1

CE2253-APPLIED HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING

(FOR IV – SEMESTER)

UNIT - I

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

M.SUGANYA., B.E.,
LECTURER
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
FATIMA MICHAEL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
MADURAI

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UNIT – I

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW - TYPES AND REGIMES OF FLOW - VELOCITY

DISTRIBUTION IN OPEN CHANNEL – WIDE OPEN CHANNEL – SPECIFIC ENERGY –
CRITICAL FLOW AND ITS COMPUTATION.

S.NO 2 MARKS PAGE NO

1. Define open channel 5
2. What are the classifications of flow in an open channel? 5
3. Define steady flow and unsteady flow 5
4. Define Uniform flow and Non-Uniform flow. 6
5. What is rapidly varied flow? 6
6. What is gradually varied flow? 6
7. What is laminar and turbulent flow? 7
8. What is TRANSITION state? 7
9. Give a brief note on Sub-critical, Critical, Super critical flow. 7
Give the formula relating to velocity and discharge in
10. 7
chezy’s formula
Give the BAZIN, GANGUILLET-KUTTER, MANNINGS
11. 8
formulas for chezy’s constant.
12. Give the formula for total energy. 8
13. Define specific energy. 8
14. How do you calculate specific energy? 8
15. What is specific energy curve? 9
16. Define critical depth. 9
17. What is critical velocity? 9
Represent minimum specific energy in terms of critical
18. 9
depth.
19. What is critical flow? 10
20. Define streaming flow. What it is otherwise called as? 10
21. When does a super critical flow occur? 10
22. What is alternate depth? 10
23. Comparison between open channel flow and pipe flow 10
24. What are the types of channels? 11
25. What are regimes of flow? 11
26. What is wide open channel? 11
What do you mean by velocity distribution in an open
27. 11
channel?

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28. What are the applications of specific energy? 12

What are the factors affecting Manning’s roughness
29. 12
coefficient?
What is top width, wetted area, wetted perimeter, Hydraulic
30. 12
mean radius, hydraulic depth?

S.NO 16 MARKS PAGE NO

Find the diameter of a circular sewer pipe which is laid at
a slope of 1 in 8000 and carries a discharge of 800
1 13
litres/second.when flowing half full. Take the value of
Manning’s N=0.02
i) Find the specific energy of flowing water through a
rectangular channel of width 5m when the discharge is 10
m3/s and depth of water is 3m.
2 14
(ii) Find the critical depth and critical velocity of water
flowing through a rectangular channel of width 5m, when
discharge is 15m3/s.
The discharge of water through a rectangular channel of
width 8m,is 15 m3/s when depth of flow of water is 1.2
3 m.Calculate:Specific energy of flowing water, Critical 14
depth and critical velocity, Value of minimum specific
energy.
i) The specific energy for a 5m wide rectangular channel is
to be 4Nm/N.If the rate of flow of water through the
4 15
channel is 20 m3/s.Determine the alternate depth of flow.
ii) Derive the froude number.
Condition for maximum discharge for given value of
5 16
specific energy.
i) Find the velocity of flow and rate of flow of water through
a rectangular channel of 6m wide and 3m deep, when it is
running full. The channel is having bed slope as 1 in 2000.
6 Take chezy’s constant C = 55. 18
ii) Find the slope of the bed of a rectangular channel 5m
when depth of water is 2m and rate of flow is given as 20
m³/s. Take chezy’s constant, C = 50.
A flow of water of 100 lts/sec flows down in rectangular
flume of width 600mm and having adjustable bottom
7 slope. If chezy’s constant C is 56, find the bottom slope 19
necessary for uniform flow with a depth of flow of 300mm.
Also find the conveyance K of the flume.
Find the discharge through a trapezoidal channel of width
8 20
8m and side slope of 1 horizontal to 3 vertical. The depth

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of flow of water is 2.4m and value of Chezy’s constant, C

= 50. The slope of the bed of the channel is given 1 in
4000.
Find the bed slope of trapezoidal channel of bed width
6m, depth of water 3m and side slope of 3 horizontal to 4
9 vertical, when the discharge through the channel is 30 20
m³/s. Take Chezy’s Constant, C= 70

i) Find the discharge of water through the channel shown

in the fig. Take the value of Chezy’s constant = 60 and
slope of the bed as 1 in 2000.
10 21
ii) Find the rate of flow of water through a V- Shaped
channel as shown in the fig. Take the value of C = 55 and
slope of the bed 1 in 2000
11 With neat sketches give the computation of critical flow. 23
i) Derive the equation for minimum specific energy in
terms of critical depth
12 24
ii) How do you obtain the specific energy curve explain
briefly?
13 Derive the equation for critical depth. 26
i) Give the application of specific energy and discharge
curve.
ii) Discharge curve:
iii) Uniform flow occurs at a depth of 1.5 m in a long
14 rectangular channel 3m wide and laid at a slope of 27
0.0009.If Manning’s N = 0.015.Calculate (1) max height
of jump on the flow to produce the critical depth. (2) The
width of the contraction which will produce critical depth
without increasing the upstream depth of flow

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APPLIED HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING

UNIT – I
OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW - TYPES AND REGIMES OF FLOW - VELOCITY

DISTRIBUTION IN OPEN CHANNEL – WIDE OPEN CHANNEL – SPECIFIC ENERGY –
CRITICAL FLOW AND ITS COMPUTATION.

Two Marks Questions and Answers

1. Define open channel.

A liquid flowing at atmospheric pressure through a passage is known as flow in

open channels. The flow of water through pipes at atmospheric pressure or when the
level of water in the pipe is below the top of the pipe, is also classified as open
channel flow.

2. What are the classifications of flow in an open channel?

1. Steady and unsteady flow

2. Uniform flow and non-uniform flow
3. Laminar flow and turbulent flow
4. Sub-critical, critical, and super critical flow

3. Define steady flow and unsteady flow.

Steady Flow

If the flow characteristics such as depth of flow, velocity of flow, rate of flow at any
point in open channel flow do not change with respect to time, the flow is said to be
steady flow.
∂v ∂Q ∂y
=0 , = 0 or =0
∂t ∂t ∂t

Unsteady Flow

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If at any point in open channel flow, the velocity of flow, depth of flow or rate of flow
at any point in open channel flow changes with respect to time, the flow is said to be
steady flow.
∂v ∂Q ∂y
≠ 0 , or ≠ 0 or ≠0
∂t ∂t ∂t
4. Define Uniform flow and Non-Uniform flow.

Uniform flow

If for a given length of the channel, the velocity of flow, depth of flow, slope of the
channel and cross-section remain constant, the flow is said to be uniform.

∂v ∂y
=0 , = 0 for uniform flow
∂S ∂S

Non – uniform flow

If for a given length of the channel, the velocity of flow, depth of flow, slope of the
channel and cross-section do not remain constant, the flow is said to be non - uniform
flow.

∂v ∂y
≠0 , ≠ 0 for non-uniform flow
∂S ∂S

5. What is rapidly varied flow?

It is defined as that flow in which depth of flow changes abruptly over a small
length of the channel.

6. What is gradually varied flow?

If the depth of flow in a channel changes gradually over a long length of the
channel, the flow is said to be gradually varied flow.

7. What is laminar and turbulent flow?

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Laminar flow

The flow in open channel is said to be laminar if the Reynolds number (Re) is
than 500 or 600
ρVR
Reynolds number =
µ
Turbulent flow

If the Reynolds number is more than 2000, the flow is said to be turbulent in
open channel flow.

8. What is TRANSITION state?

If the Re lies between 500 to 2000, the flow is considered to be in transition

state.

9. Give a brief note on Sub-critical, Critical, Super critical flow.

Sub critical flow:

The flow in open channel is said to be sub-critical if the Froude number is less
than 1.
V
Fe =
gD
Critical Flow:

The flow in open channel is said to be critical if the Froude number is 1.

Super critical flow:

The flow in open channel is said to be super critical if the Froude number is
greater than

10. Give the formula relating to velocity and discharge in chezy’s formula.

Velocity V = C mi

Discharge Q = A C mi

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11. Give the BAZIN, GANGUILLET-KUTTER, MANNINGS formulas for chezy’s

constant.

a) Bazin formula

157.6
C=
K
1.81 +
m

b) ganguillet-kutter formula

0.00155 1
23 + +
C= i N
0.00155 N
1 + (23 + )
i m

c) Manning’s formula

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C= m
N

12. Give the formula for total energy.

V2
TOTAL ENERGY = z + h +
2g

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13. Define specific energy.

It is defined as energy per unit weight of the liquid with respect to the bottom of
the channel.

14. How do you calculate specific energy?

V2
E=h+
2g

h = depth of liquid
V = Mean velocity of flow
g= Acceleration due to gravity.

15. What is specific energy curve?

It is defined as the curve which shows variation of specific energy with depth of flow

16. Define critical depth.

It is defined as the depth of flow of water at which the specific energy is minimum.
The depth of flow of water at C is known as critical depth.
1
 2 3
hc =  q 
 g

17. What is critical velocity?

The velocity of flow at critical depth is known as critical velocity.

Vc = ghc
Where,
Vc= Critical velocity
hc=Critical depth
g= acceleration due to gravity

18. Represent minimum specific energy in terms of critical depth.

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3hc
Emin =
2
Where,
hc = critical depth
Emin = minimum specific energy

19. What is critical flow?

It is defined as that flow at which the specific energy is minimum or the flow
corresponding to critical depth is defined as critical flow.

Vc
Vc = ghc (or) =0
ghc

20. Define streaming flow. What it is otherwise called as?

When the depth of flow in a channel is greater than the critical depth (hc), the flow
is said to be sub-critical flow (or) streaming flow (or) tranquil flow.[Fe < 1.0].

21. When does a super critical flow occur?

When the depth of flow in a channel is less than the critical depth (hc) ,the flow is
said to be super-critical flow(or) shooting flow(or) the torrential flow.(Fe >1.0)

22. What is alternate depth?

In the specific energy curve, the point C corresponds to the minimum specific
energy and the depth of flow at C is called critical depth. The depths corresponding to
points G & H are called alternate depth.

23. Comparison between open channel flow and pipe flow

S.No Aspects Open channel Pipe flow

flow
1 Causes of flow Gravity flow Hydraulic
pressures
2 Geometric of May have any Generally round in
sections shape cross sections
3 Surface Varies widely with Depending upon
roughness depth of flow the material of the

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pipe
4 Piezometric head Z + Y = HGL Z + P/W = HGL
Coincides with the does not coincide
water surface with water
surface.
5 Velocity Maximum velocity Maximum at
distribution occurs at a little center of pipe and
distance below the at pipe wall V = 0
water surface.
6 Law Obeys frouds law Obeys Reynolds
inertia force law inertia
/gravity force. force/viscous
force.

24. What are the types of channels?

The types are:

i) Natural surface: It has irregular sections of varying shapes. Ex. Rivers,

streams etc.
ii) A channel without any cover at top is known as open channel .Ex. Irrigation
channels
iii) Prismatic channel: A channel with constant beds slope and the same cross
section along its length.
iv) Experimental: The cross section of the channel is proportional to any power
of depth of flow in channel. Ex;Rectangular,Triangular
v) Non Exponential: Trapezoidal and circular channel are non exponential
channels.

25. What are regimes of flow?

Regimes of flow are the result of joint influence of viscosity and gravity. The four
common stages of flow, viz, laminar, turbulent, sub critical and super critical flows.

TYPES:
1) Sub critical laminar
2) Super critical laminar
3) Sub critical turbulent
4) Super critical turbulent.

26) What is wide open channel?

If the width of the channel is equal to or more than ten times the depth of flow
it may be called as wide open channel. For experimental or analytical purposes the flow in

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general region wide open channel may be considered as a same as flow in the
rectangular channel of infinite width.

27) What do you mean by velocity distribution in an open channel?

The non uniform distribution of velocity in an open channel is due to

1) Presence of free surface.

2) Frictional resistance along the channel boundary
3) The velocity distribution in a channel is measured with help of Pitot tube.

28) What are the applications of specific energy?

The application of specific energy is:

1) Analysis of flow through channel transmission.

2) Flow over raised channel bottom
3) Flow through sluice gate openings.

29) What are the factors affecting Manning’s roughness coefficient?

The factors affecting Manning’s roughness coefficient:

1) surface roughness
2) Channel irregularities
3) Silting and scouring
4) Obstruction
5) Size and shape of channel
6) Seasonal changes.
7) Suspended material and bed load.
8) Canal alignment

30) What is top width, wetted area, wetted perimeter, Hydraulic mean radius,
hydraulic depth?

Top width is the width of the channel section at the free surface. (The width of the
liquid surface exposure to atmospheric pressure).Wetted area is the cross sectional area

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of flow section in the channel. Wetted perimeter the cross sectional area of flow section of
the channel.

Hydraulic mean radius (R): R= A/P

Hydraulic depth (D): D = A/T

16 Marks Questions and Answers

1. Find the diameter of a circular sewer pipe which is laid at a slope of 1 in 8000 and
carries a discharge of 800 litres/second.when flowing half full. Take the value of
Manning’s N=0.02

Given:

Slope of pipe, I = 1/8000

Discharge Q= 800 lts/s =0.8 m3/s
Manning’s, N=0.02
Dia of sewer pipe= D
Depth of Flow, d= D/2
π 1
Area of flow A = D 2 X
4 2
2
πD
=
8
πD
Wetted perimeter=
2
πD 2
Hydraulic mean depth, m= A/P = 8 = D/4
πD
2

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πD 2 1 
Q= AC mi = X  m1 / 6  X mi
8 N 
πD 2
0.8= x 1/0.02 m 1/6 x m1/2 x i
8
πD 2 1 1 1 π 2 2/3
0.8= x 1/0.02 m  +  x = D x 1/0.02 x m x 0.01118.
8  6 2 8000 8
0.2195 8/3
= 0.2195 x D2 x (D/4)2/3 = D
42 / 3
0 .8
D8/3 = = 9.1848
0.0871

D= (9.1848)3/8 = 2.296m

2) i) Find the specific energy of flowing water through a rectangular channel of

width 5m when the discharge is 10 m3/s and depth of water is 3m.

Width b=5m
Q= 10 m3/s
h= 3m

V= Q/area=10/b x h
= 10 /5 x3 = 2/3

E= h + V2/2g

E= 3 +
(2 / 3)2 = 3.0226m
2 x9.81

(ii) Find the critical depth and critical velocity of water flowing through a
rectangular channel of width 5m, when discharge is 15m3/s.

b= 5m
Q= 15 m3/s

Discharge per unit, q= Q/b=15/5 = 3 m2/s

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Critical depth hc = (q2/ g) 1/3 = (32/9.81)1/3 = 0.972 m

Critical velocity Vc = gxhc = 9.81x0.972

= 3.088 m/s

3) The discharge of water through a rectangular channel of width 8m,is 15 m3/s

when depth of flow of water is 1.2 m.Calculate:

1) Specific energy of the flowing water

2) Critical depth and critical velocity
3) Value of minimum specific energy

Given:
Q = 15 m3/s
b = 8m
h = 1.2 m

Discharge per unit width= Q/b=15/8

Velocity of flow, V=Q/area=15/bx h=15/8 x1.2 = 1.5625 m/s

V2 (1.5625) 2
(i) Specific energy E = h + = 1. 2 + = 1.324m
2g 8 x9.81

1 1
 q2  3
 1.875 2  3
(ii) Critical depth hc =   =   = 0.71 m
 g   9.81 

(iii) Critical velocity Vc= gxhc = 9.81x0.71 = 2.639 m/s.

(iv) Minimum Specific energy (Emin):

3hc 3 x0.71
Emin = = = 1.065m
2 2

4) i) The specific energy for a 5m wide rectangular channel is to be 4Nm/N.If the

rate of flow of water through the channel is 20 m3/s.Determine the alternate depth
of flow.

b = 5m
V2
E = 4Nm/N = 4m E=h+ V= Discharge/area =Q/b x h= 20 /5 x h
2g

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Q = 20 m3/s
E= 4
V2
E=h+ = h+ (4/h)2 x 1/2g
2g

8
=h+
gxh 2

8 0.8155
4=h+ =h+
9.81xh 2
h2

4h2 = h3+ 0.8155 (or) h3 – 4 h2 + 0.8155 =0

This is a cubic equation solving by trial (or) error

h = 3.93 m and 0.48

ii)Derive the froude number.

The square root of ratio of inertia force of flowing liquid to gravity force

Fi
Fe =
Fg

Fi = ρAV 2 = mass * acceleration

Fg = M g = ρADg

D = wetted area / Top width of channel = A/T

ρAV 2 V2 V
Fe = = =
ρADg Dg Dg

5) Condition for maximum discharge for given value of specific energy.

