and teach their students. They understand that teaching is a career that changes
standards and regulations quite regularly, and are committed to keeping up with these ever-changing
methods. They attend workshops and conferences, create online professional learning networks, and
read educational blogs, all to ensure they are up to date with the latest educational innovations and
teaching strategies. They are committed to challenging themselves and take every opportunity to
continue learning, all for the success of their students.

Committed Teachers are Contributors to Their Profession

Teaching is not a 9-5 type of job where you can just leave your work behind and pick it back up in the
morning. It’s a job that requires time and commitment. Dedicated teachers take their work home with
them, not just physically, but emotionally as well. They contribute not only themselves to their students
and their job, but their emotional selves as well. When their students are hurting, they are hurting.
When something isn’t going right at school, then they are the ones who advocate for change. For a
devoted teacher, nothing is ever left undone. Teaching is a process and they will always be an active
contributor to that process.
Committed Teachers are 21st-Century Learners

We live in a digital era where everything that surrounds is technological. In order to best prepare our
students to continue to live in this technological world, committed teachers are devoted to keeping up
with the ever-changing educational innovations. They strive to learn the new technologies and 21 st-
century tools that can help students be able to live and succeed in the world. They create experiences
that connect students beyond the classroom and teach them the skills that are necessary to live in this
day and age. These skills include how to apply their knowledge, analyze information, use their higher-
order skills to think critically, collaborate and communicate, as well as solve complex problems and make
their own decisions. These teachers are committed to making sure their students are 21 st-century
learners.
As important as all of the suggestions listed above are, the greatest professional commitment to
teachers is of course to their students and to their learning. A teacher who is truly committed to her job
will always put her students’ interests first, and go above and beyond to make sure that each and every
one of their students is properly and effectively educated.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.) TEACHING AND LEARNING

Teaching and learning is a process that includes many variables. These variables interact as learners work
toward their goals and incorporate new knowledge, behaviours, and skills that add to their range of
learning experiences. Over the past century, various perspectives on learning have emerged, among
them —cognitive (learning as a mental operation); and constructivist (knowledge as a constructed
element resulting from the learning process). Rather than considering these theories separately, it is best
to think of them together as a range of possibilities that can be integrated into the learning experience.
During the integration process, it is also important to consider a number of other factors — cognitive
style, learning style, the multiple natures of our intelligences, and learning as it relates to those who
have special needs and are from diverse cultural backgrounds.

Constructivist Theory (J. Bruner)

Constructivism is a learning strategy that draws on students' existing knowledge, beliefs, and skills. With
a constructivist approach, students synthesise new understanding from prior learning and new
information. The constructivist teacher sets up problems and monitors student exploration, guides
student inquiry, and promotes new patterns of thinking. Working mostly with raw data, primary sources,
and interactive material, constructivist teaching asks students to work with their own data and learn to
direct their own explorations. Ultimately, students begin to think of learning as accumulated, evolving
knowledge. Constructivist approaches work well with learners of all ages, including adults.

Overview:
A major theme in the theoretical framework of Bruner is that learning is an active process in which
learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. The learner selects
and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure
to do so. Cognitive structure (i.e., schema, mental models, etc.) provides meaning and organisation to
experiences and allows the individual to "go beyond the information given".
As far as instruction is concerned, the instructor should try and encourage students to discover principles
by themselves. The instructor and student should engage in an active dialogue (i.e., Socratic learning).
The task of the instructor is to translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the
learner's current state of understanding. Curriculum should be organised in a spiral manner so that the
student continually builds upon what they have already learned.
Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects:
1. Predisposition towards learning;
2. The ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily
3. grasped by the learner;
4. The most effective sequences in which to present material; and
5. The nature and pacing of rewards and punishments.
Good methods for structuring knowledge should result in simplifying, generating new propositions, and
increasing the manipulation of information. In his more recent work, Bruner (1986, 1990 and 1996) has
expanded his theoretical framework to encompass the social and cultural aspects of learning as well as
the practice of law.

Scope / Application
Bruner's constructivist theory is a general framework for instruction based upon the study of cognition.
Much of the theory is linked to child development research (especially Piaget). The ideas outlined in
Bruner (1960) originated from a conference focused on science and math learning. Bruner illustrated his
theory in the context of mathematics and social science programmes for young children. The original
development of the framework for reasoning processes is described in Bruner, Goodnow & Austin
(1951). Bruner (1983) focuses on language learning in young children.
Note that constructivism is a very broad conceptual framework in philosophy and science and Bruner's
theory represents one particular perspective.

Example: This example is taken from Bruner (1973):

‘The concept of prime numbers appears to be more readily grasped when the child, through
construction, discovers that certain handfuls of beans cannot be laid out in completed rows and
columns. Such quantities have either to be laid out in a single file or in an incomplete row-column design
in which there is always one extra or one too few to fill the pattern. These patterns, the child learns,
happen to be called prime. It is easy for the child to go from this step to the recognition that a multiple
table, so called, is a record sheet of quantities in completed multiple rows and columns. Here is
factoring, multiplication and primes in a construction that can be visualised.’

Principles:
1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing
and able to learn (readiness).
2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral
organisation).
3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the
information given).
Experiential Learning (C Rogers)
Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) provides a holistic model of the learning process and a multilinear
model of development, both of which are consistent with what we know about how people learn, grow,
and develop. The theory is called ‘Experiential Learning’ to emphasise the central role that experience
plays in the learning process, an emphasis that distinguishes ELT from other learning theories. The term
‘experiential’ is used, therefore, to differentiate ELT both from cognitive learning theories, which tend to
emphasise cognition over affect, and behavioural learning theories that deny any role for subjective
experience in the learning process. Experiential learning theory defines learning as ‘the process whereby
knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge results from the
combination of grasping and transforming experience’.

Overview:
Rogers distinguished two types of learning—cognitive and experiential (significant). The former
corresponds to academic knowledge such as learning vocabulary or multiplication tables and the latter
refers to applied knowledge such as learning about engines in order to repair a car. The key to the
distinction is that experiential learning addresses the needs and wants of the learner. Rogers lists these
qualities of experiential learning: personal involvement, self-initiated, evaluated by learner, and
pervasive effects on learner.

To Rogers, experiential learning is equivalent to personal change and growth. Rogers feels that all human
beings have a natural propensity to learn; the role of the teacher is to facilitate such learning. This
includes:
1. Setting a positive climate for learning,
2. Clarifying the purposes of the learner(s),
3. Organising and making available learning resources,
4. Balancing intellectual and emotional components of learning, and
 5. Sharing feelings and thoughts with learners but not dominating.
6.
According to Rogers, learning is facilitated when—
1. The student participates completely in the learning process and has control over its nature and
direction,
2. It is primarily based upon direct confrontation with practical, social, personal or research
problems, and
3. Self-evaluation is the principal method of assessing progress or success. Rogers also emphasises
the importance of learning to learn and an openness to change.

Implementation
Experiential learning can be a highly effective educational method. It engages the learner at a more
personal level by addressing the needs and wants of the individual. It requires qualities such as self-
initiative and self-evaluation. For experiential learning to be truly effective, it should employ the whole
learning wheel, from goal setting, to experimenting and observing, to reviewing, and finally action
planning. This complete process allows one to learn new skills, new attitudes or even entirely new ways
of thinking. Remember the games we use to play when we were kids? Simple games, such as hopscotch,
can teach many valuable academic and social skills, like team management, communication, and
leadership. The reason why games are popular as experiential learning techniques is because of the ‘fun
factor’ - learning through fun helps the learner to retain the lessons for a longer period.
Most educators understand the important role experience plays in the learning process. A fun-learning
environment, with plenty of laughter and respect for the learner's abilities, also fosters an effective
experiential learning environment. It is vital that the individual is encouraged to directly involve
themselves in the experience, in order that they gain a better understanding of the new knowledge and
retain the information for a longer time.

Principles:
1. Significant learning takes place when the subject matter is relevant to the personal interests of
the student.
2. Learning which is threatening to the self (e.g., new attitudes or perspectives) are more easily
assimilated when external threats are at a minimum.
3. Learning proceeds faster when the threat to the self is low.
4. Self-initiated learning is the most lasting and pervasive.

Cognitive learning
Human beings can learn efficiently by observation, taking instruction, and imitating the behaviour of
others. ‘Cognitive learning is the result of listening, watching, touching or experiencing.’ Cognitive
learning is a powerful mechanism that provides the means of knowledge, and goes well beyond simple
imitation of others. Conditioning can never explain what you are learning from reading our website. This
learning illustrates the importance of cognitive learning. Cognitive learning is defined as the acquisition
of knowledge and skill by mental or cognitive processes, the procedures we have for manipulating
information 'in our heads'. Cognitive processes include creating mental representations of physical
objects and events, and other forms of information processing.

How do we learn cognitive?

In cognitive learning, the individual learns by listening, watching, touching, reading, or experiencing and
then processing and remembering the information. Cognitive learning might seem to be passive
learning, because there is no motor movement. However, the learner is quite active, in a cognitive way,
in processing and remembering newly incoming information. Cognitive learning enables us to create and
transmit a complex culture that includes symbols, values, beliefs and norms. Because cognitive activity is
involved in many aspects of human behaviour, it might seem that cognitive learning only takes place in
human beings. However, many different species of animals are capable of observational learning. For
example, a monkey in the zoo, sometimes imitates human visitors or other monkeys.
Learning Styles
Learning styles are simply different approaches or ways of learning. The types of learning styles are as
follows:
 Visual Learners: learn through seeing... .
These learners need to see the teacher's body language and facial expression to fully understand the
content of a lesson. They tend to prefer sitting at the front of the classroom to avoid visual obstructions
(e.g., other learners’ heads). They may think in pictures and learn best from visual displays including:
diagrams, illustrated textbooks, overhead transparencies, videos, flipcharts and hand-outs. During a
lecture or classroom discussion, visual learners often prefer to take detailed notes to absorb the
information.

