Learning Disabilities in Older Adolescents and Adults

Learning Disabilities in Older
Adolescents and Adults

CRITICAL ISSUES IN NEUROPSYCHOLOGY
Series Editors
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University of North Carolina at Wilmington Texas A&M University
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LEARNING DISABILITIES IN OLDER ADOLESCENTS AND ADULTS

Clinical Utility of the Neuropsychological Perspective
Lynda J. Katz, Gerald Goldstein, and Sue R. Beers
MEDICAL NEUROPSYCHOLOGY, Second Edition

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Learning Disabilities in Older
Adolescents and Adults
Clinical Utility of the Neuropsychological
Perspective
Lynda J. Katz
Landmark College
Putney, Vermont
Gerald Goldstein
VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System and
University of Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
and
Sue R. Beers
University of Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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PREFACE
While numerous books have been written on diagnostic practices and interven-
tion strategies for school-age children, much less information is available for the
clinician and educator who works primarily with older adolescents and young
adults who meet criteria for a diagnosis of a specific learning disorder and/or
attention deficit disorder (ADHD). Many psychologists, including the authors of
this book, specialize in the area of neuropsychology. In particular, we have
worked with adolescents and young adults who seek evaluations to determine
the presence a learning disorder more typically diagnosed in childhood because
of the significant negative impact they have begun to experience in their later
academic or vocational career. Because they had not been previously diagnosed
despite, often times, ongoing concerns of parents and significant others, they
come to the attention of clinicians as diagnostic dilemmas in many instances.
Comorbidity issues emerge as these individuals enter the young adult years,
some of which have necessitated treatment at one point or another. Clinicians
who will be sought out to conduct assessments, document the presence of a dis-
ability, and offer recommendations regarding treatment/interventions and rea-
sonable accommodations will be required to have a comprehensive knowledge
of the various aspects of language based learning disorders, what constitutes
nonverbal learning disorders and high functioning autism, and how attention
deficit disorders are typically manifest in adults in order to competently address
the complex diagnostic and treatment issues raised.
This book is an effort to provide a comprehensive review of what we know
about certain of these disorders, specifically, disorders of reading and written
expression, mathematics, nonverbal learning disorders (NVLD), high function-
ing autism, and ADHD, as they manifest in the lives of young adults. It will
readily become apparent to the reader that hotly contested controversies sur-
round the diagnostic methodologies employed across the learning disorders (one
of which is not even categorized in the DSM-IV) and ADHD. In addition, how
to intervene and the effectiveness of any given intervention in the later years of
development and maturity are open for investigation. Much of what we know is
v
vi PREFACE
descriptive in nature as research involving adults has only recently begun to

emerge in the literature. As more work clarifies diagnostic issues in childhood
and the public at large grows increasingly concerned with academic failures in
the high school years and beyond, researchers will be asked to deal with these
concerns as well. In addition, just as many students with diagnosed learning
disorders and/or ADHD have begun to benefit from special education laws or
504 Plans in their elementary and secondary school years, recognition of the
need for ongoing services or accommodations in postsecondary settings and in
the work place have been challenged in the courts. The Boston University deci-
sion as well as several other court cases sent a message to those professionals
involved in the diagnostic process, defining to some degree the nature of docu-
mentation required for disability status under the law.
It was with these concerns in mind that we set out to write this book. Not only
did we want to bring a historical perspective to the subject matter, but we also
wanted to document relevant research including that from areas outside of the
strict domain of neuropsychology (psychopharmacology, educational psychol-
ogy, neurology) in order to give as holistic a picture as possible. Our own neu-
ropsychological training and work experiences color our review to be sure, but
because we attempted to remain true to underlying values concerning the need
for comprehensiveness and ecological validity, we do not apologize for our bias.
The book is divided into five chapters, each one addressing one of the disor-
ders of learning mentioned above. If particular studies pertained to more than
one topical area, we made efforts to refer the reader to the more complete dis-
cussion of that area. Each chapter is divided into sections dealing with historical
perspectives, definitions and diagnostic criteria, incidence and prevalence data,
comorbidity studies, pertinent research from neurophysiology, neuropsychology,
neuroimaging, and psychopharmacology where appropriate, educational psy-
chology and special education studies, reasonable accommodations in academics
as well as the workplace, and outcome data. Obviously, some of the disorders
have been less well researched in the adult literature (e.g., math disorders,
NVLD, autism), but we attempted to provide as thorough a perspective for the
practicing clinician as was possible. We have made efforts also to refer the
reader to more comprehensive reviews on particular aspects of the various dis-
orders when appropriate. Finally, the reference list at the end of the book pro-
vides an excellent resource in its own right. We learned from each other as we
wrote this book; we hope that our readers will have that same experience.
Lynda J. Katz
Gerald Goldstein
Sue R. Beers
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to extend our special thanks to Gladyce Coval, Executive Assistant to

the President of Landmark College (one of the authors, Lynda J. Katz) who
worked tirelessly throughout the production of this book and who assured the
production of our final manuscript. We would also like to acknowledge the
contribution of Dr. Michael McCue, who was an early collaborator on much of
our own research and teaching in the area of adults with learning disability. We
also want to thank our respective organizations, Landmark College, the
Department of Veterans Affairs, and Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic for
their support of this work.
vii
CONTENTS
Reading and Writing Disorders 1
Mathematics Disorder 43
Nonverbal Learning Disability 69
ADHD 105
High Functioning Autism 149
Concluding Thoughts 179
References 185
Index 231
ix
1
READING AND WRITING
DISORDERS
INTRODUCTION
In order to address the disorders of reading and writing as they manifest

themselves in the lives of young adults, it is first necessary to define the
population involved. Defining the population means that we must define the
disorders. However, defining learning disabilities has been one of the most
controversial subjects in the professional literature and remains so today. We
will examine the nature of the controversy and then attempt to establish some
consensus as we approach these two disorders from a clinical
(neuropsychological) perspective. Incidence and prevalence data will be
reviewed in our effort to support the occurrence of these two language based
disorders in young adults. Data will be extrapolated from those found in follow
up studies of individuals diagnosed with a learning disorder in childhood and
survey results from major studies of literacy, transitioning of youth from special
education classes, and college freshmen. A review of neurobiological correlates
and the results from salient neuroanatomical and neuroimaging studies will be
presented as well as issues regarding the use of various diagnostic tools and the
utility of neurospsychological assessment in the evaluation of these disorders.
We shall also look at co-morbidity, psychosocial issues related to adjustment,
appropriate interventions, and the nature of reasonable accommodations both in
academic and workplace settings with these individuals. Finally, we briefly
review outcome studies and what they may tell us in regard to these salient
issues.
1
2 CHAPTER 1
DEFINING LEARNING DISORDERS
Educational Definitions
According to Lyon (1996), while only recognized as a federally designated

handicapping condition in 1968, learning disabilities represent approximately
one half of all children receiving special education services nationally.
Ironically, learning disabilities remain “one of the least understood and most
debated of the disabling conditions that affect children” (p. 3). Arguments over
definition have been continuous from the time that the term learning disabilities
was popularized in the early 1960s, with the dominant definition incorporated
into federal legislation born out of compromise (Adelman and Taylor, 1986).
The Education for all Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (PL-142) provides a
definition based primarily on that proposed by the National Advisory Committee
on Handicapped Children in 1968 and subsequently incorporated into the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990 (IDEA) as follows:
The term specific learning disability means a disorder in one or more of the
basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language,
spoken or written, which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen,
speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. The term includes
such conditions as perceptual handicaps, brain injury, minimal brain
dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. Such terms do not include
children who have learning difficulties which are primarily the result of
visual, hearing, or motor handicaps, of mental retardation, of emotional
disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage (U.S.
Office of Special Education, 1977, p. 6).
Torgeson (1991) wrote that the 1968 definition has at least four major
problems. First, the definition does not indicate that learning disabilities are a
heterogeneous group of disorders; second, the definition fails to recognize the
persistence of learning disabilities into adulthood; third, it does not clearly
specify that the final common path involves inherent alterations in the way
information is processed regardless of the cause. Finally, the definition does not
recognize that individuals with other disabilities or environmental limitations
may have a learning disability (LD) concurrently with these conditions.
In summary, Lyon (1996) stated that the federal definition is “virtually
useless with respect to providing clinicians and researchers with objective
guidelines and criteria for distinguishing individuals with LD from those with
other primary disabilities or generalized learning difficulties” (p. 6). In accord
with Lyon’s earlier statement, Stanovich (1999) has written that the umbrella
term learning disabilities does nothing but confuse. “The domain specific
disabilities should be treated separately and labeled separately....Comorbidity
becomes an issue ‘after’ the initial domain-specific classification has been
carried out” (p. 350). “The logic underlying the development of such a
READING AND WRITING DISORDERS 3
classification system is that identification, diagnosis, intervention, and

prognosis...cannot be addressed effectively until the heterogeneity across and
within domain-specific learning disabilities and subgroups and subtypes are
delineated that are theoretically meaningful, reliable, and valid” (p. 8).
One such domain specific definition aimed at a particular subgroup has been
adopted by the International Dyslexia Association (formerly the Orton Dyslexia
Society). According to Lyon (1996) the new definition reduces the exclusionary
language in previous definitions of LD and dyslexia and defines dyslexia using
current and valid research data.
Dyslexia is one of several distinct learning disabilities. It is a specific

language-based disorder of constitutional origin characterized by difficulties
in single word decoding, usually reflecting insufficient phonological
processing abilities. These difficulties in single word decoding are often
unexpected in relation to age and other cognitive and academic abilities; they
are not the result of generalized developmental disability or sensory
impairment Dyslexia is manifest by variable difficulty with different forms
of language, often including, in addition to problems reading, a conspicuous
problem with acquiring proficiency in writing and spelling (Lyon, 1995b,
p. 10).
On the other hand, it has been observed that there are no clear operational
definitions of a written language expression disorder that address all components
of the written language domain (Berninger, 1994). According to Hooper et al.
(1994) writing has been conceptualized as a complex problem-solving process
which involves (1) the writer’s declarative knowledge, (2) procedural
knowledge, and (3) conditional knowledge, all of which interact with the
instructional paradigm and the instructor’s knowledge of the writing process.
Declarative knowledge refers to specific writing and spelling subskills and
procedural knowledge refers to the individual’s competence in using such
knowledge in writing (Lyon, 1996).
Research studies conducted by Poteet (1978) and Houck and Billingsley
(1989) suggests that composing problems of students with learning disabilities
go beyond the mechanics such as spelling, punctuation, and grammar. Wong,
Wong, and Blenkinsop (1989), Newcomer and Barenbaum (1991), and Graham,
Schwartz, and MacArthur (1993) report higher-order cognitive and
metacognitive problems in this subgroup. The closest statement suggestive of a
definition proposes that members of this subgroup are characterized by problems
in basic text production skills, knowledge about writing, and lack of ability to
engage in writing as a process requiring planning and revision (Graham, Harris,
MacArthur, and Schwartz, 1991).
4 CHAPTER 1
Subtyping as an identification approach
Since the early 1970s there have been numerous studies conducted whose aim
has been the identification of subtypes among individuals diagnosed with
learning disorders ( Boder, 1973; Rourke and Finlayson, 1978; Lyon, Stewart,
and Freeman, 1982; Rourke and Strang, 1983; McCue, Goldstein, Shelly, and
Katz, 1986; Siegel and Heaven, 1986; Goldstein, Shelly, McCue, and Kane,
1987; Rourke, 1991; Newby and Lyon, 1991; Fletcher et al., 1993; Goldstein,
Katz, Slomka, and Kelly, 1993). Subtyping models have ranged from the simple
dichotomy proposed by Johnson and Myklebust (1967) between language and
nonverbal subtypes to one involving three subtypes as exemplified in the work
of Rourke and his associates (Rourke and Finlayson, 1978; Rourke and Strang,
1983; Rourke, 1985). Further, specific subtypes with respect to reading
disabilities in children have been identified by numerous researchers (Boder,
1970; 1973; Doehring and Hoshko, 1977; Lyon, Rietta, Watson, Porch, and
Rhodes, 1981; Lyon, 1983; Lovett, 1984; Lyon 1985; Lovett, 1987)). For a
comprehensive review of the history of the subtyping issue the reader is referred
to the work of Feagans and McKinney (1991).
One example of domain specific subtyping research carried out by
educational researchers is that of Siegel and her associates (Siegel and Heaven,
1986; Siegel and Ryan, 1988, 1989a, 1989b; Shafrir, Siegel, and Chee, 1990;
and Morrison and Siegel, 1991). While initially proposing a classification)
scheme based upon a reading disability, an arithmetic/written work disability,
and an attention deficit disorder, Siegel and colleagues revised their
classification system based on patterns of academic achievement such as that
used by Fletcher (1985); Brandys and Rourke (1991), and Russell and Rourke
(1991) with children.
In subsequent work with adults, (Shafrir and Siegel, 1994) similar subtypes
were identified based upon academic deficits (reading only, reading and
arithmetic, arithmetic only). The question of an attention deficit disorder was
not addressed because of the difficulties in establishing reliable diagnoses with
the particular age group in the study. The authors apparently limited themselves
to diagnosis solely based upon parent and teacher ratings as are common in the
assessment of children. We will discuss the Shafrir and Siegel (1994) study in
detail for a number of salient reasons. First, it is one of the few studies with
adults spanning such a wide age range while taking into account educational
levels (non-postsecondary and postsecondary). Previous outcome studies have
differentiated groups based upon educational level, particularly groups serviced
through the vocational rehabilitation system and those who are college students
and/or graduates. Second, the study is methodologically sound and grounded in
empirical research findings. Third, the relevance to clinical diagnostic work is
readily apparent.
The study population reported by Shafrir and Siegel (1994) consisted of 130
members in a normal achieving control group, 88 persons in the Arithmetic
Disorder (AD) group, 32 individuals in the Reading Disorder (RD) group, and
81 individuals in the Reading and Arithmetic Disorder (RAD) group. The age
range of the population was from 16 to 72 years, with all subjects meeting the
basic criterion of an estimated IQ score of 80 or more. Subjects in the AD group
performed at or below the percentile on the Arithmetic subtest of the Wide
Range Achievement Test-R (WRAT-R) and at or above the percentile on
the Reading subtest of the WRAT-R. Parallel percentiles were established for
the RD group with subjects in the RAD group performing at or below the level
of the percentile on both the Reading and Arithmetic subtests of the WRAT-
R. A discrepancy criterion was not used as Siegel among others has consistently
advocated its irrelevance to the definition of learning disabilities in general and
reading disabilities in particular (Siegel, 1988,1989; Stanovich, 1991).
With both the RD and RAD groups results indicated a deficit in phonological
processing, in reading and spelling, and in short-term memory. However, for
the RD group the phonological deficit was present independent of educational
level, while a visual deficit in reading appeared only in the non-postsecondary
group. The authors took this finding to support the view that a phonological
deficit lies at the core of reading disability, a view previously reported by
researchers such as Wagner and Torgesen (19887) and Stanovich (1988a,
1988b) among others. They go on to speculate that a “ higher level of print
exposure at the postsecondary level may result in better visual recognition skills
for words, and may be a partial explanation for this finding” (Shafrir and Siegel,
1994, p. 131).
In contrast, the AD group did not have a deficit in reading, spelling, or
phonological processing and their performance was similar to the NA group on
pseudoword reading and phonological processing. In addition, at the
postsecondary level a greater distinction could be drawn between the AD and
NA groups. Specifically, a deficit in visual-spatial functioning was found in the
AD group at the postsecondary level but not at the non-postsecondary level.
The RAD group (but not the RD group) showed a generalized deficit in visual-
spatial processing across both educational levels. The researchers took this
finding to mean that a reading disability alone is not associated with a spatial-
visual deficit. And finally, the addition of an education level criterion to the
classification scheme resulted in an increase in homogeneity of the subtype
groups on Block Design, visual and phonological reading tasks, and the Space
Relation Task. “It appears that print exposure may play an important part in
acquiring sensitivity to orthographic cues (visual aspects of reading) that are
related to visual-spatial tasks” (p. 132).
One of the earlier theory based subtyping studies conducted on reading
disabilities exclusively which appears to have current validity was that
conducted by Lovett (1984; 1987). Lyon (1996) wrote that one of the greatest
6 CHAPTER 1
strengths of the Lovett subtyping research program has been its extensive
external validation (Newby and Lyon, 1991). Lovett proposed two subtypes of
reading disability, those identified as accuracy disabled and those identified as
rate disabled. The accuracy disabled group were those children who failed to
achieve age-appropriate word recognition skills while the rate disabled were
those whose deficient performance was related to contextual reading and
spelling vs. phonemic analysis. In other words, Lovett’s rate-disabled group
demonstrated that naming-speed deficits can exist in poor readers without the
typical phonological deficits described in most dyslexia research (Wolf and
Bowers, 1999). Her work coincides with the view of researchers primarily in
the cognitive neurosciences (Rack, Snowling, and Olson, 1992; Wolf, 1997;
Meyer, Wood, Hart, and Felton, 1998a; 1998b) who tend to view phonological
processes as separate, specific sources of disability vs. the current practice
among most reading researchers “to subsume naming speed under phonological
processes” (Wolf and Bowers, 1999).
While restricted to the study of pre-adolescents, more recent studies have
documented the presence of numerous subtypes among the dyslexic (reading
disorders) subgroup. These include studies by Stanovich, Siegel, and Gottardo
(1997) and Morris, Fletcher, Shaywitz, et al. (1998) among others. In the case
of the work of Morris and his colleagues, seven reading-disabled subtypes were
identified. Two were globally deficient in language skills and 4 of the other 5
subtypes displayed a relative weakness in phonological awareness, variations in
rapid serial naming, and verbal short-term memory.
This study (Morris et al., 1998) did not yield a subtype in which spatial
cognitive deficits were the predominant characteristic. The authors go on to
suggest that the failure of previous studies to include measures of phonological
awareness accounts for this difference and pointed out that the phonology vs.
verbal short-term memory-spatial subtype would easily have resembled the
nonverbal/spatial subtypes observed by numerous studies previously. They then
suggest that this result “highlights the importance of approaching classification
issues in children with reading disabilities from well-developed hypotheses
guiding the selection of the classification attributes” (Morris et al., p. 370).
Their apparent blatant disregard for the validity of previous research in this
regard, including recent work by Wolf, Pfeil, Lotz, and Biddle (1994) and Wolf
(1996), and their adherence to the “primacy of the decoding problem, which,
with deficits in phonological awareness, appears to be the most salient
characteristic of people with reading disabilities” (Shaywitz, 1996, p. 370),
reminds one of the statement attributed to Gerald Coles. “If you trace the
history of dyslexia research, you always find the same pattern. First, there’s a
paper or two claiming a new explanation for the disorder. Then replication
research ultimately repudiates the initial claim” (Scientific American, 1995, p.
14).
Definitions from a Rehabilitation Perspective: Eligibility vs. Entitlement
A major system dealing with adults with disabling conditions once they leave
the aegis of the education system in this country, the Rehabilitation Services
Administration (RSA), only began to offer services to individuals with learning
disabilities in 1981. At that time a policy directive was issued to state agencies
making specific learning disabilities a medically recognized disability
(Rehabilitation Services Administration, 1981). The definition then officially
adopted by the RSA in 1985 stated:
A specific learning disability is a disorder in one or more of the central