The specific energy at any section of channel is given

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V2 Q Q
E=y+ ; V= =
2g A by

Q2
E=y+
2b 2 y 2 g

Q2
E–y=
2b 2 y 2 g
Q2 = (E-Y) 2 b 2 y 2 g
= 2b2 g [Ey2 – y3]

Q=b 2 g ( Ey 2 − y 3 …………………………….. (1)

For discharge Q to be maximum to expression Ey2 – y3 should be maximum

Hence differentiate (1) with respect to y and equate it to zero

dQ b 
]] * [2 g [2Ey − 3 y ]]
1

dy 2 
[ [
=  2 g Ey 2 − y 3 2 2

b 1 
=  * 2 g (2 Ey − 3 y 2 )
2  2 g ( Ey 2 − y 3 ) 


dQ
=0
dy

bg (2 Ey − 3 y 2 )
=0
2 g ( Ey − y 3)

2E bgy – 3 bgy2 = 0

E = 3/2 y

y = 2/3 E

Maximum Discharge:

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3
Q=b 2g ( y 3 − y 3 )
2

Q=b gy 3

4 8 3
Q = b 2g (E * E 2 − E
9 27

Qmax = 1.705 b E3/2

The specific energy is minimum when it is equal to 3/2 times value of depth of critical flow.

Here the equation (2) represents the specific energy and is equal to 3/2 times the depth of
flow. Therefore the equation (2) represents the specific energy and y is the critical depth.

Hence the condition for maximum discharge for given value of specific energy is that the
depth of flow should be critical.
6) i) Find the velocity of flow and rate of flow of water through a rectangular
channel of 6m wide and 3m deep, when it is running full. The channel is having bed
slope as 1 in 2000. Take chezy’s constant C = 55.

Given:
Width of rectangle channel, b = 6m.
Depth d = 3m
Solution:
Area = b × d = 6 × 3 = 18m²
Bed Slope, i = 1 in 2000 = 1/2000
Chezy’s constant C = 55
Perimeter P = b+2d = 6 + 2 × 3 = 12m
Hydraulic mean depth, m = A/P = 18/12 = 1.5m
V = C√1.5 × 1/2000 = 1.506 m/s
Q = V × Area = 1.506 × 18 = 27.108m³/s.

ii) Find the slope of the bed of a rectangular channel 5m when depth of water is 2m
and rate of flow is given as 20 m³/s. Take chezy’s constant, C = 50.
Given:
Width of channel b = 5m.
Depth of water d = 2m
Rate of flow Q = 20 m³/s.
C = 50
Bed Slope = i
Solution:
Q = AC √mi

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A = Area = b × d = 5 × 2 = 10 m²
m = A/P = 10/ (b+2d) = 10 / (5+2×2) = 10 /(5+4) = 10/9 m
20.0 = 10 × 50 × √ 10/9 × i
√ 10/9 × i = 20/500 = 2/50 10i/9 = 4/2500
i = 4/2500 × 9/10 = 36/25000 = 1/25000/36 = 1/694.44
Therefore Bed slope is 1 in 694.44

7) A flow of water of 100 lts/sec flows down in rectangular flume of width 600mm
and having adjustable bottom slope. If chezy’s constant C is 56, find the bottom
slope necessary for uniform flow with a depth of flow of 300mm. Also find the
conveyance K of the flume.

Given:
Discharge Q = 100 lts/s = 100/1000 = 0.1 m³/s.
b = 600mm = 0.6m
d = 300mm = 0.3m
A = b×d = 0.6 × 0.3 = 0.18m²
C = 56
Slope of bed = i
Solution:
Hydraulic mean depth, m = A/P = 0.18/(b+2d) = 0.18/(0.6+2 × 0.3)
= 0.18/1.2 = 0.15m

Q = AC √mi
0.1 = 0.18 × 56 √ 0.15×i √ 0.15×i = 0.1/(0.18 × 56)
Squaring on both sides 0.15i = (0.10/0.18 × 56) ² = 0.00098418
i = 0.00098418 / 0.15 = 0.0006512 = 1/1/0.0006512 = 1/1524
Therefore Slope of the bed is 1 in 1524.
Conveyance K of the channel
Q = AC√mi = Q = K√i
Where, K = AC√m Conveyance of channel section

K = AC√m = 0.18 × 56 ×√0.15 = 3.9039 m³/s.

8) Find the discharge through a trapezoidal channel of width 8m and side slope of 1
horizontal to 3 vertical. The depth of flow of water is 2.4m and value of Chezy’s
constant, C = 50. The slope of the bed of the channel is given 1 in 4000.

Given:
Width b = 8m
Side Slope = 1 horizontal to 3 vertical
Depth d = 2.4m
Chezy’s constant C = 50, Bed Slope I = 1/4000

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Depth CF = 2.4
Solution:
Horizontal dts BE = 2.4 × 1/3 = 0.8m
Therefore Top Width of the channel,
CD = AB + 2 × BE = 8.0 + 2×0.8 = 9.6m
Therefore Area of trapezoidal channel, ABCD is given as,
A = (AB + CD) × CE/2 = (8+9.6) × 2.4/2 = 17.6 × 1.2 = 21.12m²
Wetted Perimeter, P = AB + BC + AD = AB = 2BC
BC = √BE² + CE² = √ (0.8)² + (2.4)² = 2.529m
P = 8 + 2 × 2.529 = 13.058m
Hydraulic mean depth m = A/P = 12.12/13.058 = 1.617m
Q = AC√mi = 21.12 × 50 √1.617×1/4000 = 21.23 m³/s.

9) Find the bed slope of trapezoidal channel of bed width 6m, depth of water 3m
and side slope of 3 horizontal to 4 vertical, when the discharge through the channel
is 30 m³/s. Take Chezy’s Constant, C= 70

Given:
Bed Width, b = 6.0m
Depth of flow, d = 3.0m
Side Slope = 3 Horizontal to 4 vertical
Discharge Q = 30 m³/s

Depth of flow CE = 3m
Chezy’s Constant = 70
CE = 3m
BE = 3 × ¾ = 9/4 = 2.25m
Therefore Top Width, CD = AB + 2 × BE = 6.0 + 2 × 2.25 = 10.50m
Wetted Primeter, P = AD + AB + BC = AB + 2ABC (…BC = AD)
= AB + 2 √ (BE² + CE²) = 6.0 + 2√ (2.25) ² + (3) ² = 13.5m
A = Area of trapezoidal ABCD
= (AB+CD) × CE /2 = (6+10.50)/2 × 3 = 24.75m²
Hydraulic mean depth, m = A/P = 24.75/13.50 = 1.833
Q = AC√mi
30.0 = 24.75 × 70 √1.833×i = 2345.6√ i
i = (30/2345.6) ² = 1/(2345.6/30) ² = 1/6133
i = 1/6133

10) i) Find the discharge of water through the channel shown in the fig. Take the
value of Chezy’s constant = 60 and slope of the bed as 1 in 2000.

Given:
Chezy’s Constant C = 60
Bed Slope, i = 1/2000

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Solution:
A = Area ABCD + Area BEC
= (1.2 × 3.0) + лR²/2 = 3.6 + (1.5) ² л/2 = 7.134m²
Wetted Perimeter, P = AB + BEC + CD
= 1.2 + лR + 1.2 = 1.2 + л1.5 + 1.2
= 7.1124m
Hydraulic mean depth, m = A/P = 7.134/7.1124 = 1.003
Q = AC√mi = 7.134 × 60 × √ (1.003 × 1/2000) = 9.585 m³/s

ii) Find the rate of flow of water through a V- Shaped channel as shown in the fig.
Take the value of C = 55 and slope of the bed 1 in 2000

Given:
C = 55
Bed Slope i = 1/1000
Depth of flow, d = 4.0m
Angle made by each side with vertical i.e <ABD = <CBD = 30º
Solution:
Area A = Area of ABC Tan30 = AD/BD
= 2 * Area of ABCD = (2*AD* BD)/2 = AD * BD AD = BDtan30
= BD tan 30º *BD (AB =BC)
= 4tan 30º*4 = 9.2376m²
Wetted Perimeter, P = AB + BC = 2AB
= 2√(BD² + AD²) = 2√(4) ² + (4tan30º)²
= 2√(16.0 + 5.333) = 9.2375m

Therefore Hydraulic mean depth, m = A/P = 9.2376/9.2375 = 1.0m

Q = AC√mi
= 9.2376 * 55*√ (1*1/1000)
= 16.066m³/s

Empirical Formula for the value of Chezy’s constant:

Derive the dimension of C:

V = C√mi Chezy’s formula

C = V/√mi = L/T/√(A/P)i = L/T/√(L²/Li) = L/T√Li = √L*√L/T√Li
= √L/T = L½ T¯¹ […i is dimensionless]
C = L½ T¯¹

11) With neat sketches give the computation of critical flow.

Critical flow and its computations:

21
 22

Critical state of flow in an open channel has the following properties:

1. The specific energy is a minimum for a given discharge.

2. The discharge is a maximum for a given specific energy.
3. The specific force is minimum for a given discharge
4. The velocity head is equal tom half the hydraulic depth.
5. The found number is unity.
6. The slope of the channel that sustains a discharge of a uniform depth equal to
critical depth is called critical slope.
7. A control section is one where a definitive stage (depth) – discharge.
8. A critical flow section is excellent control section because, at that section.

Q= Qc = A square of gD = byx square root of gy, if the cross section is rectangular.

Typical cross sections:

12) i) Derive the equation for minimum specific energy in terms of critical depth.

Minimum special energy in terms of critical depth.

Specific energy is given by

q2
E=h+ ------------------------------ (1)
2gh 2

The specific energy is minimum when depth of flow is critical and hence the above eqn.

q2
Emin = hc + ----------------------------------- (2)
2 ghc2

1
 q2 3
But hc =   -------------------------------------- (3)
 g 

22
 23

hc 3
Using (3) in (2) we get Emin = hc +
2hc 2

3hc
Emin =
2

ii) How do you obtain the specific energy curve explain briefly?

Specific energy curve may be obtained by drawing a curve for specific energy E against
depth of flow Y.

Diagram:

Consider a rectangular section in which a steady but non uniform flow is talking place.

B = width of channel
Y = depth of flow
Q = discharge through channel

Q Q q
Velocity of flow V= = =
A bh h

q= discharge per unit width.

2
 q 
 
Specific energy E = h +  h 
 2g 
 
 

23
 24

q2
=h+
2gh 2

E = Ep + Ek

The specific energy plat entails the following information:

1) The curve for potential energy is Ep = h is a straight line passing through the origin
making an angle 450 with each of the two axis (X & Y)
2) The curve for kinetic energy (Ek) is a parabola.
3) Plot for specific energy is obtained by adding kinetic energy to potential energy.
4) Specific energy is asymptotic to the horizontal axis for small values of y and
asymptotic to 450 lines for high values of y.
5) At a certain depth hc called critical depth the specific energy curve as a point of
minimum specific energy, the corresponding flow velocity is called critical velocity
Vc.
6) If a line is drawn through the point C,the area above that line is known as the area
of sub critical flow (Fe < 1) .Area below that line is known as super critical flow (Fe <
1)
7) For energy value of specific energy other than minimum there are two possible
depth of flow (h1 & h2).One greater than critical depth. & other less than critical
depth.

This two depth for the same specific energy are referred to as alternate or conjugate
depth.

13) Derive the equation for critical depth.

Critical depth (Yc)

The depth of flow at which the specific energy is minimum is called critical depth. (yc).

The depth is said to be critical at any section of Fe is equal to one.

v
Fe =
gD

The mathematical expression for critical depth can be obtained by differentiating the
specific energy equation with respects to and equates it to zero.

24
 25

q2
E=h+
2gh 2
de  − 2q 2 
= 1+   = 0 -------------------------- (1)
3 
dh  2 hg 

q2
1- =0
gh 3
1
q 2
 3
h =  
 g 

But specific energy is min, the depth of flow is critical,

Therefore,
1
q 2
 3
hc =  
 g 
From eq (1);
q2
1- =0
gh 3
q2
1= ------------ (2)
gh 3
q
We know that V =
h
q
Sub V = in eq (2)
h

v2
1= --------------------------------- (3)
gh

V= gh
v
= 1 Fe = 1 the depth is known as critical depth.
gh

14) i) Give the application of specific energy and discharge curve.

25
 26

Applications of specific energy:

Analysis of flow through channel transmission

Flow over raised channel bottom
Flow through sluice gate openings.

ii) Discharge curve:

For a constant specific energy the discharge per unit width (q) is plotted against
depth of flow, the curve is known as discharge curve; In this fig. q attains max value at a
particular value of h.

iii) Uniform flow occurs at a depth of 1.5 m in a long rectangular channel 3m wide
and laid at a slope of 0.0009.If Manning’s N = 0.015.Calculate (1) max height of
jump on the flow to produce the critical depth. (2) The width of the contraction
which will produce critical depth without increasing the upstream depth of flow.

Given:

y = 1.5 m i = 0.009
b = 3 m N = 0.015
Soln:
1
 q2 3
Yc =  
 g 
bd 1 .5 X 3
R= = = 0.75
b + 2d 3 + 2 x1.5

1 1
1 6 1
C= R = (0.75) 6
N 0.015

C = 64
V= C mi
= 64 0.75 x0.0009

V = 1.66 m/s
Q= A x V=1.5 x3x1.66 = 7.48 m3/s

q= Q/b = 7.48 / 3 = 2.493

26
 27

1 1
 q 2  3  2.493 2  3
yc =   =  
 g   9.81 

yc = 0.859m

2
V1 3 yc
∆z Max = y1 + −
2g 2

1.66 2 3x0.859
= 1.5 + −
2 x9.81 2

= 1.5 + 0.1404 -1.29

∆z Max = 0.3504m

v12 Vc 2
y1 + = Yc +
2g 2g

1.66 2 Yc
11.5 + = Yc +
2 x9.81 2

1.64 = 3Yc/2

1
3 q 
2 3
1.64 =  
2 g 

1.093 = q2/3

q = 3.5795
7.48
q= Q/b = b =
3.5795

b = 2.089.

27
 1

CE2253- APPLIED HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING

(FOR IV – SEMESTER)

UNIT – II- UNIFORM FLOW

Compiled by,

M.SUGANYA., B.E.,
LECTURER
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
FATIMA MICHAEL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
MADURAI

COMPILED BY VERIFIED BY HOD

AI PRINCIPAL

1
 2

S.NO 16 MARKS PAGE NO.

a) A rectangular channel of width, 4m is having a bed slope
of 1 in 1500. Find the maximum discharge through the
channel. Take value of C = 50
1. b) A rectangular channel carries water at the rate of 400 lt is 11
when bed slope is 1 in 2000. Find the most economical
dimension of the channel of C = 50.
A rectangular channel 4m has depth of water 1.5 m. The
slope of the bed of the channel is 1 in 1000 and value of
chezy’s constant C = 55. It is desired to increase the
2. discharge to a maximum by changing the dimensions of the 12
section for constant area of cross-section, slope of the bed
and roughness of the channel. Find the new dimension of the
channel and increase in discharge.
A trapezoidal channel has side slopes 1 to 1. It is required to
discharge 13.75 m3 /s of water with a bed gradient of 1 in
1000. If unlined the value of chezy’s C is 44. If lined with
concrete, its value in 60. The cost per m3 of excavation is
3. 13
four times the cost per m2 of lining. The channel is to be the
most efficient one find whether the lined canal or the unlined
canal will be cheaper. What will be the dimension of hat
economical canal?
A power canal of trapezoidal section has to be excavated
through hard clay at the least cost. Determine the
4. 16
dimensions of the channel given, discharge equal to 14 m3 /s
bed slope 1:2500 and Manning’s N = 0.02
A trapezoidal channel with side slope of 1 to 1 is to be
designed to convey 10m3/s at a velocity of 2m/s. So that the
5. 18
amount of concrete lined for bed side is minimum Calculate
the area of lining require for 1m length of channel.
What are the factors to be considered for non erodible
6. 19
channels give some examples and explain how to determine

2
 3

the coefficient?
Briefly explain the measurement of flow of irregular
7. 20
channel?
A trapezoidal channel has side slopes of 1 horizontal to 2
vertical and the slope of the bed is 1 in 1500. The area of the
8. section is 40 m2. Find the dimensions of the section if it is 24
more economical. Determine the discharge of the most
n
economical X if C = 50
A trapezoidal channel has side slopes of 3 horizontal to 4
vertical and slope of its bed is 1 in 2000. Determine the
9. 25
optimum dimensions of the channel, if it is to carry water at
0.5 m3/s. Take chezy’s constant 80.
A trapezoidal channel with side slopes of 1 to 1 has to be
designed to convey 10 m3/s at a velocity of 2m/s so that the
10. amount of concrete lining for the bed and sides is the 27
minimum. Calculate the area of lining required for one
meter length of canal.