 Auditory Learners:learn through listening...

They learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through and listening to what others
have to say. Auditory learners interpret the underlying meanings of speech through listening to tone of
voice, pitch, speed and other nuances. Written information may have little meaning until it is heard.
These learners often benefit from reading text aloud and using a tape recorder.

 Kinesthetic Learners / Tactile: learn through, moving, doing and touching...

Kinesthetic / tactile persons learn best through a hands-on approach, actively exploring the physical
world around them. They may find it hard to sit still for long periods and may become distracted by their
need for activity and exploration.

Teaching and Learning

‘Learning’

All of us understand things in the light of our past experience. This is also true of ‘learning’ – we get our
ideas of what ‘learning’ means from what happened to us in the past. So, for example, we may think of
‘learning’ as something which takes place in a school or college, in a classroom. We may think of it as a
person sitting alone at night, trying to memorise a lot of facts so that s/he can pass an examination.
However, a bit of reflection will show us that ‘learning’ is much wider than that. After all, children learn a
great deal before they even get to school - they learn to speak, to walk. Educational psychologists tell us
that any activity which leads to a change in our behaviour is ‘learning’. 1
Here are some more ideas about ‘learning’:
 Learning can be formal or informal. We learn informally from what we experience day by day:
things which happen to us make us change the way we think and act. We may not even be aware
that we are learning, which may cause problems - for example, health workers may learn bad
attitudes from the example of others. Of course, learning may also be formal: we attend a course
which is planned in a structured way, in a school or college.
 We don'tjust learn knowledge and facts - we also learn skills and attitudes. This is especially
important for health workers, since it is in our practical work that we have an effect on the
health of the people we serve. Interestingly, we learn knowledge, skills and attitudes in different
ways - for example, we may learn a new idea from a discussion, but we learn skills by practising
them and getting feedback.
 People learn in different ways. Researchers have identified different ‘learning styles’. 2 Some
people are ‘receivers’: they like to memorise what is given to them. This is a very common style,
and it is reinforced by teachers who expect students to memorise, and reward them for it. Other
people are ‘detectives’: they like to investigate what they are learning themselves, to get to
understand it. Yet others are ‘generators’: they like to decide themselves what they want to
learn, and then look for opportunities to learn those things.
  Learning can be superficial or deep.3 If knowledge is only memorised (superficial learning) it is
soon forgotten, and may never affect the way that person does her/his work. If the learner is
made to use the new knowledge actively, the learning becomes deep. The learner connects the
new knowledge to the concepts that s/he already has, and understands how it can be used
practically. It is, therefore, much more likely to be remembered and used.
 Motivation is important for learning.4 What is it that makes people want to learn? Some learn
because they want to do a better job - they get satisfaction from the feeling that they are
competent. People are also very strongly motivated by the hope that they will be rewarded - for
instance, by gaining a qualification, leading to a promotion and better pay. The need to pass
exams is therefore a very strong motivator.
 Learning continues throughout a person'slifetime - at least informally. We all know that health
workers should continue to learn throughout their careers, because new information about
health is constantly becoming available. However, many workers do not have access to formal in-
service training. This means they themselves have to take the responsibility for staying up-to-
date - they have to become ‘life-long learners’.

‘Teaching’

Once again, our understanding of what ‘teaching’ is, is based on our past experience. Our earliest
experience was in school, where the teacher was also a ‘master’ or ‘mistress’, standing in front of the
class, telling us what to do and what to learn. Some of us experienced the same kind of ‘teaching’ at
college. Others may have experienced teaching where the ‘teacher’ is more of an equal, who takes
account of the learner'sexperience and even learns from the learner. That is why Abbatt and McMahon
say: ‘Teaching is helping other people to learn’. 5 They go on to say that the job of ‘teaching’ health care
workers has four elements:
1. The teacher has to decide what students should learn. The students may take part in this
decision, but all are guided by the same principle: it is the job that people have to do, that
determines what they should learn. They have to learn all the knowledge, skills and attitudes
that they need to perform a specific job. They learn what they ‘must know’ and ‘should know’,
not what is ‘nice to know’.
2. The teacher has to help the learners to learn. This does not mean that the teacher ‘spoonfeeds’
the students, as if they were babies. It does mean that the teacher'sfirst concern should be that
the students should learn as well as possible. Teaching sessions or classes have to be planned
carefully, taking into account the learning styles, the language, the background of the students.
In short, the teachers must be student centred, not teacher centred.
3. The teacher has to make sure that the students have learnt - s/he has to assess them.
Assessment helps teachers and students to see how well the students are progressing, so that
they can attend to any weaknesses. It sets a standard, so that society is given people who are
competent to practice. Assessment must be carefully planned so that it supports the learning
we want to see- we know that students learn what they believe they need to pass the exams,
and leave out the rest …
4. The teacher has to look after the welfare of her/ his students. Students who are stressed and
unhappy do not learn well. Good teachers try to ensure that the general living conditions and
environment of their students are adequate. They also provide opportunities for personal
counselling for them. Teachers need to cultivate an open and trusting relationship with their
students.

3.) PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING

Teaching Principles
Teaching is a complex, multifaceted activity, often requiring us as instructors to juggle multiple tasks and
goals simultaneously and flexibly. The following small but powerful set of principles can make teaching
both more effective and more efficient, by helping us create the conditions that support student learning
and minimize the need for revising materials, content, and policies. While implementing these principles
requires a commitment in time and effort, it often saves time and energy later on.

1. Effective teaching involves acquiring relevant knowledge about students and using
that knowledge to inform our course design and classroom teaching.
When we teach, we do not just teach the content, we teach students the content. A variety of
student characteristics can affect learning. For example, students’ cultural and generational
backgrounds influence how they see the world; disciplinary backgrounds lead students to
approach problems in different ways; and students’ prior knowledge (both accurate and
inaccurate aspects) shapes new learning. Although we cannot adequately measure all of these
characteristics, gathering the most relevant information as early as possible in course planning
and continuing to do so during the semester can (a) inform course design (e.g., decisions about
objectives, pacing, examples, format), (b) help explain student difficulties (e.g., identification of
common misconceptions), and (c) guide instructional adaptations (e.g., recognition of the need
for additional practice).

2. Effective teaching involves aligning the three major components of instruction: learning
objectives, assessments, and instructional activities.

Taking the time to do this upfront saves time in the end and leads to a better course. Teaching is
more effective and student learning is enhanced when (a) we, as instructors, articulate a clear set of
learning objectives (i.e., the knowledge and skills that we expect students to demonstrate by the end
of a course); (b) the instructional activities (e.g., case studies, labs, discussions, readings) support
these learning objectives by providing goal-oriented practice; and (c) the assessments (e.g., tests,
papers, problem sets, performances) provide opportunities for students to demonstrate and practice
the knowledge and skills articulated in the objectives, and for instructors to offer targeted feedback
that can guide further learning.

3. Effective teaching involves articulating explicit expectations regarding learning

objectives and policies.
There is amazing variation in what is expected of students across American classrooms and even
within a given discipline. For example, what constitutes evidence may differ greatly across courses;
what is permissible collaboration in one course could be considered cheating in another. As a result,
students’ expectations may not match ours. Thus, being clear about our expectations and
communicating them explicitly helps students learn more and perform better. Articulating our
learning objectives (i.e., the knowledge and skills that we expect students to demonstrate by the end
of a course) gives students a clear target to aim for and enables them to monitor their progress along
the way. Similarly, being explicit about course policies (e.g., on class participation, laptop use, and
late assignment) in the syllabus and in class allows us to resolve differences early and tends to reduce
conflicts and tensions that may arise. Altogether, being explicit leads to a more productive learning
environment for all students.

4. Effective teaching involves prioritizing the knowledge and skills we choose to focus on.
Coverage is the enemy: Don’t try to do too much in a single course. Too many topics work against
student learning, so it is necessary for us to make decisions – sometimes difficult ones – about what
we will and will not include in a course. This involves (a) recognizing the parameters of the course
(e.g., class size, students’ backgrounds and experiences, course position in the curriculum sequence,
number of course units), (b) setting our priorities for student learning, and (c) determining a set of
objectives that can be reasonably accomplished.
5. Effective teaching involves recognizing and overcoming our expert blind spots.
We are not our students! As experts, we tend to access and apply knowledge automatically and
unconsciously (e.g., make connections, draw on relevant bodies of knowledge, and choose
appropriate strategies) and so we often skip or combine critical steps when we teach. Students, on
the other hand, don’t yet have sufficient background and experience to make these leaps and can
become confused, draw incorrect conclusions, or fail to develop important skills. They need
instructors to break tasks into component steps, explain connections explicitly, and model processes
in detail. Though it is difficult for experts to do this, we need to identify and explicitly communicate
to students the knowledge and skills we take for granted, so that students can see expert thinking in
action and practice applying it themselves.