nervous system processes involved in perceiving, understanding, and/or using
concepts through verbal (spoken or written) language or nonverbal means.
This disorder manifests itself with a deficit in one or more of the following
areas: attention, reasoning, processing memory, communication, reading,
writing, spelling, calculation, coordination, social competence, and emotional
maturity (Rehabilitation Services Administration, 1985, p.2).
In discussing the differences between the two definitions Dowdy, Smith, and
Nowell (1992) point out that the RSA definition reflects the position that a
learning disability is a lifelong (permanent) disability resulting from a central
nervous system dysfunction. In addition, the RSA definition exclusively lists a
series of deficits (attention, reasoning, processing memory, communication, etc.)
that are then used by vocational rehabilitation agencies as criteria for eligibility.
The RSA definition does not include an exclusionary clause for other primary
handicapping condition, and it does not reference specific discrepancy criteria as
found in the special education identification criteria issued in the Federal
Register (1977).
Adherence to DSM-IV Criteria
While the RSA provides a definition for a specific learning disability, diagnoses
are the province of a licensed physician or psychologist. As such diagnoses are
established using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) of the American Psychiatric Association (1994).
However, as most clinicians are aware, the DSM-IV separates the category
Learning Disorders from Motor Skills Disorder and Communication Disorders
(oral language disorders) and uses instead specific domains of deficit that
include: Reading Disorder, Mathematics Disorder, Disorder of Written
Expression, and Learning Disorder Not Otherwise Specified. Similarly, the
ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioral Disorders (ICD-10) utilizes
specific domains of deficit when defining, classifying, and coding learning
disorders and specific developmental disorders of scholastic skills. While
diagnostic labels and criteria for establishing a reading disorder or mathematics
8 CHAPTER 1
disorder are similar between ICD-10 and DSM-IV, disorders involving written
language skills are classified dissimilarly, as a disorder of written language in
DSM-IV and a specific spelling disorder in ICD-10.
According to the DSM-IV guidelines, learning disorders are diagnosed when
the individual’s achievement on individually administered, standardized tests in
reading, mathematics, or written expression is substantially below that expected
for age, schooling, and level of intelligence, and learning problems are judged to
significantly interfere with academic achievement in these areas. The
requirement for performance that is “substantially below” that expected is
“usually defined as a discrepancy of more than 2 standard deviations between
achievement and IQ” (p. 46). Exceptions to the 2 standard deviation rule of
thumb may occur when “an individual’s performance on an IQ test may have
been compromised by an associated disorder in cognitive processing, a
comorbid mental disorder or general medical condition, or the individual’s
ethnic or cultural background” (p. 46).
Thus, while the RSA definition of a specific learning disability does not
include specific discrepancy criteria, use of such discrepancy criteria is implicit
in establishing a medical diagnosis (required in order to establish eligibility for
services) if one is to adhere to DSM-IV diagnostic criteria. Further, since
vocational rehabilitation programs are not entitlement programs, “a diagnosis of
learning disabilities by a licensed professional does not automatically entitle one
to vocational rehabilitation services (Abbott, 1987)” (Dowdy, Smith, and
Nowell, 1992). Additional eligibility criteria require, among other things, that a
given disability constitutes or results in a substantial handicap to employment,
and there must be a reasonable expectation that vocational rehabilitation services
may benefit the individual in terms of employability. These criteria make it
clear that having an academic disability does not necessarily result in a
vocational handicap and highlight the importance attached to the special
manifestations included in the RSA definition.
Finally, under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 and
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, individuals with learning
disabilities are guaranteed certain protections and rights to equal access to
programs and services. However, in order to access these rights, the individual
must present documentation indicating that his or her disability substantially
limits some major life activity, including learning. The term “substantially
limits” means that an individual is either (1) unable to perform a major life
activity that the average person in the general population can perform or (2)
significantly restricted as to the condition, manner or duration of the major life
activity in question, when measured against the abilities of the average person in
the general population (29 C.F.R. Section 1630).
The principal purpose of documentation is the establishment of an
individual’s entitlement to special education and reasonable accommodations in
education, testing, and employment. The documentation must include
diagnosis, evaluation of impact, and recommendations. Together they establish

the existence of the disability, the areas of affected functioning, and specific
strategies and/or accommodations that are made necessary by that disability in
school, testing, the workplace, and personal living (Latham and Latham, 1997).
The Policy Statement for Documentation of a Learning Disability in
Adolescents and Adults, the guidelines for test accommodations provided by the
National Board of Medical Examiners for the U.S. Medical License
Examination, and the LSAC Guidelines for Documentation of Cognitive
Disabilities for individuals seeking accommodations on the LSAT, make clear
the requirements for a “specific diagnosis.” In the case of the LSAC guidelines,
for example, the statement is made: “individual “learning styles,” “learning
differences,” and “academic problems” are not by themselves cognitive
disabilities for which accommodations will be granted.” With the U.S. Medical
Licensing Examination guidelines, the criterion establishing the requirement for
a statement of a specific diagnosis of the disability is amplified: “A
professionally recognized diagnosis for the particular category of disability is
expected e.g., the DSM-IV diagnostic categories for learning disabilities” (p.2).
IQ/Achievement Discrepancy Controversy
Although federal law in the U.S. defines learning disabilities in terms of an

achievement-ability discrepancy not explicable in terms of sociocultural causes
or other medical problems, since the late 1980s and early 1990s studies
published on reading disorders in children have cast doubt on the utility and
validity of the notion of discrepancy (Siegel, 1988; Siegel, 1989; Stanovich,
1991; Fletcher, Francis, Rourke, et al., 1992; Siegel, 1993). It is the IQ
component of the discrepancy model to which the majority of these researchers
have objected. Their objections (fully discussed in the work of Siegel [1993],
Stanovich [1991], and the Connecticut Longitudinal Study group [Shaywitz et
al, 1997]) hinge on four basic arguments: (1) The acquisition of literacy fosters
the very cognitive skills that are assessed on aptitude measures, thus low scores
on the IQ test are a consequence not a cause of the reading disability, commonly
referred to as the “Matthew effect” (Stanovich, 1986; Walberg and Tsai, 1983);
(2) Findings have demonstrated that the information processing operations that
underlie the word recognition deficits of poor readers are the same for poor
readers with low IQ and high IQ (Fletcher et al, 1994; Stanovich and Siegel,
1994; Fletcher, Foorman, Shaywitz, and Shaywitz, in press); (3) The concept of
intelligence does not provide the specific model that explains poor reading but a
phonological deficit model does (Share and Stanovich, 1995; Shaywitz et al.,
1997; Siegel, 1999); (4) There is an overidentification of children with high IQs
and the underidentification of individuals with low IQs by the standard score
discrepancy method (Reynolds, 1985; Fletcher et al., 1994; Kavale and Forness,
1995) since it does not take account of appropriate regression calculations.
10 CHAPTER 1
In line with these arguments, as early as 1992, Shaywitz, Escobar, Shaywitz,

et al., reported that reading disability is distributed along a continuum that
blends imperceptibly with normal reading ability. They went on to suggest that
“the most reasonable approach” (Shaywitz, Fletcher, Holahan, and Shaywifz,
1992, p. 646) to determining eligibility for special education services may be to
consider both groups of children with reading disability, discrepancy based and
low achievers, as eligible for special education services. However, their
suggestion did not take into account any socio-political or federal policy level
implications of such an action.
As has been pointed out by Kelman and Lester (1997), the recipient of
federal funds must label and categorize students as learning disabled or not; the
statute does not allow for judgments that learning disabilities are invariably on a
continuum. Kelman and Lester provide an extensive discussion of the
conceptual and sociopolitical complexities surrounding the matter of
accommodations to university level students, which is a matter of eligibility vs.
entitlement based upon a diagnosis of a learning disability. However, theirs is
an idealized analysis vs. “the best politically feasible alternative” (p.9). While
they are quite critical of Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) as
an ideal statute with respect to children with disabilities, they “offer no real
insight into the question of whether a system that would in fact be likely to
replace it if it eroded would be preferable to the current system” (p.9). So much
for the pundits!
Wood, Felton, Flowers and Naylor (1991) presented a set of “simple”
propositions dealing with the definition of reading disability that remain
instructive today. They analogize that the case definition of reading disability is
often confounded, at least in childhood, by attention deficit disorder—whose
separate cognitive correlates should be removed from consideration. In a way
that is conceptually similar to the ADHD confound, IQ or other general ability
measures, including vocabulary, can be separated from reading disability itself.
While discrepancy formulae are neither the only way to accomplish this nor
perhaps even the most rigorous statistical way, it would appear that the isolation
of reading alone, and the separate accounting for IQ effects, can both be
accomplished by statistical multivariate approaches that assess the separate
variance accounted for by each variable. In any case, “Whatever definition is
proposed for dyslexia should be demonstrably persistent over time—even from
first grade through adulthood” (p. 21).
Finally, a relatively recent survey of departments of special education,
vocational rehabilitation, adult education, and various other literacy and job
training programs across all 50 states and the District of Columbia was
conducted by Gregg, Scott, McPeek, and Ferri (1999). As part of the survey,
the issue of discrepancy as a variable and how it was defined by the various state
agencies was addressed. Results indicated that 67% of the special education
programs surveyed used the term discrepancy within their definitions and 100
% applied the term to their eligibility criteria. Sixty-seven percent of the

special education programs used an ability-achievement approach and those
agencies relying on DSM-IV categories of disorders (all VR agencies) reported
use of discrepancy within their definitions and eligibility criteria.
Following analysis of survey results, Gregg et al. (1999) offered suggestions
regarding definitions and eligibility criteria policy across state agencies involved
with adolescents and adults with learning disabilities. These included: the need
to clarify the component constructs of IQ, cognitive processing, achievement,
and discrepancy for adults, as those currently established for children may have
limited relevance to adult needs; a clearer reflection of the identification markers
for adults with learning disabilities as put forth in the DSM-IV in the definitions
used by the various agencies serving adults; and support for a “clinical
eligibility model” (p. 222), including psychosocial, physical, sensory,
environmental, cultural, economic, and instructional variables, and the impact of
an individual’s strengths and weaknesses as formerly proposed by Brinckerhoff,
Shaw, and McGuire (1993) and Gregg (1995).
We conclude this discussion on definitions and diagnostic criteria with the
view that since ours is a clinical and neuropsychological perspective, we have
adhered to the guidelines provided by the DSM-IV in the specific case materials
discussed later on in this chapter. However, we do recognize the current
controversies surrounding assessment particularly with respect to the
IQ/achievement discrepancy issue, which has been raised most particularly in
the studies of children with reading disabilities and most recently with adults.
INCIDENCE AND PREVALENCE
Learning Disabilities in General
Developmental dyslexia (specific reading disability) has prevalence rates

ranging from 5% to 17.5% among children (Interagency Committee on Learning
Disabilities, 1987; Shaywitz, Fletcher, and Shaywitz, 1994). In addition,
learning disabilities represent approximately one half of all children receiving
special education services nationally (U.S. Department of Education, 1989). In
a later publication, Shaywitz and Shaywitz (1997) reported a prevalence rate for
dyslexia of approximately 20% in an unselected school-aged sample comprising
the Connecticut Longitudinal Study.
However, establishing the incidence and prevalence of reading and writing
disorders in young adults (16-30 years of age) is complicated by the fact that
most data collected on individuals within this age group are subsumed under the
generic terms “learning disabilities” or “learning disabled”. Further, as
Zigmond (1990) pointed out, prior to the passage of Public Law 94-142 (1975),
12 CHAPTER 1
the body of literature devoted to adolescents with learning disabilities was quite
limited, with even less written on adults.
Estimates of the numbers of individuals people affected by LD range from
5-20% of the population (Gerber and Reiff, 1994; Gadbow and DuBois, 1998),
meaning that anywhere from 5 million to 30 million adults have a learning
disability. Of the two and a half million adults enrolled in Adult Basic
Education (ABE) and General Educational Development (GED) programs,
estimates of adults with learning disabilities range from 20 to 89% (Bursuck et
al., 1989; Minskoff et al., 1989; Nightengale et al., 1991). In addition, a
research and evaluation report prepared by the Urban Institute of Washington,
DC (Nightengale et al., 1991) states that an estimated 15 to 30% of all Job
Training Partnership participants and 25 to 40 % of all adults on Aid to Families
with Dependent Children have a learning disability.
Reading Disorder
Results from National Adult Literacy Survey
In our attempts to address the issues of incidence and prevalence rate among a
population of young adults, several recent survey reports were reviewed in
greater detail in order to determine whether they might provide some useful
information. Among the studies reviewed were the National Adult Literacy
Survey (NALS) (Kirsch, Jungeblut, Jenkins, and Kilstad, 1993), the National
Longitudinal Transition Study of Special Education Students (NLTS) (Wagner
and Blackorby, 1996; Blackorby and Wagner, 1997), a report by the National
Center for Education Statistics entitled “Students with Disabilities in
Postsecondary Education: A Profile of Preparation, Participation, and Outcomes,
(NPSAS) (1999), and the Connecticut Longitudinal Study (Shaywitz, Shaywitz,
Fletcher, and Escobar, 1990; Shaywitz, 1998).
The National Adult Literacy Survey (NALS) was the result of efforts by the
Department of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement,
National Center for Education Statistics to identify the basic educational skills
needed for literacy functioning (Vogel, 1996). This self-report survey was
administered to a national representative sample of 26,000 individuals ages 16
and older drawn from a population of 191 million adults in the nation. The
target sample represented 100.6 million individuals, 48% of whom were males
and 52% female. In response to the question, “Do you currently have a learning
disability?”, 392 individuals in the target sample responded positively,
representing 2.8 million adults (2.9% of the target population). The age range of
the self-report sample with learning disabilities (SRLD) was from 25-64 years,
and there was no significant difference in the incidence rate for SRLD between
African Americans and non-African Americans (3.6% and 2.7%, respectively).
Slightly more males (56%) than females (44%) were found in the SRLD
category (Vogel and Reder, 1998).
Prevalence estimates were then gleaned by comparing the percentage of
individuals in the SRLD category in each of the five Levels of Literacy
established by the National Education Goals Panel (1993). Whereas Level 3 is
regarded as meeting the national literacy goal, five times the percentage of
adults with SRLD as opposed to those not reporting a learning disability scored
within Level 1, the lowest literacy level. However, unlike previously reported
studies where school-aged girls were found to have significantly more severe
learning disabilities than boys (Levine and Fuller, 1972, Eno and Woehlke,
1980; Ryckman, 1981; Hassett and Gurian, 1984) differences by gender were
not significant. Vogel’s (1990) review of the literature on gender differences had
found that girls identified as learning disabled were generally older, of lower
intellectual ability, and functioned at a lower academic level than boys with LD.
However, Vogel concluded her review with the suggestion that the system
identified females with learning disabilities in the studies undertaken may not be
representative of the female population with LD in general. Further, 2% of the
adults in the SRLD category scored at Level 5, suggesting that they had either
overcome their SRLD or “perhaps had a math disability rather than a language-
based LD.... Yet, they still perceived themselves as having a learning disability”
(Vogel and Reder, 1998 p. 166). While this report among many other past
studies validates the persistence of learning disabilities into adulthood (Blalock,
1982; Hartzell and Compton, 1984; Bruck, 1987; Rogan and Hartman, 1990;
Johnson, 1994) actual prevalence rates for reading and writing disorders have
not been distinguished and depend in large part on the work of Blalock (1981,
1982), Johnson and Blalock (1987), and Zigmond and Thornton (1985 ) who
reported that 80% or more of individuals with a learning disability in their
studies had reading disabilities.
National Longitudinal Transition Study of Special Education Students
The second major survey, the National Longitudinal Transition Study of Special
Education Students (NLTS, 1996), was based on a nationally representative
sample of more than 8000 individuals with disabilities drawn from the rosters of
special education students from more than 300 school districts across the nation
(Wagner and Blackorby, 1996). Data were collected in 1987 and again in 1990
on special education students who were between the ages of 15 and 21 years in
the 1985-86 school year. Approximately 55% of the population under study had
been classified as learning disabled. Unlike their non-disabled peers, students
with disabilities and particularly learning disabilities were more likely to be
African American and male. Twenty-two percent of the students with learning
disabilities were African American even though African American students
constituted only 14% of the general population of students of similar age.
14 CHAPTER 1
Again, no differentiation was made regarding the type of learning disabilities

involved (reading vs. math vs. combined, etc.) in the NLTS report. However, if
we are to: (1) agree with the 80% incidence of reading disorders previously
established in the learning disabilities literature (Lerner, 1989); (2) take into
account Lyon’s (1995) statement on the incidence of reading disorders among
children with learning disabilities (one in five) based on a review of the most
recent scientific findings in the field; and (3) recall that a 6% prevalence rate of
LD in math has been reported in children which persists through adolescence
(Norman and Zigmond, 1980; Cawley and Miller, 1989), then we must assume
that the majority of the students in this longitudinal study had learning
disabilities related to impairments in reading.
National Postsecondary Student Aid Study
The National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS) undertaken during the
1995-96 academic year involved a nationally representative sample of 21,000
undergraduates who were queried regarding the presence of disabilities. Of the
6% of graduates reporting a disability, 29% said they had a learning disability.
These results are similar to those reported by Henderson (1999) in the triennial
statistical profile of college freshmen with disabilities where 32.2% of the
freshmen students surveyed reported a learning disability (double the figure
reported in 1988). Of these students, 78% were Caucasian, 8-10% were African
American, 4% were Asian American, and 2% were Mexican American.
Caucasian males were over-represented among the group in contrast to students
without disabilities (52 vs. 46%) and women were underrepresented (36 vs.
42%). Typically, students with disabilities had been out of high school longer
than their nondisabled peers.
Henderson’s (1999) survey results were similar to those reported through the
NPSAS. Overall, those with disabilities were more likely to have taken
remedial mathematics and English courses in high school, less likely to have
taken advanced placement courses, had lower high school GPAs, and had lower
than average SAT entrance exam scores. In summary, nearly one third of ill
college students with disabilities reported having learning disabilities. It is
inferred that 80% of these disabilities would be related to reading given the
incidence figures previously reported.
Connecticut Longitudinal Study
Finally, we turn to the longitudinal data emanating from the work of Shaywitz,
Shaywitz, Fletcher, and Escobar (1990) following 414 Connecticut children
identified as having a reading disability on the basis of school behavior and
objective research testing. While the prevalence of reading disorders was two to
four times more common in boys than girls when made on the basis of school
identification, there were no significant differences in the prevalence of a
reading disability between the genders when the diagnosis was made on the
basis of research identification. (Shaywitz, Holford, and Holahan, et al., 1995).
These findings persisted well into adolescence, with delayed reading levels
between disabled and nondisabled readers remaining relatively constant. There
was no evidence that children identified in the “persistently poor reader” group
caught up in their reading skills over time (Shaywitz, Fletcher, Holahan, et al.,
1999).
Disorder of Written Expression
Few epidemiological studies of disorders of written expression are available in

the literature (Hooper, 1994; DSM-IV, 1994) and relatively little is known about
the etiology, developmental course, prognosis, and intervention for disorders of
written expression according to Lyon (1996). In an early study involving
acquired disorders of written expression, Basso, Taborelli, and Vignolo (1978)
reported that acquired disorders of written expression occurred infrequently,
with a frequency rate of approximately 1 in every 250 subjects. According to
Lyon (1996), however, given the high rate of developmental language disorders
in the general population (8 to 15%) and the significantly higher rate of reading
disorders in particular (15 to 20%), written language disorders could be
predicted to affect at least 10% of the school-age population. However, as
Hooper et al. (1994) have written, much of the research related to disorders of
written expression and agraphia to that point in time, employed case study
methodology and relied primarily on the study of individuals with acquired
brain damage. Authors of the DSM-IV (1994) write that because prevalence
studies have focused on learning disabilities in general, separating out
prevalence rates for disorders of written expression is difficult at best. However,
they conclude that a disorder of written expression is “rare when not associated
with other Learning Disorders”(p.26).
Results from various studies looking at incidence differences between the
genders with respect to written language deficits are equivocal (Berninger and
Fuller, 1992; Hooper et al., 1994). In addition, Berninger and Abbott (1994)
have found that children with LD in writing often present concomitantly with
deficits in attention, executive functions, and motivation. On the other hand,
Berninger, Mizokawa, and Bragg (1991) and Berninger and Hart (1992; 1993)
16 CHAPTER 1
have demonstrated that reading and writing systems can be dissociated. “As
expected, many, but not all, individuals with writing disabilities manifest
deficits in reading” (Lyon, 1996).
In contrast to this work, in a most recent publication, Siegel (1999) has
concluded that while spelling difficulties can occur in the absence of severe
reading disabilities (Bruck and Waters, 1988; Lennox and Siegel, 1993), and
while there also may be problems with understanding or producing language,
these problems have not been documented as distinct learning disabilities and
are often components of dyslexia. The “existence of a separate written language
disability has not been clearly established nor is there a clear definition of it
especially in the adult population” (p. 306). However, it has been only since the
mid-1980s that the study of disorders of written expression has “risen from its
status as ‘a poor relative of aphasia’ (Shallice, 1988)” (Lyon, 1996, p. 35).
In summary, while there is a great deal of variability in the reporting of
incidence and prevalence rates among children and adults, it is clear that 80% of
individuals diagnosed with a learning disability do indeed meet criteria for a
reading disorder. The reasons for the high degree of variability would appear to
be related to factors such as methods of identification, assessment strategies, and
measures of literacy. In addition, while there appears to be no differentiation in
incidence rates by gender, the effects of race and socio economic status are
positively correlated with the diagnosis of a learning disability. Finally, there is
no reason to assume that the rates for adults should be any less than for children
as the chronic nature of the disorder has been well established in the
professional literature.
ETIOLOGY AND NEUROBIOLOGICAL CORRELATES
Early Work
It has been said that the investigator who put dyslexia “on the map” in the
United States was Samuel Torrey Orton, a neurologist and neuropathologist,
who recognized a distinctive syndrome that had symptoms in common with the
classical condition of acquired alexia with agraphia (Geschwind, 1985, p.1).
However, rather than being accepted by his colleagues in the medical profession
his work was taken up by educators who then began to develop methods of
remediation still in use today (Orton, 1966; Gillingham and Stillman, 1973). In
his report entitled “Word-Blindness in School Children” (1925), Orton
compared dyslexia to the aphasias, postulating that the problem was at the
symbolic level, and that dyslexia did not imply low intelligence. Orion’s
findings of crossed-eye/hand preference led him to postulate that the mechanism
of the behavior lay in a competition for the perception and memory of letters
between the two hemisphere, thus introducing the role of hemispheric
lateralization for language as a potential factor in reading disability (Orton,