3
 4

UNIT- II

UNIFORM FLOW

Uniform flow – Velocity measurement – Manning’s & Chezy’s formula determination

of roughness coefficients – Determination of normal depth and velocity – Most
economical sections – Non-erodible channels.

Two Marks Questions and Answers

1. Define uniform flow.

For a given length of channel the velocity of flow, depth of flow, slope of
channel the c/s remain constant the flow is said to be uniform flow.

∂V ∂y
= 0, = 0,
∂S ∂S

2. Define channel of most economical sections.

A channel which given maximum which given maximum discharge for
a given cross – sectional area and led slope is called a channel of most economical
gross-section. It can also be defined as the channel that has a minimum wetted
perimeter, so that there is a minimum resistance to flow and thus resulting in a
maximum discharge.

3. What are the conditions to be most economical section?

The conditions to be most economical for the following shapes of the channels
will be considered.
1. Rectangular channel
2. Trapezoidal channel
3. Circular channel

4. Relate discharge with wetted perimeter.

Q = AC mi

A
= AC ×i
P

1
=K , Where K = AC A × i = Cons tan t
P

A
m=
p

4
 5

Q will be maximum when the wetted perimeter P is minimum

5. Give the conditions for a rectangular channel to be most economical.
A rectangular channel to be most economical is:

1. b = 2d

2. d
m=
2

Where,
b = width of the channel
d = depth of the channel
m = hydraulic mean depth.

6. What is the condition for the most economical trapezoidal section?

b + 2nd
= d n2 + 1
1. 2

Half of top width = one of the sloping side

2. d
m=
2

3. A semi –circle drawn form O with radious equal to depth of flow will
touch the three sides of the channel.

7. Give the formula to find the width and perimeter for a trapezoidal section to be
most economical.

i.)
2d
b =
3

2d
ii.) P = 3 × .
3

P = 3× b

For a slope of 60o, the length of sloping side is equal to the width of the trapezoidal
section.

8. Give the two conditions for the circular channel to be most economical.

5
 6

1. Condition for maximum velocity

2. Condition for maximum discharge.
9. Give the condition for maximum velocity and maximum discharge.

1. Condition for maximum velocity for circular section.

d = 0.81 D

D diameter of the circular channel.

m = 0.3 D

m hydraulic mean depth.

2. Condition for maximum discharge for circular section

d = 0.95 D

10. What are the factors affecting chezy’s and manning’s N formula?

1. Surface roughness and vegetation.

2. Irregularity in cross=section.
3. Obstruction to flow
4. Sitting
5. Depth flow and discharge
6. Size & shafe of the channel
7. suspended and bed particles
8. Personal changes which after the fluid viscosity.

11. Give the chezy’s formula.

V = c mi

Q = A × C mi

Where,

Q discharge m hydraulic mean depth

A area C Chezy’s constant

6
 7

12. Drive the dimension of C

V = c mi

V L /T L /T L L× L
C= = = = =
mi A L2 T Li T Li
i i
P L

L
= L1 / 2T −1 (I dimension)
T

C = L1 / 2T −1

13. Give the Bazin formula.

157.6
C= m hydraulic mean depth (or) hydraulic radius
K
181 +
m

K Bazin’s constant (depends upon the roughness of the surface of the

channel)

14. Represent Kutter’s formula in MKS Units

0.00155 1
23 + +
C= i N
 0 . 00155  N
1 +  23 + 
 i  m

N Roughness Co-efficient (or) Kutter’s constant

i Slope of the bed
M hydraulic mean depth

15.Give the manning’s formula

1 1/ 6
C = m
N

m hydraulic mean depth

N Manning’s constant (same value as Kutter’s Constant)

7
 8

16. What are non- erodible channel?

Most lined channel and built up channel scan withstand erosion satisfactorily
and they are considered non erodible.
In designing non erodible channel, the factors such as max permissible
velocity, maximum tractive force are not to be considered.

17. What are the factors to be considered are?

1. The kind of material forming channel body

2. To determine the roughness co-efficient.
3. The maximum permissible velocity to avoid the deposition of silt

18. Give some non-erodible materials.

The materials are:
• Concrete
• Stone masonry
• Steel
• Cast iron
• Timber
• Glass
• Plastic

19. How do you find mean velocity of flow?

The mean velocity of flow is found by,
1. Pitot tube
2. Floats
3. Current meter.

20. What is current meter?

A current meter is an instrument used to measure the velocity of flow at a
required point in the flowing stream. It consists of wheel or revolving element
containing blades or cups and tail on which flat vane or fins are fixed.

21. On what the value of chezy’s constant C depends?

Its value depends upon the roughness of the inside surface of the channels. If
the surface is smooth there will be less frictional resistance to the motion of water.
Therefore C will have more value and it leads to velocity, discharge increase.
If the surface is rough- vice versa.

22. Define channels of most economical sections?

A channel which gives maximum discharge for a given cross-sectional area and
bed slope is called a channel of most economical cross-section.
It is channel which involves least excavation for a designed amount of
discharge.
A Channel that has a maximum wetted perimeter, so that there is a minimum
resistance to flow and thus resulting in a maximum discharge.

8
 9

16 MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1) a) A rectangular channel of width, 4m is having a bed slope of 1 in 1500. Find

the maximum discharge through the channel. Take value of C = 50

Given:
1
b=4m i= C = 50
15000

b 4
b = 2d (or) d= = = 2. 0 m
2 2
d 2
m= = = 1.0 m
2 2
Area of economical rectangular channel,

A = b × d = 4 × 2 = 8m 2

1
Q = AC m × i = (4 × 2) × 50 × 1 ×
1500
= 10.328 m3 /s.

(b) A rectangular channel carries water at the rate of 400 lt is when bed slope is 1
in 2000. Find the most economical dimension of the channel of C = 50
Given:
1
Q = 400 lts/s = 0.4 m3/s, i= , C = 50
2000
For the rectangular channel to be most economical,

i. Width b = 2d.
d
ii. Hydraulic mean depth m =
2

Area = b × d = 2d × d = 2d 2

Q = AC mi

d 1 5
0.4 = 2d 2 × 50 × = 2 × 50 d 5 / 2 = 1.581d 5 / 2
2 2000 2 × 2000

0.4 2/3
d 5/ 2 = = 0.253 ⇒ (0.253) = 0.577m
1.581

b = 2d = 2 × 0.577 = 1.154m

9
 10

2. A rectangular channel 4m has depth of water 1.5 m. The slope of the bed of the
channel is 1 in 1000 and value of chezy’s constant C = 55. It is desired to increase
the discharge to a maximum by changing the dimensions of the section for
constant area of cross-section, slope of the bed and roughness of the channel.
Find the new dimension of the channel and increase in discharge.
Given,

b = 4m. A = b x d = 4 x 1.5 = 6.0 m2

1
d = 1.5 m i= , C = 55
1000

Wetted perimeter, P = d + b + D = 1.5 + 4 + 1.5 = 7.0m

A 4
m= = = 0.857
P 7

1
Q = AC mi = 6.0 × 55 0.857 × = 9.66m 3 / s
1000

For max discharge for a given area, slope of bed and roughness.

Let

b1 = new width of channel

d1 = new depth of flow

Area A = b1 x d1, where A = 6 m2

B = b1 x d 1

Max discharge b1 = 2d1

2 6
6 = 2d 1 × d 1 ⇒ d 1 = = 3 ⇒ d 1 = 3 = 1.732
2

b1 = 2 × 1.732 = 3.464

New dimension b 1 = 3.464m d 1 = 1.732m

Wetted perimeter p 1 = d 1 + b1 + d 1 = 1.732 + 3.464 + 1.732

= 6.928

A 6
Hydraulic mean depth, m 1 = 1
= = 0.866m
P 6.928

10
 11

 1 d 1 1.73 
 m = = = 0.866n 
 2 2 
1
Max discharge Q 1 = AC m 1i = 6 × 55 × 0.866 × = 9.71m 3 / s.
1000

∴ Increase in discharge = Q1 − Q = 9.71 − 9.66 = 0.05m 3 / s

3. A trapezoidal channel has side slopes 1 to 1. It is required to discharge 13.75

m3 /s of water with a bed qradient of 1 in 1000. If unlined the value of chezy’s C
is 44. If lined with concrete, its value in 60. The cost per m3 of excavation is four
times the cost per m2 of lining. The channel is to be the most efficient one find
whether the lined canal or the unlined canal will be cheaper. What will be the
dimension of hat economical canal?

Given,
1
Side slope n = = 1
1
1
Slope of bed i =
1000
Q = 13.75 m3 /s

For unlined C = 44

Lined C = 60

Cost per m3 of excavation = 4 x cost per m2 of lining.

Let the cost per m2 of lining = x

Cost per m3 of excavation = 4x.

d
For most efficient trapezoidal channel, Hydraulic mean depth i = m =
2

d depth of channel
b width of channel

2. Half of top width = length of sloping side

b + 2nd
= d n2 + 1
2

b + 2 × 1× d
= d 12 + 1 = d 2
2

b = 2 × 2 .d − 2d = 0.828d

11
 12

b = 0.828d

A = (b + nd ) × d = (0.828d + 1 × d ) × d
A = 1.828d 2

1. For unlined channel:

C = 44

Q = A × V = A × C mi Q = AC mi

 
2 d 1  
13.75 = 1.828d × 44 × × Q A = 1.828d 2 , m = d 
2 1000  
 2

1.828 × 44
= × d 5/ 2
2000

13.75 2000
= 7.452 ⇒ d = (7.6452) = 2.256m.
2/5
d 5/2 =
1.828 × 44

d = 2.256m. Subs in (1) we get,

b = 0.828 d = 0.828 × 2.256 = 1.868m

Cost of excavation per running meter
Length of unlined channel = Volume of channel x
Cost per m3 of excavation.

= (Area of channel x 1) x 4 x = [(b + nd ) × d × 1] × 4 x

= (1.868 + 1 × 2.256 ) × 2.256 × 1 × 4 x = 37.215 x

2.For lined channels

Value of C = 60

Q = A×C × m×i

12
 13

d
Subs the value of A from equn (2) and m =
2

d 1
13.75 = 1.828d 2 × 60 × × (Q Q = 13.75)
2 1000

1
= 1.828d × 60 × × d 5/ 2
2000

13.75 × 2000
d5/ 2 = = 5.606
1.828 × 60

d = 1.992m

subs in (1) b = 0.828 d = 0.828 x 1.992 = 1.649 m

The cost of lining

In the case of lined channel

Cost of excavation

Cost of excavation = Volume of channel x cost per m3 of excavation.

×l
[
= (b + nd ) × d
A
] x1× 4 x

(1.649 + 1 × 1.992) × 1.992 × 1 × 4 x = 29.01x

Cost of lining = Area of lining x cost per m2 of lining

P x 1
= (Perimeter of lining x 1) x x

=  b + 2d 1 + n 2  × 1 × x
 

(
= 1.649 + 2 × 1.992 1 + 12 × 1 × x )
(
= 1.649 + 2 × 1.992 2 x = 7.283 x)

13
 14

Total cost = 29.01 x + 7.283x = 36.293 x

The total cost of lined channel = 36.293 x

Unlined channel = 37.215 x.

Hence Lined channel will be cheaper.

Dimensions b = 1.649 m

d = 1.992m

4. A power canal of trapezoidal section has to be excavated through hard clay at

the least cost. Determine the dimensions of the channel given, discharge equal to
14 m3 /s bed slope 1:2500 and Manning’s N = 0.02

Given:

Q = 14 m3/s N = 0.02

1
i=
2500

The trapezoidal section should be most economical for the excavation of the
canal at the least cost.

Side slope (Value of n) is not given. Hence the best side slope for most
economical trapezoidal section is given by equation.

1
n =
3

For most economical section,

Half of top width = Length of one of sloping side

b + 2nd
= d n2 + 1
2

1
For n =
3

14
 15

 2d 
b = 
1
b + 2× d 2
3
3 1 2d 
= d   +1 =
2  3 3  1
n = 
 3

 2d 1 
Area of trapezoidal section, A = (b + nd ) × d =  + d  × d
 3 3 

A = 3d 2

Hydraulic mean depth for most economical section, d

m=
2

Q = AC mi

where

1 1/ 6
C= m
N

1 1/ 6 1
Q = 3d 2 × m m×
N 2500

1 1 1
= 3d 2 × × m1 / 6 + 2 = 1.732d 2 × m 2 / 3
0.02 2500

2/3
d  1.732 8 / 3
14.0 = 1.732d ×  
2
= 2/3
d = 1.09d 8 / 3
2 2

14.0
d 8/3 = = 12.844
1.09
3/ 8 0.375
d = (12.844) = (12.844) = 2.605 m

2d 2 × 2.605
b= = = 3.008m
3 1.732

15
 16

5. A trapezoidal channel with side slope of 1 to 1 is to be designed to convey

10m3/s at a velocity of 2m/s. So that the amount of concrete lined for bed side is
minimum Calculate the area of lining require for 1m length of channel.

n=1 V = 2m/s

Q = 10m 3/s. Q = A ×V

Q 10
A= = = 5m 2
V 2

1
n=
1

b + 2nd = 2d 1 + n 2

b + 2d = 2 y 2

b + 2d
= g (2.828) ⇒ b = 0.828d .
2

A = (b + nd )d

5 = (0.828d + d )d

2.735 = d 2

⇒d =1.654m,

b = 1.369m.

Area for 1m length

A1 m = Wetted perimeter x length

=(b+2d) × 1+n2 ×1

= [1.369 + 2 × 1.654] × 1 + 1

A1m = 6.61 m2

16
 17

6. What are the factors to be considered for non erodible channels give some
examples and explain how to determine the coefficient?

Most lined channels and build up channels can with stand erosion satisfactorily
and they are consider non erodible.

In designing non-erodible channel the factors such as max permissible velocity,

max tractive force are not be considered.

The designer simply compute the dimension of channel by a uniform flow and
the decides the final dimension on the basics of hydraulic efficiency or empirical
rule of best section practically and economically.

The factors to be considered are,

The kind of material forming channel body

To determine the roughness co-efficient

The minimum permissible velocity to avoid the deposition of silt and depers.

Channel bottom and side slope free board etc all forms the most efficient section.

Some on-erodible:

Concrete timber
Stone masonry Class
Steel Plastic
Cast iron

The selection of the material depends mainly on the availability of

• Cost of the material.

• Method of construction.

• Purpose for which the channel to be used.

Determination of Manning Roughness Co-efficient:

For the determination of roughness co-efficient N is so difficult for that there is

no exact method of selecting n value.

The experienced engineer can calculate by means sound engineering judgment

and experience.

For beginners it can be no more than guess and different individual will \obtain
different results.

17
 18

Approaches for Determination of N;

1. To understand factor that effect the value of N and narrow the problem
by guess work.
2. To construct a table typical N values for channels of various types.
3. To examine and become familiar with appearance of some typical
channel whose roughness co-efficient are known.
4. To determine value of N by analytical procedure based on the
theoretical velocity distribution in the channel C/s and on the data of
either velocity or roughness co-efficient.

7. Briefly explain the measurement of flow of irregular channel?

The term irregular channel includes large river and small streams.

In case of small streams flow can be obtained by filling notch or weir across
the stream and it is not possible in case of large rivers.

Increase of large rivers, discharge is equal to

Area of flow x mean velocity of flow

• Simple segment method.

• Simpson’s rule.

Simple segment method:

In this method, the C/s of river is divided into number of segments AB, BC,
CD etc as shown in fig.

18
 19

C/s of river with unequal segments.

l1, l2 , l3 , ……….. Length of the segment AB, BC, CD…

And d1, d2 , d3 , …… mean depth of respective segments.

∴ Area of flow = area of segment AB = Area of segment BC +

= l1b1 + l2b2 + l3b3 + . . . . . .

Simpson’s Rule:

In this method the whole river width in divided into even number of equal
segments, so that there are odd number of depths take an end of each segment as
shown in fig.

l
A= (d 0 + d lost ) + 2(d1 + d 3+ d 5 ) + 4(d 2 + d 4 + d 6 )
3
l = length of each segment.

d1, d2 depth taken at the end of segment.

Mean Velocity of flow

• Pitot tube

Single float

• Floats Double float

Rod float.

• Current meter.

19
 20

Pitot Tube:

A pitot tube is a simple device used for measuring the velocity of flow at the
required pt in the flowing stream.
It consists of a glass tube bent at right angles

The tube is dipped vertically I the flowing stream with its lower open end
facing direction of flow, upper open end projecting above the water level in the stream.