6. Effective teaching involves adopting appropriate teaching roles to support our learning
goals.
Even though students are ultimately responsible for their own learning, the roles we assume as
instructors are critical in guiding students’ thinking and behavior. We can take on a variety of roles in
our teaching (e.g., synthesizer, moderator, challenger, commentator). These roles should be chosen
in service of the learning objectives and in support of the instructional activities. For example, if the
objective is for students to be able to analyze arguments from a case or written text, the most
productive instructor role might be to frame, guide and moderate a discussion. If the objective is to
help students learn to defend their positions or creative choices as they present their work, our role
might be to challenge them to explain their decisions and consider alternative perspectives. Such
roles may be constant or variable across the semester depending on the learning objectives.

7. Effective teaching involves progressively refining our courses based on reflection and
feedback.
Teaching requires adapting. We need to continually reflect on our teaching and be ready to make
changes when appropriate (e.g., something is not working, we want to try something new, the
student population has changed, or there are emerging issues in our fields). Knowing what and how
to change requires us to examine relevant information on our own teaching effectiveness. Much of
this information already exists (e.g., student work, previous semesters’ course evaluations, dynamics
of class participation), or we may need to seek additional feedback with help from the university
teaching center (e.g., interpreting early course evaluations, conducting focus groups, designing pre-
and posttests). Based on such data, we might modify the learning objectives, content, structure, or
format of a course, or otherwise adjust our teaching. Small, purposeful changes driven by feedback
and our priorities are most likely to be manageable and effective.
Learning Principles
Theory and Research-based Principles of Learning
The following list presents the basic principles that underlie effective learning. These principles
are distilled from research from a variety of disciplines.

1. Students’ prior knowledge can help or hinder learning.

Students come into our courses with knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes gained in other courses and
through daily life. As students bring this knowledge to bear in our classrooms, it influences how they
filter and interpret what they are learning. If students’ prior knowledge is robust and accurate and
activated at the appropriate time, it provides a strong foundation for building new knowledge.
However, when knowledge is inert, insufficient for the task, activated inappropriately, or inaccurate,
it can interfere with or impede new learning.

2. How students organize knowledge influences how they learn and apply what they
know.
 Students naturally make connections between pieces of knowledge. When those connections form
knowledge structures that are accurately and meaningfully organized, students are better able to
retrieve and apply their knowledge effectively and efficiently. In contrast, when knowledge is
connected in inaccurate or random ways, students can fail to retrieve or apply it appropriately.

3. Students’ motivation determines, directs, and sustains what they do to learn.

As students enter college and gain greater autonomy over what, when, and how they study and
learn, motivation plays a critical role in guiding the direction, intensity, persistence, and quality of the
learning behaviors in which they engage. When students find positive value in a learning goal or
activity, expect to successfully achieve a desired learning outcome, and perceive support from their
environment, they are likely to be strongly motivated to learn.

4. To develop mastery, students must acquire component skills, practice integrating

them, and know when to apply what they have learned.
Students must develop not only the component skills and knowledge necessary to perform complex
tasks, they must also practice combining and integrating them to develop greater fluency and
automaticity. Finally, students must learn when and how to apply the skills and knowledge they
learn. As instructors, it is important that we develop conscious awareness of these elements of
mastery so as to help our students learn more effectively.

5. Goal-directed practice coupled with targeted feedback enhances the quality of

students’ learning.
Learning and performance are best fostered when students engage in practice that focuses on a
specific goal or criterion, targets an appropriate level of challenge, and is of sufficient quantity and
frequency to meet the performance criteria. Practice must be coupled with feedback that explicitly
communicates about some aspect(s) of students’ performance relative to specific target criteria,
provides information to help students progress in meeting those criteria, and is given at a time and
frequency that allows it to be useful.

6. Students’ current level of development interacts with the social, emotional, and
intellectual climate of the course to impact learning.
Students are not only intellectual but also social and emotional beings, and they are still developing
the full range of intellectual, social, and emotional skills. While we cannot control the developmental
process, we can shape the intellectual, social, emotional, and physical aspects of classroom climate
in developmentally appropriate ways. In fact, many studies have shown that the climate we create
has implications for our students. A negative climate may impede learning and performance, but a
positive climate can energize students’ learning.

7. To become self-directed learners, students must learn to monitor and adjust their
approaches to learning.
Learners may engage in a variety of metacognitive processes to monitor and control their learning—
assessing the task at hand, evaluating their own strengths and weaknesses, planning their approach,
applying and monitoring various strategies, and reflecting on the degree to which their current
approach is working. Unfortunately, students tend not to engage in these processes naturally. When
students develop the skills to engage these processes, they gain intellectual habits that not only
improve their performance but also their effectiveness as learners.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.)
a. INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING
Instructional Planning is the ability of the teacher to visualize and forecast into the future of what, why
and how of the teaching-learning process.

Importance of Instructional Planning

 Logical sequencing and pacing Lessons

 Economizes cost - time and energy
 Provides for a variety of instructional objectives
 Creates the opportunity for higher level of questioning
 Guides teachers
 Provides direction for the teachers
 Correlates instructional events
 Develops a sequence of well-organized learning experiences
 Presents a comprehensive, integrated and meaningful content at an appropriate level
 Prepares pupils/students for the day’s activities

Components of Instructional Planning

 The teachers’ attitudes, beliefs, orientations and teachers’ social background
 The pupils’/students’ age, background, knowledge, motivational level of interest
 The type of content that influences the planning process, textbook and other instructional
materials.
 The learning content which is characterized by the subject matter guidelines
 Material resources which include equipment/tools for teaching
 Time frame which is considerable

Principles of Instructional Planning

 To understand the rationale of the course in the context of the goals of the educational
institution
 To determine what content to incorporate into the course in relation to the set objectives.
 To clarify thrusts of the course
 To decide on the reasonable time frame for the course
 To identify the important components of the lesson; see if they meet
 To determine the appropriate approach in view of the goals

Types of Instructional Planning

a. COURSE PLAN

A long-range teacher guide is usually called a map or course of study.

MAPPING – identifies and details the content, concepts, skills and sometimes, values to be taught for the
entire course.

GUIDELINES FOR MAPPING

1.Be sure you understand the rational of the course in the context of goals of the school.
2.Be sure you understand the objectives of the course, according to DepEd or district guidelines.
3.Clarify the focus of the course designed to stress subject matter, learner’s need, or social needs.
4.Determine if there is a special need (special audience, special instructional program) for the course
5.Identify the important components: content, concepts, skills and values
6.Examine the components
7.Decide on important components so that they can be used as framework for your unit planning
8.Show the map to an experienced colleague or supervisor. Revise it in light of the feedback received.
9.As you used the map, evaluate,modify and improve it. Note components that should be

b. UNIT PLAN

A unit plan reflects long-range goals and is means of organizing various aspects of the course of the
study and serves as a basis for developing a set of related daily teaching plans and educational activities.

1.Objectives
2.Content
3.Skills
4.Learning activities
5.Resources and Materials
6.Evaluation procedures

c. LESSON PLAN

A lesson plan is a very important tool of a teacher. It is a guide which includes the aims and objectives,
subject matter, materials and devices to be used, time frame, anticipated problems and procedures, e.g.,
motivation, teaching strategies and techniques and evaluation for achieving the desired results.

COMPONENTS OF THE LESSON PLAN

•objectives
•motivation
•outline
•methods
•materials and media
•assignment or homework

TYPES OF LESSON PLAN

1.Mastery Learning Lesson Plan
2.Thinking Skills Lesson Plan
3.Flexible Grouping Lesson Plan

b. DIFFERENT TYPES OF LESSONS

The Development Lesson

Nature
-Is one in which something new is presented or developed
-It may be a fact, a principle, a skill, a generalization, or some knowledge.
-It must not be something the class did not know before.
-It is applied to a direct learning procedure, under the directions of the teacher, in which students
participate step by step.

Steps
 Preparation- consists of the cognitive and motivational aspects.
 Presentation of Development- the teacher directs children’s learning by means of questions and
teaching aids, leading the class to examine, analyze, compare, contrast, generali ze, observe,
judge or discover something
 Application- the test where of whether the pupils have really learned or not.

Conditions Necessary to a good development lessons
 The teacher’s mastery of the subject matter
  Recall of past experiences or information that have a bearing on the new lesson
 The teacher’s clear awareness of what is to be perceived, presented, or developed.

Advantages
 The rule that what is taught is better understood and mastered because the meanings are
experienced;
 Learning is facilitated because it is done step by step;
 Satisfaction results because the children feels they are doing things independently; and
 Ability to think for oneself and skill in attacking and solving problems; self- confidence

Disadvantages
 When a rule may be easily understood by reading, the use of method would be a waste of time;
 It is not suitable for one subjects, activities, etc.
 The child may become more dependent on the teacher.

The Review Lesson

Nature
-aims to renew the study of the same subject matter or to recall what has been taken up in the past and
view this again from a different perspective or point of view.

Purposes of the Review

1.Retention of material learned
2.Organization of materials and experiences into large wholes
3.Development of ability to evaluate material
4.Supplementation of materials and experiences
5.Foundation for further learning
6.Diagnosis of pupil weakness
7.Diagnosis of teacher weakness
8.Development of interest in old material
9.Stimulation of original thinking and creativeness
10.Tracing the core or main thought throughout a unit.
11.Reorganization of previously organized information into a new pattern.

Types of Review
•The short prelesson daily review for 3-5 minutes – this can provide the perceptive basis for the new
lesson.
•The post lesson unit review- takes a whole period review.
•Extensive large unit review- take place into the end of the semester or school year.