1937; Geschwind, 1982; Duane, 1983). However, Denckla (1974) was to report
later that crossed-eye/hand preference may occur in as high as 30% of the
normal-achieving young male population.
Critchley (1928; 1964; 1970) who was conducting studies simultaneously
with Orton on the problems of reading in children, subsequently adopted the
notion of developmental dyslexia as a medical syndrome. The salient feature of
the deficit was an inability to derive meaning from written symbols, as well as
problems with directionality of letters, sequences of letters, and “uncertainty of
what is right and left on one’s body and in extrapersonal space” (Duane, 1983).
Later, as president of the World Federation of Neurology, he then succeeded in
having that organization endorse a definition of specific developmental dyslexia.
Genetic Research
For at least the past 30 years, genetic studies have attempted to define the nature
of the familial contribution to dyslexia (Zerbin-Rudin, 1967). Bakwin (1973)
had the largest single twin sample on which reading disabilities had been
reported up to that point. And while his study, and those reviewed by Zerbin-
Rudin previously, suffered from methodological limitations, a significantly
greater concordance rate for reading retardation in monozygotic twins than in
dizygotic twins was reported. Further, the observation that dyslexia aggregates
in families is nearly as old as the description of the disorder itself, dating back to
1905 (Pennington and Gilger, 1996).
More recently, two methodologically sound twin studies of dyslexia have
been conducted, one at the Institute for Behavior Genetics in Boulder, Colorado
(the Twin Family Reading Study) and the other at the Institute for Psychiatry in
London (Stevenson, Graham, Fredman, and McLoughlin, 1987). The Colorado
study began in 1979 and in a 1991 update the investigators reported that
“evidence has been obtained to indicate that the correlation between
phonological coding and word recognition is largely due to heritable influences,
whereas the relationship between orthographic coding and word recognition is
due primarily to environmental influences” (DeFries, Olson, Pennington, and
Smith, 1991, p. 83). Results obtained through linkage analysis suggested that
reading disability is etiologically heterogeneous. Linkage analysis is based on
the fact that genes that are close together on the same chromosome tend to be
inherited together as they are passed on from parent to child. Twenty percent of
the families with an apparent autosomal dominant transmission for reading
disability manifested linkage to chromosome 15 but not to chromosome 6.
Earlier case reports and family studies had led previous researchers to the
conclusion that reading disability was inherited as an autosomal dominant
condition (Hallgren, 1950). Subsequently, other studies demonstrated more than
one mode of transmission including autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive,
18 CHAPTER 1
and multifactorial inheritance. (Finucci et al., 1976; Lewitter, DeFries, and

Elston, 1980). In like manner, linkage to chromosome 6 but not 15 was
obtained from data on other families.
Contrary to earlier work that established that clinical correlates of reading
disability included immune disorders (Geschwind and Behan, 1982; 1984), no
association between reading disability and prevalence of immune disorders was
obtained. However, the possible validity of a genetic subtype of reading
disability concordant with atopic disorders (allergy/asthma) was suggested.
While the cross-concordance analysis was based upon a relatively small sample,
the preliminary findings were convergent with those preliminary results
obtained from linkage analysis indicating a subtype of familial dyslexia closely
linked to the HLA region of chromosome 6, which contains many genes that
affect the immune system (DeFries, Olson, Pennington, and Smith, 1991).
Neuroanatomical and neuropathological Studies
With the seminal work of Galaburda in the early 1980s, the neuropathologic
basis of dyslexia began to be more fully elucidated. Four consecutive male
brains studied by Galaburda et al. (1985) showed developmental anomalies of
the cerebral cortex, consisting of neuronal ectopias (displaced neurons) and
architectonic dysplasias (distortions of the normal organized layering of the
cortex) (Rumsey and Eden, 1998). The anomalies, thought to be of prenatal
origin, were seen on both sides of the brain, but showed a predisposition for the
left perisylvian language cortex.
As ectopias are densely and aberrantly connected with other brain regions,
one result of ectopia formation is the alteration of brain organization. One such
alteration in dyslexia is the lack of asymmetry in a language-related cortical
region called the planum temporale, an auditory area that lies on the superior
surface of the temporal lobe. In contrast, in individuals without dyslexia the
planum temporale is usually larger in the left hemisphere (Sherman, 1995).
Also reported were developmental anomalies within the lateral geniculate
nucleus, a thalamic nucleus through which visual information is transmitted to
the cortex (Livingstone, Rosen, Drislane, and Galaburda, 1991). As described
by Rumsey and Eden, this structure consists of two ventral magnocellular layers
and four dorsal parvocellular layers. While the parvocellular (small-celled)
layers of the lateral geniculate nucleus appeared normal in the dyslexic brains,
the magnocellular layers were disorganized and the cell bodies within these
layers appeared smaller in dyslexic than in the control brains (Livingstone, et al,
1991). These findings were consistent with the hypothesis that deficits in rapid
temporal visual processing in dyslexia result from a dysfunctional magnocellular
visual system. Sherman (1995) goes on to write that the visual processing
disturbance could interfere with normal reading just as similar deficits in other
sensory pathways such as the auditory system (Tallal, 1976; Tallal and Piercy,
1979; Hagman, Wood, Buchsbaum, et al., 1992) could interfere with the
acquisition of phonological skills.
In conjunction with the work of Livingstone et al., (1991), more recently,
Stein and Walsh (1997) have postulated a general timing hypothesis. Namely,
that rather than singling out either phonological, visual or motor deficits,
temporal processing in all three systems may be impaired. They go on to
suggest that there is some evidence which seems to indicate that magnocellular
temporal processing deficits are not confined to vision and audition, but extend
to other systems such as the vestibular and motor systems. “Dyslexics are
notoriously clumsy and uncoordinated, their writing is appalling, their balance is
poor, and they show other soft cerebellar signs, such as reach and gaze overshot
and muscle hypotonia” (p. 151). The cerebellum is a major target of m-type
(magnocellular) efferents. They conclude by suggesting that selective damage
in utero to a particular magnocellular neuronal cell line that plays a major role in
temporal processing in all sensory, sensorimotor, and motor systems throughout
the brain may occur, resulting from genetic impairment of cellular development
or immunological attack.
Neuroimaging Work
According to Bigler, Lajiness-Oneill, and Howes (1998), the first CT

(computerized tomography) studies in dyslexia began in the 1970s. But, by the
mid 1980s other imaging techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI), single photon emission tomography (SPECT), and positron emission
tomography (PET) became more readily available and clearly outperformed the
earlier CT imaging studies in terms of resolution, clarity, and capacity for
quantification. This paper and one previously done by Bigler (1992) present
excellent reviews of studies involving the use of neurophysiological and
neuroimaging techniques prior to the use of fMRI.
Riccio and Hynd (1996) have presented an excellent discussion of the
findings of neurobiological research specific to adults with leaning disabilities
and dyslexia. In terms of morphological findings, CT and MRI studies have
provided evidence that ties deviations in normal patterns of asymmetry to the
dyslexic syndrome, with the symmetry in the brains of individuals diagnosed
with dyslexia due to a larger right hemisphere, which may be the result of
reduced neuronal loss (Galaburda et al., 1985). Differences in symmetry have
also been reported with respect to brain regions implicated in language
processing (plana temporale, angular gyrus).
Further, results of initial PET and rCBF studies of cognitive functions suggest
that reading depends on neural activity in a widely distributed set of specific
brain regions. Differences between dyslexics and non-dyslexic controls were
found in a number of areas including the prefrontal region (Gross-Glenn, Duara,
Barker et al., 1991), left parietal and left middle temporal regions (Rumsey et al,
20 CHAPTER 1
1992), caudate (Wood, Flowers, Buchsbaum, and Tallal, 1991), and the occipital
lobe (Gross-Glenn et al., 1991). (The reader is referred to the paper by Riccio
and Hynd (1996) for a more detailed discussion of these findings). These results
led Riccio and Hynd to conclude that the conceptualization that reading involves
a widely distributed functional system, resulting in a heterogeneous group of
adults who may be diagnosed with dyslexia. This conceptualization was
supported and consistent with the interactive activation model of reading
development proposed by Adams (1990), Chase and Tallal (1991) among others.
During the 1990s fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) became
available and has been used in studies similar to that reported by Shaywitz et al.
(1997). Shaywitz et al. report that their neurobiologic investigations are
“informed by an empirically supported model of both reading and reading
disability....Identification of phonological processing as the core cognitive
deficit in dyslexia provides a conceptual template for planning and interpreting
studies seeking the neuronal underpinnings of dyslexia” (p. 24). Using fMRI
techniques, activation of the left inferior frontal gyrus in male subjects engaged
in phonological processing tasks, was found whereas females doing the very
same task engaged both the left and right inferior frontal gyrus. Further, when
reading letters in a word (orthography) a region in the back of the brain was
activated. As the letters form sounds (phonology), the neuronal systems in the
inferior frontal gyrus (Broca’s area) were activated. As the sound structure of
the words was used to get to the meaning of the word (assembled phonology),
regions in the middle of the brain, the superior and middle temporal gyrus, were
activated.
Here, we again have another example of the rigorous adherence to one
particular theory by various researchers. As Stein and Walsh have written,
“Although the evidence in favour of the phonological weakness of dyslexics has
dominated the scene recently, it does not diminish the importance of the visual
perceptual problems that many dyslexics report” (p. 148). In the words of
Galaburda, the Harvard University neuroscientist in reference to Shaywitz:
“She’s wrong, and that’s the end of it”....”The distinctions we make about the
visual and auditory brain are somewhat arbitrary” (Scientific American, 1995,
p. 14).
A chapter by Rumsey and Eden (1998) describes the first PET and fMRI
studies of regional cerebral blood flow in dyslexia, investigating both language-
based and visually-based abnormalities in men with clear, persisting cases of
dyslexia. Their male subjects all had childhood histories of a developmental
reading disorder, continued to show at least mild deficits in decoding, and had
average intelligence. While their reading comprehension and verbal
comprehension skills were good, they continued to perform poorly on measures
of phonological processing, including tests of phonological awareness and
pseudoword reading.
According to these investigators, results from both sets of studies, PET

measures of regional cerebral blood flow during word recognition tasks
(Rumsey et al., 1997) and an fMRI study of visual motion sensitivity (Eden et
al., 1996) suggest bilateral reductions in task-related activation in the posterior
temporal brain regions and nearby inferior parietal and occipital regions. Both
sets of studies have identified significant neural correlates of the behavior
deficits associated with dyslexia. PET studies of word recognition have
implicated posterior language regions. An fMRI study of visual motion
processing implicated dysfunction of the transient, magnocellular visual
pathway with preservation of “visual association regions subserving pattern
processing, thought to reflect the function of the sustained, parvocellular
pathway” (p. 57).
Rumsey and Eden (1998) concluded that whether and how word recognition
deficits and visual processing abnormalities, which were both accompanied by
reduced activation in and near posterior temporal brain regions, are related
remains a question in need of further study. “One possibility is that some
common underlying deficit in the transient, or rapid processing of temporal
information contributes to both categories of deficit” (p. 57). Further, when one
combines neuroimaging experimental study results of reading and reading-
related processing with those demonstrating a magnocellular visual system
deficit, then the superior temporal/inferior parietal areas emerge “as likely
candidates for the principal locus of cerebral dysfunction in dyslexia” (p. 57).
This hypothesis is in keeping with that postulated by Stein and Walsh in their
1997 paper.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
Neuropsychological Assessment in Learning Disabilities
Beginning in the mid to late 1980s a number of research studies emerged in the
literature relating to the neuropsychological profiles of adults with learning
disabilities and dyslexia in particular and the discriminant validity of
neuropsychological measures (Finucci, Whitehouse, Isaacs, and Childs, 1984;
McCue, 1984; Miles, 1986; Horn, O’Donnell, and Leicht, 1988; Badian,
McAnulty, Duffy, and Als, 1990; Felton, Naylor, and Wood, 1990; O’Donnell,
Romero, and Leicht, 1990; O’Donnell, 1991; Katz and Goldstein; 1993).
Research published in the prior decade (Coles, 1978; 1987) had challenged the
construct and discriminant validity of neuropsychological test batteries in so far
as they obtained to children with learning disabilities. We will review two of
these well-designed studies in some detail as they appear to exemplify what we
know about the neuropsychological profiles of adults with learning disabilities
22 CHAPTER 1
in general and reading disabilities in specific and the discriminant validity of

various neuropsychological measure in particular.
With respect to the general area of learning disabilities in adults, O’Donnell
(1991) compared a group of students applying to an LD college support program
matched for FSIQ and balanced for gender with a normal and head injured
group. Their average ages were 18, 20.9, and 25.6 years, respectively, and their
WAIS full-scale IQs averaged 103.4 for the LD group and the normal group and
101.1 for the head injured group. In addition to the WAIS and WRAT, the
Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery (HRNB) was administered. Cluster
analysis was applied to the data resulting in the emergence of five subtypes.
Mean test scores for Subtype 1 were in the average range; Subtype 2 exhibited
auditory processing deficits; Subtype 3 exhibited spatial processing deficits;
Subtype 4 had deficient performance on 10 of the 12 measures (global deficits);
and Subtype 5 had language processing deficits. However, all LD deficit
subtypes experienced problems with flexibility and sequential processing. It is
important to note that no screening for attention deficit disorder was included in
this study, nor was it typically found as a rule out in any of the studies
conducted during this time period.
Results from the O’Donnell study are summarized as follows: (1) Of the six
orthogonal dimensions, three were related to academic achievement. (2)
Dimensions subsuming nonverbal reasoning/visual-spatial abilities and
attention-response speed were associated with computation skill. (3) the
auditory processing dimension was associated with reading and spelling.
Additional analysis of the abbreviated Aphasia Screening Test showed that
items measuring phoneme articulation but not naming or sentence interpretation
items were correlated with reading and spelling (findings consistent with the
earlier work of Mann and Brady, 1988; Wagner and Torgesen, 1987). (4) In
terms of discriminant function, the test battery correctly identified 93% of the
LD group and 100% of the normal groups. (5) The strongest contributions to this
discrimination came from measures of auditory processing, language, visual-
motor ability, and attention-response speed. (6) In terms of homogeneous
subtypes, the auditory and language subtypes were relatively more deficient in
reading and spelling, and the global and language subtypes were relatively more
deficient in computational skill. (7) Some young adults with LD, but not all,
experience socio-emotional problems. O’Donnell concluded by writing that:
“The present findings confirm the validity of the Halstead-Reitan
Neuropsychological Test Battery in the assessment of young adults with
learning disabilities” (p. 350).
Neuropsychologicai Assessment in Reading Disability
The second study conducted by Felton, Naylor, and Wood (1990) accessed 115
adults between the ages of 20 and 44 years who had initially been evaluated
between 1957 and 1972 by June Lyday Orton and for whom childhood
achievement and intelligence test scores were available. Finucci, Whitehouse,
Isaacs, and Childs’ (1984) method of classifying adults according to degree of
reading deficit was used. In addition to the administration of intelligence and
achievement tests, a battery of neuropsychological measures was utilized
including the: Boston Naming Test (BNT), Verbal Fluency Test (FAS), Rapid
Automatized Naming Test (RAN), Rapid Alternating Stimulus Test (RAS), the
Lindamood Auditory Conceptualization Test (LAC), the Word Attack subtest
from the Woodcock Psychoeducational Battery, Prose Recall, Rey Auditory
Verbal Learning Test (AVLT), Rey Complex Figure Drawing (CFT),
Trailmaking Test (Trails B), and Judgment of Line Orientation (JL).
Consistent with their original hypothesis regarding core deficits in the reading
disabled group, the tasks which most clearly differentiated the RD and the NDR
subjects were those requiring rapid, sequential retrieval of verbal labels,
phonetic decoding of nonwords, and analysis and manipulation of phonemes.
When controlling for IQ and socioeconomic status, no differences were found
between reading ability groups on measures of memory for visual or verbal
material, visual perception, visuomotor speed, mental flexibility, confrontation
naming, or verbal fluency. (Felton, Naylor, and Wood, 1990). In terms of
diagnosing dyslexia in individual adults, the accuracy of nonword reading is a
“potent indicator of a history of reading disability even in subjects with
relatively intact single word reading and comprehension skills” (p. 495). They
state further that within the average range of intellectual ability, cognitive
deficits involving rapid retrieval of verbal labels and the analysis and
manipulation of phonemes are frequent correlates of childhood reading
disability. They caution, however, that within these broad guidelines, there is
evidence of considerable heterogeneity among adult subjects citing the work of
Elbert and Seale (1988) among others.
In summary, research has confirmed that there are significant
neuropsychological differences between adults with and without learning
disabilities, with deficits tending to be somewhat nonspecific. However, when
one controls for intelligence, educational background, and some socioeconomic
status variables, deficits appear to be restricted to the language domain in
individuals with dyslexia (Bigler, 1992).
Assessment of Language Domain Deficits in Dyslexia
Illustrations of Current Theoretical Frames of Reference
The literature dealing with the assessment of basic processes in adults with
reading disabilities and most particularly that driven by phonological processing
deficit theory appears more frequently in reading-related and
developmental/educational psychology journals vs. more traditional
24 CHAPTER 1
neuropsychology literature in the United States. This may speak to the crossing-
over and convergence of neurobiological and neuropsychological findings from
the field of reading disabilities itself into the educational literature. In any case,
the research literature reflects the specific definition of dyslexia used. As
described by Rack (1997), in practice one can make a distinction between
“broadly defined” and “narrowly defined” dyslexia (p.67). Narrowly defined
dyslexia is developmental phonological dyslexia; broadly defined dyslexia is a
difficulty in acquiring literacy skills which is related to any underlying specific
learning difficulty, not solely phonological processing. We suggest that this
rather generalized distinction captures the two current views of developmental
dyslexia, which have been applied to studies with adults.
The first theory clusters around the primacy of phonological awareness
deficits (phoneme awareness) among the phonological processing skills
positively correlated with early reading skills (the others include phonological
memory and rate of access for phonological information, i.e. rapid naming of
letters, digits, colors, objects. Underlying this theory is the work in the early
1970s by the psycholinguist Liberman (Liberman, Shankweiler, Liberman,
Fowler, and Fischer (1977), followed by systematic research in reading by
investigators such as Bradley and Bryant (1978, 1983); Wagner and Torgesen
(1987), Brady and Shankweiler (1991); Torgesen, Wagner, and Rashotte (1994),
and Foorman et al. (1997), among others.
Work by Pratt and Brady (1988), Bruck (1992), and Elbro, Nielsen, and
Petersen (1994) has confirmed the persistence of phoneme awareness deficits in
adults previously diagnosed with dyslexia as children. However, in the study by
Bruck (1992), her data suggested that the arrest in phoneme awareness skills
found in children and adults was associated with the failure to use orthographic
information when making phonological judgments. That is, in contrast to
nondyslexic children, for those with dyslexia, word recognition skill has very
little impact on the development of phoneme awareness and on the use of
orthographic information. Consistent with the underlying theory, her hypothesis
surrounding these results states: “...these data may be consistent with a more
general model of the relationship between phonological awareness and word
recognition by suggesting that initially dyslexic children encounter much
difficulty in learning to read because of pervasively deficient phonological
awareness skills. When they eventually acquire word recognition skills, there is
little interaction between orthographic and phonological codes” (p. 885).
Phoneme awareness skills develop as a function of word recognition skills in
normal children. But, the development of phoneme awareness is associated
with increases in the use of orthographic information when making phonological
judgments (Bruck, 1992). Thus, coming from a broader view of dyslexia one
may have reached another conclusion than that reached by this investigator
Mattis, 1978; Ehri, 1980; Corcos and Willion, 1993; Willows, Kruk, and
Corcos, 1993; Roberts and Mather, 1997). This view includes orthographic
dyslexia (a problem with the acquisition of decoding or encoding skills that is