The water rises up in the tube due to pressure exerted y the flowing water.

By measuring rise of water in table. The velocity of water V calculated by,

V = 2 gh

h heat of water in the tube aove the water surface

g acceleration due gravity.

Floats:

A float is a small object made of wood or other suitable material which is

lighter than the water and thus capable of floating on surface.

The surface velocity at any section may be obtained by single float.

The time taken by the float to traverse a known distance is measured.

Distance traveled by float

Surface velocity (VS) =
Time taken to travel the distance

20
 21

Mean velocity of flow = 0.8 to 0.95 VS

Double Float:

A double float consists of a surface float on which it is attached with a hollow metal
sphere heavier than water and suspended from it by a chord of known length.

1. The depth of lower float may be regulated by the length of chord.

2. The velocity is obtained by noting the time taken y the float to traverse a
known distance.
3. Double float directly gives the value of mean velocity.

Rod Float:

It consists of vertical wooden rod which is weighted at bottom to keep it

vertical.

21
 22

The length of rod is so adjusted that it reaches bottom of the stream. The rod will
travel with a velocity equal to the mean velocity of the section.

Current Meter:

A current meter is an instrument used to measure the velocity of flow at a

required pt in the flowing stream. It consists of wheel or revolving element containing
blades or cups and tail on which flat vans or fins are fixed.

The current meter according to revolving element may be classified into

1. Cup type
2. Screw type
3. Propeller type

CUP TYPE:

Series of conical cup mounted on a spindle, the spindle held vertical at right
angle to direction of flow

SCREW TYPE:

The revolving element consists of shaft with its axis parallel to the direction of
flow which carries a number of curved vanes mounted on periphery of shaft.

In order to measure the velocity of flow water submerged under water and
motion of water in the stream activate it driving the wheel at a speed proportional to
the velocity of flow.
An electric current is passed from the battery to the wheel by means of wire.

The rotation of wheel makes and breaks the electric circuit which causes an
electric bell to ring.

Thus by counting the ringing bell the rotation of wheel and hence the velocity
of flowing water is calculated.

8. A trapezoidal channel has side slopes of 1 horizontal to 2 vertical and the slope
of the bed is 1 in 1500. The area of the section is 40 m2. Find the dimensions of
the section if it is more economical. Determine the discharge of the most
economical Xn if C = 50

Horizontal 1
Side slope, n = =
Vertical 2

1
Bed slope, i = , C = 50
15000

22
 23

Area of section, A = 40 m2
For the most economical section,

1
b + 2× d 2
b + 2nd
= d n 2 + 1 (or) 2 = d  1 +1
 
2 2 2

b+d 1
=d + 1 = 1.118 d
2 4

b = 2 × 1.118d − d = 1.236 d

Area of trapezoidal section,

b + (b + 2nd )
A=
2
×d = (b + nd )d

 12 
A = 1.236d + d d = 1.736d 2
 

40
40 = 1.736d 2 ⇒ d = = 4.80m
1.736

b = 1.236 × d = 1.236 × 4.80 = 5.933m

d 4.80
Discharge for most economical Xn m = = = 2.40m
2 2

1
Q = AC m × i = 40 × 50 2.4 ×
1500

Q = 80m 3 / s

9. A trapezoidal channel has side slopes of 3 horizontal to 4 vertical and slope of

its bed is 1 in 2000. Determine the optimum dimensions of the channel, if it is to
carry water at 0.5 m3/s. Take chezy’s constant 80.

Given,
Horizontal 3 1
n= = , i=
Vertical 4 2000

Q = 0.5 m3/s. C = 80

23
 24

The condition for most economical section,

b + 2nd
= d n2 + 1
2

3
b + 2× d 2
4 = d  3 +1 = 5 d b + 1.5d
  = 1.25d
2 4 4 2

b = 2 × 1.25 − 1.5d = d

b=d

d
For the discharge, Q z = AC mi , m= (most eco Xn)
2

d 1
0.5 = A × 80 ×
2 2000

Area of trapezoidal Xn, A = (b + nd ) × d

 3  7
= d + d  × d = d 2 = 1.75d 2
 4  4

d 1
0.5 = 1.75d 2 × 80 × ×
2 2000

= 2.2135 d5/2

 0.5 
d =  = 0.55m
 2.2135 

b = d = 0.55 m

Optimum dimensions of the channel are width = depth = 0.55m.

24
 25

10. A trapezoidal channel with side slopes of 1 to 1 has to be designed to convey

10 m3/s at a velocity of 2m/s so that the amount of concrete lining for the bed and
sides is the minimum. Calculate the area of lining required for one meter length
of canal.
Given:
Horizontal
n= =1
Vertical

Side slope
Disch arg e 10
Q = 10 m3/s. Area = = = 5m 2
Velocity 2
V = 2 m/s

For most economical trapezoidal section,

Half of the top width = one of the sloping side.

b + 2nd
= d n2 + 1
2
For n = 1, the condition becomes

b + 2nd
= d n2 + 1
2

b + 2 × 1d
n =1 = d n 2 + 1 = 1.414d
2
 b = 0.828 
 
A = (b + nd )d = (0.828d + 1 × d )d  
n =1 
 
= 1.828 d2

A = 5 m2

5
5 = 1.828d 2 ⇒ d = = 1.6538 = 1.654m
1.828

b = 0.828d = 0.828 × 1.654 = 1.369m

Area of lining required for one meter length of canal = Wetted perimeter x length of
canal

=Pxl
P = b + 2d n 2 + 1 = 1.369 + 2 × 1.654 12 + 1 = 6.047m

Area of lining = 6.047 x 1 = 6.047 m2

25
 1

CE2253- APPLIED HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING

(FOR IV – SEMESTER)

UNIT – III
VARIED FLOW

Compiled by,

M.SUGANYA., B.E.,
LECTURER
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
FATIMA MICHAEL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
MADURAI

COMPILED BY VERIFIED BY HOD

AI PRINCIPAL

1
 2

CONTENTS

S.NO 2 MARKS PAGE NO

1. What is gradually varied flow? 5

2. What are the assumptions made which deriving an equation 5

for G.V.F?
Find the rate of change of depth of water in a rectangular
channel of 10m wide and 3m deep when the water is
3. flowing with a velocity of 1m/s. The flow of water through 5
the channel of bed slope 1 in 40100, is regulated in such a
way that energy line is having a slope of 0.00004.
4. Sketch back water curve and affux? 6
5. Define Affux 6

6. What is back water curve and length of back water 6

curve?
7. What are the basic equations of GVF? 6
8. What are the classifications of channel flow? 7
9. What are the classifications of GVF profiles? 8
In a rectangular channel 12 m wide, depth 3.6 m with a
velocity of 12m/s. The bed slope of channel is 1 in
10. 4000. If the flow of water through the channel is regulated 8
in such away the energy line having a slope of
0.00004. Find the rate of change of depth of water in the
channel.
11. What is the Critical slope? 9
12. What is Mild slope? 9
13. What is Steep slope? 9
14. Define Horizontal slope. 9
15. Define adverse slope. 10
16. How do you classify the water curves? 10
What are the points to be remembered while studying the
17. 10
flow profiles?
18. What are the three zones of channel bed? 10
19. What are the three methods to calculate Surface profiles in 11

2
 3

prismatic channel?
20. Give the formulas related to Direct Step Method 11

S.NO 16 MARKS PAGE NO.

1. Derive the equation of gradually varied flow (or) Non- 12

uniform flow slope of free water surface?
Find the slope of the free water surface in a rectangular
channel of width 20m having depth of flow 5m. The
2. discharge through the channel is 50 m3/s. The bed of the 14
channel is having a slope of 1 in 4000. Take the value of
Chezy’s constant C = 60
3. Give the expression of the length of Back water 15
curve?
Determine the length of the back water curve caused by an
4. affux of 2.0 m in a rectangular channel of width 40m and 17
depth h 1= 2.5m. The slope of the bed is given as 1 in 11000.
Take Manning’s N = 0.03
5. With a neat sketch give the gradually varied flow profiles 19
(or) briefly describe water curves or flow profiles
6. Briefly explain Graphical Integration Method 24

3
 4

UNIT – III

VARIED FLOW

Dynamic equations of gradually varied flow-assumptions- Characteristics of

flow profiles - Draw down and back water curves – Profile determination – Graphical
integration, direct step and standard step method – flow through transitions.

Two marks Questions and Answers

1. What is gradually varied flow?

If the depth of flow in a channel changes gradually over a long length of the
channel the flow is said to be gradually varied flow and is denoted by G.V.F.

2. What are the assumptions made which deriving an equation for G.V.F?

1. The bed slop of the channel is small

2. The flow is steady and hence discharge Q is constant
3. Accelerative effect is negligible and hence hydrostatic pressure distribution
prevails over channel cross-section.
4. The energy correction factor, α is unity , α = 1
5. The roughness Co-efficient is constant for the length of the channel and it
does not depend on the depth of flow.
6. The formula such as Chezy’s formula, Manning’s formula, which are
applicable, t the uniform flow are also applicable to the GVF gradually
varied flow for determining the slope of energy line.
7. The channel is prismatic

3. Find the rate of change of depth of water in a rectangular channel of 10m wide
and 3m deep when the water is flowing with a velocity of 1m/s. The flow of water
through the channel of bed slope 1 in 40100, is regulated in such a way that
energy line is having a slope of 0.00004.

Given,
1
b = 10 m V = 1m/s Bed slope, i b = = 0.00025
4000

h=3m Slope of energy line, , ie = 0.00004

dh
let the rate of change of depth of water =
dx

4
 5

dh (ib − i e ) 0.00025 − 0.00004 0.00021

= = = = 0.000214
dx  V 2   1× 1  0.966
1 −  1 − 
 gh   9. 81 × 3 
4. Sketch back water curve and affux?

Consider the flow over a dam. On the upstream side of the dam, the dept of
water will be rising. It there had not been any obstruction (such as dam ) in the path of
flow of water in the channel, the depth of water would have been constant as shown by
dotted lien parallel to the bed of the channel. Due to abstraction, the water level rises
and it has maximum depth from the bed at some section.

5. Define Affux.

Affux is defined as the maximum increase in water level due to abstraction in

the path of flow of water.

Affux = (h 2 − h1 )

h1 depth of water at the point, where water starts rising up.

h2 maximum height of rising water from bed.

6. What is back water curve and length of back water curve?

The profile of the rising water on the upstream side of the dam is called back
water curve. The distance along the bed of the channel between the section. Where
water starts rising to the section where water is having maximum height is known as
length of back water curve.

7. What are the basic equations of GVF?

1 1/ 2
n 2V 2 n 2Q 2
V = R 2 / .3
S S f = =
n
f R 4/3 A2R 4/3
5
 6

Water surface slope Sω water surface

Bed slope SO - bed

The basic differential equation governing the gradually varied follow is

dy S − S f
o
=
dx Q 2T
1 −
gA 3

dE
Written in terms of (e) Specific energy
= S o − S f
dx

y actual depth

y0 normal depth

yC Critical depth

8. What are the classifications of channel flow?

CATEGORIES OF CHANNEL
S.No Channel Characteristic
Symbol Remarks
category condition
Sub critical flow at normal
1 Mild slope M hA>hC critical
depth.
Super critical flow at
2 Steep slope S Hc>hA
normal depth
Critical flow at normal
3 Critical slope C hc = hA
depth
S0 = 0 Cannot sustain uniform
4 Horizontal bed H
Y0 = ∞ flow
Cannot sustain uniform
5 Adverse slope A S0<0
flow

6
 7

9. What are the classifications of GVF profiles?

Classification of GVF profiles

Channel Condition Type

h > hn > hC M1
Mild slope hn > h > hC M2
M3
hn > hc > hC
h > hc > h n S1

Steep slope S2
hC > h > hn
hc > hn > h S3

h > (hc = hn ) C1
Critical slope h > (hc = hn ) C2
hc > h
H2
h > hc
Horizontal bed
h < hc H3

h > hc A2
Adverse slope h < hc A3

10. In a rectangular channel 12 m wide, depth 3.6 m with a velocity of 12m/s.

The bed slope of channel is 1 in 4000. If the flow of water through the channel is
regulated in such away the energy line having a slope of 0.00004. Find the rate of
change of depth of water in the channel.

Given,
1
b = 12m, h = 3.6m V = 1.2 m/s, i b = , i e = 0.00004
4000

7
 8

dh i b − i e ib − i e
=
(or) = 2.189 × 10 − 4
dx V2 1 − Fe
2
1−
gh

11. What is the Critical slope?

The channel bottom is said as critical when the bottom slopes (So) is equal to
the critical slope Sc.

So = Sc
In this case, normal depth of flow will be equal to the critical depth

hn = hc
12. What is Mild slope?

The channel bottom is said as mild when the bottom slope So is less than
critical slope Sc.

In this case the normal depth of flow is greater than critical depth

SO < Sc hn > hc

13. What is Steep slope?

Channel bottom is said as steep when the bottom slope (So) is greater than
critical slope Sc.

So > Sc

In this case, the normal depth of flow will be less than the critical depth

(hn < hc )
14. Define Horizontal slope.

The channel bottom is said as horizontal when the bottom slope (So) is zero.

8
 9

So = 0
In this case the normal dept of flow will be infinity hn = ∞

15. Define adverse slope.

If the bottom slope is less than 0, then it is called adverse slope

So < 0

In this case the normal dept will be imaginary

16. How do you classify the water curves?

The water curves (i.e. profiles) may be broadly classified into the following
five types:

1. Mild slope curves …… M1, M2, M3

2. Steep slope curves …… S1, S2, S3
3. Critical slope curves …… C1, C2, C3
4. Horizontal slope curves …… H1, H2, H3
5. Adverse slope curves …… A1, A2, A3

17. What are the points to be remembered while studying the flow profiles?

1. Te flow profiles approach the normal depth line tangentially. But there is
an exception for the profiles on critical slopes.
2. The flow profiles approach the critical depth line perpendicularly. But
there is an exception for the profiles on critical slopes.
3. All the profiles in zone 1 and 3 are backwater curve.
4. All the profiles in zone 2 are drawn down curves.
5. All the profiles in zone 3 commence form the bed of the channel.
6. The profiles C1 and C2 are practically horizontal.

18. What are the three zones of channel bed?

Channel bed slopes and flow profiles:

h0 normal depth of flow

h actual depth of flow

9
 10

The above figure shows the channel bed line, the critical bed line, normal depth
line.

The space above the channel bed is divided into the following 3 zones.

Zone 1 : This is the space above both critical and normal.

Zone 2 : This is the space between NDL and CDL

Zone 3 : This is the space below both the NDL & CDL

Based on the relative values of y0 & yc, channel bed slopes are classified as
follows.

19. What are the three methods to calculate Surface profiles in prismatic
channel?

The three methods to calculate surface profiles are:

i. Direct step method.

ii. Standard step method
iii. Graphical integration method.

20. Give the formulas related to Direct Step Method

There are a host of methods for comp8ting the GVF profiles. The direct step
method is a simple procedure suitable for use in prismatic channels. Their basic
equation.

dE Sf frictional slope
= S0 − S f
dx

Is written in finite difference form as,

∆E
= S0 − S f
∆x

10
 11

∆E S f1 + S f 2
∆x = Sf =
S0 − S f 2
= average friction slope of the reach

16 Marks Questions and Answers

1. Derive the equation of gradually varied flow (or) Non-uniform

flow slope of free water surface?
Consider a rectangular cannel having gradually varied flow. The dept of flow
is gradually decreasing in the direction of flow.

Z height of bottom of channel above datum

h depth of flow
V Mean velocity of flow
ib slope of the channel bed.

ie slope of the energy line

b width of channel
Q discharge through the channel

The energy equation at any section is given by Bernoulli’s equation.

V 2
E = Z +h+
2g.

11
 12

Differentiating this equation with respect to x is where x is measured along

the bottom of the channel in the direction of flow, we get.