Techniques of Review
•Time of review- no definite time of review; given when necessary; given before the test to prepare
the students.
•Length of the review- no limit time of the review;
•Preparation for review-it should be as prepared as any lesson; always have a necessary step; the
teacher should plan it well.

Principles of a Review Lesson

•The review must be of value to the learner- the children should know the purpose of the review.
•The review should be interesting- no repetitions
•The should follow the psychological principles of learning.- the learner should be aware of how he is
progressing.

The Drill Lesson

Nature and Purpose

-is for automatization of certain facts, habits or skills.
-Aim to fix associations for permanency or to perfect a skill.
-Needed for mastery; all subjects need a little amount of drill.

Drills are necessary:

1.Mastery of multiplication table
2.Correct spelling and grammar; remembering historical dates
3.Training in motor skills (handwriting, typewriting, shorthand,shopwork)

Material for Drill

-takes up the same material until it is mastered.
-The same activity is practiced until it is automatic.
-more often used in form subjects rather than in content subjects. (science and social studies)

Drill Procedure
1.Motivation – is necessary to arouse pupils to maximum and sustained effort.
2.Focalization- requires concentration and so children’s attention should be focused on the specific
facts etc.
3.Repetition with attention- “mere repetition will not result in learning unless accompanied by
attention.
4.Application- the pupil must be able to apply what he/she has learned.

Principle of Drill
1.Utilization of the principles of learning-pupils should be ready in the drill. (reward and praise may
be used to improve performance)
2.Way of conducting drill- it should be systematic way- fast, precise, uniterrupted by discussion,
dynamic, alert, enthusiastic (be hurry)
3.Standards- attainable standards should be set-up ( accuracy, speed, quality, and quantity)
4.Individualization- divide the class into the children’s weaknesses and together the teacher will teach
the same thing.

c. METHODS OF TEACHING

TYPES OF TEACHING METHODS

There are different types of teaching methods which can be categorised into three broad types. These
are teacher-centred methods, learner-centred methods, content-focused methods and
interactive/participative methods.

(a) INSTRUCTOR/TEACHER CENTRED METHODS

Here the teacher casts himself/herself in the role of being a master of the subject matter. The teacher is
looked upon by the learners as an expert or an authority. Learners on the other hand are presumed to
be passive and copious recipients of knowledge from the teacher. Examples of such methods are
expository or lecture methods - which require little or no involvement of learners in the teaching
process. It is also for this lack of involvement of the learners in what they are taught, that such methods
are called “closed-ended”.

(b) LEARNER-CENTRED METHODS

In learner-centred methods, the teacher/instructor is both a teacher and a learner at the same time. In
the words of Lawrence Stenhouse, the teacher plays a dual role as a learner as well “so that in his
classroom extends rather than constricts his intellectual horizons”. The teacher also learns new things
everyday which he/she didn’t know in the process of teaching. The teacher, “becomes a resource rather
than an authority”. Examples of learner-centred methods are discussion method, discovery or inquiry
based approach and the Hill’s model of learning through discussion (LTD).

(c) CONTENT-FOCUSED METHODS

In this category of methods, both the teacher and the learners have to fit into the content that is taught.
Generally, this means the information and skills to be taught are regarded as sacrosanct or very
important. A lot of emphasis is laid on the clarity and careful analyses of content. Both the teacher and
the learners cannot alter or become critical of anything to do with the content. An example of a method
which subordinates the interests of the teacher and learners to the content is the programmed learning
approach.

(d) INTERACTIVE/PARTICIPATIVE METHODS

This fourth category borrows a bit from the three other methods without necessarily laying emphasis
unduly on either the learner, content or teacher. These methods are driven by the situational analysis of
what is the most appropriate thing for us to learn/do now given the situation of learners and the
teacher. They require a participatory understanding of varied domains and factors.
SPECIFIC TEACHING METHODS
We can now consider a number of specific methods which can be drawn from in the course of classroom
instruction. It is however, important to note that the choice of any form of methods should not be
arbitrary, but needs to be governed by the criteria we have already examined. At the same time each
method is not fool-proof, but has its own advantages and disadvantages. That is why I would recommend
the use of complementary methods rather than one method.

1. LECTURE METHOD
A lecture is an oral presentation of information by the instructor. It is the method of relaying factual
information which includes principles, concepts, ideas and all THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE about a given
topic. In a lecture the instructor tells, explains, describes or relates whatever information the trainees
are required to learn through listening and understanding. It is therefore teacher-centred. The instructor
is very active, doing all the talking. Trainees on the other hand are very inactive, doing all the listening.
Despite the popularity of lectures, the lack of active involvement of trainees limits its usefulness as a
method of instruction. The lecture method of instruction is recommended for trainees with very little
knowledge or limited background knowledge on the topic. It is also useful for presenting an organised
body of new information to the learner. To be effective in promoting learning, the lecture must involve
some discussions and, question and answer period to allow trainees to be involved actively.

PREPARATION AND DELIVERY OF A LECTURE

As stated earlier, during the lecture, the trainees merely listen to the instructor. It is therefore very
important to consider the attention span of trainees when preparing a lecture. The attention span is the
period of time during which the trainees are able to pay full attention to what the instructor is talking
about. It is estimated to be 15-25 minutes only. It is difficult to hold the trainees attention for a long
period of time and careful preparation of lectures is very necessary.
The instructor should have a clear, logical plan of presentation. He/she should work out the essentials of
the topic, organise them according to priorities and logical connections, and establish relationships
between the various items. Careful organisation of content helps the trainees to structure and hence, to
store or remember it. When developing a theme in a lecture, the instructor should use a variety of
approaches. A useful principle in any instruction is to go from the KNOWN to UNKNOWN;
from SIMPLE to COMPLEX, or from PARTS to a WHOLE.
Knowing the trainees and addressing their needs and interests is very important. For example, in
explaining technical processes the instructor should search for illustrations that will be familiar to the
trainees. Unfamiliar technical words should be introduced cautiously. New terminologies should be
defined and explained and examples given.
In order to gain and focus the attention of trainees, the instructor should be adequately prepared, fluent
in his/her presentation and should use various teaching aids and illustrations such as charts,
transparencies, codes and even the real objects during presentation. Question and Answer periods
should be included in the lecture.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD LECTURE

1. A good lecture should not be too long as to exceed the trainees attention span (up to 25 minutes).
2. A good lecture should address a single theme.
3. In a good lecture technical terms are carefully explained.
4. Familiar examples and analogies are given.
5. A good lecture establishes fluency in technical content.
6. A good lecture uses illustrations and examples.
7. A good lecture builds on existing knowledge.
8. A good lecture employs a variety of approaches.

2. THE DISCUSSION METHOD

Discussion involves two-way communication between participants. In the classroom situation an
instructor and trainees all participate in discussion. During discussion, the instructor spends some time
listening while the trainees spend sometimes talking. The discussion is, therefore, a more active learning
experience for the trainees than the lecture. A discussion is the means by which people share
experiences, ideas and attitudes. As it helps to foster trainees involvement in what they are learning, it
may contribute to desired attitudinal changes. Discussion may be used in the classroom for the purpose
of lesson development, making trainees apply what they have learnt or to monitor trainees learning by
way of feedback.

LESSON DEVELOPMENT
In areas in which trainees already have some knowledge or experience, discussion may be used to
develop the main points to be covered in a lesson. For example, in safety training many of the
procedures and behaviour that should be observed can be established through discussion with trainees.
Trainees can draw on their experience of working in workshops contract sites to contribute to the
discussion. In discussing some issues, differences of opinion arise. The discussion can help to clarify the
different points of view and may assist each trainee to define his or her own opinion. Used in this way,
discussion may be more effective in motivating trainees than lectures. Trainees can see that some
importance is attached to their contributions.

APPLICATION
Discussion may also be used, following a lecture or demonstration, to help trainees apply what they have
learned. The instructor can ask questions, that help trainees to relate concepts and principles to contexts
that are familiar to the trainees or in which they will ultimately be needed. For example following a
lecture on “types of wood joint”, the instructor may, lead a discussion directing trainees attention to the
places or pieces of furniture where each type is found, and the reasons for using one type than the
other. Used in this way discussion contributes to the transfer of learning.

FEEDBACK
The discussion method also provides an opportunity to monitor trainees learning. The answers provided
by trainees and the questions they ask, reveal the extent and quality of learning taking place. Instructors
can use this information to repeat or modify an explanation to improve learning. They can also provide
feedback to trainees, thereby helping to reinforce learning that has taken place. Discussion used in this
way should follow after other methods of classroom instruction such as lectures, demonstration or
practice sessions.

CONDUCTING A DISCUSSION
Discussion sessions can be led by the instructor, or can take place in groups. In either case, the goal is to
meet the lesson objectives by allowing the trainees to:-
a) Relate relevant personal experiences or events which have occurred in the work setting.
b) Contribute ideas or personal opinions.
c) Apply what has been learned to familiar situations or solving problems.
d) Express what had been learned.

Whether the discussion is instructor led or takes place in groups it must be guided by the instructor. It
must be focused on the objectives of the lesson: it is the instructors responsibility to see that the
objectives are met. If it is not properly guided, a discussion can degenerate into a consideration of
inappropriate or unimportant topics adding confusion rather than clarification to the lesson.