caused by difficulty with rapid and accurate formation of word images in
memory, Roberts and Mather, 1997). However, limited consensus exists with
respect to the measurement and definitional operation of orthographic
processing (Olson, Forsberg, Wise and Rack, 1994) despite the earlier work of
Boder (1973) and Boder and Jarrico (1982) and the electrophysiological studies
which appeared to validate the subtyping (Flynn and Deering, 1989).
The second theoretical cluster is exemplified in the work of Wolf (1982,
1991 a, 1991 b, 1997 ). As the reader may recall, Wolf (199la) would support the
notion that rapid naming-speed deficits can be validly separated from the
phonological awareness variable. In addition, Wolf and Bowers (1999) propose
an alternative conceptualization of the developmental dyslexias, the “double-
deficit hypothesis” in which they argue that phonological deficits and processes
underlying naming-speed deficits represent two separable sources of reading
dysfunction. Their work thus far has been limited to children and they have in
place a study testing the differential treatment effects of a more comprehensive
model of fluency-based reading intervention, which is a direct outgrowth of the
double-deficit hypothesis. Wolf and Bower’s (1999) summary remarks prove
noteworthy for clinicians involved in the diagnosis and treatment of individuals
with reading disabilities.
Whether either of our speculative hypotheses about the relationships

connecting naming speed to reading will ultimately prove correct, the
cumulative evidence ... challenges researchers to create an understanding of
reading disabilities that is no longer restricted to dyslexic readers who are
defined largely by phonological deficits.... A final cautionary note, however,
is critical to restate. The history of dyslexia research, the well-known
heterogeneity of dyslexic children, and the very complexity of the reading
process argue against any single unifying explanation for reading breakdown
(p. 432).
Applying Experimental Tasks to the Assessment of Adults
In summary, one of the few salient pieces of recent research that we were able to
locate linking specific assessment strategies with adults to the most current
causal relationship theories addressed in the reading disability literature was that
of Gottardo, Siegel, and Stanovich (1997). While previous work by Bruck
(1990) and others has primarily been concerned with establishing the continued
presence of phonological awareness deficits in adults with reading disabilities,
the relationships between phonological deficits and more general cognitive
abilities investigated in children remain largely unexplored in the adult literature
according to Gottardo and colleagues. These investigators sought to establish
whether phonological awareness remains a unique predictor of reading ability
when controlling for syntactic processing.
26 CHAPTER 1
The battery used (Gottardo, Siegel, and Stanovich, 1997) required 2.5 hours
of administration time and consisted of the Reading subtest from the WRAT-R
(Jastak and Wilkinson, 1984), the Word Identification and Word Attack subtests
from the Woodcock Reading Mastery Test (Woodcock, 1987), the Nelson-
Denny Reading Test (Brown, Bennett, and Hanna, 1981), and the Block Design,
Vocabulary, and Digit Span subtests from the WAIS-R (Wechsler, 1981).
Listening comprehension was assessed via the listening comprehension subtest
from the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (Wechsler, 1992).
Experimental tasks were utilized to assess working memory, syntactic
processing, phonological processing skills, and pseudoword repetition.
Phonological processing skills were measured via the Auditory Analysis Test
(AAT) (Rosner and Simon, 1971). This instrument measures syllable and
phoneme deletion performance, and a modified Pig Latin Test (Pennington et
al., 1990).
Results of this study comparing poor readers (reading at or below the
percentile on the WRAT-R word recognition test) and average readers (reading
at or above the percentile on the same test), with a mean age of 33 years
and nonverbal IQ scores within the average range i.e. Scaled score > than 7 on
the Block Design subtest of the WAIS-R, demonstrated that adults with reading
disabilities performed significantly worse on all the standardized achievement
tests (reading and listening comprehension) and on the experimental measures of
syntactic processing, phonological processing, pseudoword repetition, and on
the recall component of the working memory task. Using hierarchical
regression analysis, both the AAT (phoneme deletion measure) and WAIS-R
Vocabulary scores were found to be “strong unique statistical predictors” of
raw scores on the word reading test (Gottardo, Siegel, and Stanovich, 1997, p.
50). However, the Pig Latin task appeared to be a stronger predictor of non-
word reading ability than was phoneme deletion. The investigators suggested
that performance on the Pig Latin task, which requires deleting a phoneme
followed by blending that phoneme with a new syllable, may have more
processes in common with novel word decoding than a simpler phoneme
deletion task. “Given that verbal working memory ability was statistically
controlled in these analyses, it is unlikely that performance differences on these
tasks are solely the result of differences in memory load” (p. 52).
In terms of an assessment battery for adults, Gottardo, Siegel, and Stanovich
(1997) recommended including a measure of phonological processing (phoneme
deletion task or the modified Pig Latin task), even though normative scores for
these tasks are not available for adults as well as a measure of explicit
knowledge of vocabulary such as the WAIS-R Vocabulary score. They also
conclude that an individual’s level of reading performance may best determine
the phonological processing measure to use in the assessment process.
The Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Since the writing of the Gottardo et al. study (1997), Wagner, Torgesen and
Rashotte (1999) have published the Comprehensive Test of Phonological
Processing (CTOPP), the subtests of which “represent refined versions of
experimental tasks we devised over the past decade of research...” (CTOPP
Examiner’s Manual, 1999, p. vii). The authors go on to define phonological
processing as a kind of auditory processing that is most strongly related to
mastery of written language and clearly implicated as the “most common cause
of reading disabilities or dyslexia” (p.2). Three kinds of phonological
processing are deemed relevant to the mastery of written language: phonological
awareness, phonological memory, and rapid naming. The CTOPP was
developed for individuals between the ages of 5-0 and 24-11, thus its utility in
the evaluation of adolescents and adults. There are six core subtests and six
supplemental subtests with composite scores derived from them. The various
subtests include: Elision (“Say bold without saying /b/”); Blending Words
(“What word do these sounds make?”); Sound Matching (“Which word starts
with the same sound as pan? Pig, hat, or cone?”); Memory for Digits; Nonword
Repetition; Rapid Color Naming; Rapid Object Naming; Rapid Digit Naming;
Rapid Letter Naming; Blending Nonwords (“What made-up word do these
sounds make: nim-by?”); Segmenting Words; Segmenting Nonwords; and,
Phoneme Reversal (“Ood”, say “ood”; now say “ood” backwards”).
An audiotape accompanies the test manual for standard of administration of
a number of the subtests, practice items are presented for each subtest, and the
administration time is generally about 30 minutes. It is only necessary to
administer the core subtests in order to arrive at composite scores in
Phonological Awareness, Phonological Memory, and Rapid Naming. Grade
equivalent scores, percentiles, and standard scores conforming to those used
with the various Wechsler scales are provided. As would be expected, a
comprehensive discussion of norming procedures, demographics, and validity
and reliability studies are presented in the manual as well.
Finally, while no measures assessing writing skills in adults exist, the Test of
Written Language-3 (TOWL-3), which is normed on high school seniors, is still
useful with college age young adults if one takes into account a degree of score
inflation. The strength of the TOWL-3 is comprehensiveness as it covers both
contrived and spontaneous writing. For a more detailed discussion of both
formal and informal means of assessing writing skills in adolescents in
particular, the reader is referred to the chapter by Wong (1996).
Selection of a Comprehensive Assessment Battery
We will not enter into a discussion of “the” appropriate assessment battery for
use by clinicians. This issue is one that a competent professional should be
28 CHAPTER 1
dealing with on a daily basis, one that is driven by a solid knowledge base,
consistent with standards of excellence and ecological validity, and grounded in
ethics of practice. Further, the chapter by Beers (1998) provides a
comprehensive discussion of a battery of neuropsychological and ancillary
measures that were used to diagnose learning disabilities in a college age
population and that were useful also in delineating the strengths and weaknesses
in these students for the purposes of educational accommodations (Beers,
Goldstein, and Katz, 1994). Similar approaches to neuropsychological
assessment with adults seeking services from state vocational agencies have
been previously documented by McCue, Katz, and Goldstein (1985), McCue
(1994), and Michaels, Lazar, and Risucci (1997).
Comorbidity
There is one caveat to our disclaimer regarding the selection of an assessment

battery with young adults. This is the necessity to select measures that recognize
the prevalence of co-morbid disorders along with a reading and/or writing
disorder. Among the various psychiatric disorders, the one with the highest rate
of comorbidity with learning disabilities is attention-deficit hyperactivity
disorder. Three to five percent of all school aged children are diagnosed with
ADHD (American Psychiatric Association, 1987), with estimates of comorbidity
reported in between 20 to 50% of children with ADHD. Also, some 30 to 70%
of children with learning disabilities will experience ongoing symptoms of
comorbid attention deficit disorder as they enter into adulthood (Weiss,
Hechtman, Milroy, and Perlman, 1985; Barkley, Fischer, Edelbrock, and
Smallish, 1990; Barkley, 1990; Bellak and Black, 1992).
In addition, Bruck (1986), in a review of the literature related to the social
and emotional adjustment of children with learning disabilities, found that they
were more likely to exhibit increased levels of anxiety, withdrawal, depression,
and low self-esteem compared with their peers without learning disabilities.
Hoffman et al. (1987) in their survey of adults with learning disabilities found
that 13% had previously received therapy; 9% were currently receiving
assistance from a counselor, and 5% had been in a mental hospital or
psychiatric ward. McGuire, Hall, and Litt (1991) reported that approximately
21% of the 40 students with learning disabilities in their study at the University
of Connecticut were currently receiving personal counseling (Price, Johnson,
and Evelo, 1994). In a more recent review, Bender, Rosenkrans, and Crane
(1999) reported that in the majority of studies they reviewed, students with
learning disabilities demonstrated increased levels of depression compared to
those without disabilities. Finally, since both learning disabilities and attention-
deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) maintain a high degree of comorbidity
with other psychiatric disorders such as depression, conduct disorder in children,
anxiety disorder, substance abuse, and Tourette’s syndrome (Hooper and Olley,
1996), every comprehensive assessment should include a well-structured clinical

interview and measures to rule out the co-existence of these other major
disorders of mood and behavior.
INTERVENTION STRATEGIES AND REASONABLE

ACCOMMODATIONS
Postsecondary Educational Settings
Ross-Gordon (1989) categorized intervention strategies for adults with

learning/reading disabilities according to the goals driving the various models.
These include (1) basic skills remediation, (2) subject-area tutoring, such as
preparation for the General Educational Development Test (GED); (3)
compensatory modification; that is a commitment to changing the environment
or conditions under which learning takes place or helping the adult learner
develop alternative means of accomplishing a goal; (4) cognitive or learning
strategies training (learning to learn); (5) instruction in survival skills; and (6)
vocational exploration and training. We will limit our discussion of
intervention strategies and accommodations around the issues of remediation,
strategies training, and accommodations as they encompass the major
approaches in the educational arena, whether provided through a tutorial model
or in a group setting.
Remediation
The goal of remedial instruction for adults with reading disabilities is to help
them to acquire reading skills that parallel those of their nondisabled peers.
Regardless of the specific methodology employed, research in reading
instruction based upon work with children would suggest that instruction must
be more explicit and comprehensive, more intensive, and more supportive, both
emotionally and cognitively (Torgesen, 1998). It would appear that these same
guidelines should apply to adults as well. Even though adult basic education
professionals involved in literary programs might differ from professionals in
the reading disabilities field with respect to the definition of learning disabilities
(Ross and Smith, 1990), common to both groups are core principles that include
the importance of a trusting adult-to-adult, client-teacher relationship and the
use of a variety of techniques and materials, particularly materials relevant to the
life situations of adults (Ross-Gordon, 1996). In general, remediation efforts
focus on those deficits known to be associated with reading disability while
building on strengths.
Direct instruction in phonics and phonological awareness are two such
methods. Explicit phonics training programs do not include specific training in
30 CHAPTER 1
phonological awareness, per se. Clark and Urhy (1995) defined phonics as low
level rote knowledge of the association between letters and sounds and
phonological awareness as including a higher level metacognitive understanding
of word boundaries within spoken sentences, of syllable boundaries in spoken
words, and how to isolate phonemes and establish their location within syllables
and words.
Reading remediation programs based on explicit phonics include the Orton-
Gillingham approach (Gillingham and Stillman,1973), Alphabetic Phonics (Cox,
1985), Recipe for Reading (Traub and Bloom, 1975), and the Wilson Reading
System (Wilson, 1988). Among these, the Wilson Reading System is one of the
few remedial programs developed specifically for adolescents and adults with
dyslexia. It, like many of the other programs listed above, is based on Orton-
Gillingham principles, and as such is a multisensory, synthetic approach to
teaching reading and writing (Church, Fessler, and Bender, 1998).
In terms of specific instructional approaches based upon the phonological
awareness paradigm, Auditory Discrimination in Depth (ADD) was developed
by Charles and Pat Lindamood (1975). The aim of this program is to teach
auditory conceptualization skills basic to reading and spelling. It can be used
with adults who fail to read and spell successfully because of a failure to acquire
phonemic analysis skills. In a well-controlled remediation study comparing both
an Embedded Phonics approach and an adaptation of ADD (Phonological
Awareness Plus Synthetic Phonics) with 8 to 11 year old children, children in
both groups moved from substantially below average in performance on
measures of alphabetic reading into the average range. At the end of the
instruction period, a smaller of proportion of children in the ADD group
remained substantially impaired (> one standard deviation below average) in
alphabetic reading accuracy (9 vs. 26%). However, follow-up data were not yet
available at the time of this writing to answer questions regarding the impact of
stimulating alphabetic reading skills on subsequent growth in orthographic
reading ability (Torgesen, 1998). In the words of Torgesen: “Phonetic reading
skills are probably a necessary but not sufficient cause of growth in sight word
reading ability....We still do not have solid research evidence that explicitly
phonetic methods produce greater gains in comprehension than those
emphasizing whole word, or context oriented instruction” (p. 216).
Also in line with remediation interventions, in a recent study of college
students from a technical institute and a western Canadian university, Leong
(1999) was able to demonstrate quantitative and qualitative differences in
processing morphological words and letter strings between students identified
with reading disabilities and age matched contrast groups. These results are in
contrast to those reported by Bruck (1993) in her study with college students.
However, the finding of deficits in rapidity of morphological as well as
phonological processing, a previously well established finding, may have
relevance in terms of intervention strategies. Leong goes on to suggest that an
approach to utilize with older learners is one that promotes systematic and
explicit teaching of word knowledge and spelling based on morphological
structure, word origin, and productive rules. “This approach emphasizes the
interrelation of symbol-sound correspondences, syllable and morpheme patterns,
and layers of language of Anglo-Saxon, Latin, and Greek origin (words of
Greco-Latin origin occurring much more frequently in science texts)” (p. 236).
Remedial strategies directed specifically at spelling disorders have been
addressed by Moats (1983; 1993a; 1993b; 1994). Her research has included
high school level students diagnosed with dyslexia and she has described the
nature of the persistent phonological and morphological spelling errors most
typical of the population under study. In her text Spelling Development,
Disability, and Instruction (1995) she details the elements essential to the
remediation and teaching of spelling. Moats comments that “Adolescents and
adults often view themselves as hopeless cases if they have spelling disabilities,
especially if prior instruction has been haphazard or linguistically uninformed.
Many of them, however, can make significant improvement if their disabilities
are addressed systematically, sequentially, and logically over a sustained period
of time” (p. 107).
Finally, work by Klein and Hecker (1994) documents the use of kinesthetic
and spatial strategies to teach essay writing to both college level visual thinkers
and students formally diagnosed with dyslexia. In both cases models of how
ideas relate were captured by the use of Tinkertoys, Legos, and colored pipe
cleaners as well as choreographing ones ideas through whole body movement.
Strategy Training (Metacognitive Approaches)
A shift away from purely remedial models took place in the secondary schools
in the late 1980s, based upon the work of educational researchers such as
Palincsar and Brown (1984), Deshler and Schumaker (1986), McTighe and
Lyman (1988). Others (Jones, 1988) were applying strategy instruction to text
learning in the public schools and in the U.S. Army. These various strategy
training approaches (e.g. reciprocal teaching, specific strategy procedures for
teaching writing skills, word identification and paraphrasing, error monitoring
and comprehension, and cognitive mapping) rely heavily on the individual
student’s ability to learn how and when to apply a specific problem solving
strategy. Underlying the strategy training approach is an understanding among
educational researchers that there are commonalities among individuals with a
learning/reading disability. These include (1) difficulty organizing information
on their own (especially abstract information), (2) bringing limited background
knowledge to many academic activities, and (3) the requirement of feedback and
practice to retain abstract information (Gersten, 1998).
Built into most of the strategic learning models is the notion that teachers and
instructional materials need to be explicit about what is to be learned rather than
32 CHAPTER 1
“leaving it to learners to make inferences from experiences that are unmediated

by such help” (Cazden, 1992, p.111). According to Gersten (1998), the
principles of explicit instruction include the provision of a range of examples to
exemplify a concept, models of proficient performance, experiences for student
explanation of the how and why of decision making, frequent feedback on
quality of performance, and adequate practice and activities that are interesting
and engaging. These principles are operationalized through a series of cognitive
strategies including procedural prompts, sometimes labeled scaffolds (Harris
and Pressley, 1991; MacArthur, Schwartz, Graham, et al., 1996). These are
defined as a series of questions and/or simple outlines of important structures
(e.g., story grammar elements) that are used on a daily basis in the teaching
environment. Additionally, cognitive approaches which are based on the
precepts of explicit instruction include anchored instruction (linking explicitly
taught academic concepts to authentic problem solving) and peer tutoring
(Fuchs, Fuchs, Mathes, and Simmons, 1997). Finally, what all of these
approaches have in common, according to Gersten, are two other critical aspects
of cognitive strategy instruction. The first is the development of routine, or the
“virtually automatic use of strategies” (p. 165), and the second is “an
understanding of where and how to use it (metacognitive knowledge)” (Harris
and Pressley, 1991, p. 398).
Reciprocal Teaching (Palincsar and Brown, 1984) has been used through the
grade schools years and into college. It is deemed useful for students who have
average reading decoding skills but below average comprehension. Four
strategies are employed: summarizing, forming of potential test questions,
clarifying ambiguities, and predicting. This intervention uses both media and
materials and does not require extensive teacher training. The instructor initiates
the dialoguing technique, which is gradually assumed by the students
(Westberry, 1994). Hart and Speece (1998) evaluated the effectiveness of
reciprocal teaching in a group of students at risk for academic failure in a
community college setting, finding a positive effect for this structured reading
comprehension approach. Their study was limited, however, in that the
comparison condition was a nonreading intervention.
On the other hand, another approach, the Strategies Intervention Model
(SIM), while validated by many researchers and applied in postsecondary
settings, requires staff training as student gains are highly correlated with the
level of training staff received who implement the program (Deshler and
Schumaker, 1986; Deshler and Lenz, 1989). Two of the most widely used of the
cognitive strategies developed by the Institute for Research in Learning
Disabilities at the University of Kansas include COPS (Capitalization, Overall
appearance, Punctuation, Spelling), a strategy for error monitoring in writing,
and Multipass, a strategy aimed at enhancing reading comprehension
(Schumaker, Deshler, Alley, Warner, and Denton, 1982).
Multipass is an adaptation of the SQ3R method developed by Robinson

(1946) as a system for students to apply to their textbook chapters. Essentially
the SQ3R method involves a quick survey (S) of the chapter, a second pass
wherein subtitles are turned into questions (Q), reading to locate answers to the
questions (Rl), reciting and making notes of the answers (R2), and reviewing of
the material (R3). The majority of the studies involving use of this stragegy have
been with college students in general. The Kansas group adapted the strategy for
high school level students with learning disabilities in particular.
While Berninger and her associates (Berninger, Mizohawa, and Bragg; 1991;
Abbott and Berninger, 1993; Berninger, 1994) have written extensively on the
diagnosis and remediation of writing disabilities in children, only more recently
has the process of witing development been addressed in older individuals
(Berninger, 1996). However, metacognitive and cognitive approaches have been
used extensively in teaching writing to adolescents and postsecondary students
with learning disabilities (Schumaker, Nolan, and Deshler, 1985; Wong, Wong,
and Blenkinsop, 1989; Englert and Mariage, 1991; Graham, Schwartz, and
MacArthur, 1993; Wong, 1996). Schumaker et al. (1985) developed the error
monitoring strategy known as COPS. Wong and her associates used writing
strategies that contained both cognitive and metacognitive components to teach
the planning, writing, and revising of reportive, persuasive, and compare and
contrast essays (Wong, Butler, Ficzere, et al., 1994; Wong, Butler, Ficzere, and
Kuperis, 1996; 1997).
Gander and Shea [1998] have written an excellent chapter on the
developmental writing classroom at the postsecondary level that incorporates
strategies developed for individuals with writing disorders whether due to a
specific learning disability or ADHD [at Landmark College in Putney,
Vermont]. Their approach to writing instruction is one that incorporates both
diagnostic and prescriptive components with particular emphasis on
“fundamental neurocognitive processing...such as attention or memory” (p. 65)
as well as an “accurate description of writing as a human activity that involves
affective, social and linguistic elements” (p.65). They detail a framework for
diagnosing writing problems as well as a thorough discussion of process-based
instruction. A workbook entitled “Practical Strategies for Teaching Writing:
Integrating Process, Form, and Student Metacognition” (Glennon and Kipp,
1997) is also available for those interested specifically in writing strategies with
young adults and older students with disorders of written expression.
In summary, while no one intervention strategy has been found to meet the
needs of young adults with reading and writing disorders, a series of overall
techniques has been delineated (Ross, 1987; 1988; Clearinghouse on Adult
Education and Literacy, 1989; Ross-Gordon, 1989) that are applicable across
intervention models. These are summarized below.
34 CHAPTER 1
Assess individual learning styles and teach to the stronger modality

or style
Use multisensory techniques
Create opportunities for concrete and experiential learning
Give frequent, positive, and explicit feedback
Teach transferable strategies (SQ3R, etc.)
Teach memory techniques such as chunking and mnemonics
Discuss cross-situational applications of strategies
Use organizational techniques (color coding, margin noting,
planning tools)
Use compensatory techniques as needed
Compensatory Strategies: Assistive Technologies
Since the enactment of the Technology-Related Assistance Act of 1988 (P.L.