Equation of Non-uniform flow (Slope of free water surface)

dE dz dh d  V 2 
= + +  
dx dx dx dx  2 g 
(2)

Now

d V 2  d d  Q2   Q Q 
 =   Q V = = 
dx  2 g  dx dx  A 2 × 2 g   A b×h

(as A = b × h)
d  Q2  Q2 d  1 
 2 2  = 2   (Q Q, b & g are constants)
dx  b h × 2 g  b × 2 g dx  h 2 

Q2 d  1  dh Q 2  − 2  dh
= 2   = 2  3
b × 2 g dh  h 2  dx b × 2 g  h  dx

d V 2  − 2Q 2 d Q2 dh V 2 dh
 = = =−
dx  2 g  b 2 × 2 gh 3 dx b 2 h 2 × gh dx gh dx

d V 2 
Substitute the value of   in equation (ii), we get
dx  2 g 
dE dz dh V 2 dh dz dh  V 2 
= + − = + 1 −  (3)
dx dx dx gh dx dx dx  gh 

dE
= Slope of the energy line = -i e.
dx

dz
= Slope of the bed of the channel = - i b.
dx

-Ve sign with ie & ib us taken with the increase of x, the value of E and Z decreases.

dE dz
Substituting the value of and in equation (3) we get
dx dx

dh  V 2  dh  V 2 
− i e = −ib + 1 −  (or) ib − ie = 1 − 
dx  gh  dx  gh 

12
 13

dh (ib − ie )
= V
dx  V 2  Fe =
1 −  gh
 gh 

V2
dh (i b
− ie ) 2
Fe =
gh
dx
=
[
1 − (Fe )
2
]  V 
Q = Fe 
 gh 
As h is the depth of flow and x is the distance measured along the bottom of the
dh
channel hence represents the variation of the water depth along the bottom of the
dx
channel.

This is also called the slope of the free water surface. Thus

dh
i. When = 0 h is constant or depth of the water above
dx

the bottom of channel is constant. It means that free surface of water

is parallel to the bed of the channel.

dh
ii. When 〉 0
dx
dh
Or is +ve, it means the depth of water increases in the direction of flow.
dx
The profile of the water so obtained is called back water curve.

dh dh
iii. When < 0 or is -ve, it means the depth of
dx dx

Water increases in the direction of flow. The profile of the water is obtained is
called Drop down Curve.

2. Find the slope of the free water surface in a rectangular channel of width 20m
having depth of flow 5m. The discharge through the channel is 50 m3/s. The bed
of the channel is having a slope of 1 in 4000. Take the value of Chezy’s constant
C = 60

Given,

13
 14

1
b = 20 m bed slope ib = = 0.00025
4000
h = 5m
Q = 50 m3 / s. C = 60

Q=AxV⇒ Q = A × C mi = AC mi slope of energy line

Area of A flow = b x h = 20 x 5 = 100 m2

A 100 100 100

m = hydraulic mean depth m = = = =
P b + 2h 20 + 2 × 5 30

10
m= m , i = ie = Slope of energy line
3

Q = AC × mi

10
50 = 100 × 60 × × i e = 10954.45 i e
3

2
 50 
ie =   = 0.0000208
 10954.45 
dh
The slope of free water surface =
dx

0.00025 − 0.0000208
dh ib − ie =
= V2
dx V 2 1−
1 − 9.81× 5.0
gh

Q 50 50
V = = = = 0.5
Area b × h 20 × 5

dh 0.00025 − 0.0000208
= = 0.00023
dx 0.5 × 0.5
1−
9.81 × 5.0

3. Give the expression of the length of Back water curve?

14
 15

Expression for the length of Back water curve

Consider the flow of water through a channel in which depth of water is rising.
Let the two section 1-1 and 2-2 are at such a distance that the distance between them
represents the length back water curve.

h1 dept of flow at Xn 1-1

V Velocity of flow at Xn 1-1

V2 dept of flow at Xn 2-2

ib bed slope

L length of back water curve

Applying Bernoulli’s equation at X ns 1-1 and 2-2,

Where, hL = Loss of energy due to friction hL = ie * L.

2
V 12 V
Z 1 + h1 + = Z 2 + h2 + 2 + hL
2g 2g
Also taking datum line passing through the bed of the channel at section 2-2.
Then Z2 = 0
hL = (i e × L ) Z1 = (ib × L )
∴ Equation (i) becomes as

15
 16

2
V12 V
Z 1 + h1 + = h 2 + 2 + (i e × L )
2g 2g

Z 1 = ib × L
2
V1 2 V
(ib × L )h1 + = h 2 + 2 + (i e × L )
2g 2g

 V12   V1
2

i b × L − i e × L =  h 2 +  =  h1 + 

 2g   2g 
2
V
L (i b × i e ) = E 2 − E 1 , where E 2 = h2 + 2
2g

2
V
E1 = h1 + 1
2g

(E 2 − E 1 )
L =
(i b − i e )
4. Determine the length of the back water curve caused by an affux of 2.0 m in a
rectangular channel of width 40m and depth h 1= 2.5m. The slope of the bed is
given as 1 in 11000. Take Manning’s N = 0.03

Solution:

b = 40 m. h2 = 2 - 2.5 = 4.5m Manning’s N = 0.03

Affux = (h2 − h1 ) =2m. ib =

1
= 0.0000909
11000
Area of flow at section1, A1 = b × h1 = 40 × 2.5 = 100m 2

Wetted perimeter, P1 = b + 2h1 = 40 + 2.5 = 45m

A1 100
∴ Hydraulic mean depth, m1 = = = 2.22m
P1 45

1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V = m ib 16
N
 17

1 2 / 3 1/ 2
Using Manning’s formula, V = R S
N

1 2 / 3 1/ 2
Velocity at section1, V = m ib
N
1 2/3 1/ 2 1
V1 = × (2.22) (0.0000909) = × 1.7 × 0.009534
0.03 0.03

= 0.54 m/s.

2
Specific energy at Xn1, V1
E 1 = + h1
2 g
0 . 54 2
= + 2 . 5 = 2 . 5148 m .
2 × 9 . 81
From continuity, velocity at Xn is given as,

V 1 A1 = V 2 × A 2

V1 × A1 0 . 54 × 100 0 . 54 × 100
V2 = = =
A2 b × h2 40 × 4 . 5

= 0.3 m/s.

where area A2 = b x h2 = 40 x 4.5 = 180 m2.

Wetted Perimeter at section 2, P2 = b + 2h 2 = 40 + 2 × 4.5

= 49 m.

A2 180
m2 = = = 3.673m.
P2 49
2
Specific energy at section 2, V2
E 2 = h2 +
2g

0.3 2
E 2 = 4. 5 + = 4.504m.
2 × 9.81

17
 18

To find average velocity (Vav), find average depth (hav)

h1 + h 2
h av = 2.5 + 4.5
2 = = 3.5m
2
Vav × Aav = V1 × A1

V1 × b × h1 V1 × h1
V A = =
V av = 1 1 2 hav
A av

0 . 54 × 2 . 5
= = 0 . 3857 m / s
3 .5

m 1 + m 2 2.22 + 3.673
m av = = = 2.9465
2
2

To find the value of ie, use Manning’s formula as,

1 2/3
V av = m av × ie 12
N

1 2 /3 12
0 . 3857 = × 2 . 9465 × ie
0 . 03

2
 0 . 3857 
ie =   = 0 . 00003167
 68 . 534 

The length of back water curve (L) is abstained

E2 − E1 4.504 − 2.5148
L= . =
ib − ie 0.0000909 − 0.00003167

1.9892
= = 33.584.3 m.
0.00005923

5. With a neat sketch give the gradually varied flow profiles (or)
briefly describe water curves or flow profiles?

Description of water curves or profiles:

18
 19

A brief description of different types of flow profiles is given below. The

profiles near the critical depth and channel bottom are shown by dotted lines, as at
these points the streamlines are curved. And such equations of gradually varied flow
are not applicable.

19
 20

a. Mild slope profiles Or M profile:

A flow, in which the normal depth (hn) is greater than the critical depth (hc) is
called streaming flow and the slope of free water surface is called mild slope or M-
profile. There are three types of such profiles as discussed below.

1. M1-profile. It is the most important among all the profiles and represents
the back water curve. This type of profile usually occurs, when a dam of a
weir is constructed across a mild long channel. In this case y > yn > yo h >
hn > hc
2. M2 – profile. It represents a drawdown curve. This type of profile usually
occurs, when the tail of a mild channel is submerged into a reservoir ofa
depth less than the normal depth. It also occurs, when the cross-section of
a mild channel is subjected to a sudden enlargement. In this case yn > y >
yc hn > h > hc
3. M3- profile: It also represents a backwater curve. This type of profile
usually occurs, when a channel after flowing below a sluice flows over a
mild channel. In this case yn > yc > y.
4. b. Steep slope profiles Or S profile:

A flow, in which the critical depth (yc) is greater than the normal depth (yn) is
called a rapid flow and the slope of free water surface is called steep slope or S-profile.
There are three types of such profiles as discussed below.

1. S1- profile. It represents a back water curve. This type of profile usually
occurs, when a dam or weir is constructed across steep channel. It also occurs

20
 21

when the tail of a steep channel is submerged into a reservoir of a depth more
than the normal depth. In this case
2. S2 – profile. It represents a drawdown curve. This type of profile usually
occurs, when the steep slope of channel changes form steep to steeper. It also
occurs, when the cross-section of a steep channel is subjected to a sudden
enlargement. In this case

3. S3- profile. It also represents the back water curve. This type of profile usually
occurs, when a channel after flowing below a sluice flows over a steep channel.
It also occurs when the slope of the channel changes from steeper to steep. In
this case.

C. Critical slope profiles. Or C- profile.

A flow, in which the normal depth (yn) is equal to the critical depth (yc) is
called a critical slope or C-profile. There are tow types of such profiles as discussed
below.

1.C1-profile. It represents a backwater curve. This type of profile usually occurs on

the critical slope portion, when the slope of the channel changes from critical to mild.
In this case, But yc = yn

2. C2- profile. Since in; a critical slope profile, the normal depth line and critical depth
line coincide, therefore no curve is possible between these lines. However, a line
coinciding with these tow lines can be drawn to represent C2 profile which will
indicate a uniform critical flow. In this case yn = y = yc. Some authors do not mention
the C2 profile.
3. C3. Profile. It also represents a backwater curve. This type of profile, usually,
occurs at the hydraulic jump. It also occurs, when the channel after flowing below a
sluice gate flows over a critical slope channel. In this case yc > y. But yc = yn

21
 22

d. Horizontal slope profiles Or H- Profile

In a channel with horizontal bed, the normal depth (yn) of flow is not definite
and it may be either below or above the critical depth (yn). The slope of free water
surface is called horizontal slope or S- profile. There are two types of such profiles as
discussed below.

1. H2-profile. It represents a drawdown curve and is similar to M2-profile. In this case

yn > y > yc
2. H3 –profile. It represents a backwater curve and is similar to M3- profile. In this
case yn > y - >y.

e. Adverse slope profiles (or) A - profile

In a channel wit adverse slope, the bed of channel rises in the direction of flow.
As a result of this, there is no definite normal depth line, and it is assumed to be above
the critical depth line. The slope of free water surface is called adverse slope or A-
profile. There are tow two types of such profiles as discussed below:

1. A2 – profile. It represents a drawdown curve. This type of profile usually occurs,

when the cross-section of an adverse channel is subjected to sudden enlargement. In
this case, yn > y > yc
2. A3 – profile. It represents a backwater curve. This type of profile usually occurs,
when a channel after flowing below a sluice flows over an adverse slope. In this case
yn > yc > y.

22
 23

Characteristic Representation
Channel category Symbol
condition
M
Mild slope or M
slope hn > hc

C
Critical slope or C hn = hc
slope

S oo <= 00
Steep slope or
S- slope h n < hc

hhn n==αα

Horizontal slope
bed slope = 0
or H - slope

or -Ve
Adverse slope or
A – Slope bed slope = - Ve

So-bottom slope hn - normal depth

Sc-Critical slope hc - Critical depth

23
 24

6. Briefly explain Graphical Integration Method.

The basic differential equation of GVF can be written.

---------- (1)
V 2 V =
Q
A=bxh
1 − A
dx gh
--- =
dh ib − ie h=
A
b

Q 2b ---------- (2)
1 − V2 Q 2b Q 2b
dx gA 3 = 2 =
= gh A gA gA 3
dh ib − ie

For a constant Q, Sb, N and b given channel geometry the right hand side of
equation (2) is a function of y.

dx
= f (y) ---------------- (3)
dy

y2

Length of Back Water Curve =

x 2 − x1 == ∫ f ( y )dy
y1

x2 y2

Lengthof BωC =
x2 − x1 = ∫ dx = ∫ f ( y )dy
x1 y1

24
 25

If a curve is plotted between f(y) & y the area under the curve between
y2

ordinates at y1 & y2 is the value of ∫

y1
f ( y )dy

1
V = R2 / 3Sf 1/ 2
n

In this method various vales of y are assumed and corresponding values of f (y)
are calculated using

V 2
1−
gy
S b − Se

A curve of y Vs f(y) is then plotted.

To find the distance between tow section with depth. y1 & y2 are determined
by a planimeter or by Simpson’s rule.

This method can be used with equal efficiency for both natural and artificial
channel.

25
 1

CE2253- APPLIED HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING

(FOR IV – SEMESTER)

UNIT – IV HYDRAULIC JUMPS

Compiled by,

M.SUGANYA, B.E.,
LECTURER
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
FATIMA MICHAEL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
MADURAI

COMPILED BY VERIFIED BY HOD

AI PRINCIPAL

1
 2

CONTENTS
S.NO 2 MARKS PAGE NO
1. Define hydraulic jump? 5
2. Explain hydraulic jump? 5
What are the assumptions made for deriving an expression
3. 5
for the depth of hydraulic jump?
4. Give the expression for depth of hydraulic jump. 6
5. Define length of hydraulic jump. 6
The depth of flow of water, at a certain section of a
rectangular channel of 4m wide, is 0.5m. This discharge
6. through the channel is 16 m3/s. If a hydraulic jump takes 7
place on the downstream side, find the depth of flow after
the jump.
A sluice gate discharges water into a horizontal rectangular
channel with a velocity of 10m/s and depth of flow of 1m.
7. 7
Determine the depth of flow after the jump and consequent
loss in total head.
A hydraulic jump forms at the downstream end of spillway
8. carrying 17.93 m3 /s discharge. If the depth before jump is 8
0.80, determine the depth after the jump and energy loss
9. What is undular jump? 8
10. Define Weak Jump 8
11. What is oscillating jump? 9
12. What is steady and strong jump? 9
What are the elements and characteristics of a Hydraulic
13. 9
jump?
14. What are surges? 9
15. What are the applications of hydraulic jump? 9
16. What is water Hammer? 10
17. What is positive surge and negative surge? 10

2
 3

18. Give the diagram representing the propagation of surges? 10

19. What do you mean by propagation of surges? 11
Give the formula for head loss in terms of Froude number
20. 11
and depth?

S.NO 16 MARKS PAGENO

a) Derive the expression for loss of energy due to Hydraulic
1 jump) Derive the expression for depth of hydraulic jump in 12
terms or
The depth of flow of water, at a certain section of a rectangular
channel of 2m wide, is 0.3m. The discharge through the
2 14
channel is 1.5 m3 /S. Determine whether a hydraulic jump will
occur, if 2 find its height and loss of energy per kg of water.
A Sluice gate discharge water into a horizontal rectangular
channel wit a velocity of 6 m/s and depth of flow is 0.4m. the
width of the channel is 8m. Determine whether a hydraulic
3 15
jump will occur, and if so, find its height and loss of energy per
kg of water. Also determine the power lost in the hydraulic
jump.
4 What are the elements and characteristics of a Hydraulic jump? 16
5 What are the various types of hydraulic jumps? 17
Briefly explain positive surge moving downstream and
6 20
upstream
A 2.0 m wide rectangular channel has a flow with a velocity of
2m/s and depth of 1.3m. The rate of inflow at the upstream and
is suddenly increased of an extent that the depth is doubled in
magnitude. Estimate the absolute velocity of the resetting surge
7 and the new discharge. 22
B) A rectangular channel is discharging 1.60 m3 /s per meter
width at a depth of 0.8 m, If a sudden release of flow at the
upstream end double the discharge intensity, determine the
absolute velocity of the resulting surge and the new depth.
8 Give a brief note on surge tanks. 24
A tidal estuary is flowing at the rate of 6.5 Km/hr and a depth
of 2m. Owing to the tide in these, the level rapidly rase and the
resulting surge or ‘bore’ took one hour to reach a spot 22.5 m
9 25
up the stream. Compute the height of the bore above the initial
depth of flow. What speed and direction will the flow have after
the bore has passed?
A horizontal rectangular channel of 3m width and 2m water
depth conveys water at 18 m3/s. If the flow rate is suddenly
10 reduced to 2/3 of its original value, compute the magnitude and 26
speed of the upstream ward surge. Assume that the front of the
surge is rectangular and friction in the channel is neglected.

3
 4

UNIT IV

HYDRAULIC JUMPS

Hydraulic jump – Types – Energy dissipation – Surges – Surge channel

transitions

TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Define hydraulic jump?