3. THE DEMONSTRATION LESSON

“The most effective way to teach an occupational skill is to demonstrate it... one of the two most
essential teaching skills is the ability to demonstrate; the other is the ability to explain. Both are vital to
the success of either an operation lesson or an information lesson”. Weaver and Cencil in APPLIED
TEACHING TECHNIQUES.

DEFINITION
Demonstration means any planned performance of an occupation skill, scientific principle or experiment.

TEACHER PREPARATION
1. Rehearse your presentation in advance of the lesson.
2. Anticipate any difficult steps, possible interruptions e.t.c.
3. Obtain all materials, tools, equipment, visual and teaching aids in advance and check their useful
condition.
4. Have all materials within reach and conveniently arranged.
5. Time the demonstration NOT to exceed 15 minutes.
6. Remove all extraneous materials; check lighting, visibility, student grouping, and proximity to electric,
gas and water outlets.
7. Plan to use a skill or method to advantage; work from simple to complex, one step at a time.
PRESENTATION
1. Make sure all students can see and hear the lesson.
2. Be enthusiastic, professional, effective but not dramatic.
3. Relax; use any mishaps or humour to YOUR advantage.
4. Observe all safety rules and procedures.
5. Keep eye-contact with the class; ask and encourage class questions.
6. Explain WHY and HOW: use the techniques of SHOW and TELL.
7. Use a medial summary to strengthen your explanation.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Avoid interruptions; keep demonstration smooth and continuous.
2. Never demonstrate on a student’s material.
3. Work towards one aim.
4. Allow time for possible student participation.

CARRYING OUT A DEMONSTRATION

1. Give a good performance. Remember that the trainees learn by your good example.
2. Explain each step or process as you proceed. Follow your lesson plan.
3. Make sure the trainees see the demonstration from the angle they will perform it themselves.
4. Be sure everyone can see and hear. Maintain eye contact.
5. Emphasise key points, and if possible prepare before hand ask key questions as you go along and allow
trainees to ask questions.
6. Observe all safety rules, precautions and procedures; and emphasise them.
7. Use proper instructions, aids such as chalkboard, charts, handouts e.t.c. to support your
demonstration.
8. Provide for trainees participation where possible, during and after demonstration.
9. Demonstrate the correct way only. First impressions are important, therefore, make them correct
ones.
10. Always summarise the steps and emphasise key points again.

AFTER DEMONSTRATION
1. Return all items used during demonstration to their storage places.
2. Make arrangements to have the trainees practice the skill as soon as possible in a practical class
session.
3. Observe and analyse trainee(s) performance and correct mistakes.
4. Offer reinforcement where necessary.
5. Coach weak or slow trainees.
6. Check trainee’s completed work for accurate performance and record.
7. Allow sufficient time interval before demonstrating another operation.

4. BUZZ GROUPS
Another method of instruction is the buzz group. During a longer session, the plenary group can break
into sub-groups to discuss one or two specific questions or issues. The room soon fills with noise as each
sub-group ‘buzzes’ in discussion. If appropriate, after the discussion one member of each group can
report its findings back to the plenary. Buzz groups can be in pairs, trios, or more depending on the
activity. People turn to their neighbours for a quick buzz, or form larger groups of three or more. This
allows almost every one to express an opinion. While they are buzzing, participants are able to exchange
ideas and draw on their wide collective experience. It may provide a good opportunity for trainees to
reflect on the content of a lecture. A good buzz session will generate many ideas, comments and
opinion, the most important of which will be reported back.
Buzzgroups help trainers as they allow you to:
- Draw your breath
- Gauge the mood, by listening to some of the discussions
- Change pace of the session
- Encourage participants to reflect on what they have learnt and how they might apply it in their work.
DISADVANTAGES
The main obstacle using buzz sessions lie in unfamiliarity with their use, the time required, the need for
leaders or facilitators within each sub-group, and the need to have tables and chairs arranged for quick
and easy discussion.

5. BRAINSTORMING
The purpose of a brainstorming session is to discover new ideas and responses very quickly. It is
particularly a good way of getting bright ideas. It differs from the buzz groups discussion in that the focus
is on generating as many ideas as possible without judging them. In this technique, all ideas are given
equal credence. Participants are encouraged to let ideas flow freely, building on and improving from
previous ideas. No idea, however crazy, should be rejected. These ideas are listed exactly as they are
expressed on a board or flipchart, or written on bits of paper. The combination of swiftly generated ideas
usually leads to a very animated and energising session. Even the more reserved participants should feel
bold enough to contribute. The purpose of listing responses is to collect existing experiences and
thoughts. It is useful to collect answers to questions when you expect much repetition in the responses.
After a brainstorm session, the ideas can be discussed further and evaluated, for example listing the best
options in a systematic way. Ideas can be grouped and analysed so that they belong to the group rather
then individuals. Unlike a buzz session, a brainstorm session can work well with a large group and usually
takes less time. It is best to limit the time for plenary brainstorms, as you might lose the attention of
some participants.

6. ROLE PLAYS
In role plays, participants use their own experiences to play a real life situation. When done well, role
plays increase the participants self-confidence, give them the opportunity to understand or even feel
empathy for other people’s viewpoints or roles, and usually end with practical answers, solutions or
guidelines.
Role plays are useful for exploring and improving interviewing techniques and examining the
complexities and potential conflicts of group meetings. They help participants to consolidate different
lessons in one setting and are good energisers.
However, role plays can be time-consuming and their success depends on the willingness of participants
to take active part. Some trainees may feel a role play is too exposing, threatening or embarrassing. This
reluctance may be overcome at the outset by careful explanation of the objectives and the outcome.
Some role plays can generate strong emotions amongst the participants. It is therefore essential that a
role play is followed by a thorough debriefing. This provides the opportunity for the trainer and the
participants to raise and assess new issues.

INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

METHOD USES ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
THE LECTURE METHOD 1. To orient students. 1. Saves time. 1. Involves one way
A formal or semi-formal discourse 2. To introduce a subject. 2. Permits flexibility. communication.
is which the instructor presents a 3. To give directions on 3. Requires less rigid 2. Poses problems in
series of events, facts, or procedures. space requirement. skill teaching.
principles, explores a problem or 4. To present basic 4. Permits 3. Encourages student
explains relationships material. adaptability. passiveness.
5. To introduce a 5. Permits versatility. 4. Poses difficulty in
 demonstration, 6. Permits better gauging student
discussion, or centre over contact reaction.
performance. and sequence. 5. Require highly
6. To illustrate application skilled instructors.
of rules, principles, or
concepts.
7. To review, clarify,
emphasise or summarise.
THE DISCUSSION METHOD 1. To develop imaginative 1. Increase students 1. Require highly
A method in which group solutions to problems. interest skilled instructor.
discussion techniques are used to 2. To stimulate thinking 2. Increases 2. Requires
reach instructional objectives. and interest and to secure students acceptance preparation by
student participation. and commitments. student.
3. To emphasise main 3. Utilises student 3. Limits content.
teaching points. knowledge and 4. Consumes time.
4. To supplement experience. 5. Restricts size of
lectures, reading, or 4. Results in more groups.
laboratory exercises. permanent learning
5. To determine how well because of high
student understands degree of student
concepts and principles. participation.
6. To prepare students for
application of theory of
procedure.
7. To summarise, clarify
points or review.
THE PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION 1. To provide remedial 1. Reduce failure 1. Require local or
METHOD instruction. rate. commercial
A method of self-instruction 2. To provide make-up 2. Improves end-of- preparation.
instruction for late course proficiency. 2. Requires lengthy
arrivals, absentees, or 3. Saves time. programmer training.
translents. 4. Provides for self 3. Increases expenses.
3. To maintain previously instruction. 4. Requires
learned skills which are considerable lead
not performed frequently time.
enough.
4. To provide retraining
on equipment and
procedures which have
become obsolete.
5. To upgrade production.
6. To accelerate capable
students.
7. To provide enough
common background
among students.
8. To provide the review
and practice of
knowledge and skills.
THE STUDY ASSIGNMENT 1. To orient students to a 1. Increase coverage 1. Require careful
METHOD topic prior to classroom of material. planning and follow
A method in which the instructor or Laboratory work. 2. Reduce classroom up.
assigns reading to books, 2. To set the stage for a time. 2. Poses evaluation
periodicals, project or research lecture demonstration or 3. Permits individual problem.
papers or exercises for the discussion. attention. 3. Produce non-
practice. 3. To provide for or standard results.
capitalise on individual
differences in ability,
 background, or
experience through
differentiated
assignments.
4. To provide for the
review of material
covered in class or to give
practice.
5. To provide enrichment
material.
THE TUTORIAL METHOD 1. To reach highly 1. Permits adaptive 1. Requires highly
A method of instruction in which complicated skills instruction. competent instructor.
an instructor works directly with operations or operations 2. Stimulates active 2. Demands time and
an individual student. involving danger or participation. money.
expensive equipment. 3. Promotes safety.
2. To provide
individualised remedial
assistance.
THE SEMINAR METHOD 1. To provide general 1. Provides 1. Requires highly
A tutorial arrangement involving guidance for a group motivation and competent instructor.
the instructor and groups, rather working on an advanced report. 2. Poses evaluation
than instructor and individual. study or research project. 2. Stimulates active problems.
2. To exchange participation. 3. Is more costly than
information on 3. Permits adaptive most other methods.
techniques and instruction.
approaches being
explored by members of a
study or research group.
3. To develop new and
imaginative solutions to
problems under study by
the group.
THE DEMONSTRATION METHOD 1. To teach manipulative 1. Minimise damage 1. Require careful
A method of instruction where the operations or procedures. and waste preparation and
instructor by actually performing 2. To teach 2. Saves time rehearsal.
an operation or doing a job shows troubleshooting. 3. Can be presented 2. Requires special
the students what to do, how to 3. To illustrate principles. to large groups. classroom
do it, and through explanations 4. To teach operation or arrangements.
brings out why, where, and when functioning of equipment.
it is done. 5. To teach teamwork.
6. To set standards of
workmanship.
7. To teach safety
procedures.
THE DEMONSTRATION METHOD 1. To teach manipulative 1. Builds confidence. 1. Requires tools and
A method of instruction is required operations or procedures. 2. Enable learning equipment.
to perform under controlled 2. To teach operation or evaluation. 2. Requires large
conditions the operations, skills or functioning of equipment. 3. Reduces damages block.
movement being taught. 3. To teach team skills and waste. 3. Requires more
4. To teach safety 4. Promotes safety. instructors.
procedures.
THE BUZZ GROUP 1. To develop and express 1. Help trainers to 1. Unfamiliarity in
imaginative ideas, draw breath. use.
opinions. 2. Gauge the mood 2. Time required.
2. Stimulate thinking. by listening to some 3. Need for group
discussion. leaders.
3. Change pace of
discussion.
 4. Encourage
participants to
reflect what was
learnt.
BRAINSTORMING 1. Discover new ideas, 1. Leads to a very 1. It takes time
thoughts and responses animated and particularly if it is a
very quickly. energising session. large group.
2. More reserved 2. May consume a lot
participants feel free of material e.g.
to contribute. flipcharts or writing
materials.
3. Requires high level
facilitation skills.
ROLE PLAYS 1. Exploring and 1. Good energizers. 1. Participants might
improving interviewing 2. Promotes be reluctant.
techniques and examining empathy of trainees 2. May not work with
complexities and for other situation. trainees who do not
potential conflicts of 3. Encourrages know each other well.
groups. creativity in
2. To consolidate different learning.
lessons in one setting.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5.) TEACHING APPROACHES/STRATEGIES AND INSTRUCTIONAL
PRACTICES