100-407), the use of technology to enhance the lives of individuals with
disabilities has gained increased attention both in terms of research and public
monies devoted to service. According to the Act, an assistive technology device
is any item, piece of equipment, or product system that is used to increase,
maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities.
And while much attention has been drawn to its use with individuals with
physical and/or sensory impairments, application of assistive technologies in the
educational or work environments for individuals with learning disabilities has
only recently begun to be addressed in the professional literature (Hebert and
Murdock, 1994; Raskind, 1995; McNaughton, Hughes, and Clark, 1997;
Raskind and Higgins, 1998; De La Paz, 1999; MacArthur, 1999), with most
recent work conducted primarily with younger children.
Those assistive technologies that have been applied specifically to reading
and written language disorders include word processing, spell checking,
proofreading programs, outlining/brainstorming programs (e.g., InspirationR),
abbreviation expanders, speech recognition, speech synthesis/screen reading
programs (e.g. Kurzweil Reader), word prediction, and variable speech-control
tape recorders. Among these technologies, one of the earliest to impact the lives
of individuals with reading disorders was Recordings for the Blind & Dyslexic
(RFB&D). Created in 1948 for blinded World War II veterans who wanted to
realize the benefits of the G.I. Bill (Kelly, 1998), the RFB&D has a tape library
of more than 77,000 titles ranging from kindergarten through graduate school.
The word “dyslexic” was added to its name in 1995, reflecting the increasing
demand by individuals with learning disabilities for access to books on tape,
currently 62% of its membership (Kelly, 1998).
More recently, RFB&D and the American Printing House for the Blind are
producing books on discs, which make it possible for individuals with reading
disorders to listen to text by means of a speech synthesis system (Raskind and
Higgins, 1998). OCR (Optical Character Recognition) systems permit the direct
inputting of printed material into a computer by means of a scanner. Once
scanned, the material can be read back by the user by means of a speech
synthesis/screen-reading system. These systems can either be stand alone or are
PC-based and have been developed by companies such as Xerox (Bookwise),
Arkenstone (Open Book), and Kurzwweil (Omni) specifically for individuals
with learning disorders. These systems provide the advantage of allowing the
reader to highlight salient materials in the text and afterward produce a written
outline of the highlighted materials. At the same time the reader can margin
note while reading along with the speech synthesizer.
Elkind (1998) conducted a study with community college students in
California who were diagnosed as “learning disabled” using a California system-
wide discrepancy definition. Reading rate was a major problem for the majority
of the students in the study with a median percentile ranking at the
percentile on a standardardized reading test, the Nelson-Denny. Results
indicated that those who had poorer unaided scores obtained greater benefit
from the use of the Kurzweil 3000 than did those whose unaided comprehension
was better. Elkind wrote that: “...participants whose unaided comprehension is
poorer than that of graders are likely to experience gains in (timed)
comprehension from the use of the Kurzweil 3000” (p.5). Only three of the
participants (12%) indicated difficulty integrating the auditory and visual
information provided by the reading machine. Elkind summarized his findings
in terms of the characteristics of those individuals whose reading speed,
comprehension, or endurance improves when they use computer reader
technology as follow:
Poor unaided reading rate, comprehension, or endurance

Good oral language capabilities
Good ability to integrate auditory and visual information
Hecker (1999) has reported on a pilot program for low decoders currently
under investigation at Landmark College in Putney, VT. The program
(Integrated Language Curriculum) was designed to allow adult students who
read poorly to work on reading skills at two levels simultaneously: learning the
fundamentals of decoding through remediation strategies and providing
exposure to print that is intellectually challenging. The program has a 2-year
baseline and comparative data that suggest remarkable progress in reading
comprehension scores for the group with access to both remediation and text-to-
speech software, specifically the Kurzweil Reader (Hecker, personal
correspondence).
For those individuals with written language deficits, and depending upon the
degree of severity of the deficit, various outlining programs, spell and grammar
check capacities, and speech recognition systems that allow for dictation have
36 CHAPTER 1
been used successfully by individuals in postsecondary settings in conjunction

with their personal computers. According to Raskind and Higgins (1998),
systems such as Dragon Dictate™, Kurzweil Voice™, and IBM Voice Type™
used in conjunction with word processors enable the user to dictate to the
computer at 40 to 70 words per minute, which then converts oral language into
written text (Our usual rate of speaking is at a rate of 125 to 160 words per
minute.) (De La Paz, 1999). However, as the technology now exits mere is a
considerable degree of training time required, anywhere from 3 to 6 hours,
before an individual can work with the system independently. Training is
essential in both basic operational procedures as well as training the system to
recognize the user’s voice.
As a result of a review of a number of studies comparing the use of oral
composition devices such as dictation and speech recognition systems vs.
written composition, whether by hand, typewriter, or word processor,
(MacArthur and Graham, 1987; Burenstein, 1995; De LA Paz and Graham,
1995; Higgins and Raskind, 1995; Raskind and Higgins, 1995; Wetzel, 1996)
De La Paz (1999) offers a number of recommendations with respect to the use
oral composition devices. She points out that, as is the case for assistive
technology in general, “these compensatory strategies must be combined with
instruction to maximize their effectiveness” (p. 180). Instruction must include
planning strategies in particular. Guidance in learning to use speech recognition
systems must be scaffolded (e.g. building voice recognition templates,
developing consistent vocabulary selection and pronunciation, error correction
procedures). In addition, neither dictation nor speech recognition systems
alleviate the need for individuals to compose using correct grammar and
punctuation.
For individuals who have primary difficulty with initiating written output or
organizing topics, categories and sequences, outlining programs such as
enable the user to “dump” (Raskind and Higgins, 1998, p. 30) their
ideas or thoughts in an unstructured manner that is later categorized and ordered.
Systems are devised to allow automatic outlining as well as graphic capacities
whereby semantic webs, mind maps, or cluster diagrams are produced prior to
formulating an outline. Geometric shapes and lines allow for displaying and
linking related ideas to a main ideas as well as reordering them throughout the
process. A paper by McNaughton, Hughes, and Clark (1997) provides an
excellent discussion of the variable impact of various proofreading strategies
including a word processor with an integrated spelling checker on the spelling
performance of college students with learning disabilities. And while the error
detection provided by the word processor provided a statistically significant
advantage over the four other independent conditions, the students still failed to
detect a mean of 24.7% of the spelling errors in their written essays. Errors
were evenly divided between homophones (their for there), errors related to
meaning of the target word (run for ran), and errors unrelated to meaning (rain
for ran).
In a study by Leyser, Vogel, Wyland, and Brulle (1999) (also discussed in
Chapter 3) the practices and attitudes of faculty in higher education with respect
to students with learning disabilities were examined. In response to a faculty
survey, various factors were elicited that appeared to affect the willingness of
those responding to provide accommodations either in the classroom or for
examinations. The use of technology in examinations was a widely accepted
accommodation, particularly use of a word processor with spell and grammar
check capacities. Surprisingly, these faculty were less willing to permit students
to answer test questions using a tape recorder, objecting to the time commitment
involved in listening to the students’ tape recorded responses.
Compensatory Strategies: Miscellaneous Accommodations
The issue of appropriate accommodations for students with learning disabilities

at the college level was among the several issues addressed in Guckenberger v.
Boston University. Students at BU claimed that the administration had
significantly and abruptly changed its policy on accommodating individuals
with learning disabilities, violating the ADA and creating a hostile learning
environment. Among the issues was mat of course substitutions in the areas of
foreign language and math in particular. While math was not dealt with in the
court’s decision as none of the complainants were found to have a math
disability, the issue of allowing a substitute for a foreign language requirement
was addressed. The court found that it was reasonable to expect the university
to substitute a foreign-culture requirement in place of a foreign language since it
would not fundamentally alter its educational program (Rothstein, 1998).
There is, to date, “no empirical evidence about the accuracy of predictions
with and without information about a student’s performance in college language
courses” (Shaw, 199, p. 326). However, Sparks, Philips, and Ganschow (1996)
did report on a study following 97 students over a 10 year period, all of whom
had received permission for course substitutions from a foreign language
requirement in a midwestern university. Following their review, Sparks et al.
recommended criteria for identifying students at risk for foreign language
learning deficits. These included: a verifiable history of native language
learning problems; a verifiable history of problems learning a foreign language;
and recent testing which demonstrates at least average intelligence and low
score on measures of foreign language aptitude and native language skill. Shaw
(1999) would contend, however, that a thorough psychoeducational evaluation
and the review of the student’s previous educational history can be used to make
a reasonable judgement about a student’s success or lack thereof without
requiring that the student fail the course first.
38 CHAPTER 1
In addition to foreign language waivers, the use of extended or untimed

testing for postsecondary students with reading and writing disorders has served
as a standard accommodation for a number of years (Weaver, 1993; Mosberg
and Johns, 1994). Discriminatory testing is prohibited under both the
Rehabilitation Act and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Four
questions must be answered to determine whether a test is discriminatory. Does
the test measure a relevant academic skill or an irrelevant disability? If the test
results may reflect the existence of a disability, is the measured skill one that is
essential to obtaining the education offered? Are there alternative methods of
measuring an essential academic skill, and is the process of providing alternative
unreasonably expensive given the postsecondary institution’s resources?
(Latham and Latham, 1997). Thus, testing accommodations are required for
individuals with disabilities unless the accommodations would alter the essential
nature of the course materials or create an undue hardship.
Providing extended or untimed testing as a reasonable accommodation has
been tested in the court at the professional and graduate school level with
varying results. In Price et al. v. The National Board of Medical Examiners,
Civil Action No. 3:97-0541 (S.D. W.Va. June, 6, 1997), two medical students
were denied additional time and a private room from the National Board of
Medical Examiners. Both students had been diagnosed with ADHD, Reading
Disorder and/or Disorder of Written Expression as young adults and had not
received any accommodations in college or earlier education. The Court ruled
that the students were not individuals with disabilities under the ADA because
their impairments did not substantially limit them in a major life activity, when
compared to most people. In two other cases, the National Board of Medical
Examiners agreed to terms set forth in a settlement stipulation and order and
proceeded to grant double time testing (Latham and Latham, 1998). In both of
these instances the individuals had been diagnosed with dyslexia as children and
had received accommodations throughout their childhood.
In the case of Bartlett v. New York State Board of Law Examiners, 93Gv.
4986 (53) (S.D.N.Y. July 3, 1997), Ms. Bartlett, a law school graduate who had
been diagnosed with a reading disorder as an adult, was found to be entitled to
certain accommodations on the Bar Exam. These included double time, large
print examinations, permission to circle multiple-choice answers, and the use of
a computer. In distinguishing this decision from that taken in the Price case, the
court found Ms. Bartlett substantially limited in the major life activity of
working vs. education. Thus she was not able to read in the same condition,
manner, or duration as an average reader when measured against the average
person with comparable training, skill, and abilities (Latham and Latham, 1998).
While we have discussed a number of salient issues related to remediation
interventions, compensatory strategies, and reasonable accommodations, ours
has been a cursory review at best. If the reader is interested in a comprehensive
discussion involving academic adjustments at the postsecondary level including
programmatic and policy-related modifications as well as instructional

modifications, he or she is referred to the chapter by Brinkerhoff, Shaw,and
McGuire “Issues in Determining Academic Adjustments at the Postsecondary
Level” (1993) in their book Promoting Postsecondary Education for Students
with Learning Disabilities.
Accommodations in the Workplace
According to Reback (1996) the most important accommodation that employers

must make is to have an Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) coordinator on
site if they employ more than 49 individuals and to insure that the coordinator is
complying with all of the law’s requirements. Equally important is an
acknowledgment by the employer that hidden disabilities create difficulties in
effective job performance much the same way that more visible disabilities do.
Reback goes on to recognize that making appropriate accommodations requires
that the individual with the learning disability self-disclose at times with some
risk, and on the other hand, that accommodations that are made should not place
undue burdens on other workers. The ADA provides for three categories of
reasonable accommodations including change in method, orientation aids, and
change in time, all of which are equally applicable to individuals with reading
and writing disorders. Using computers vs. manual data entry, using icons as
sequencing-task reminders, and using multi-modal procedures for on-the-job
training programs are examples of accommodations that address a number of the
issues raised by Reback.
On the other hand concerns raised by Beasley (1996), a training manager with
Georgia-Pacific in southeastern Arkansas, go to the heart of the identification
process itself, a precursor to the provision of reasonable accommodations in the
work place. He wrote, “One of the key points that we need to examine is that
most businesses and industries have no idea of the literacy levels of their
employees. Cost control and profitability will suffer until we address the 10-
15% of our work force with LD” (p. 143). In other words, how to assess the
learning needs of the potential workforce with varying kinds of learning
disorders remains a critical issue for trainers in business and industry settings.
According to Gerber (1997), learning disabilities are not easily understood in
the workplace and are often grouped with other categories such as
developmental disabilities, mental retardation, and sensory disabilities (Emily
Hall Tremaine Foundation, 1995). “Moreover, invisibility causes the nature of
learning disabilities to appear abstract” (Gerber, 1997, p. 4). Individuals need to
be successful self-advocates in many instances, and self-advocacy goes beyond
self-disclosure to an exact understanding of the nature of the underlying
disability, how it manifests itself, and strategies to compensate for particular
weaknesses while capitalizing on learning strengths. Gerber has labeled this
process “reframing” (Gerber, Ginsberg, and Reiff, 1992; Gerber, 1996). (See
40 CHAPTER 1
Chapter 3 for further discussion). The stages of the process of reframing,

recognition, understanding, acceptance, and action are seen to apply to a model
of employment success and have been previously identified as critical to
vocational adjustment and success among individuals with learning disabilities
by Spekman, Herman, and Vogel (1993) as well as Gerber and Reiff (1992,
1993). “Taking charge of one’s life was a crucial first step to success and was
accompanied by strong determination and desire, goal setting, and reframing”
(Vogel, 1996).
Gerber (1997) goes on to say that because companies rely on training in order
to be efficient and consequently competitive, training procedures are constantly
under review. Thus an important focus would be to design training consistent
with the ways all individuals learn, including persons with learning disabilities.
A unique approach to helping trainers deal specifically with the issue of learning
styles in the workplace is currently in progress by Sopper (personal
correspondence) who is CEO of a newly formed corporate spin-off of Landmark
College called Optimind. Optimind’s purpose is to bring the best practices in
working with adults with reading and writing disorders into the
corporate/business training world based upon the assumption that all training
efforts and thus workers with and without identified learning disabilities would
benefit from such a highly explicated, multi-sensory and cognitively informed
approach.
LONG-TERM FOLLOW-UP AND OUTCOME STUDIES
In their review of follow-up studies conducted on individuals with learning

disabilities in 1983, Horn, O’Donnell, and Vitulano concluded that the choice of
outcome variable significantly influences the conclusions one can draw. If a
test of basic skill functioning is defined as the most important measure of
outcome, then “clearly persons with learning disabilities suffer enduring
deficits” (p. 554). If measures of educational/vocational attainment are more
critical indicators of adult outcome, then persons with learning disabilities do
not appear to have a particularly poor prognosis. “Finally, it is unclear whether
LD (sic) persons are more likely to develop significant emotional/behavioral
outcomes as adults than normal learners” (p.554). While the language of the
1980s is not particularly user-friendly, the message delivered forces us to ask
whether these same results hold true some 17 years later.
A more recent review of the literature focused on long-term prognosis
covering the year 1954 to 1993 has been reported by Satz, Buka, Lipsitt, and
Seidman (1998). Twelve studies were identified that had been published since
the previous review by Schonhaut and Satz (1983) which were then rated in
terms of methodological criteria. Of the studies selected for review only 5
studies had follow-up intervals of 15 years or more. Three of these studies
reported good outcomes and two poor outcomes. Outcomes were defined in
terms of academic, occupational, social, and emotional parameters. In general,
findings from this review suggest that while childhood reading or learning
problems persist over time, the severity of the problems may decrease for some
individuals who then proceed to pursue further schooling and occupational
advancement. Whether these same individuals also experience fewer
psychological problems remains an unknown.
Results from an even more recent review (Levine and Nourse, 1998) shed
still less light on what we have learned from follow-up studies. Somewhat
uniquely, the authors present aggregate outcome data concerning the issue of
women with learning disabilities and suggest that the “uniformity of goals and
school curricular interventions for youth, and for young females in particular”
(p.230) are subject to challenge. In an earlier review (Levine and Edgar, 1995)
the gender issue in long-term postschool adjustment of youth with and without
disabilities was addressed. These authors concluded that the bulk of the
literature would say that males and females with disabilities differ in their
postschool outcomes in terms of employment, marriage, and parenting rates but
not in terms of postsecondary attendance or independent residence. Earlier
Bruck (1987) suggested that the poorer adjustments of females in the studies
she reviewed might reflect differences in societal attitudes towards men and
women who fail. “Females who fail may be more rejected by peers and less
accepted by adults than boys who fail. These interactions may be the precursors
of social and emotional problems of LD (sic) females” (p.260). In any case both
sets of conclusions raise critical issues for any long-term follow-up study.
Numerous other studies have appeared in the literature regarding the
educational, occupational, and social adjustment of young adults with learning
disabilities (Spekman, Goldberg, and Herman, 1992; Vogel and Hruby, 1993;
Lewandowski and Arcangelo, 1994; Greenbaum, Graham, and Scales, 1996;
Goldstein, Murray, and Edgar, 1998; Witte, Philips, and Kakela, 1998). The
topics range from job satisfaction of college graduates to employment earnings
and from social adjustment and self-concept to factors related to “success” in the
young adult years. As can be seen from the titles of the studies, there is a
tendency to demarcate a specific area for outcome research vs. the previous look
at numerous factors across the span of major life events and activities. It is too
early to say whether this approach will yield more useful data with respect to
outcome studies.
This concludes our review of outcome studies involving reading and writing
disorders in the young adult population. What we have learned is that the field
has far to go. The work of Shaywitz and her colleagues (1990) may well yield
significant data in the years to come because of the rigorous design of their
follow up study. On the other hand, the participant/ethnographic research
paradigm which marks the work of individuals such as Gerber (1991) may make
the content of outcome studies even richer and ultimately effect the nature of
42 CHAPTER 1
interventions and practices. Brack (1987) wrote that the most important
antecedents of positive outcome are early identification accompanied by early
intervention. It was the dimensions of intervention rather than dimension of IQ,
socioeconomic status, and severity of childhood disability that had the greatest
impact on positive outcome. We believe this message is still valid over a decade
later and will be valid until our practices are congruent with the scientific
knowledge base that we currently have at our disposal.
SUMMARY
The focus of this chapter was to present current thinking and research in the
areas of reading and written language disorders as they present in a young adult
population. Our goal also was to incorporate psychoeducational and
neuropsychological factors as they might impact the assessment process as well
as co-morbidity status. Clearly, however, controversy remains alive with
respect to diagnostic and assessment procedures, the documentation of disability
status, and justification for reasonable accommodations for young adults as well
as for children. Thus, a knowledge base by the clinician that is well grounded in
research, theory, and practice remains critical.
2
MATHEMATICS DISORDER
INTRODUCTION
Considered as a learning disability, Mathematics Disorder is defined in DSM-IV