The rise of water level Which takes place due to transformation of the unstable
shooting flow (Super-critical) to the stable streaming flow(Sub-critical flow) The
hydraulic jump converts kinetic energy of stream rapidly flowing into potential energy.

When hydraulic jump takes place a loss of energy due to eddy formation and
turbulence occurs.Hydralic jumps is also known as standing wave.

2. Explain hydraulic jump?

The height of water at the section 1-1 is small. Towards downstream the height or
depth of water increases rapidly over a short length of the channel. This is because at the
section 1-1 the flow is a shooting flow as the depth of water at section 1-1is less than
critical depth. Shooting flow is an unstable type of flow and does not continue on the
down stream side. Then this the shooting will convert into a streaming or tranquil flow
and hence depth of water will increase. This sudden increase of depth of water is called a
hydraulic jump or a standing way.

3. What are the assumptions made for deriving an expression for the depth of
hydraulic jump?

The following assumptions made are:

1. The flow is uniform and pressure distribution is due to hydrostatic before and
after the jump.

4
 5

2. Losses due to friction on the surface of the bed of the channel are small and
hence neglected.
3. The slope of the bed of the channel is small. so that the component of the fluid
in the direction of flow is negligibly small.
4. The momentum correction factor is unity.

4. Give the expression for depth of hydraulic jump.

2
d d1 2q 2
d =− 1 + +
2 4 gd 1

q = V1 d 1 ⇒ q
V1 =
d1

2
2 × (V1 d 1 )
2
d1 d1
=− + +
2 4 gd1

d1 depth of flow at Xn -1
d2 depth of flow at Xn 2-2
V1 Velocity of flow at 1 -1
V2 Velocity of flow at 2 -2
q Discharge per unit width

2 2
d d1 2 × V1 d 1
d =− 1 + +
2 4 g

Depth of hydraulic jump= (d2 – d1)

5. Define length of hydraulic jump.

It is defined as the length between the two sections where one section is taken
before the hydraulic jump and the second section is taken immediately after the jump.
For a rectangular channel from experiments, it has been found to be equal to J to Y times
the height of the hydraulic jump.
Lj= 5 to 7 Hj

5
 6

6. The depth of flow of water, at a certain section of a rectangular channel of 4m

wide, is 0.5m. This discharge through the channel is 16 m3/s. If a hydraulic jump
takes place on the downstream side, find the depth of flow after the jump.

Solution:

Given,
Width of channel, b = 4m
Depth of flow be jump, d1 = 0.5 m
Discharge, Q = 16m3 /s.

Q 16
∴ Discharge per unit width, q = = = 4m 2 / s
b 4
Let the depth of flow after jump = d2

2
d1 d1 2g 2
Depth of flow after the jump d 2 = − + +
2 4 gd1

0.5 0.5 2 2 × 42
=− + + = −0.25 + 0.0625 + 6.5239
2 4 9.81 × 0.5

= −0.25 + 2.566 = 2.316 m

7. A sluice gate discharges water into a horizontal rectangular channel with a

velocity of 10m/s and depth of flow of 1m. Determine the depth of flow after the
jump and consequent loss in total head.

Given,

Velocity of flow before hydraulic jump, V1 = 10 m/s

Depth of flow before hydraulic jump, d1 = 1m

Discharge per unit width jump q = V1 × d1 = 10 × 1 = 10m 2 / s
The depth of flow after jump is given by equation as

2
d d1 2q 2 1.0 12 2 × 10 2
d2 = − 1 + + =− + +
2 4 gd1 2 4 9.81 × 1

= −0.5 + 0.25 + 20.387 = 4.043m

6
 7

Loss in total head in given by

hL =
(d 2 − d1 )
3

=
(4.043 − 1.0)3
4d1 d 2 4 × 1.0 × 4.043
= 1.742 m.

8. A hydraulic jump forms at the downstream end of spillway carrying 17.93 m3 /s

discharge. If the depth before jump is 0.80, determine the depth after the jump and
energy loss.

Given,
Discharge Q = 17.93 m3/s.

Depth before jump, d1 = 0.8 m.

Taking width b = 1m,

17.93
Discharge per unit width, q = = 17.93
1

d2 = Depth after jump, hL = Loss of energy

2
d d1 2q 2 0.8 0.8 2 2 × 17.93 2
d2 = − 1 + + =− + +
2 4 gd 1 2 4 9.81 × 0.8

= −0.4 + 0.16 + 81.927 = −0.4 + 9.06 = 8.66m

Loss of energy

hL =
(d 2 − d1 )
3

=
(8.66 − 0.8)
3
= 17.52m
4d 1 d 2 4 × 8 × 8.66

9) What is undular jump?

The Froude number F1 ranges from 1 to 1.7 and the liquid surface shows
undulations of gradually decreasing size.

10) Define Weak Jump.

F1 ranges from 1.7 to 2.5, number of small rulers appears on the surface of the
jump, and the downstream liquid surface remains smooth. The energy loss in the jump is
low.

7
 8

11) What is oscillating jump?

For F1 ranging between 2.5 to 4.5, there is an oscillating jet which enters the jump
bottom and oscillates to the surface. Each oscillation produces a large wave of irregular
period and does extensive damage to the canal bed and banks while traveling miles
downstream.

12) What is steady and strong jump?

Steady jump:
This type of jump occurs in the Froude number range of 4.5 to 9.0. The
fluctuations in the tail water depth have a very little effect on the position and the action
of the jump. The energy dissipation may be in the range of 45 to 70%.

Strong jump:
For Froude number greater than 9.0, the surface down stream of the jump is rough
and the energy dissipation may be upto 85%.

13) What are the elements and characteristics of a Hydraulic jump?

The following quantities are generally known s the elements of the hydraulic
jump:

1. Pre-ump depth y1
2. Post-jump depth y2
3. Ht of the jump, Hj = y2-y1
4. Length of the jump, Lj = 5 Hj
5. Specific energies before and after the jump (E1 – E2).
6. Loss of energy (∆E) in the jump

14) What are surges?

If the flow in a channel is increased by sudden increase in the opening of sluice
gate, a wave is farmed which towards downstream. On the other hand, if the flow is
decreased by sudden partial closure of the gate, the waves so formed travels upstream of
the gate. Such waves, having a significant height are known as surges or surge waves.

15) What are the applications of hydraulic jump?

• It is used for dissipating excess of energy of water flowing over spillways

and the hydraulic structures as through sluices and thus preventing
possible erosion on the down stream of these structures.
• It raises the water level in the channels for irrigation, etc.

8
 9

• It increases the weight on an apron of a hydraulic structure due to

increased depth of flow and hence the lift pressure acting on the apron is
considerably counter balanced.
• It increases the discharge through a slice by holding back the tail water.
• It may be used for mixing chemicals in water or other liquids since it
allows through mixing due to turbulence created in it.
• To aureate water for city water supply.
• To remove air pockets from the water supply line and thus prevent air
locking.

16) What is water Hammer?

When a liquid flow in a long pipe line is reduced suddenly, due to compressibility
of the liquid, the sudden change in momentum would cause a pressure surge to develop.
This pressure moves through phenomenon is known as water hammer and is of
importance in all major pipe lone designs.

17) What is positive surge and negative surge?

A surface is known as a positive surge or an elevation wave when it causes an
increase in depth in direction of its travel. Positive surges are produced when a dam fails
or there is sudden decrease of supply at the upstream end of channel due to lifting up
regulating gate.

A negative surge is one which causes decrease in depth. It generally occurs due to
to sudden decrease in supply of flow upstream such as that caused by closing of head
gate in a canal.

18. Give the diagram representing the propagation of surges?

9
 10

19) What do you mean by propagation of surges?

Whenever there is a sudden change in the discharge or depth or both in an open

channel, a rapidly varied unsteady occur during sudden operation of a control gate.

A surge producing a increase in depth is known as positive surge and the one
which causes a decrease in depth is known as negative surge.

Positive surges have steep fronts, more like a hydraulic jump and the shape of the
wave does not change during its translation. They are also known as moving hydraulic
jumps. These are relatively easy to analyze than negative surges.

20) Give the formula for head loss in terms of Froude number and depth?

hL =
[d 2 − d1 ]
3

4d 1 d 2

d1 d1 d
d2 = − + 1 + 8(Fe )1 = 1  1 + 8(Fe )1 − 1
2 2

2 2 2  

10
 11

16 Marks Questions and Answers

1 a) Derive the expression for loss of energy due to Hydraulic jump.

When hydraulic jump takes place, a loss of energy due to eddies formation and
turbulence occur. This loss of energy is equal to the difference of specific energies at
sections 1-1 and 2-2.

Or loss of energy due to hydraulic jump, for

hL = E1 − E2
 V  
2
V 
2

=  d1 + 1  −  d 2 + 2 
 2 g   2 g 


 V1 2 V2 2   q2 q2 
=  −  − (d 2 − d1 ) =  −  − (d 2 − d1 )
 2g 2g   2 gd 2 2 gd 2 
   1 2 

q 2  1 1 
 − [d 2 − d1 ]
hL = − 2

2 g  d1 2
d2 


q 2  d 2 − d1 
2 2

=  − [d 2 − d1 ]
2 g  d 1 2 d 2 2 


(d 2 + d1 )
q 2 = gd1 d 2 (1)
2

Substituting the value of q2 in equation (1) we get,

(d 2 + d1 ) 2
d 2 − d1
2

Loss of energy, hL = gd1 d 2 × 2 2

− (d 2 − d1 )
2 2 gd1 d 2

(d 2 + d1 )(d 2 − d1 )  (d 2 + d1 )2 
2 2
= − (d 2 − d1 ) =  − 1
4d1 d 2  4 d d
1 2 

11
 12

 d 2 2 + d 1 2 + 2d1 d 2 − 4d1 d 2  [d 2 − d1 ]
3
= (d 2 − d1 )  = (d 2 − d1 ) =
 4 d d
1 2  4d1 d 2

hL =
[d 2 − d1 ]
3

4d 1 d 2

b) Derive the expression for depth of hydraulic jump in terms or .

Upstream Froude Number:

V1 = Velocity of flow on the upstream side.

d = depth of flow on upstream side.
Froude number (Fe)1 on the upstream side of the jump is given by,

V1
(Fe1 ) =
gd 1

The depth of flow after the hydraulic jump is d2 and it is given by.

d1  8V1 
2 2 2 2
d1 d1 2V1 d1 d1
d2 = − + + =− +  1+ 
2 4 g 2 4  gd1 

2
d d 8V
= − 1 + 1 1+ 1
2 2 gd1

2
V1 2 V
(Fe )1 = (or )(Fe )1 = 1
gd1 gd1

d1 d1 d
d2 = − + 1 + 8(Fe )1 = 1  1 + 8(Fe )1 − 1
2 2
Subs in
2 2 2  

12
 13

2) The depth of flow of water, at a certain section of a rectangular channel of 2m

wide, is 0.3m. The discharge through the channel is 1.5 m3 /S. Determine whether a
hydraulic jump will occur, if 2, find its height and loss of energy per kg of water.

Given,
d1 = 0.3 m Q = 1.5 m3/s.
b = 2m

Q 1.5
Discharge per unit width, q = = = 0.75m 2 / s
b 2.0

Hydraulic jump will occur if the depth of flow on the upstream side is less then
the critical depth on upstream side or if the froude number on the upstream side is more
then one.

1/ 3 1/ 3
 q2   0.75 2 
Critical depth, hc =   =   = 0.3859
 g   9.81 
Now the depth on the upstream side is 0.3 m. This depth less then critical depth
and hence hydraulic jump will occur.

2
d d1 2q 2
The depth of flow d2 = − 1 + +
2 4 gd1

0.3 0.32 2 × 0.75 2

=− − + = −1.5 + 0.0255 + 0.3822
2 4 9.81× 0.3

= −0.15 + 0.6362 = 0.4862 m

∴ Height of hydraulic jump = = d 2 − d 1 = 0.4862 − 0.3 = 0.1862m

Loss of energy per kg of water due to hydraulic jump is

(d 2 − d1 )2 [0.4862 − 0.3]3 0.1862 3

hL = = =
4d 1 d 2 4 × 0.4862 × 0.3 4 × 0.4862 × 0.3

= 0.01106 m - kg/kg.

13
 14

3) A sluice gate discharge water into a horizontal rectangular channel wit a velocity
of 6 m/s and depth of flow is 0.4m. the width of the channel is 8m. Determine
whether a hydraulic jump will occur, and if so, find its height and loss of energy per
kg of water. /Also determine the power lost in the hydraulic jump

Given,

Velocity of flow, V1 = 6 m/s. b=8m

d1 = 0.4 m.

Q V1 × area V1 × d 1 × b
q= = = = V1 × d 1 = 6 × 0.4
b b b

= 2.4 m2 /s
Froude number on the upstream side,

V1 6.0
(Fe )1 = = = 3.0289= 3.029
gd1 9.81× 0.4
As froude number is more then one, the flow is shooting on the upstream side.
Shooting flow is unstable flow and it will convert itself into streaming flow by raising its
height and hence hydraulic jump will take place.

ii. Let the depth of hydraulic jump = d2

d2 =
d1
2
2
+ 1 + 8(Fe )1 − 1 =
0 .4
2
( 1 + 8 × 3.029 − 1)
2

= 1.525 m.

∴ Ht jof hydraulic jump d 2 − d 1 = 1.525 − 0.4 = 1.125m

iii. Loss of energy per kg of water

hL =
(d 2 − d1 )
3

=
[1.525 − 0.4]3 = 0.5835m − kg / kg of water
4d1 d 2 4 × 0.4 × 1.525

pg × Q × hL
iv Power lost in KW = , where Q = V x area
1000

V1 × d1 × b = 6 × 0.4 × 8 = 19.2m 3 / s
1000 × 9.81 × 19.2 × 0.5835
∴ Power, P = = 109.9 Kw.
1000

14
 15

4) What are the elements and characteristics of a Hydraulic jump?

The following quantities are generally known s the elements of the hydraulic
jump:

7. Pre-ump depth y1
8. Post-jump depth y2
9. Ht of the jump, Hj = y2-y1
10. Length of the jump, Lj = 5 Hj
11. Specific energies before and after the jump (E1 – E2).
12. Loss of energy (∆E) in the jump

The following dimension less quantities are generally known as the characteristics
of the jump:

1. Relative loss (∆E/E1): It is defined as the ratio of energy loss and the specified
energy before the jump.

∆E =
( y 2 − y1 )
3

4 y1 y 2

3
 y2 
 − y 1 
∆E
=  1 
y
y1 y (1)
4 2
y1
2
V
E1 = y1 + 1
2g

2 2
E1 V F
=1+ 1 =1+ 1 ` (2)
y1 2 gy1 2

y2 1 
= 1 + 8F1 − 1
2
  (3)
y1 2 

3
 1 + 8F 2 − 3
∆E  1

from 1,2-3 equations =
E1 8 f + 2  1 − 8F 2 − 1 
2
( )
1
 1


15
 16

The relative loss being a ratio of energies is dimensionless.

E 
2. Efficiency of the jump  2  : The ratio of the specific energies after and before
 E1 
the jump is known as the efficiency of the jump. The efficiency may be expressed in
terms Froude number F1, thus

(
E 2 1 + 8 F1 + 1
=
2
)
3/ 2
− 4 F1
2

E1 2
8 F1 2 + 8 F1(2
)
3. Relative Height of the Jump (Hj/E1); The height of the jump is defined as
difference between the depths after and before the jump

H j = y 2 − y1

Since E1 is the specific energy per unit weight of liquid, it has the dimensions of
length and hence jump heat may be made dimensionless be dividing it by E1

y2
−1
H j y 2 − y1 y1 H 2
1 + 8 F1 − 3
= = ⇒ j
=
E1 E1 E1 / y 1 E1 2 + F1
2

5. What are the various types of hydraulic jumps?

For jumps I n which the y e / y1 is not greater than 2.0, the liquid surface does not
rise abruptly and has a number of undulations of gradually diminishing size. Such jump
is called a san undular jump.

For y 2 / y1 = 2, the upstream Froude number F1 = 3 . This fixes the upper limit
of F1 for undular jumps.

For higher values of y 2 / y1 ( y 2 / y1 > 2 and consequently F1 > 3 ) the liquid

surface rises fairly abruptly and the hydraulic jump then is known as a direct jump.

16
 17

The United States Bureau of Reclamation has classified the jump into the
following fize categories, depending upon the magnitude of the Froude number of the
approaching flow F1 surface undulations.

1. UNDULAR JUMP: The Froude number F1 ranges from 1 to 1.7 and the liquid
surface shows undulations of gradually decreasing size.