Institutions of higher learning across the nation are responding to political, economic, social and
technological pressures to be more responsive to students' needs and more concerned about how well
students are prepared to assume future societal roles. Faculty are already feeling the pressure to lecture
less, to make learning environments more interactive, to integrate technology into the learning
experience, and to use collaborative learning strategies when appropriate. Some of the more prominent
strategies are outlined below.

 Lecture.
For many years, the lecture method was the most widely used instructional strategy in college
classrooms. Nearly 80% of all U.S. college classrooms in the late 1970s reported using some form of the
lecture method to teach students (Cashin, 1990). Although the usefulness of other teaching strategies is
being widely examined today, the lecture still remains an important way to communicate information.
Used in conjunction with active learning teaching strategies, the traditional lecture can be an effective
way to achieve instructional goals. The advantages of the lecture approach are that it provides a way to
communicate a large amount of information to many listeners, maximizes instructor control and is non-
threatening to students. The disadvantages are that lecturing minimizes feedback from students,
assumes an unrealistic level of student understanding and comprehension, and often disengages
students from the learning process causing information to be quickly forgotten.
The following recommendations can help make the lecture approach more effective (Cashin, 1990):
1. Fit the lecture to the audience
2. Focus your topic - remember you cannot cover everything in one lecture
3. Prepare an outline that includes 5-9 major points you want to cover in one lecture
4. Organize your points for clarity
5. Select appropriate examples or illustrations
6. Present more than one side of an issue and be sensitive to other perspectives
7. Repeat points when necessary
8. Be aware of your audience - notice their feedback
9. Be enthusiastic - you dont have to be an entertainer but you should be excited by your topic.
(from Cashin, 1990, pp. 60-61)

 Case Method.
Providing an opportunity for students to apply what they learn in the classroom to real-life experiences
has proven to be an effective way of both disseminating and integrating knowledge. The case method is
an instructional strategy that engages students in active discussion about issues and problems inherent
in practical application. It can highlight fundamental dilemmas or critical issues and provide a format for
role playing ambiguous or controversial scenarios. Course content cases can come from a variety of
sources. Many faculty have transformed current events or problems reported through print or broadcast
media into critical learning experiences that illuminate the complexity of finding solutions to critical
social problems. The case study approach works well in cooperative learning or role playing
environments to stimulate critical thinking and awareness of multiple perspectives.
 Discussion.
There are a variety of ways to stimulate discussion. For example, some faculty begin a lesson with a
whole group discussion to refresh students memories about the assigned reading(s). Other faculty find it
helpful to have students list critical points or emerging issues, or generate a set of questions stemming
from the assigned reading(s). These strategies can also be used to help focus large and small group
discussions. Obviously, a successful class discussion involves planning on the part of the instructor and
preparation on the part of the students. Instructors should communicate this commitment to the
students on the first day of class by clearly articulating course expectations. Just as the instructor
carefully plans the learning experience, the students must comprehend the assigned reading and show
up for class on time, ready to learn.
 Active Learning
Meyers and Jones (1993) define active learning as learning environments that allow students to talk and
listen, read, write, and reflect as they approach course content through problem-solving exercises,
informal small groups, simulations, case studies, role playing, and other activities -- all of which require
students to apply what they are learning(p. xi). Many studies show that learning is enhanced when
students become actively involved in the learning process. Instructional strategies that engage students
in the learning process stimulate critical thinking and a greater awareness of other perspectives.
Although there are times when lecturing is the most appropriate method for disseminating information,
current thinking in college teaching and learning suggests that the use of a variety of instructional
strategies can positively enhance student learning. Obviously, teaching strategies should be carefully
matched to the teaching objectives of a particular lesson. For more information about teaching
strategies, see the list of college teaching references in Appendix N. Assessing or grading students'
contributions in active learning environments is somewhat problematic. It is extremely important that
the course syllabus explicitly outlines the evaluation criteria for each assignment whether individual or
group. Students need and want to know what is expected of them.
 Cooperative Learning.
Cooperative Learning is a systematic pedagogical strategy that encourages small groups of students to
work together for the achievement of a common goal. The term 'Collaborative Learning' is often used as
a synonym for cooperative learning when, in fact, it is a separate strategy that encompasses a broader
range of group interactions such as developing learning communities, stimulating student/faculty
discussions, and encouraging electronic exchanges (Bruffee, 1993). Both approaches stress the
importance of faculty and student involvement in the learning process. When integrating cooperative or
collaborative learning strategies into a course, careful planning and preparation are essential.
Understanding how to form groups, ensure positive interdependence, maintain individual accountability,
resolve group conflict, develop appropriate assignments and grading criteria, and manage active learning
environments are critical to the achievement of a successful cooperative learning experience.

 Integrating Technology.
Today, educators realize that computer literacy is an important part of a student's education. Integrating
technology into a course curriculum when appropriate is proving to be valuable for enhancing and
extending the learning experience for faculty and students. Many faculty have found electronic mail to
be a useful way to promote student/student or faculty/student communication between class meetings.
Others use listserves or on-line notes to extend topic discussions and explore critical issues with students
and colleagues, or discipline- specific software to increase student understanding of difficult concepts.
Currently, our students come to us with varying degrees of computer literacy. Faculty who use
technology regularly often find it necessary to provide some basic skill level instruction during the first
week of class. In the future, we expect that need to decline.
 Distance Learning
 Distance learning is not a new concept. We have all experienced learning outside of a structured
classroom setting through television, correspondence courses, etc. Distance learning or distance
education as a teaching pedagogy, however, is an important topic of discussion on college campuses
today. Distance learning is defined as 'any form of teaching and learning in which the teacher and learner
are not in the same place at the same time' (Gilbert, 1995). Obviously, information technology has
broadened our concept of the learning environment. It has made it possible for learning experiences to
be extended beyond the confines of the traditional classroom. Distance learning technologies take many
forms such as computer simulations, interactive collaboration/discussion, and the creation of virtual
learning environments connecting regions or nations. Components of distance learning such as email, list
serves, and interactive software have also been useful additions to the educational setting.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6.) AIDS TO FACILITATE EFFECTIVE LEARNING

The Recitation

The recitation as a teaching tool is viewed to be a common teaching technique in a period of class
instruction. It is the most visible manifestation of the teaching-learning situation. It helps pupils/students
in learning every aspect of the subject matter to clarify abstract concepts and ideas.

Any teacher if he has to teach effectively must know how to conduct recitations, makes and asks good
questions and gives interesting and challenging assignments. Specific guidelines and procedures as well
as cautions are necessary and well provided in each area. The new teacher, and even experienced old
teachers, will find this literature a rich mine of information about every teaching tool. A careful study of
each area will undoubtedly solve multifarious problems that the teacher may encounter in this
multifaceted activity. The recitation as a teaching tool is viewed to be a common teaching technique in a
period of class instruction. It is the most visible manifestation of the teaching-learning situation. It helps
pupils/students in learning every aspect of the subject matter to clarify abstract concepts and ideas.
Recitation has been used in all levels of learning as an effective means for teaching and learning. While it
may be assumed that the beginning teacher may not automatically know how to conduct recitations
correctly and effectively, over the years, he will be able to develop the ability to conduct good and
functional recitations.