(1994) terms as a condition in which mathematical ability, as measured by the
appropriate tests, is substantially below that expected given the person's
chronological age, measured intelligence, and education. In its pure form, this
disorder is estimated to have a prevalence of 1% of school-age children (DSM-
IV, 1994). Therefore, Mathematics Disorder as a stand-alone condition is
relatively rare in childhood, suggesting that the prevalence in adulthood is also
quite rare. However, difficulties with mathematics in combination with other
cognitive deficits or in a form that would not meet strict DSM-IV criteria are
likely to be quite common. Normand and Zigmond (1980) and others have
documented a prevalence rate as high as 6% in the school-age population of
students with learning disabilities and, numerous other investigators have found
that students with learning disabilities (the general prevalence of specific
disorders of reading and written expression are discussed in Chapter 1)
experience even greater difficulty in math than their peers without disabilities
(e.g., Fleischner et al., 1982; Ackerman, Anhalt, and Dykman, 1986; Goldman,
1989).
Using the DSM-IV definition, adults with a mathematics disorder would be
those with a developmental history of disability in mathematics that is not
outgrown. If the disorder is still diagnosable despite special education, it would
consist of individuals who retain the disorder despite such efforts as well.
Throughout this volume we have provided evidence that specific learning
disabilities often persist into adulthood, and may be identified during adulthood
even when not diagnosed during childhood. Thus, such individuals exist and
may continue to experience educational and vocational difficulties because of
poor mathematical skills. However, it is probably unrealistic to assume that
43
44 CHAPTER 2
such a group constitutes all of the cases of specific mathematics disorder. As

one gets into late adolescence and early adulthood, the incidence of acquired
disability increases, initially because of the increased incidence of head trauma,
and later in life, of stroke and other neurological disorders. A penetrating, focal
head wound or a localized stroke can result in the acquisition of a reasonably
specific, often severe mathematics disability.
In this chapter, we therefore will not limit our discussion to the developmental
form of mathematics disorder but will provide some material on the acquired
form, generally referred to as acalculia (Berger, 1926; Hecaen, Angelergues, and
Houillier, 1961) or dyscalculia. In adults with the developmental form, the
disorder becomes problematic when the cognitive demands of mathematics
courses become too much for the student's limited capability. Thus, the disorder
is commonly identified in college students (Morris and Walter, 1991).
Vocational problems may emerge when the employee is transferred to a job that
requires more mathematics than the previous job. The common scenario in the
acquired case is the individual who is doing well in school or at work, gets into a
car accident associated with head injury, and can no longer perform at the same
level, as was the case prior to the injury. In effect, however, both groups have a
common disability in the area of mathematics, and treatment and management
considerations may have a great deal of overlap. The matter of whether there are
differing optimal educational strategies depending upon whether one has lost an
ability or has to be educated in ability that was never well developed is an open
question. Most of the educational literature relates to developmental disability
(Geary, 1990; Geary, 1993; Rivera, 1993; Jones, Wilson, and Bhojwani, 1997;
Miller and Mercer, 1998; Rivera, 1998), and little has been done in re-teaching
mathematics to individuals with dyscalculia.
Also related to education, there is a voluminous literature on strategies and
educational technologies for mathematics instruction for normal individuals as
well as for students with learning disorders (Schoenfeld, 1994). While this
literature may have significant relevance for college students, it is less pertinent
for most adults who have completed their educations, do not have the desire or
resources to return to school, and who may have received maximum benefits
from special programs provided while they were in school. In these cases,
several other aspects of treatment and case management would appear to have
priority. These include the following: (1) vocational counseling that guides the
individual out of career choices that place heavy demands on mathematical
abilities; (2) accommodation in educational and vocational settings such that the
same goals can be accomplished through alternative routes; (3) instruction in the
use of assistive devices that perform mathematical operations. (4) and, in the
case of the individual with acquired severe disability in particular, counseling to
assist in modifying level of aspiration and vocational goals in view of the
changed circumstances. The accountant who has had a stroke may not be able
to return to being an independent accountant.
MATHEMATICS DISORDER 45
DEFINITIONS
Acquired Mathematics Disorders in Adults: The AcaIculias
The ability to do mathematical problem solving is often impaired following

generalized brain damage, indicating that these abilities are highly sensitive to
acquired damage in many parts of the brain over a wide range of severity. The
impairment is often seen as part of a more global problem-solving deficit, and
while mechanical arithmetic operations can still be performed, substantial
difficulty may occur with word problems that involve numerical reasoning.
Thus, some adults who experience mathematical difficulties do so as part of a
more general problem-solving deficit because of the particular sensitivity of
mathematics to brain dysfunction. This form of deficit tends to be more
pronounced in reasoning than in performing calculations. Clinically, arithmetic
tests are sometimes viewed as measures that particularly challenge sustained
attention or concentration, and the individual with generalized brain dysfunction
may often have significant impairment in those areas.
In acalculia, the deficit is typically severe and often isolated, with other
abilities less impaired or intact. There is always inability to perform
calculations, and the disorder is often quite profound. Acalculia is traditionally
classified into subtypes including alexia or agraphia for numbers, anarithmetria,
and spatial acalculia (Hecaen, Angelergues, and Houillier, 1961). There is also
thought to be a developmental acalculia or dyscalculia, but it is not clear that
this condition is different from specific mathematics disorder when it is
characterized as a form of learning disability.
Alexia or agraphia for numbers is the inability to read or write numbers.
Patients with this disorder are often also aphasic and have associated
neurological dysfunction. This condition goes well beyond the bounds of what
is generally characterized as learning disability. These individuals have
frequently had major strokes or severe head injuries. In acalculia of the spatial
type, oral calculation is normal, but numbers cannot be properly arranged during
computation. There is, in particular, a difficulty in multiplication because of
difficulty in positioning and alignment of numbers, and in making erroneous
transpositions, as in reading 42 for 24. Patients with right hemisphere disease
frequently have these difficulties. Anarithmetria is impairment in calculation
secondary to alexia and agraphia for numbers or spatial disorganization of
numbers. It typically exists in combination with numerous other cognitive
deficits. Sometimes the deficit is selective with addition and subtraction
preserved but division and multiplication impaired.
In working with adults with academic difficulties these syndromes generally
represent end-state, extreme conditions, but they may be seen in young people
who have suffered severe brain trauma or middle aged to elderly individuals
who have suffered strokes involving either the posterior left or right hemisphere.
46 CHAPTER 2
Moreover, the adult syndromes provide a rudimentary model for mathematical

difficulties, indicating that the difficulty may be the result of an inability to
interpret or produce numbers, an inability to organize numbers in space, or an
inability to calculate based on these or other considerations.
Developmental Mathematical Disorders
There are a number of children who demonstrate calculation difficulties early in

life, but who are otherwise cognitively normal. Using a traditional approach to
identification, children with near average IQs who receive low achievement
scores in the area of mathematics are diagnosed with a disability (Rivera, 1998).
According to Geary (1993) given these criteria, at any given point 6% of
elementary school and junior high school students would qualify for a diagnosis
of a mathematics disorder. Conceptualization of the disorder in this manner
appeared in an early publication by Spellacy and Peter (1978) who set specific
psychometric requirements including a Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT)
(Jastak and Wilkinson, 1984) Arithmetic score that fell below the 20th
percentile, a Full Scale Wechsler IQ score of above 80, and no disabling
emotional disturbance. They were able to identify 14 such individuals in a
sample of 430 children (3.26%).
At about the same time, Kosc (1974) argued that developmental dyscalculia
was related to a specific brain dysfunction.
Developmental dyscalculia is a structural disorder of mathematical abilities

which has its origin in a genetic or congenital disorder of those parts of the
brain that are the direct anatomico-physiological substrate of the maturation of
the mathematical abilities adequate to age, without a simultaneous disorder of
general mental functions (p. 47).
Kosc went on to define six subtypes including verbal, lexical, graphical,

operational, practognostic, and idiognostic dyscalculia. According to Rourke
and Conway (1998), operational dyscalculia appears to be roughly equivalent to
Hecaen’s anarthimetria, with the practognostic and ideognostic forms appearing
to reflect impairments in more basic concept formation and nonverbal reasoning.
In more recent times, the term specific mathematics disorder (disability)
appears to have replaced the terms "acalculia" and "dyscalculias", with these
terms being largely reserved for the acquired disorders. However, the literature
in this area has been based almost exclusively on children. Thus, while this
volume has provided extensive documentation of the persistence of reading
disabilities into adulthood, we will try to demonstrate here that a mathematics
disability may present as a different clinical entity in adults than it does in
children. To briefly summarize what will be detailed below the following
considerations are raised.
(1) Adults with mathematical difficulties may have them on the basis of
deficiencies in cognitive development; adult acquired neurological disorders, or
a combination of the two. Even in young adults, the possibilities of head
trauma, substance abuse with implications for the central nervous system, and
neurological diseases that rarely but sometimes occur in young adults (e.g., brain
tumors; stroke) need to be taken into consideration. Impairment of calculation
ability is a very common symptom of a variety of brain disorders, and in that
way calculation is different from reading, which may remain relatively intact
despite the presence of substantial brain damage.
(2) The neurocognitive deficits that produced the mathematics difficulty during
childhood may have disappeared after later development because of
compensatory efforts, but the mathematics difficulty may remain. Thus, we may
have an individual with academic difficulty but without the typically associated
neuropsychological deficits, something that rarely appears in children. The
processes involved in learning a skill are not necessarily the same as those that
maintain it.
(3) Adults often go through a frustrating life long history of failure to achieve
goals because of difficulty with mathematics. They therefore may build up
substantial anxiety when doing mathematics, and even if they have acquired the
capability of doing well they may fail to do so because of the anxiety. Anxiety
may be a more significant consideration for mathematics than is the case for
reading and other academic disabilities.
(4) Adults may have had the advantages of many of the educational strategies
available for teaching mathematics to individuals with disability, and may have
achieved optimal outcome from this instruction. They therefore may not be
motivated, often appropriately so, to pursue further educational efforts.
Accommodation and counseling then become more helpful than instruction.
(5) In children, difficulties with mathematics are often associated with
difficulties in reading, producing a global subtype of learning disability. This
combination is less frequently found in adults, and particularly in adult college
students. That is likely to be the case because individuals with global learning
disability may frequently not meet entrance requirements for college. Therefore
the adult with an isolated mathematics disorder may less frequently have other
academic skill disorders.
In summary, unlike what may be more prototypical for children, mathematics
difficulty in adults is more likely to be an isolated deficit unrelated to other
academic skills and presently existent neuropsychological deficits, more likely
to be acquired as a result of structural brain damage or disease than is the case
for children, and highly exacerbated by anxiety. Remediation utilizing career
planning and accommodation is more likely to be pertinent than formal
education. While some adults with mathematics difficulties may meet specific
DSM-IV criteria for Mathematics disorder, in association with a specific pattern
of neuropsychological deficits, substantial numbers of others may not.
48 CHAPTER 2
Furthermore, part of so-called "nonverbal learning disability" (Rourke, 1989)

involves poor mathematical abilities and nonverbal learning disability may
persist into adulthood. Nonverbal learning disability is described elsewhere in
this book. In addition to the mathematics problems, these individuals also have
poorly developed social perception and skills, impaired spatial and problem-
solving abilities, and numerous other deficits. Reading and spelling abilities are
generally at least average. (See Chapter 3 for a comprehensive discussion.)
In view of these complexities, it might be best to describe adults with
mathematics disability in two ways; first with regard to the nature of the
difficulty itself and the second describing associated academic and
neuropsychological deficits. With regard to description, the classification of the
acalculias may be useful. That is, the individual may have difficulty in reading
or writing numbers (alexia or agraphia for numbers), with spatial alignment or
representation of numbers (acalculia of the spatial type), and basic calculation
skills (anarithmetria) separate from the other two categories. We would suggest
another category in which the individual does not have any of these mechanical
difficulties, but lacks conceptual reasoning abilities, particularly with regard to
varying levels of number concept. When the mathematics difficulty does not
exist in isolation from other academic and cognitive skills, it is important to
assess those skills for various diagnostic, planning, and intervention reasons.
NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
There are two major studies that deal directly with the matter of
neuropsychological aspects of a specific mathematical disorder in adults, one by
Morris and Walter (1991) based upon a sample of 104 college students and the
other, by McCue, Goldstein, Shelly, and Katz (1986), based upon a more diverse
sample of 100 mainly unemployed individuals seeking rehabilitation services.
The studies were remarkably similar with regard to tests used and method of
subtyping. Both used the Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT), the Revised
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-R) (Wechsler, 1981), and portions of
the Halstead-Reitan Battery (HRNB) (Reitan and Wolfson, 1993). The system
of subtyping was originated by Rourke (1982) and was based upon WRAT
Results. One group is defined as being substantially better in Reading than
Arithmetic based on grade level or standard score discrepancies, the second does
better at Arithmetic than at Reading, and the third has a global disability,
without a significant discrepancy between reading and arithmetic. Our major
interest here would be in the first group.
The cognitive profile in the Morris and Walter study is characterized by the
absence of a discrepancy between average level Verbal and Performance IQ
scores, an uneven WAIS-R profile with relatively high scores on Digit Span and
Vocabulary, and low scores on Block Design and Object Assembly, below
average scores on the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test, and mildly reduced
tapping speeds. In the study by McCue et al. neuropsychological data were
obtained for the Rourke group characterized by poor arithmetic relative to
reading, based upon WRAT scores. Their sample had a slightly lower
Performance than Verbal IQ score, with general intellectual function falling into
the low average range. The WAIS subtest profile had a configuration
characterized by relatively high scores on Comprehension and Similarities and
low scores on Block Design and Digit Symbol. We would note that the
Arithmetic subtest score was 8.37 for Morris and Walter, and 6.75 for McCue et
al. both reflecting low performance relative to other verbal abilities.
On neuropsychological tests, while the specific tests used differed, both
studies found evidence of impaired spatial ability, in the case of Morris and
Walter using the Rey-Osterrieth Figure, and in the case of McCue et al. using
the Total Time and Location components of the Halstead Tactual Performance
Test (Reitan and Wolfson, 1993). McCue et al. also compared the reading better
than arithmetic with the other Rourke subtypes, finding that the reading better
than arithmetic subtype was significantly better on WAIS Information and
Vocabulary subtests and the Reitan Aphasia Screening Test, but significantly
worse on the Total Time component of the Tactual Performance Test. Both
studies described groups with low average to average general intelligence, good
verbal abilities, and impaired visual-spatial and spatial-constructional abilities.
This latter area is perhaps the most robust finding concerning individuals with
mathematics disorder. Over a very large number of studies, these individuals
often have been shown to have significant impairment of nonverbal skills
measured with drawings, constructional tasks, and complex visual perception
tasks such as identifying embedded figures. The McCue et al. study showed
that the neuropsychological profile of individuals with specific mathematics
difficulty had a different pattern of strengths and weaknesses from what was the
case for subtypes with specific reading or global disability. The combined
findings of Morris and Walter (1991) and McCue et al. (1991) confirm the
existence of a pattern of intact verbal skills and relatively deficient spatial
abilities in adults with specific mathematics difficulties. It is the same pattern as
seen in children, but generally not in as extreme a form.
Aside from the Wechsler scales and the HRNB, research in adult learning
disability (LD) has been accomplished with the Luria-Nebraska Battery (LNNB)
(Golden, Purisch, and Hammeke, 1985). The LNNB is a standard,
comprehensive neuropsychological test battery that contains individual scales
for the major neuropsychological functions including Motor Function, Attention,
Vision, Tactile Function, Receptive Language, Expressive Language, Memory,
and Intelligence. Of particular interest for LD is that there are separate scales
for Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic. It has been shown that these latter scales
constitute a "mini-WRAT" since they are highly correlated with the comparable
subtests of the WRAT (Shelly and Goldstein, 1982). Thus, the LNNB has the
50 CHAPTER 2
advantage of providing a set of academic achievement tests that can be given

within the context of a broader neuropsychological assessment. All of the tests
are placed on the same scale, and so are easy to evaluate relative to each other.
McCue and Goldstein (1991) compared three LNNB studies (Harvey and Wells,
1989; Lewis and Lorion, 1988; McCue et al., 1984) that reached remarkably
good replication of each other. While overall level of performance differed,
they all obtained profiles characterized by relative elevations on the Rhythm
scale (thought to be an indicator of attention), and the academic scales. Thus,
while the LNNB proved to be sensitive to learning disability, it did not delineate
a profile of cognitive deficits associated with it. That is, with the exception of
the Rhythm scale, which may have reflected the presence of ADHD in some
cases, the remaining clinical scales tended to be normal. More detailed study
utilizing cluster analysis did not reveal a subgroup characterized by specific
academic impairment in arithmetic and an associated cognitive profile (McCue,
Goldstein, Shelly, and Katz, 1986). The majority of subjects with learning
disability in this study had profiles that were completely normal, or that had
large elevations only on the academic scales from the LNNB.
These neuropsychological findings are characterized by a great deal of
variability. The sources of variability are of substantial importance In
contributing to the assessment process. First, some individuals with
mathematics difficulties do not have identifiable neuropsychological deficits.
This finding is apparent in the case of the LNNB, but is also obtained when the
WAIS and HRNB are used. The anticipated spatial and motor deficits are found
more often in individuals with well-diagnosed specific Mathematics Disorder.
Other adults, who seek remediation for mathematics difficulties, may not exhibit
these deficits, possibly because they were outgrown. One possible explanation
is "math anxiety" and another is that the difficulty is so specific that it is not
detected by standard tests. Thus, the individual case may have anxiety ranging
from minimal to severe, presence of specific academic and neuropsychological
deficits, presence of more generalized academic and neuropsychological
deficits, or absence of neuropsychological deficits.
The other aspect of neuropsychological assessment in this area has to do with
the specifics of the mathematics disability itself. This returns us to a
consideration of the acalculias and their specific characteristics. As we have
indicated above, the blatant inability to read or write numbers is rarely if ever
seen except in the case of acquired brain damage. However, one might
encounter individuals who make errors of the spatial type because of difficulty
in lining up numbers in writing or in cognitive representation while solving a
problem. More frequently, errors are conceptual in nature, marked by a failure to
fully comprehend the number system. The meaning of subtraction or the other
operations might not be fully developed such that the individual makes
implausible solutions. That is, a subtraction problem may be solved by
producing a larger rather than a smaller number. Additions may be made
instead of multiplications. In some cases impairment of sense of direction might

be involved. At one time it was thought that there was a condition called the
Gerstman (1940) syndrome that involves inability to identify one's fingers,
agraphia, acalculia and right-left confusion. While the construct validity of the
Gerstmann syndrome has not held up well, there do appear to be individuals
with fragments of it, who have a combination of mathematics difficulty and
right-left confusion (Hartje, 1987).
An extensive treatment of the cognitive and behavioral bases for learning
difficulties in mathematics is provided by Lerner (2000), who divides the
problem areas into spatial relationships, body image, visual-motor and visual
perceptual abilities, concepts of direction and time, memory, information
processing, language and reading abilities, cognitive learning strategies, and
math anxiety. She also gives specific behavioral examples of each of these
areas, and takes note of the characteristics of the learner in development of a
math curriculum. With regard to education, Lemer does not get into the more
advanced specifics such as fractions or exponents, but does deal with the basics
including placement of numbers, working from right to left, basic numerical
operations, and the decimal system.
From a neuropsychological perspective, the work of Lerner is particularly
pertinent because it implies that optimal education of the individual is ideally
based on the cognitive profile of strengths and weaknesses, and there is no one
method that works for everyone. Particularly in the case of individuals with
developmental, and perhaps even more so with acquired learning disability, the
key considerations determining the disability area may be specific cognitive
functions. In mathematics it may be spatial abilities, or memory, or reading, or
attention, or sequencing ability. When one gets into higher mathematics such as
algebra or calculus, these matters become even more complex. Thus, for
example, the calculation ability of an individual who sustained a head injury
might benefit from a systematic program of memory training (e.g., Wilson,
1987) while direct training of mathematics may be of no help, because of failure
to recall material presented or number facts, such as multiplication tables
In clinical assessment, arithmetic is often viewed as a measure of attention.
The Arithmetic subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scales loads on the attention
or "freedom from distractibility" factor (Cohen, 1957). Thus, in evaluating an
individual with mathematics difficulties, it is important to assess attention,
ideally with some instrument that does not involve numbers, such as the Rhythm
Test from the HRNB or a continuous performance test. It is possible that the
basis for the mathematics disability is a failure in concentration, possibly
associated with frank ADHD or some other disorder that impairs concentration,
such as depression. Elsewhere in this book we discuss the ways in which
ADHD is manifest in adulthood. In these cases, there may be some hope that at
least some portion of the difficulty with mathematics can be remediated with
standard ADHD treatment. Mathematics difficulties are also associated with
52 CHAPTER 2
nonverbal learning disability, which is associated with disorders of white matter