2. WEAK JUMP: F1 ranges from 1.7 to 2.5, number of small rulers appear on
the surface of the jump, and the downstream liquid surface remains smooth. The energy
loss in the jump is low.

17
 18

3. OSCILLATING JUMP: For F1 ranging between 2.5 to 4.5, there is an oscillating jet
which enters the jump bottom and oscillates to the surface. Each oscillation produces a
large wave of irregular period and does extensive damage to the canal bed and banks
while traveling miles downstream.

4. STEADY JUMP: This type of jump occurs in the Froude number range of 4.5 to 9.0.
The fluctuations in the tail water depth have a very little effect on the position and the
action of the jump. The energy dissipation may be in the range of 45 to 70%.

5. STRONG JUMP: For Froude number greater than 9.0, the surface down stream of
the jump is rough and the energy dissipation may be upto 85%.

18
 19

6) Briefly explain positive surge moving downstream and upstream?

Positive surge moving downstream simulated steady flow.

Absolute velocity V1 Depth after surge (jump) y2

Approach velocity (Vw-V1) velocity after surge (jump) (Vw-V2)
Approach depth y1

The continuity equation is,

A1 (Vw − V1 ) = A2 (Vw − V2 )

By considering unit width of the rectangular channel,.

y1 (Vw − V1 ) = y 2 (Vw − V2 )
By application of momentum equation

(Vw − V1 )2 1 y2  y2 
=  + 1
gy1 2 y1  y1 

19
 20

POSITIVE SURGE MOVING UPSTREAM.

This kind of surge occurs on the upstream of a slice gate when the gate is closed
suddenly and in the phenomenon of tidal tores. (In a tidal rive, a rising tide in the sea
causes a surge to form, known as tidal tore, which travels upstream raising the dept of
water in the river).

The continuity equation is A1 (Vw − V1 ) = A2 (Vw − V2 )

For unit width of the rectangular channel

y1 (Vw + V1 ) = y 2 (Vw + V2 )
Initial velocity (Vw + V1 ) Final velocity (Vw + V2 )
Initial depth y1 Depth after surge y2

(Vw + V1 )2 1  y  y 
=  2 1 + 2 
gy1 2  y1  y1 
Other form of equation:

(Vw − V2 )2 1 y1  y 
= 1 + 1 
gy 2 2 y2  y2 

(or)

(Vw + V2 )2 1 y1  y 
= 1 + 1 
gy 2 2 y2  y2 

20
 21

7 a) A 2.0 m wide rectangular channel has a flow with a velocity of 2m/s and depth
of 1.3m. The rate of inflow at the upstream and is suddenly increased of an extent
that the depth is doubled in magnitude. Estimate the absolute velocity of the
resetting surge and the new discharge.

Solution:
Conditions of relative steady flow are simulated by adding the velocity -Vω
vertically (ie) to the left in fig.

Surge moving downstream.

y1 = 1.30m, y2 = 2.60m, V1 = 2m/s

1/ 2
Vω − V1 1 y  y2 
=  2  + 1
gy1 2  y1  y1 

1/ 2
1 
Vω − 2 = 9.81 × 1.3  × 2 × (2 + 1) = 6.185
2 

Vω-2 = 8.185 m/s. (in simulated flow).

The surge moves downstream with a velocity of 8.185 m/s.

By continuity equation: y1 (Vω − V1 ) = y 2 (Vω − V2 )

1.3(8.185 − 2) = 2.6(8.185 − V2 )

V2 = 8.185 − 3.0925 = 5.093m / s

New discharge Q2 = By 2V2
= 2 × 2.6 × 5.093
= 26.484 m3 /s

21
 22

7. B) A rectangular channel is discharging 1.60 m3 /s per metre width at a depth of

0.8 m, If a sudden release of flow at the upstream end double the discharge intensity,
determine the absolute velocity of the resulting surge and the new depth.

Solution:
1 .6
Y1 = 0.8 m V1 = = 2 .0 m / s
0.8

3.2
V2 y 2 = 2 × 1.6 = 3.2 ⇒ V2 =
y2

By continuity equation: y1 (Vω − V1 ) = y 2 (Vω − V2 )

0.8(Vω − 2.0 ) = Vω y 2 − 3.2

Vω − ( y 2 − 0.8) = 1.6

Vω = 1.6 / ( y 2 − 0.8)
Surge equation,

2
 1.6 
 − 2.0 
=
(V ω − V1
2
) =
1 y2  y 
1 + 2  =  2
y − 0.8 
gy1 2 y1  y1  9.81 − 0.8
2
1 y2  y   3.2 − 2 y 2 
= 1 + 2  =   = 6.131y 2 (0.8 + y 2 )
2 0.8  0.8   y 2 − 0.8 
By trial & Gror, y2 = 1.088m.

3.2 3.2
V2 = = = 2.941 m / s
y 2 1.088

1.6
Vω = = 5.556 m / s
(1.088 − 0.8)
Vω = +5.556 m / s in simulated flow.

Hence the surge moves downstream with a velocity of 5.556 m/s.

22
 23

8. Give a brief note on surge tanks.

Whenever a value, fitted at the end of a pipe is suddenly closed, it causes hammer
flow is in the pipeline. Moreover, in hydro-electric power plants, since the requirement
of water goes on changing it is therefore, essential to increase or decrease the discharge
flowing through the pipe line.

A little consideration will show that whenever the requirement of water is

suddenly decreased, the valve is suddenly closed as a result of which the entire pipe
length between the reservoir and the turbine will experience on increased pressure.

In order to overcome the above mentioned problems, a storage reservoir is fitted

at some opening made on the pipeline (Called pen-stock ) in order to store water when
the valve is suddenly closed, or to discharge water when increased discharge is required.
Such a storage reservoir is called surge tank, which has the following two functions:

1. To control the pressure variations, due to rapid changes in the pipeline flow,
thus eliminating water hammer possibilities.
2. To regulate the flow of water to the turbines by providing necessary retarding
head of water.

23
 24

The surge tanks are placed as close to the turbine as possible, the height of surge
tank is generally kept above the maximum water level in the supply level reservoir.
Though these are many types of surge tanks, yet the following are important from the
sulycat point of view.

1. Simple surge tank,

2. Restricted orifice type surge tank.
3. Differential surge tank.

9. A tidal estuary is flowing at the rate of 6.5 Km/hr and a depth of 2m. Owing to
the tide in these, the level rapidly rase and the resulting surge or ‘bore’ took one
hour to reach a spot 22.5 m up the stream. Compute the height of the bore above
the initial depth of flow. What speed and direction will the flow have after the bore
has passed?

6.5 × 1000
V1 = = 1.805m / s
60 × 60
y1 = 2m

22.5 × 1000
Vω = = 6.25m / s
60 × 60

gy 2
V1 + C = ( y1 + y 2 )
2 y1

Replacing C by V0

gy 2
V1 + Vω = ( y1 + y 2 )
2 y1

9.81y 2 (2 + y 2 )
1.805 + 6.25 =
2× 2

9.81y 2 (2 + y 2 ) 54.8 × 4
(8.055)2 = ⇒ = y 2 (2 + y 2 )
2× 2 9.81

2
y 2 + 2 y 2 − 26.47 = 0

24
 25

2 ± 4 + 105.88
y2 = − = 4.24m
2
Let of the bore = y 2 − y1 = 4.24 − 2.0 = 2.24m

Flow taken in by the bore = ( A2 − A1 )Vω

= 2.24 × 6.25m 3 / s / m width

= 14.4m 3 / s / m width.

Normal flow in the river = 2.0 × 1.805 = 3.61m 3 / s / m width

Net flow in the direction of bore = 14.0 − 3.61 = 10.391m 3 / s / m

10.39 10.39
Speed of flow after the bore has passed = = = 2.475m / s
y2 4.24

The direction of flow is opposite to the normal direction of flow.

10) A horizontal rectangular channel of 3m width and 2m water depth conveys

water at 18 m3/s. If the flow rate is suddenly reduced to 2/3 of its original value,
compute the magnitude and speed of the upstream ward surge. Assume that the
front of the surge is rectangular and friction in the channel is neglected.

Solution:

When the discharge in the channel is suddenly reduced by operating a

gate, an upstream surge will be developed which will move upstream with a celerity C as
shown. A observer standing on the canal bank will notice the surge moving upstream.
This unsteady flow case can be transformed into a steady one by super imposing flow
with velocity C in the opposite direction.

The continuity equation may be written as,

by1 (V1 + C ) = by 2 (V 2 + C ) (or) y1 (V1 + C ) = y 2 (V 2 + C )

25
 26

Momentum equation,

by1 2 by
2
2
y 2 − y1 =(g
)
y1 (V1 + C )(V1 − V2 ) (or)

2 y1
(y 2
2
− y1 =
2
) g
(V1 + C )(V1 − V2 )
From the data given,

2 2 × 18
y1 = 2m, Q1 = 18 m3 /s. Q2 = Q1 = = 12m 3 / s
3 3

Q1 18
V1 = = = 3m / s Q2 = by 2V2
by1 3 × 2

12
∴ V2 y 2 = = 4m 3 / s / m
3
from the continuity equation,

V1 y1 = V2 y 2 + C ( y 2 − y1 )

2
3 × 2 = 4C ( y 2 − y1 ) (or) C =
y2 − 2

Substituting in the momentum equation,

2× 2
(y 2
2
−4 =) 9.81
(3 + C )(3 − V2 )

 2  4 
y 2 − 4 = 0.41 3 +  3 − 
2

 y 2 − 2  y2 

4
Solving by trials, y 2 = 2.8m, & V2 = = 1.4286m / s.
2.8
Heat of surge = y 2 − y1 = 2.8 − 2.0 = 0.8m
2
Celerity of surge, C = = 2.5m / s.
2.8 − 2

26
 1

CE2253- APPLIED HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING

(FOR IV – SEMESTER)

UNIT – V PUMPS AND TURBINES

Compiled by,

M.SUGANYA., B.E.,
LECTURER
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
FATIMA MICHAEL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
MADURAI

COMPILED BY VERIFIED BY HOD

AI PRINCIPAL
 2

CONTENTS

S.NO 2 MARKS PAGE NO

1. Define momentum principle (or) state momentum principle. 5
2. Give the Impulse – momentum equation. 5
3. What is impact of jet? 5
4. What are the cases to be considered in the impact of jet? 6
5. Define hydraulic machines. 6
6. What are turbines and pumps? 6
7. Give the working of turbines. 6
8. What are the general layouts of a hydroelectric power plant? 7
9. Define Gross head and net head. 7
Give a neat sketch of layout of a HYDRO ELECTRIC
10. 7
POWER PLANT
11. What is impulse and reaction turbine? 8
12. What are the different flows types of a turbine? 8
13. What do you know about pelton wheel and its parts? 8
14. List out the important efficiencies of a turbine. 8
15. Give the formula for Hydraulic and mechanical efficiency? 8
16. What is overall efficiency and volumetric efficiency? 9
17. What is centrifugal pump and reciprocating pump? 9
18. What is slip and negative slip of a reciprocating pump? 9
What is an indicator diagram and what is the use of air
19. 9
vessels?
20. Sketch the main parts of a reciprocating pump. 10
 3

S.NO 16 MARKS PAGENO

1 What are the design aspects of pelton wheel turbine? 10
2 Define Radial flow reaction turbine? 11
3 Briefly explain axial flow reaction turbine? 15
4 What are the formulas used for Francis turbine? 16
5 What is draft tube given its purpose and types? 17
Give the significance and definition for specific speed and
6 19
explain unit quantities or performance of turbine.
7 Sketch the characteristics curves of hydraulic turbines. 20
8 What is cavitation given its effects and precautions? 23
What are pumps and give the formulas used for centrifugal
9 pump? 24

What are the different heads and efficiencies of a centrifugal

10 25
pump?
 4

UNIT V

PUMPS AND TURBINES

Application of momentum principle – Impact of jets on plane and curved plates - turbines
- classification - radial flow turbines - axial flow turbines – Impulse and Reaction
turbines - draft tube and cavitations - performance of turbines - similarity laws -
centrifugal pump - minimum speed to start the pump – multistage Pumps – Jet and
submersible pumps - Positive displacement pumps - reciprocating pump - negative slip -
flow separation conditions - air vessels -indicator diagram and its variation - savings in
work done - rotary pumps.

TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1) Define momentum principle (or) state momentum principle.

It states that the net force acting on a fluid mass is equal to the change in
momentum of flow per unit time in that direction. The force acting on a fluid mass ‘m’ is
given by Newton’s second law of motion.
F =m x a
Acceleration acting in the same direction as force F

2) Give the Impulse – momentum equation.

dv
a=
dt
dv  mv 
F=m =d  
dt  dt 

F= d  
mv
 dt 
This equation is known as the momentum principle.
F.dt= d (mv)
This is known as the impulse momentum equation and status that the impulse of a force
F acting on a fluid of mass m in a short interval of time dt is equal to the change of
momentum d(mv) in the direction of force.

3) What is impact of jet?

Impact of jet means the force exerted by the jet on a plate which may be
stationary or moving.
 5

4) What are the cases to be considered in the impact of jet?

The following cases of the impact of jet ie, the force exerted by the jet on a plate,
will be considered,
A) Force exerted by the jet on a stationary plate when
i) Plate is vertical to the jet
ii) Plate is inclined to the jet
iii) Plate is curved.

B) Force exerted by the jet on a moving plate,

i) Plate is vertical to the jet
ii) Plate is inclined to the jet
iii) Plate is curved.

5) Define hydraulic machines.

Hydraulic machines are defined as those machines which convert either hydraulic
energy (energy possessed by water) into mechanical energy (which is further converted
into electrical energy) or mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.

6) What are turbines and pumps?

Turbine:
The hydraulic machines which convert the hydraulic energy into mechanical
energy are called turbines.Ex: pelton, Francis, Kaplan turbine.
Pumps:
A hydraulic machine which convert the mechanical energy into hydraulic energy
is called energy is called pumps.Ex: Centrifugal pump, reciprocating pump.

7) Give the working of turbines.

Turbines are defined as the hydraulic machines which convert hydraulic energy
into mechanical energy. This mechanical energy is used in running an electric generator
which is directly coupled to the shaft of the turbine. Thus the mechanical energy is
converted into electrical energy. The electric power which is obtained from the hydraulic
energy is known as hydro electric power. At present the generation of hydro electric
power is the cheapest as compared by the power generated by other sources such as oil,
coals etc.
 6

8) What are the general layouts of a hydroelectric power plant?

It consists of:
1) A dam constructed across a river to store water.
2) Pipe of large diameter called penstocks, which carry water under pressure from
the storage reservoir to the turbines. These pipes are made of steel or reinforced
concrete.
3) Turbine shaving different types if vanes fitted to the wheels
4) Tail race, which is a channel which carries water away from the turbines after the
water has worked on the turbines. The surface of water in the tail race is also
known as tailrace.

9) Define Gross head and net head.

Gross head:

The difference between the head race level and tailrace level when no water is
flowing is known as Gross head. It is denoted by ‘Hg’.

Net head:

It is also called effective head and is defined as the head available at the limit of
the turbine. When water is flowing from head race to the turbine, a loss of head due to
friction between the water and penstocks occurs.

H=Hg-hf Hg = Gross head

V = Velocity of flow in penstock
2
Hf = 4 xfxLxV L= Length of penstock
Dx 2 g
D= Diameter of penstock.

10) Give a neat sketch of layout of a HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER PLANT.

 7

11) What is impulse and reaction turbine?

Impulse Turbine:

If at the inlet of turbine the energy available is only kinetic energy, the turbine is
known as Impulse turbine.
Reaction turbine:
If at the inlet of turbine, water possesses kinetic energy as well as pressure energy
the turbine is known as Reaction turbine.

12) What are the different flows types of a turbine?

• Tangential flow turbine

• Radial flow turbine
• Inward radial flow turbine
• Outward radial flow turbine
• Axial flow
• Mixed flow

13) What do you know about pelton wheel and its parts?

Pelton wheel is a tangential flow impulse turbine.

1) Water strikes the bucket along the tangent of the runner.
2) Kinetic energy
3) Turbine used for high heads.
Parts:
1) Nozzle & flow regulating arrangement
2) Runner & bucket
3) casing
4) Breaking jet

14) List out the important efficiencies of a turbine.

• Hydraulic efficiency
• Mechanical efficiency
• Volumetric efficiency
• Over all efficiency

15) Give the formula for Hydraulic and mechanical efficiency?

RP
Hydraulic efficiency η h =
WP
RP – runner power
WP- water power
SP- Shaft power.
 8

Mechanical efficiency η m

SP
ηm =
RP

16) What is overall efficiency and volumetric efficiency?