The Rationale of Recitation

The rationale of the recitation in the teaching-learning process does not need further explanation.
Teachers still believe in its efficiency as an effective means of imparting knowledge and information,
developing many skills, abilities, attitudes, desirable habits and ideas.
The concept of an effective recitation is often looked upon to an opportunity for developing creative
expression, reflective thinking, favorable attitudes and ideals for interpersonal relations and social living.
Recitation has been regarded the matrix for the inculcation of democratic ideals, for example, respect for
human worth and dignity, cooperation and development effort, group responsibility, freedom of
expression, use of one's intelligence and the promotion of the general welfare of the people in a
particular society. The use of traditional type of recitation is now passé.

The contemporary type of recitation is learners centered. The pupils/students are the most important
variable in the teaching-learning process. All learning activities resolve around the pupils/students. The
learners are involved in the planning, executing and evaluating learning activities in the classroom. The
new type of recitation emphasizes problem solving and inclusion of life-like situations in the classroom
learning activity. Group work, democratic exchange of ideas, respect for individual differences, initiative,
constructive criticisms, team effort, respect for school rules and regulations, adherence to appropriate
behavior in school and application of new principles learned characterize the new type of recitation in
the school system.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

7.) CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Classroom management is a term teachers use to describe the process of ensuring that
classroom lessons run smoothly without disruptive behavior from students compromising the delivery of
instruction. The term also implies the prevention of disruptive behavior preemptively, as well as
effectively responding to it after it happens.
Classroom management is crucial in classrooms because it supports the proper execution of curriculum
development, developing best teaching practices, and putting them into action. Classroom management
can be explained as the actions and directions that teachers use to create a successful learning
environment; indeed, having a positive impact on students achieving given learning requirements and
goals (Soheili, Alizadeh, Murphy, Bajestani, Ferguson and Dreikurs). In an effort to ensure all students
receive the best education it would seem beneficial for educator programs to spend more time and
effort in ensuring educators and instructors are well versed in classroom management.
Teachers do not focus on learning classroom management, because higher education programs do not
put an emphasis on the teacher attaining classroom management; indeed, the focus is on creating a
conducive learning atmosphere for the student (Eisenman, Edwards, and Cushman). These tools enable
teachers to have the resources available to properly and successfully educate upcoming generations, and
ensure future successes as a nation. According to Moskowitz & Hayman (1976), once a teacher loses
control of their classroom, it becomes increasingly more difficult for them to regain that control. [2]
Also, research from Berliner (1988) and Brophy & Good (1986) shows that the time a teacher must take
to correct misbehavior caused by poor classroom management skills results in a lower rate of academic
engagement in the classroom.[3] From the student's perspective, effective classroom management
involves clear communication of behavioral and academic expectations as well as a cooperative learning
environment.[4]

Techniques
 Corporal punishment

Until recently, corporal punishment was widely used as a means of controlling disruptive behavior but it
is now illegal in most schools. It is still advocated in some contexts by religious leaders such as James
Dobson, but his views "diverge sharply from those recommended by contemporary mainstream experts"
and are not based on empirical testing, but rather are a reflection of his faith-based beliefs. [5]
According to studies taboo physical punishments like spanking or procedures used in Asia in the
classroom such as standing do not make students or children more aggressive. Consistency seems to play
a greater role on whether outcomes could be negative. [6]
Corporal punishment is now banned in most schools in the United States, and most developed countries.
Although its effectiveness was never proven, the punishment was very disproportionately met. African
American males were the most punished group. In a study conducted in 2006, 17.1 percent of students
who experienced corporal punishment were African Americans, and 78.3 percent of total students were
males.[7]
 Good teacher-student relationships

Some characteristics of having good teacher-student relationships in the classroom involves the
appropriate levels of dominance, cooperation, and awareness of high-needs students. Dominance is
defined as the teacher's ability to give clear purpose and guidance concerning student behavior and
their academics. By creating and giving clear expectations and consequences for student behavior, this
builds effective relationships. Such expectations may cover classroom etiquette and behavior, group
work, seating arrangements, the use of equipment and materials, and also classroom disruptions.
Assertive teacher behavior also reassures that thoughts and messages are being passed on to the
student in an effective way. Assertive behavior can be achieved by using erect posture, appropriate tone
of voice depending on the current situation, and taking care not to ignore inappropriate behavior by
taking action.[8]
 Preventive techniques

Preventive approaches to classroom management involve creating a positive classroom community with
mutual respect between teacher and student. Teachers using the preventive approach offer warmth,
acceptance, and support unconditionally – not based on a student's behavior. Fair rules and
consequences are established and students are given frequent and consistent feedback regarding their
behavior.[9] One way to establish this kind of classroom environment is through the development and use
of a classroom contract. The contract should be created by both students and the teacher. In the
contract, students and teachers decide and agree on how to treat one another in the classroom. The
group also decides on and agrees to what the group will do if someone violates the contract. Rather than
a consequence, the group should decide how to fix the problem through either class discussion, peer
mediation, counseling, or by one on one conversations leading to a solution to the situation.
Preventive techniques also involve the strategic use of praise and rewards to inform students about their
behavior rather than as a means of controlling student behavior. To use rewards to inform students
about their behavior, teachers must emphasize the value of the behavior that is rewarded and also
explain to students the specific skills they demonstrated to earn the reward. Teachers should also
encourage student collaboration in selecting rewards and defining appropriate behaviors that earn
rewards.[10]
 Rote discipline

Also known as "lines", rote discipline is a sanction used for behavior management. It involves assigning a
disorderly student sentences or the classroom rules to write repeatedly. Among the many types of
classroom management approaches, it is very commonly used.

Systematic approaches
 Assertive discipline

Assertive discipline is an approach designed to assist educators in running a teacher-in-charge classroom

environment. Assertive teachers react to situations that require the management of student behavior
confidently. Assertive teachers do not use an abrasive, sarcastic, or hostile tone when disciplining
students.[11]
Assertive discipline is one of the most widely used classroom management tactics in the world. It
demands student compliance and requires teachers to be firm. This method draws a clear line between
aggressive discipline and assertive discipline.[12] The standards and rules set in place by assertive
discipline are supported by positive reinforcement as well as negative consequences. Teachers using this
approach carry themselves confidently and have no tolerance for class disruption. They are not timid,
and remain consistent and just.[13]
 Constructivist discipline

A constructivist, student-centered approach to classroom management is based on the assignment of

tasks in response to student disruption that are "(1) easy for the student to perform, (2) developmentally
enriching, (3) progressive, so a teacher can up the ante if needed, (4) based on students' interests, (5)
designed to allow the teacher to stay in charge, and (6) foster creativity and play in the
classroom."[14] Compliance rests on assigning disciplinary tasks that the student will want to do, in
concert with the teacher rapidly assigning more of the task if the student does not initially comply. Once
the student complies, the role of the teacher as the person in charge (i.e. in loco parentis) has been re-
established peacefully, creatively, and with respect for students' needs. Claimed benefits include
increased student trust and long-term emotional benefits from the modeling of creative solutions to
difficulties without resorting to a threat of violence or force.
 Culturally responsive classroom management

Culturally responsive classroom management (CRCM) is an approach to running classrooms with all
children [not simply for racial/ethnic minority children] in a culturally responsive way. More than a set of
strategies or practices, CRCM is a pedagogical approach that guides the management decisions that
teachers make. It is a natural extension of culturally responsive teaching, which uses students'
backgrounds, rendering of social experiences, prior knowledge, and learning styles in daily lessons.
Teachers, as culturally responsive classroom managers, recognize their biases and values and reflect on
how these influence their expectations for behavior and their interactions with students as well as what
learning looks like. There is extensive research on traditional classroom management and a myriad of
resources available on how to deal with behavior issues. Conversely, there is little research on CRCM,
despite the fact that teachers who lack cultural competence often experience problems in this area. [15]
  Discipline without Stress, Punishments or Rewards

Discipline without Stress (or DWS) is a K-12 discipline and learning approach developed by Marvin
Marshall described in his 2001 book, Discipline without Stress, Punishments or Rewards.[16] The approach
is designed to educate young people about the value of internal motivation. The intention is to prompt
and develop within youth a desire to become responsible and self-disciplined and to put forth effort to
learn. The most significant characteristics of DWS are that it is totally noncoercive (but not permissive)
and takes the opposite approach to Skinnerian behaviorism that relies on external sources for
reinforcement.
 Provide flexible learning goals

Instructors can demonstrate a suitable level of strength by giving clear learning objectives, they can also
pass on fitting levels of participation by giving learning objectives that can be changed based on the
classes needs. Allowing students to participate in their own learning goals and outcomes at the start of a
unit brings a sense of cooperation and mutual understanding between the instructor and student. One
way of involving the students and in turn making them feel heard in the decision making of the class is
by asking what topics they would find most intriguing in learning based on a guided rubric. This approach
will engage and send a message to the students that the teacher is interested in the student's interests.
The student in turn will bring greater learning outcomes as well as a mutual respect. [17]
 The Good Behavior Game

The Good Behavior Game (GBG) is a "classroom-level approach to behavior management" [18] that was
originally used in 1969 by Barrish, Saunders, and Wolf. The Game entails the class earning access to a
reward or losing a reward, given that all members of the class engage in some type of behavior (or did
not exceed a certain amount of undesired behavior). The GBG can be used to increase desired behaviors
(e.g., question asking) or to decrease undesired behaviors (e.g., out of seat behavior). The GBG has been
used with preschoolers as well as adolescents, however most applications have been used with typically
developing students (i.e., those without developmental disabilities). In addition, the Game "is usually
popular with and acceptable to students and teachers." [19]
 Positive classrooms