or the right cerebral hemisphere.
From a psychoeducational perspective, studies across countries found
consistently that children with mathematical disorders have difficulties solving
simple and complex arithmetic problems (Barrouillet, Fayol, and Lathuliere,
1997; Jordan and Montani, 1997) and that these difficulties involve both
procedural and memory-based deficits. With respect to the procedural deficit,
although some studies have attributed calculation difficulties to visuospatial
deficits, this does not appear to be the case with the majority of children (Geary,
Hamson, and Hoard, in press). Rather, they appear to have problems in
monitoring the sequence of steps of the algorithm and poor skills in detecting
and self-correcting errors.
In terms of retrieval deficits, it appears that the memory representations for
arithmetic facts are supported partially by the same phonological and semantic
memory systems that support word decoding and reading comprehension, and as
such, might be the source for mathematical and reading disorders in the same
children (Geary, 1993; Light, DeFries, and Olson, 1998). More recent studies
suggest the presence of a second form of retrieval deficit (Geary et al., in press)
that relates to the inhibition of irrelevant associations during the retrieval
process. Errors occur then because the individual cannot inhibit irrelevant
associations from entering working memory, which then either suppress or
compete with the correct association.
In the words of Geary (2000):
Disruptions in the ability to retrieve basic facts from long-term memory,

whether the cause is accessing difficulties or the lack of inhibition of
irrelevant associations, might, in fact, be considered a defining feature of
mathematical disorders....Moreover, characteristics of these retrieval
deficits...suggest that for many children, these do not reflect a simple
developmental delay but rather a more persistent cognitive disorder (p.8).
In like manner, Nolting (1988) has suggested that students who have learning
disabilities often experience more difficulty learning mathematics than other
subjects. He postulates that factors which may be relevant to diagnostics and
interventions are those of linear learning and memory. Linear learning occurs
when material learned one day is used the next day and the next and so forth.
With nonlinear subject matter (social sciences, for example), material learned
one day can be forgotten after the test and will not impact the learning of new
material. With mathematics, if the first concept taught during a class period is
misunderstood or not taught well, problems in understanding the remainder of
the class material will be paramount. He suggests that the basis for the learning
difficulty lies in problems either with short or long-term memory. In addition,
with those students who also have a reading disorder, securing the missed
information from textbooks will not be an easy task. Nolting (1997) has
published an excellent manual appropriate for students at the college level in
which he presents practical strategies for dealing with math anxiety, test-taking
skills, studying for examinations, use of a calculator in class, with special
references for students with LD, TBI, and ADHD.
In summary, description of the adult with mathematics difficulties is an
exceptionally complex area for a number of reasons. In adults more than
children, mathematics difficulties may be associated with acquired neurological
disorders in both a specific and more general way. That is, there are cases of
specific acalculia typically associated with left parietal lobe focal brain damage,
but impairment of mathematical abilities is very commonly a result of
generalized brain damage. Some, but clearly not all, adults have specific
Mathematics Disorder in association with the characteristic pattern of
neuropsychological deficits described in children. Most prominently, these
individuals show deficits in visual-spatial and motor abilities. Other adults have
the mathematics disability without the neuropsychological deficits. Some have
their mathematics disability in association with attentional difficulties, if not
frank ADHD. What often is a lifelong history of frustration and distress
centering on the area of mathematics may produce severe "math anxiety" in
adults. Various combinations of all of these considerations may exist in
individual cases.
INTERVENTIONS
General Considerations
Based upon the descriptive and neuropsychological material we have been

discussing, it is apparent that a broad range of interventions needs to be applied
to mathematics disorders. Therapeutic and remedial interventions may range
from basic reteaching a stroke patient to read and write numbers to advanced
instruction for specific difficulties in some area of higher mathematics. In some
cases, particularly those involving ADHD or severe anxiety disorders,
pharmacological treatment may be indicated. There is an extensive educational
technology for teaching mathematics to children, with some programs designed
specifically for children with learning disability. There are issues associated
with mental health interventions, accommodation, assistive devices, and
vocational choice.
Educational methods proposed vary greatly in content and orientation. Some
of them focus on strategies and emphasize such considerations as planning
without specific regard to the specifics of the mathematics areas or deficits
themselves (Naglieri & Johnson, 2000), some on behavioral techniques such as
modeling and demonstration associated with use of reinforcement, some on use
of advanced audiovisual technologies such as videodiscs with specific
applications in fractions, equations, roots, and exponents (Kitz and Thorpe,
54 CHAPTER 2
1995), and some on computer instruction (Wilson, 1993). A number of these

programs are designed for general use and others for individuals with learning
disability. In general, these innovative methods were found to be better both in
terms of student support and objective indices of improvement than were
traditional methods. However, traditional course work may be associated with
subsequent mathematical achievement, but in a complex way depending upon
grade in school and level of the course (Xin, 2000).
Dixon (1994) presented a series of six research-based guidelines for selecting
mathematics curricula that appear to be particularly critical for teaching
individuals with a mathematics disorder at whatever stage of development or
educational level. First is the concept of teaching “big ideas”—important math
concepts that will facilitate the greatest amount of knowledge acquisition across
the content being taught (i.e., basic operations, place, value, fractions,
estimations, probability, volume and area, and word-problem solving). The
second guideline is that explicit strategies should be included in the instructional
process. Third, the use of mediated scaffolding should be included to allow
learners to obtain support while performing new skills. Fourth, after skills are
taught in isolation, opportunities should exist for students to integrate problem
types (e.g., adding and multiplying fractions). Fifth, new learning should be
primed by reviewing prerequisite skills for a substantial period of time before
introducing new and more complex skills. And last, opportunities should exist
for review, sufficient for obtaining fluency, distributed over time, cumulative as
new skills are learned, and varied to promote generalization.
Adults with Mathematical Disabilities: Subgroups and Remediation
For practical purposes, there appear to be two large subgroups of adults that seek
assistance. One of them consists of college students who are having difficulties
with their mathematics courses, and the other group consists of nonstudents who
are seeking employment or who are having on the job difficulties involving
mathematics. For example, individuals who are on a new job or who have been
reassigned and find themselves in work situations that require more
mathematical skill than was the case previously. Through contrasting the studies
of McCue et al. (1991) and Morris and Walters (1991), and, in a more direct
way, through a study of Beers (Beers, Goldstein, and Kate, 2000), it seems to be
the case that there are relatively high functioning and low functioning subgroups
of adults with learning disability. Beers has shown that their cognitive profiles
are similar, but that the high functioning group has an overall higher level of
cognitive ability than the low functioning group. Morris and Walter (1991) as
well as Beers et al., both of whom studied the high functioning group, remarked
on the extremely small number of high functioning individuals who were in the
Rourke reading worse than arithmetic and global disability subtypes. In our
own work (Beers, Goldstein and Katz, 2000) we found college students in all
three subtypes, but showed that there were substantial differences in the
proportion of Rourke subtypes between college student and vocational
rehabilitation client groups. The vocational rehabilitation clients were
predominantly in the global subtype, while the college students were
predominantly in the poor arithmetic subtype. Thus, college students who seek
remediation very frequently tend to have specific difficulties in mathematics,
with normal or better reading and spelling. On the other hand, McGue et al.
found adult subjects in all three subtypes.
These considerations would appear to have major implications for direct
remediation. For example, in the relatively low functioning group, remediation
could be based upon the underlying cognitive deficit area such as spatial
abilities, with the strategy being that improvement in these abilities generalize to
mathematics. However, high functioning individuals may not exhibit these
spatial deficits but still have mathematics problems, suggesting that a different
approach would be more productive. These individuals may benefit from a
more expanded assessment in which it is determined whether the mathematics
problem is attributable to anxiety, to some general difficulty such as poor
capacity to attend or bad study habits, or to some specific deficit in
conceptualization. Such an assessment should establish the best alternative or
combination of alternatives for treating the anxiety, providing more generic
remediation regarding attending, organizing material, and maintaining an
adequate study schedule, or providing highly specific training using an
educational technology that addresses the specific problem area. For example,
with respect to the latter deficit, some modification of the use of manipulatives
used with young children who have difficulties with forming abstract
representations of problems (Marsh and Cooke, 1996). Treatment planning of
this type is greatly benefited from an analysis of errors, which should provide
important information as to the spatial, mechanical arithmetic, or conceptual
source of the disability. For example, Wong (1996) has distinguished
calculation errors due to partial completion of the given problem, errors due to
incorrect placement and regrouping, errors due to incorrect procedures in
computation, and errors due to failure in mastering the concept of zero.
It is possible, but not thoroughly demonstrated, that the more low functioning
adults may benefit from neuropsychological rehabilitation. The question is,
Will training programs available for such abilities as memory, various language
skills, and spatial abilities help these individuals with their mathematics? There
is some support for the view that use of memory aids or training is useful in
mathematics instruction of individuals with mental handicaps (Judd and Bilsky,
1989). Often these individuals cannot read well and so mathematics problems
are presented orally, but such presentation requires memory, which may be
deficient. In a similar way, reading ability may provide a source of difficulty. If
normal reading is defined on the basis of the WRAT Reading score that could be
misleading because the WRAT only assesses mechanical reading (word
56 CHAPTER 2
recognition), which may be intact in the presence of serious reading

comprehension deficits. Thus, some individuals have mathematics difficulties
because they fail to fully comprehend written problems (Zentall and Ferkis,
1993). Greene (1999) has demonstrated that mnemonic-based memory training
of the type used with brain-damaged patients may be helpful to students with
learning disability in learning mathematical facts. It is possible, but not well
demonstrated, that established cognitive rehabilitation methods might be
suitable for re-teaching individuals with acquired acalculia and substantial
associated cognitive deficits basic numerical skills such as reading, writing, and
aligning numbers.
With the exception of college students having academic difficulties, formal
interventions of this type are rarely accomplished with adults, particularly those
who have completed their educations. They may hire a tutor if they have
sufficient income, utilize services provided by the local Learning Disabilities
Association (LDA) or related organizations, or return to school. Aside from
the lack of appropriate resources, there are several reasons for this lack of
participation in formal education. In our experience, adults with learning
disability who have completed their education do not look forward to more of it.
School has generally been an unpleasant experience for them, often filled with
frustration, disappointment, anxiety, and depression. As special education
becomes increasingly available, growing numbers of these individuals will be
provided with remediation, and many will reach optimal benefit while in school.
In these cases, further formal educational efforts would appear to have a good
chance of being unproductive. In essence, the very reasonable process of
providing formal special education in specific academic areas for children with
learning disabilities seems very worthwhile, but that same activity in adults may
be less viable.
Individuals with adult learning disability often express the need to be in job
situations that do not expose their academic deficiencies or where the
deficiencies impair work performance. They may often have difficulties in
obtaining jobs or fail at jobs they get because of disabilities in reading, writing,
or calculation. While they may not wish to engage in activities that seem like a
return to school, they would like to be productive in situations in which they can
function up to expectations. Therefore, they may wish to obtain jobs in which
they feel comfortable, and that do not require much in the way of deficient
academic skills, or they may want to receive appropriate accommodation.
Interventions with College Level Students
While the clinical and research work of Davidson (1983) on “learning

differences” (Marolda and Davidson, 2000) in students’ acquisition of
mathematics has focused primarily on children before the college age,
frequently for those with a diagnosed mathematics disorder the problems
continue well into the post-secondary setting. The work of Marolda and
Davidson is useful for the clinician attempting to delineate the nature of the
disorder as it manifests in a given individual and what interventions or
accommodations might then be appropriate.
According to Marolda and Davidson (1994), students tend to process
mathematical situations following two distinct patterns. One is linear; the other
is global or gestalt. Both patterns have been incorporated in learning profiles by
these researchers: Mathematics Learning Style I and Mathematics Learning
Style II. Both styles must be available for successful acquisition of
mathematical operations and concepts. However, often students with a
diagnosed mathematics disability are limited to one or the other learning style
and thus are unable to utilize strategies available to the other style. These styles,
their cognitive and behavioral correlates, and the implications for
teaching/intervention strategies are reprinted from an article by Marolda and
Davidson as described below. As will be seen, they are transferable to work with
college students who require remediation or developmental course work in the
area of mathematics.
MATHEMATICAL LEARNING PROFILES AND DIFFERENTIATED

TEACHING STRATEGIES
MATHEMATICS LEARNING STYLE I
A. Cognitive and Behavioral Correlates

1. Highly reliant on verbal skills
2. Tends to focus on individual details or
single aspects of a situation
Sees the “trees,” but overlooks the “forest”
3. Prefers HOW to WHY
4. Relies on a defined sequence of steps to
pursue a goal
Reliant on teacher for THE approach
Lack of versatility
5. Challenged by perceptual demands
6 Prefers quizzes or unit tests to more
comprehensive final exams
B. Mathematical Behaviors
1. Approaches situations using recipes; “talks
through” tasks
Interprets geometric designs verbally
2. Approaches mathematics in a mechanical,
routine based fashion
Overwhelmed in situations in which there
are multiple considerations, such as in
multi-step tasks
Can generate correct solutions, but may
not recognize when solutions are
inappropriate
58 CHAPTER 2
Difficulties “checking” work; must re-do

entire problem
Difficulties choosing an approach in word
problems
Difficulties appreciating larger geometric
constructs because of an emphasis on
component parts
3. Prefers numerical approach over manipulative
models
Needs drill and practice to establish procedure
before considering applications or broader
conceptual meaning
4. Prefers explicit delineation of each step of a
procedure and linkage of steps one to another
Vulnerable when there are multiple approaches to
a single topic
Overwhelmed by multiple models or multiple
approaches
Prefers linear approaches for arithmetic topics
5. Difficulties with more sophisticated perceptual
models, such as Cuisenaire rods
Geometric activities may be challenging,
especially in three dimensions
Difficulties interpreting analog clocks
Difficulties distinguishing coins, especially nickel
and quarter
Difficulties organizing written formats
6. May be able to complete the most difficult example
in a set of examples relying on the same concept/skill,
but has difficulty switching to a new topic or new approach
C. Teaching Implications and Strategies

1. Emphasize the meaning of each concept or procedure in
verbal terms
Build on subvocalization strategies to direct procedures
2. Highlight concept/overall goal
Break down complex tasks into salient units and make
linkage between units explicit
Build simple estimation strategies; encourage two final
steps to each calculation problem: “Does this answer
the question?” and “Does the solution seem right?”
Encourage students to rewrite or state problems in their
own words
Develop metacognitive strategies to analyze word problem
situations
Encourage parts to wholes approach in building geometric
figures and explicit descriptions of the overall design that
emerges
3. Link manipulative model on a step-by-step basis to the
numerical procedure
Once procedure is secure, relate math topics to relevant real life
situations
4. Offer flow chart approaches
Help students create handbooks with procedures described in
their own words

Choose one manipulative model or approach to develop
a wide range of topics; avoid switching models or
approaches too quickly
Don’t emphasize special cases; rather develop an over-
riding rule that applies to all cases; e.g. for the addition
and subtraction of fractions with unlike denominators,
develop a single process using the product of the
denominators in all cases, even if it is not the least
common denominator
Give explanations before or after procedure, but not
while student is pursuing procedure
Use counting on techniques for addition facts and
missing addend techniques for subtraction facts.
Interpret multiplication as successive additions
5. Emphasize set (discrete) models for counting, such as
money or counting chips
Translate perceptual cues in terms of verbal
descriptions
6. Spiral all topics to keep them current
MATHEMATICS LEARNING STYLE II
A. Cognitive and Behavioral Correlates

1. Prefers perceptual stimuli and often reinterprets
abstract situations visually or pictorially
2. Likes to deal with big ideas; doesn’t want to be
bothered with details
3. Prefers WHY to HOW
4. Prefers nonsequential approaches, involving patterns
and interrelationships
5. Challenged by demands for details or the requirement
of precise solutions
6. Prefers performance based or portfolio type assessment
to typical tests
Prefers comprehensive exams to quizzes and unit tests
More comfortable recognizing correct solutions than
generating them
B. Mathematical Behaviors
1. Benefits from manipulatives
Loves geometric topics
2. Prefers concepts to algorithms
Tolerates ambiguity and imprecision
Offers impulsive guesses as solutions
Uses estimation strategies spontaneously
Skims word problems first but must be encouraged
to re-read for salient details
Perceives overall shape of geometric configurations
at the expense of an appreciation of the
individual components
3. Requires a definition of overview before dealing with
exacting procedures
60 CHAPTER 2
Requires manipulative modeling before developing a

concept or algorithm
Likes to set up problems, but resists following through to
a conclusion
4. Prefers successive approximations approach to formal
algorithms
Addition and multiplication facts involving 9s more readily
generated because of underlying patterns that are
recognized but not verbalized
Not troubled by mixed practice worksheets
Comfortable with horizontal formats for long calculations
Can offer a variety of alternative answers or approaches
to a single problem
Can appreciate operation needed in a word problem but
has difficulty following through to an exact solution
Likes logical problem solving in the form of general reasoning
problems
5. Difficulties with precise calculations
Difficulties offering rationale for correct solutions
6. May be overwhelmed when faced with multiple examples
C. Teaching Implications & Strategies

1. Offer a variety of models; introduce perceptual models,
such as Base Ten Blocks or Cuisenaire Rods, to support
calculations
Emphasize geometry as a vital part of the curriculum
2. Relate manipulative models to procedures before practicing
algorithms
Reward approach as well as precise solutions
Develop an appreciation of how much precision a situation
warrants
Reward/encourage estimation strategies as first step
Encourage diagrams as a technique to organize data in
problem solving situations
Allow calculators to support problem solving
Encourage multiple refinements when building geometric
designs in order to incorporate all the individual parts
3. Offer opportunities to work in cooperative groups
4. Allow alternative calculation procedures
Help students to create their own handbooks of typical
problems
Generate arithmetic facts through relationships to known
facts; e.g. doubles for + facts
Emphasize area model for multiplication
Start with real-life situation and tease out more formal
arithmetic topics
Use simulations, relating similar concepts/approaches in a
variety of different situations
Model complex problems with similar problems in simpler
forms
Give two grades on word problem activities; one for correct
approach; one for exact final solution
Include general reasoning examples in logical problem solving
activities
5. Encourage students to describe the approach or conceptual

underpinning even if they cannot mobilize an exacting
procedure
6. Consider a variety of assessment techniques
Allow oral presentations
Do not always require exact solution but sometimes grade
homework and tests only for correct approach
Include some multiple choice items on tests
Reprinted , not in its entirety, with permission from The International Dyslexia
Association quarterly newsletter, Perspectives, Summer 2000, Vol. 26, No. 3,
pp. 13-14, M. R. Marolda and P. S. Davidson.
In addition, Morris and Walter (1991) suspect that math anxiety may be a
major source of academic dysfunction in college students. The disruptive
effects of anxiety on cognitive function are well known, and can be quite
disabling. One can treat math anxiety in a number of ways including
psychotherapy, cognitive behavioral interventions (e.g., desensitization, anxiety
management), and pharmacological treatment. Perhaps a desensitization
procedure would be particularly effective, accomplished through specifically
reducing anxiety responses to situations related to mathematics. There does not
seem to be any specific treatment for math anxiety except to possibly consider it
as a form of phobia, perhaps a form of school phobia, that may be treated in a
targeted manner, such as with the use of desensitization, cognitive therapy, or
relaxation. The use of anti-anxiety medication might be considered in
appropriate cases.
ASSISTIVE DEVICES
Another approach to remediation and/or accommodation involves the use of

assistive devices. Since the use of hand calculators and computers is so
commonplace, we rarely think of these devices as remedial tools or training
devices. Furthermore, allowing an individual with a mathematics deficit to use
such a device at work or in school is no longer a major event. The point to be
made here about assistive devices is that it is typically not sufficient to simply
make the device available, or to allow the individual to use one. In order to use
an assistive device as a remediative tool, two considerations are pertinent. First,
the device must be designed so as to be "user-friendly" to the person using it.
There are obviously the physical characteristics, such as the weight and size of
the device, and its use by individuals with various motor and perceptual
handicaps. For example, the individual with acquired acalculia resulting from
stroke may only have the use of one arm. For individuals with cognitive
impairment, the display portions of devices must often be designed more simply
than is the case for normal individuals. Keyboards should have a minimum
62 CHAPTER 2
number of keys, graphics should be as simple as possible and instructions for