Overall efficiency:

SP
η0 =
WP

η0 = ηn x ηm

Volumetric efficiency:

η v = Volume of water at runner/Volume of water at inlet

17) What is centrifugal pump and reciprocating pump?

If the mechanical energy is converted into hydraulic energy by means of

centrifugal force acting on liquid the pump is known as centrifugal pump.

If the mechanical energy is converted into hydraulic energy by sucking the liquid
into a cylinder in which a Piston is reciprocating (Moving backwards and
forwards)which exerts the thrust on liquid an increases its hydraulic energy is known as
reciprocating pump.

18) What is slip and negative slip of a reciprocating pump?

The slip of a pump is defined as the difference between the theoretical and actual
discharge of pump. The actual discharge of the pump is less than the theoretical discharge
due to leakage.

If the actual discharge is more than the theoretical discharge the slip of the pump
will become negative. In that case the slip of pump is known as negative slip. This occurs
delivery pipe is short, suction pipe is long and pump is running at high speed.

19) What is an indicator diagram and what is the use of air vessels?

The indicator diagram is a graph between the pressure head in the cylinder and the
distance traveled by the piston from inner dead center for one complete revolution of the
crank.
 9

Air vessels are used to obtain a continuous supply of water at uniform rate, to save a
considerable amount of work and to run the pump at high speed without separation.

20) Sketch the main parts of a reciprocating pump.

The main parts are:
• Cylinder with a piston, piston rod, connecting rod and a crank
• Suction pipe
• Delivery pipe
• Suction valve
• Delivery valve

16 Marks Questions and Answers

1) What are the design aspects of pelton wheel turbine?

The design aspects are:

1. Velocity of jet at inlet

V1= Cv 2 gh
Cv= coefficient of velocity =0.98 or 0.99
H – Net head of turbine.

2. Velocity of wheel or peripheral velocity

πDN
u= or u = 2 gh
60
ϕ Speed ratio =0.43 to 0.48

3. Angle of deflection of jet in taken as 1650 if not given

4. Mean diameter of wheel D can be found from

πDN 60u
u= or D=
60 πn
 10

5. Jet ratio (m): it is defined as the ratio of the pitch diameter (D) of the pelton
wheel to the diameter of jet (d).It is denoted by m
D
m=
d

6. Number of buckets or vanes on a runner:

Z = 15 +0.5m
M – Jet ratio

7. Number of jets:
Totalrateofflowthroughtheturbine
n=
rateofflowofwaterthrougha sin glejet

2. Define Radial flow reaction turbine?

Radial flow turbines are those functions I which the water flows in the
radial direction. Reaction turbine means that the water at inlet of turbine possesses
kinetic as well as pressure energy.
• Outward radial flow turbine ---- water flows from outwards to inwards
• Reaction turbine ------------------ Water at inlet possess kinetic energy as
well as pressure energy.
Casing and runner is always full of water.

Main parts of Radial flow reaction turbine:

1. Casing
2. Guide mechanism.
3. Runner
4. Draft tube (tube of increasing area used for discharge water from exist
Of turbine to the tail race.)
 11

Inward Radial flow turbine:

Outer dia of runner is inlet and inner dia is the outlet.

 12

Work done per second on the runner by water = ρQ = [V w1 V1 ± V w2 V2 ]

πD1 N πD 2 N
U1 = U2 = --------------------------- (2)
60 60
U1= tangential velocity of wheel at inlet
U2 = tangential velocity of wheel at outlet.
D1 = Outer diameter of runner
D2 = Inner diameter of runner.
N = speed of turbine in rpm.

1
Work done per second per unit weight of water /sec = [
V w V1 ± VW 2V 2
g 1
] ----- (3)
If β = 900 then Vw2 =0 then (3) becomes

1
= Vw1U 1
g

R.P Vw1V1 ± Vw 2V 2
ηh = =
WP gH

If discharge is radial at outlet, then Vw2=0

Vw1V1
ηh =
gH

Degree of reaction:
Degree of reaction is defined as the ratio of pressure energy change inside
the runner to the total nergy change inside the runner.

Changeofpressureenergyinsi det herunner

R=
Changethetotalenergyinsi det herunner

This is also known as change of total energy per unit weight inside the runner.

He = 1/g[Vw1U1 ± Vw2U2]

V1
1. Speed ratio Kv =
2 gH
V f1
2. Flow ratio Kf =
2 gH

3. Discharge of the turbine Q = πD1 B1 xVf 1

= πD 2 B 2 xVf 2
 13

D1 = diameter of runner at inlet.

B1 = Width of runner at inlet.
Vf1 = velocity of flow at inlet.
D2, B2, Vf2 = outlet.

4) If thicknesses of vanes are considered:

Area = ( π D1 – n t) B1
N= Number of vanes or runner.
t=thickness of each vane.

Q = ( π D1-nt) B1 x Vf1

5) Head on the turbine

P1 V1 2
H= +
ρg 2 g
6) Radial discharge:
This means the angle made by absolute velocity with the tangent on the wheel is
0
90 and the component of the wheel velocity is zero.
Radial discharge at outlet = β = 90 0 , VW2 = 0
7) If there is no loss of energy when water flow through vanes, then,

H −V 22 1
= [Vw1 ± Vw2V 2 ]
2g g
 14

3) Briefly explain axial flow reaction turbine:

If the water flows parallel to the axis of the rotation of the shaft, the turbine is
known as axial flow turbine. And if the head at inlet of the turbine is the sum of pressure
energy and kinetic energy and during the flow of water through runner a part of pressure
energy is converted into kinetic energy, the turbine is known as reaction turbine.
For the axial flow reaction turbine, the shaft of the turbine is vertical, the lower
end of the shaft is made larger which is known as “hub “or “boss”.
The following are the important type of axial flow reaction turbines:
1. Propeller turbine.
2. Kaplan turbine.
The main parts of Kaplan turbine are:
1. Scroll casing
2. Guide vanes mechanism
3. Hub with vanes or runner of the turbine.
4. Draft tube.
(D02 – Db2) x V f1
π
Q=
4
D0 = outer diameter of the runner
Db =diameter of hub
Vf1 =Velocity of flow inlet.

2. Peripheral velocity at inlet and outlet are equal:

πD0 N
V1 = V2 = , D0 = outer diameter of runner.
60
3. Velocity of flow at inlet and outlet are equal.

Vf1= Vf2
4. Area of flow at inlet = Area of flow at outlet
N p
(D02 –Db2)
π
5. Specific speed Ns = 5
=
4
H 4
 15

4) What are the formulas used for Francis turbine?

Inward flow reaction turbine having radial discharge at outlet is known as Francis
turbine.
In modern Francis turbine, the water enters the runner of the turbine in the radial
direction at outlet and leaves in the axial direction at the inlet of the runner. Thus the
modern Francis turbine is a mixed flow type turbine.

Inward flow Reaction turbine velocity triangles =Francis turbine

But, Vw2= 0

1) Work done by water on the runner/sec = ρ Q (Vw1 V1)

1
2) Work done /S/ unit weight of water striking/s = (Vw1 V1)
g
Vw1U 1
3) Hydraulic efficiency = η h =
gH
Vf 1
4) Flow ratio = ≈ 0.15to0.3
2 gH
u1
5) Speed ratio = = 0.6to0.9
2 gH
B1
6) Ratio of width of wheel to its diameter n = ≈ 0.1to0.4
D1

Outward radial flow reaction turbine:

 16

The inner diameter of the runner is inlet

Outer diameter of the runner is outlet.
Here,
U1 <U2
D1 < D2

5) What is draft tube given its purpose and types?

The pressure at the exit of runner of the reaction turbine is les than atmospheric
pressure.
Thus the water at the exit of the runner cannot be directly discharged to the tail
race channel.
The draft tube is a pipe of gradually increasing area which connects the outlet of
the runner to the tail race. It is used for discharging water from exist of the turbine to the
tail race. This pipe of gradually increasing area is called a draft tube.
One end of the draft tube is connected to the outlet of the runner while the other
end is submerged below the level of water in the tail race.

Purpose of draft tube:

1. Serves as a passage for water discharge.

2. It permits a negative head to be established at outlet of the runner and thereby
increase the heat head on the turbine. The turbine may be placed above the tail race with
out any loss of net head and hence turbine may by inspect properly.
3. It converts a large proportion of kinetic energy (V2/2g) rejected at the outlet of
turbine into useful pressure energy. Without at the draft tube, the kinetic energy rejected
at the outlet of the turbine will go waste to the tail race.
Hence by using draft tube, the net head on the turbine, increases the turbine
develops more power and also the efficiency of the turbine increases.

Type of draft tube:

• Conical
• Simple elbow
• Moody spreading tubes
• Elbow draft tubes with circular inlet and rectangular outlet.

Most efficient

• Conical draft tube

• Moody spreading

Require less space

• Simple elbow
• Elbow draft tubes with circular inlet and rectangular outlet.
 17

p1 Pa  V 12 V 2 2 
= − Hs − − −hf 
ρg ρg  2g 2g 
 

Efficiency of draft tube:

ηd =

V1 = velocity of water at inlet of draft tube.

V2= Velocity of water at outlet of Draft tub.
Hf= Head loss in the draft tube.
 18

6) Give the significance and definition for specific speed and explain unit
quantities or performance of turbine.

It is defined as the speed of a turbine which is identical in shape, geometrical

dimensions blade angles, gate opening etc, with the actual turbine but of such a size that
it will develop unit power when working under unit head. It is denoted by symbol
Ns.The specific speed is used in comparing the different types of turbine as every type
of turbine has different specific speed.

N p
Ns = 5
H 4

Where,
N= Speed of actual turbine.
P= power developed
H = Head under which the turbine is working.

Significance of specific speed:

Specific speed plays an important role for selecting the type of the turbine.
Performance of a turbine can be predicted by knowing the specific speed of the turbine.

s.no Specific speed in Rpm Type of turbine

1 8.5 to 30 Pelton wheel with singe jet
2 30 to 51 Pelton wheel with two jet
3 51 to 255 Francis turbine
4 255 to 860 Kaplan or propeller turbine

Performance of turbine or unit quantities:

In order to predict the behaviors of a turbine working under varying

conditions of hrad,speed,output and gate opening the result are expressed in terms of
quantities which may be attained when the head on the turbine is reduced to unity.
1. Unit speed
2. Unit Discharge
3. Unit power.
Unit speed:
Speed of a turbine working under a unit head.
N
Nu =
H
Unit discharge:

Discharge passing through a turbine which is working under a unit head.

Q
Qu =
H
 19

Unit power:

Power developed by a turbine which is working under unit head.

P
Pu = 3
H 2

Use of unit quantities:

If a turbine is working under different head,the behavioue ofd a turbine
can be easily known form the values of unit quantity.

H1,H2 ----- heads under which a turbine works.

N1,N2 ----- Cooresponding speeds
Q1,Q2 -------- discharge.
P1,P2 ------ Power developed by the turbine.

N1 N2
Nu = =
H1 H2

Q1 Q2
Qu = =
H1 H2

P1 P2
P u= 3
= 3
H1 2 H22

7) Sketch the characteristics curves of hydraulic turbines.

With the help of characteristics curves the exact behavior and performance
of the turbine under different condition can be known. These curves are platted from
the results of the test, performed on the turbine under different working condidtion.the
important parameters which are varied during a test on turbine are:

1. Speed (N)
2. Head (H)
3. Discharge (Q)
4. Power (P)
5. Overall efficiency ( η )
6. Gate opening

(H) Main characteristic curves (or) Constant Head curve

(N) Operating characteristic curve (or) Constant sped curve
( η ) Muschel curves (or) Constant efficiency curve.
20
 21

Operating characteristic curves (or) Constant speed curves:

These curves are platted when the speed on the turbine is constant.
It is defined as the speed of the turbine which is identical in slope geometrical
dimension blade angle; gate opening etc is the actual turbine such a size that it will
develop unit power when working under head. It is denoted by symbol Ns.

N p
Ns = 5
H 4

N – Speed of the actual turbine

P --- Power developed
H --- Head under which the turbine is working.
 22

8) What is cavitation given its effects and precautions?

Cavitation:
The phenomenon of formation of vapour bubbles of a flowing liquid in a
region where the pressure of the liquid falls below its vapour pressure and sudden
collapsing of vapour bubbles in a region of high pressure.

Precaution against cavitation:

The pressure of the flowing liquid in any part of his hydraulic system
should not be allowed to fall below its vapour pressure. If the following liquid is water
then the absolute pressure head should not be below 2.5m of water.

The special materials r coating such as aluminum bronze and stainless

steel, which are cavitation resistant materials, should be used.

Effect of cavitation:

The following are the effects of cavitations:

i) Metallic surfaces are damaged and cavities are formed on the surfaces.
ii) Due to sudden collapse of vapour bubble, considerable nouie and vibrations
are produced.
iii) The efficiency of a turbine decreases due to cavitation and due to pitting
action the surface of the turbine blades become rough and the force exerted by
water on the turbine blades decreases.

THOMA’S cavitation factor for reaction turbine:

H b − H s (H atm − H v ) − H s
σ = =
H H
Hb-(Hatm- Hv) ---- Barometric pressure head in m of water
Hatm ----------- - atm pressure head in m of water.
Hv --------------- Vapour pressure head in m of water.
Hs -------------- Suction at the outlet of reaction turbine in m of water. or height of
turbine runner above the tail water surface.
H --------------- Net head on the turbine in m.

Thoma’s cavitation factor σ is compared with critical cavitation factor for the
type of turbine.
If σ ≥ σ c cavitation will not occur.
2
 Ns 
For Francis turbine σ c = 0.625  
 380.78 
σ = 431 x 10-8Ns2
 1  Ns  3 
For propeller turbine σ c =0.281 +    
 7.5  380.78  
 23

9) What are pumps and give the formulas used for centrifugal pump?

Hydraulic machines which convert the mechanical energy into hydraulic

energy are called pumps.
The hydraulic energy in the farm of pressure energy. If the mechanical
energy is converted into pressure energy by means of centrifugal force acting on a
fluid, the hydraulic machine is called centrifugal pump.
Centrifugal pump acts as a reversed of an inward radial flow reaction
turbine. This means that the flow in centrifugal pump is in the radial outward
directions.

Main parts of centrifugal pump:

1. Impeller
2. Casing
3. Suction pipe with a float value and a strainer
4. Delivery pipe.
 24

Centrifugal pump is a reverse of a radially inward flow reaction on turbine:

1. Work done by the impeller on water per

Second per unit weight of water = Work done increase of turbine
Striking per second.

1  1
=  (VW1U 1 − VW 2U 2 ) = [Vw 2U 2 − Vw1U 1 ]
g  g
= 1/g Vw2u2
w
2. Work done per sec = Vw2U 2
g
3. W= Weight of the water w= ρgQ
Q = volume of water
4. Q = A x VQ = π D1B1 x Vf 1
= π D2B2Vf2

10) What are the different heads and efficiencies of a centrifugal pump?

Suction head (hs):

It is the vertical height of the centre line of the centrifugal pump above his
water surface in the tank or pump from which water is to be lifted. The height is also
called as suction lift and denoted by ‘hs’.

Delivery head (hd):

The vertical distance between the centre line of the pump and the water
surface in the tank to where water is delivered is known as delivery head.

Static head (hs):

The sum of suction head and delivery head is known as static head.

H s = hs + hd

Manometric head (hm):

The manometric head is defined as the head against which a centrifugal

pump has to work.

(i) Hm = Head imported by the impeller to water – loss of head on the pump.

(ii) Hm= Vw2u2/g – loss of head in impeller and casing.

(iii) Hm= Vw2u2 /g -- if loss of pump is zero.

 25

Hm = Total head at outlet of pump –total head at inlet of the pump.

p V 2   pi vi 2 
Hm=  0 + 0 + Z 0  −  + + zi 

 ρg 2 g  ρg 2 g
   

p0
----- Pr.head at outlet of pump = hd.
ρg

Vo2/2g ---- Velocity head at outlet of pump.

-------- Velocity head in delivery pipe=Vd2/2g

Zo ---------- Vertical heat at the outlet of the pump from datum line.

pi
,vi2/2g,Zi --- Corresponding values of pressure head, velocity head and datum head at
ρg
the inlet of pump.

hs,Vs2/2g & Zs respectively.

(c) Hm = hs+ hd +hfs +hfd +Vd2/2g

Efficiencies of a centrifugal pump:

1. Manometric efficiency

2. Overall efficiency

3. Mechanical efficiency

Manometric efficiency:

Hmg
η man =
Vw2 u 2

Overall efficiency:

(whm )
η o = 1000
sp

Mechanical efficiency:

w
g  Vw2 u 2 
=  
sp  1000
ηm