Robert DiGiulio has developed what he calls "positive classrooms". DiGiulio sees positive classroom
management as the result of four factors: how teachers regard their students (spiritual dimension), how
they set up the classroom environment (physical dimension), how skillfully they teach content
(instructional dimension), and how well they address student behavior (managerial dimension). In
positive classrooms student participation and collaboration are encouraged in a safe environment that
has been created. A positive classroom environment can be encouraged by being consistent with
expectations, using students' names, providing choices when possible, and having an overall trust in
students. So As educators, we have daily opportunities to help students grow confidence and feel good
about themselves. Despite all the negativity that may be around them within their households. Through
such actions as boosting their self-esteem through praise, helping them work through any feelings of
alienation, depression, and anger, and helping them realize and honor their intrinsic worth as human
beings. May result in better behavior in the long line jeopardy of the students. [20][21]
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8.) EVALUATING INSTRUCTIONAL AND LEARNING OUTCOMES

The role of evaluation in the systems approach to instruction

In 'The Systems Approach to Curriculum Development', we looked in detail at a simple algorithm that can
be used as the basis of course and curriculum design (click for Figure 1 : The systems approach to
curriculum and course design). We saw that the first two stages involve carrying out a preliminary
examination of the characteristics of the target population and topic area, and estimating the relevant
existing skills and knowledge of the learners. The next three stages involve formulating a clear set of
educational objectives/learning outcomes for the course or curriculum, selecting appropriate
teaching/learning methods for achieving these, and putting the chosen methods into practice by
operating the course or curriculum. The final stage involves trying to find out whether the course or
curriculum was successful by means of a linked process of assessment and evaluation, and then using
the feedback thus obtained to improve and refine the course or curriculum by going round the cycle
once again.
Methodology

Table 1 summarizes the steps, process and inputs, and the outcomes.

Table 1. Methodology for conducting a training evaluation

Steps Process and Inputs Outcome

Users of the evaluation data and

1 – Plan the evaluation analysts identify the evaluation Evaluation plan
questions.

Identify the appropriate level of

2 – Determine the evaluation and the population,
Evaluation design
evaluation design sampling methods, and the method of
data collection.

3 – Develop the Data collection

Develop and validate the instruments.
instruments instruments

Conduct interviews, distribute

4 – Collect data Raw data
questionnaires, or collect other data.

Use statistical packages (e.g., SPSS) to Summary

5 – Analyze the data analyze the data and interpret the descriptive and
results. statistical data

Write draft and final reports to present

6 – Report the findings the findings and make Evaluation report
recommendations.

Evaluation step-by-step
1. Plan the Evaluation

Begin by developing a written evaluation plan to:

 State the objectives of the evaluation,
 Determine the questions to answer,
 Select the information that you collect to answer these questions, and
 Set a timeline for when the collection of information will begin and end.
This plan can guide you through each step of the evaluation process because it details the practices and
procedures for successfully conducting your evaluation.

2. Determine the Evaluation Design

In this step, provide detailed descriptions of what you plan to do, how you plan to do it, and who it is you
want to reach. Use this information to answer evaluation questions pertaining to your objectives, such
as: Are the objectives attained? If not, why not?
For each objective, the evaluation plan must describe the following:

 Types of information needed – The program objectives guide the types of information you want
to assess.
 Sources of information – From whom, what, and where will you obtain your information?
 Methods for collecting information, such as questionnaires and procedures – To the extent
possible, you should integrate the collection of this information into ongoing program operations.
For example, in training programs, you can use participant’s registration forms and their initial
assessments to collect evaluation-related information as well as information relevant to conducting
the training.
 Time frame for collecting information – Although you will have already specified a general time
frame for the evaluation, you will need to specify one for collecting data relevant to each
implementation objective. Again, the objective being assessed will guide the times for data
collection.
 Methods for analyzing information – This section of your evaluation plan describes the practices
and procedures to use in analyzing the evaluation information. For assessing program
implementation, the analyses will be primarily descriptive and may involve tabulating frequencies (of
services and participant characteristics) and classifying narrative information into meaningful
categories, such as types of barriers encountered, strategies for overcoming barriers, and types of
facilitating factors.

3. Develop the Data Collection Instruments

Use the methods specified in your evaluation design to develop data collection instruments. Data
collection instruments may include:
 Multiple-choice items
 Matching items
 Short-answer items
 Essay questions
 Paper-and-pencil questions
 Job performance

4. Collect the Data

Use the methods specified in your evaluation design to collect and organize your data. The data
collection methods may include:
 Focus groups
 One-to-one or small-group interviews
 Written questionnaires
 Data from learners
 Data from supervisors

5. Analyze (Interpret) the Data

Once you have collected the data and organized it for either a formative or summative evaluation, then
analyze and report on this data. Analyze the data to answer the evaluation questions specified in the
evaluation plan. Analyze the data to determine training or education deficiencies and any instructional
needs. Samples of analyzed data may include:
 Curriculum design
 Target audience
 Instructor qualifications
 Environmental conditions

6. Report the Findings

Produce Evaluation Reports. I suggest reports that consist of content sections that use this format:

Section 1.0: Executive Summary

Prepare an Executive Summary as the first part of your Evaluation Report. This Executive Summary
provides an overview of the evaluation results for the training program. Additionally, it highlights key
findings and recommendations so readers can locate and digest the report quickly.
Executive Summaries may include:
 Purpose of the program
  Program activities, location(s), and target audience(s)
 Overview of findings and outcomes
 Overview of recommendations
Helpful Hints:
 Do not include technical details in the Executive Summary
 The Executive Summary provides the reader with key points of the evaluation without having to
read the complete evaluation report

Section 2.0: Introduction

The Introduction is the second part of an Evaluation Report, and it provides a description of the
evaluated program. The Introduction may include such details as:
 The relationship of this program to the organization’s mission and broader organizational efforts.
 Explanation of how the program originated – This explanation should include a description of
this particular program within the total instructional and training program, summary of a
literature review, and summary of the Needs Assessment and the political climate.
 Program overview – This section should focus on the program’s purpose and highlight key
program activities. Additionally, the Introduction should describe the program’s target
population, when and where activities took place, and why the program was set up the way it
was (program design).
 List your goals and objectives.
 Significant program revisions – Use this section to describe any changes to the program’s
objectives or activities that occurred prior to or during the evaluation, and provide a rationale for
those changes.
 History of the program’s development, or changes in the program since its initial
implementation, including prior accomplishments or gaps that your program seeks to address.
This is especially relevant for programs that have been in existence for several years, and for
programs that received funding from the same agency in prior years.
 Comparison of the program evaluated to similar programs sponsored by your organization or by
a competitor.

Section 3.0: Evaluation Methodology

Describe in detail the research methods used for your evaluation. The purpose of this section is to
explain the design and implementation of your evaluation:
 Demonstrates that the evaluation and procedures for collecting data were planned carefully and
systematically.
 Tells readers how to gather the information presented in the report. This allows readers to assess
the quality of data-collection procedures.
 Provides documentation that program staff can use to repeat procedures if they want to collect
comparable data in the future.
 Documents your methods, providing a framework for staff with similar programs to draw on as
they design or improve their evaluation procedures.
 Assesses whether or not the data collection tools used were appropriate.
Remember: You may have already described your evaluation methods in another document, such as
a grant application. If so, you may be able to draw on that text for your final report, editing it to
reflect any changes in methods used and challenges faced.

Section 4.0: Findings

Prepare an accurate and concise summary for your evaluation report. The purpose of the Findings
section is to provide coherent account information for the user. The Findings section:
 Organizes your findings in qualitative, quantitative, and/or mixed method information that
allows your client(s) to address objectives, and any other specific information.
 Analyzes your data in order to detail if and how well you met your program objectives (research
questions).
 Presents detailed Conclusions. Examples: item analysis or specific patterns.
Example. Here is an example of how you may summarize and analyze data for presentation in the
Findings section of a final report:
Objective: “Sixty percent of carpenters completing the training program during program year 2010 will
have acquired the skills needed to pass the carpenters’ entrance exam.”

Section 5.0: Conclusion(s)

Prepare and interpret your data to determine what the data analysis results say about the evaluation of
your program. Were the results what you expected? If not, why not?
 Explain which objectives were met and which objectives were not met.
 Did unrelated circumstances or events influence this evaluation? If so, how?
 Provide appropriate information for stakeholders.
 Determine if different data sources produced different results. If so, why?
 Discuss any relevant unexpected findings.
 Compare the current program evaluation results with previous evaluations of this program or
other similar programs.
 Determine if the user needs to know any information other than the specific results determined
by this evaluation.

Section 6.0: Recommendation(s)

Prepare detailed suggestions based on your evaluation report’s conclusions. Explain the basis for each
recommendation. Additionally, provide information on why a particular recommendation will or will not
improve your program.

Conclusion

The purpose of instructional and training evaluation is to provide continuous feedback to improve
training. Training improvement should lead to learners achieving higher results in tests, quizzes, on-the-
job training, and other methods of evaluation. The six-step process in this article will provide you with
guidelines for conducting a training evaluation. The evaluation report template here should also be
useful to you in documenting your program design and results.

ASSIGNMENT IN
ED6
 [Principles of
Teaching 2]

SUBMITTED TO:
MR. WOODROW TUMULAK
Instructor-Ed6 (TTH 8:30-10:00 AM)

SUBMITTED BY:
JAIKA C. ADALID
BSED III- English