use and maintenance should be written in basic, simple terms. For individuals
with perceptual and motor handicaps, visual displays need to be adequately large
and illuminated. For the person with motor difficulties, the device must be
adapted to the individual's deficit. For example, keys should be sufficiently
large and widely spaced. It is generally necessary for the best work in this area
to use individually designed or modified devices, or devices that have been
specifically designed for use by individuals with physical, perceptual, or
cognitive disabilities. It is exceptional for a commonly available commercial
product to be an optimal assistive device. However, commercial devices may be
used as “platforms” with modifications made through the use of rehabilitation
engineering technology.
The other consideration revolves around the general principle that it is not
sufficient to offer the individual an assistive device, provide information
concerning how to operate it, and then leave the individual on her or his own. It
is generally necessary to provide training in use of the device, ideally in the
form of a systematic training program. We know of no formal programs in the
area of mathematics with the exception of the specific procedures outlined by
Nolting (1997) for use of a calculator while note-taking in the classroom.
However, there are several programs available in the area of memory. For
example, we effectively trained patients with severe amnesia to use a very basic
personal reminder device to access items of information that they could not
recall (Goldstein, Beers, Shemansky, and Longmore, 1998). The training
involved meeting with a therapist over several sessions to provide training to
use the device to obtain requested information. A conditioning program was
used, initially associating a tone with a question and then gradually fading the
tone to the point at which the patient would spontaneously take out the device
and use it to look up requested information.
Several points from this research can be generalized to mathematics. First, it
is often necessary to encourage the individual to use the device when needed in
a natural environment. There is an extensive literature on characteristics of the
environment in relation to the use of prosthetic aids and assistive devices.
Rogers and Holm (1998) said, “The presence of a grab bar on the bathtub is a
safety feature, but if it is not used when entering and exiting the bathtub it does
not serve this purpose” (p. 103). The same may be said for cognitive function
assistive devices. Clinically, rejection of prostheses such as hearing aids is not
uncommon. We have recently published a case report of a patient with amnesia
who “lost” a reminding device he was given to use, apparently because it
represented something of a security threat (Goldstein, 1999). Indeed, the
training might involve practice runs in which the student is called and asked to
solve a problem. She or he may be questioned about using the device and
encouraged to use it if it is not being used. That procedure should be followed
by hopefully in vivo instruction in use of the device in educational or vocational
settings. The basic point is that the individual with a mathematics difficulty may
not be able to make full utilization of a hand calculator to the extent that an
individual without a disability can, without special instructions. With regard to
design, it may be necessary to use specially modified hand calculators
engineered to accommodate the specifics of the deficit. For example, with new
developments in voice technology, it may be possible to utilize auditory as
opposed to visual calculators for people who do better with hearing than with
seeing information. For example, some individuals with mathematics
difficulties may do better by presenting problems through speaking into a device
and receiving spoken answers. Speech may also be employed by individuals
whose physical disabilities prevent use of a keyboard.
Assistive Devices as a Means of Accommodation
The use of assistive devices may be viewed as part of the process of

accommodation. Accommodation often involves the use of devices such as
calculators or tape recorders, allowance of increased time to perform a task, or
receiving and transmitting information in other than the conventional modality.
The question then becomes one of determining the most productive
accommodations for the individual with mathematics disability. Very few jobs
now require hand calculation without the use of even a simple calculator.
Perhaps an appropriate question for contemporary times would involve whether
or not individuals with mathematical difficulties also have difficulties with
learning how to use modern computers. If they do, while assistive devices may
get the individual beyond the limitations imposed by being able to do basic
calculations, they may not help with more advanced mathematics or
mathematical problem solving. Computers may do your work for you through
solving exceedingly complex mathematical problems and performing complex
operations, but they may not improve conceptualization of the mathematical
aspects of the problem. On the other hand, defining assistive devices and
accommodation as remediative procedures has philosophical implications since
to some extent the functional handicaps associated with mathematics difficulties
may have diminished substantially since we now have machines that can
perform mathematical functions more quickly, precisely, and accurately than the
human brain. It may be reasonable to suggest that calculators and computers
may be used as assistive devices when appropriately applied within the context
of a more comprehensive program, but serve other purposes as well. It may be
analogous to the idea that a lens may be used in microscopy, astronomy, or other
scientific endeavors, but can also assist people with their vision. To draw the
analogy further, this latter application is best done by a clinician skilled in
optometrics.
Nevertheless, there are now many people with significant calculation
difficulties that can perform work-related tasks requiring calculation through the
64 CHAPTER 2
use of calculators or computers. Only rarely, if ever, are they required to do

mental arithmetic of the type assessed with the Wechsler Intelligence Scales.
The choice therefore arises in intervention as to whether to teach mental
arithmetic or to optimize utilization of calculators and related assistive
technologies. Future research might address itself to a number of issues in this
area including such matters as whether it is really true that people who have
difficulty with mechanical arithmetic and related skills are as adept at using
calculators or computers as are people who do not have these difficulties, and
does the failure to attempt to teach mental arithmetic and only focus on better
use of assistive devices compromise the development of problem-solving ability
and analytic reasoning in other areas?
Vocational Choice
Appropriate vocational choice is also a major consideration. There appear to be

a number of occupations, notably architecture and engineering for which
mathematical and associated spatial skills are crucial. Even if mathematics is
remediated, it is exceptionally difficult to develop the spatial skills with which
successful engineers and architects are apparently gifted. Appropriate guidance
and career counseling may be quite helpful here. A different set of problems
arises for the individual who, for example, wants to become a physician, and
probably has the ability to do so except for difficulty with the mathematics
courses needed to get into medical school. In these cases, one might consider
favorably the potential benefits of an aggressive remediation program in
mathematics. Still another consideration involves the individual with acquired
brain damage who can no longer function adequately in a previously held
occupation. Here, the major issues often involve modification of level of
aspiration and vocational placement that is viable in consideration of the
permanent residual disability. The period during which there is consideration of
returning or not returning to work is typically stressful, and supportive treatment
is often need for individuals who try and fail or who have a future characterized
by inability to function at a previously held level. Early disability retirement or
return to employment at a lower level are generally the major alternatives, with
the outcome often depending on a complex combination of motivation, status of
residual abilities, and vocational opportunities.
A CASE STUDY
Mathematics is in one respect a language that uses numbers and symbols rather
than words, a system of logical operations, such as dividing and subtracting, and
an analytic method that serves in problem solving. It has been described as a
“handmaiden to the sciences” since it supports such major scientific areas as
chemistry, physics, and some of the life and social sciences. Some individuals
have major difficulties in studying science because they can’t handle the
mathematics. They may have excellent language skills, reasoning ability, ability
to learn in areas other than mathematics, and excellent memory.
The case presented here is that of an individual who wanted to be a scientist
and possessed many of these positive cognitive characteristics. However, from
early in school, he did poorly at mathematics, with recollection of failure going
back to the first grade. Other schoolwork was performed at an average or better
level, but poor mathematical abilities compromised achievement in such areas as
physics and chemistry when he was in high school. It was noted early in school
that he had not developed a clear hand preference. He was primarily left
handed, but would write with either his left or right hand. Over time, he
remained predominantly left-handed, but increasingly wrote consistently with
his right hand. He was right eyed, making him crossed eye-hand dominant, and
possibly efforts to convert him to right-handedness were owing to the belief that
existed at the time of his education that not to do so would impede his ability to
learn to read. Ultimately, his reading turned out to be normal.
The quality of his mathematics education was high, and he could recall
having excellent, interesting teachers throughout school. He experienced
understanding everything during the lectures, but did exceptionally poorly in
solving problems at home and on tests. He minimally passed courses up to
elementary algebra, but failed intermediate algebra. Exponents, complex
equations, and related matters were not at all well-learned. Repetition of
intermediate algebra led to a minimal pass. Since his other grades were good, he
was admitted to an academically prestigious college, and since he had passed
intermediate algebra in high school, he was immediately placed into a required
two-semester calculus course. The first semester was failed, repeated and
minimally passed, and the second semester was minimally passed. However, he
had little real understanding of calculus. He was required to take a course in
statistics, and although the mathematics involved were less demanding than
calculus, he achieved a minimal pass.
Other grades still being good, he was admitted to graduate school where he
was required to take advanced statistics. Surprisingly, he got straight A’s in
both statistics courses, marking the beginning of a series of unexpected
developments. During graduate school and following completion of a Ph.D., he
became heavily involved in research. Most of the research involved quantitative
analysis of data, with a heavy emphasis on advanced multivariate statistics.
These methods involve use of matrix algebra, simultaneous equations, and
related advanced mathematical methods. However, when he read journal
articles, he had extensive difficulty in following mathematical arguments based
on sets of formulas and equations. Fundamental mathematical ability did not
appear to improve at all. Nevertheless, he authored a book in research design
66 CHAPTER 2
and statistics, and has published numerous scientific papers involving

application of advanced statistical methods.
This case is of particular interest because it is illustrative of how an individual
with substantial mathematical disability can use mathematics in his everyday
life. He never received special education or tutoring in mathematics since these
options were not available to him during the period of his education. It is likely
that with or without his awareness, he spontaneously employed a number of
learning strategies and that he was able to use some better than average abilities
for compensatory purposes. With regard to calculation, he rarely did mental
arithmetic and always had available some form of hand calculator or computer
for his work. In initial learning of statistics he accepted the common wisdom
that one could not do statistical analyses without learning and understanding the
underlying mathematical basis. He eventually discovered that, at least for him,
that was not the case, and that statistical analyses could be accomplished without
any basic understanding of the relevant mathematics. Computation was always
done with a calculator, but everyone uses a calculator to do statistical
computations, and it was never viewed in terms of accommodation or use of an
assistive device. He was greatly benefited by the development of the “statistical
packages” associated with the then evolving high-speed computers. He was able
to use these packages and do some of the necessary programming for them,
since that did not involve mathematics. He learned that the really important
matter was a conceptual understanding of the substantive problem rather than
the specifics of the mathematics used in solution. The disability apparently did
not extend to interpretation of statistical results but mainly to the mechanical and
conceptual elements involved in obtaining them, some of which may involve
matrix algebra and geometry, and other forms of higher mathematics. Good
writing skills allowed him to translate these interpretations into scholarly and
readable prose.
This individual has not outgrown his mathematics disability and still has
problems with more than the simplest algebraic equations. He cannot solve
them nor can he follow a mathematical argument based upon a series of
equations. Hand calculation is slow and often inaccurate. Such concepts as
negative exponents are difficult for him to grasp. His reading comprehension of
statistics and mathematics books is limited to the description of the procedures
and the mechanical formulas used for computation. Material on derivation of
these formulas is beyond him. Nevertheless he has developed skills needed to
use mathematics in his occupation through a combination of identifying areas in
which he can function well, using technology that serves as assistive devices,
and exploiting his good skills as a method of compensation.
Perhaps this case can be more fully explained by revealing the identity of the
individual. He is one of the authors of this book (GG). Having revealed myself,
I can make some additional comments. I do not completely understand the basis
for my mathematics disability. There is a family history of left-handedness and
associated awkwardness, but I know of no relatives with notably poor

mathematics ability. My spatial and motor abilities are not as good as my verbal
skills, and my left-handedness may be associated with crossed cerebral
dominance for language. It is also not clear to me whether special education
efforts accomplished during my early childhood would have significantly
improved my basic mathematical abilities. I doubt that they would have because
I worked very hard at mathematics and had excellent teachers. There was no
lack of opportunity for special attention when needed. The adjustments I made
were not specific, intentional efforts but seemed to be more driven by my
ambition to enter a scientifically oriented occupation. Perhaps the major general
consideration here is that one can use mathematics without “doing”
mathematics, particularly with the technology we now have available.
SUMMARY
Consistent with the other disorders and disabilities discussed in this volume,
mathematics disability exists in adulthood. We use the term “exists” rather than
“persists” because there is a greater prevalence of acquired mathematics
disability in adulthood than is the case for reading or writing. We also use the
term “disability” rather than “disorder” because many adults with mathematics
difficulties would not meet DSM-IV criteria for Mathematics Disorder or any of
the academic skill disorders. In brighter adults, notably college students, the
distribution of academic skill subtypes is different from what is the case for
children and lower to average ability adults. That is, in college students one
seldom sees individuals with global disability or the reading worse than
arithmetic subtype, but the reading better than arithmetic subtype is quite
common. Unlike children, there appears to be a high prevalence of adults with
substantial mathematics disability who either do not have the typically
associated spatial and motor neuropsychological deficits or who do not meet
DSM-IV criteria for Mathematics Disorder or other academic skill disorder.
Many adults who sustain diffuse brain damage or focal damage particularly to
the left posterior hemisphere may acquire mathematics disability. An unknown
but apparently substantial number of individuals have mathematics anxiety
either as the source of the disability or a reaction to it. Interventions may cover
a broad range including formal specific remediation, general remediation of
study habits and organizing skills, cognitive rehabilitation of attention, memory,
and problem solving ability, use of accommodation and assistive devices, anti-
anxiety treatment, and vocational counseling particularly with regard to
occupational choice.
3
NONVERBAL LEARNING DISABILITY
INTRODUCTION
Myklebust (Johnson and Myklebust, 1971; Myklebust, 1975) coined the term
nonverbal learning disability to describe children with disturbed social relation-
ships, poor social skills, difficulty in interpreting the meanings of actions of oth-
ers, arithmetic deficits, and functional difficulties such as distinguishing left from
right, telling time, reading maps, and following directions. This chapter begins
with a description of nonverbal learning disability that considers diagnostic con-
siderations, epidemiological aspects, and proposed biological mechanisms for
the disorder. The neuropsychological aspects of nonverbal learning disability
are discussed, framing the subsequent consideration of psychosocial and voca-
tional function. Next, various treatments are reviewed, again within the frame-
work of the neuropsychological strengths and weaknesses associated with this
disorder. This chapter concludes with suggestions for future work.
CHARACTERISTICS OF NONVERBAL LEARNING DISABILITY
Individuals with nonverbal learning disability (NLD) are characterized by prob-

lems in the organization, analysis, and synthesis of nonverbal information. The
concept of NLD emerges from a long and somewhat controversial history (Fea-
gans and McKinney, 1991; Hooper and Willis, 1989; Torgeson, 1991). Today,
NLD is becoming more fully characterized in children, but the topic continues to
stimulate much discussion. While the purpose of this chapter is not to resolve
69
70 CHAPTER 3
this debate, it is important to acknowledge the historical “evolution” and the

various diagnostic labels for this group of primary disabilities that are generally
classified under the rubric of “nonverbal” deficits.
Before 1970, educators assumed that learning disability was a homogeneous
entity, most relevant to the school setting, and “outgrown” by adulthood. Based
on this assumption, researchers employed comparative-population or contrasting
groups methodology to determine the specific strengths and weaknesses of chil-
dren with learning disabilities (Beers, 1998). In the 70s, however, both clinical
and empirical models of learning disability raised the possibility of several rela-
tively discrete constellations of symptoms and learning patterns.
Feagans and McKinney (1991) acknowledge the importance of the search
for subtypes of learning disabilities as a way to clarify the theoretical framework
and adequately reflect the multidimensionality of learning disability in general.
As these authors note, early subtype investigations were grounded in carefully
considered clinical observations regarding children with LD. Most particularly,
this work documented the developmental variability of these children. Research
generally compared and contrasted various patterns on IQ tests (e.g., Bannatyne
reclassification, ACID cluster), attempted to identify and describe “academic”
subtypes associated with various reading problems, or explored patterns based
on the IQ-achievement discrepancy then used to identify children with LD. At
the same time, neuropsychologists and neurologists also began to compare chil-
dren with various learning disorders on neuropsychological constructs such 4s
memory, learning, and attention. While these clinical studies did much to ad-
vance knowledge of LD in general and subtypes of LD in particular, Feagans et
al. applaud rigorous empirically-based methods such as factor analysis and clus-
ter analysis as providing the firm methodological foundation for subtype re-
search. They note, “...empirical classification demonstrates the importance of
creating more homogeneous subtypes of specific leaning disabilities since it
clearly shows the intra-individual differences of children with learning disabili-
ties.” (p. 24).
Much early classification research focused on defining subtypes of children
with reading disorders. More recently, however, attention has turned to children
who display deficits in nonverbal learning. In their cogent review, Semrud-
Clikeman and Hynd (1990) discuss the similarities and differences of six classi-
fication methods used to characterize children with NLD. As might be expected,
the over riding difficulties in visual-perceptual skills, social skills, motor devel-
opment, and arithmetic are marked with labels that generally reflect the research
background of the investigators. Several subtypes are classified according to the
area of the brain felt to be affected: right hemisphere syndrome (Voeller, 1986;
Voeller and Heilman, 1988), left hemisyndrome (Denckla, 1978), and right pa-
rietal lobe syndrome (Weinberg and McLean, 1986). Others base classification
upon clusters of more diverse symptoms including Asperger Syndrome (Asper-
NONVERBAL LEARNING DISABILITY 71
ger, 1979; Gillberg, 1985; Shea and Mesibov, 1985; Wing, 1985) and, albeit of
questionable validity, Developmental Gerstmann Syndrome (Kinsborne, 1968;
PeBenito, 1987; PeBenito, Fisch, and Fisch, 1988). Another classification
schema, and one of the few that has extended research into adulthood, is based
on a disorder of central processing that is descriptively labeled as a nonverbal
perceptual-organization-output disorder (Rourke and Fisk, 1981). While the
reader is referred to the Semrud-Clikeman and Hynd review and the other refer-
ences listed for a comprehensive discussion of classification methods, research
within each category has identified several unifying constructs. For example,
almost every study has identified delays in arithmetic, poor motor development,
and visual-spatial problems. In contrast, no matter how classified most subjects
showed relatively strong vocabulary skills but disorders in higher order language
skills (e.g., pragmatics). Subjects within the various classifications also showed
remarkable and striking similar difficulties in social understanding, interpretation
of gesture, and discrimination of the nuances of speech. As Semrud-Clikeman
and Hynd caution, “All of these classification schemes should be viewed as ex-
ploratory.... replication and refinement is needed...” (p. 205). Of the investiga-
tions discussed, the work of Rourke and his colleagues address these concerns in
both children and adults and will be discussed in some detail here.
During the 1980’s, the seminal work of Rourke and his colleagues provided
major support for the characterization of what has come to be termed NLD syn-
drome. This syndrome describes a constellation of deficits that co-occur at a rate
greater than chance and disrupt abilities generally felt to be subsumed by the
right hemisphere of the brain (Petrauskas and Rourke, 1979; Rourke, 1985).
Interestingly, these researchers were among the first to add comprehensive neu-
ropsychological assessment to the more standard psychoeducational evaluation
(i.e., intellectual ability and academic achievement tests) in order to describe the
cognitive deficits and strengths of children with learning disability. (For a com-
plete review of this literature, see Beers, 1998). Based on these early studies and
further work done across developmental levels, Rourke (1989a) developed a
dynamic picture of NLD. In Rourke’s model, children with NLD syndrome per-
formed better on neuropsychological measures associated with the left hemi-
sphere while the converse was true in children with reading disorders. In con-
trast children with NLD had more difficulty on tasks measuring tactile and visual
perception and attention, performed poorly on tests requiring complex psycho-
motor skills, and demonstrated problems in abstract concept formation and prob-
lem solving.
72 CHAPTER 3
Definition and Diagnosis of Nonverbal Learning Disability
As with other subtypes of learning disability, evidence suggests that NLD per-
sists into adulthood (Denckla, 1993; Rourke, Young, Strang, and Russell,
1986b); and, in fact, NLD may not be diagnosed until adulthood. Later in this
chapter we will review case material illustrating such an example. Two prob-
lems relating to the diagnosis of NLD are considered here. The first is that of the
lack of diagnostic specificity in the general classification method employed by
mental health professionals and sometimes educators. The second is that of dif-
ferential diagnosis.
Although the work of Rourke et al. has taken major steps in defining the
disorder, there is little consensus as to the definitive, operationalized definition
of NLD. As discussed in Chapter I, the specific characteristics of the descriptive
term “learning disability” usually reflect the perspective of the professionals
involved, be they educators, neuropsychologists, psychiatrists, behavioral neu-
rologists, or rehabilitation specialists. Although the literature is beginning to
report more concise and concrete definitions of various reading disorders, NLD
lacks what Stanovich (1999) terms a “domain specific” diagnosis that enables
researchers to address the issues of identification, diagnosis, intervention, and
prognosis. This may be because the problems with arithmetic so often noted in
children with NLD are frequently attributed to motivational or cultural factors
and thus tend to be overlooked rather than conceptualized as a single feature of
a more over riding cognitive disorder (Fletcher, 1989).
Within the mental health system, assigning a formal medical diagnosis to a
person having a “learning disability” is rendered even more problematic by the
inability of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edi-
tion (DSM-IV) (American Psychiatric Association, 1994) to adequately charac-
terize NLD. Indeed, when an actual diagnosis is required, that of Learning Dis-
ability Not Otherwise Specified (LD-NOS) with the addition of Cognitive Dis-
order NOS is probably the most appropriate. Certainly these catchall categories
fail to elaborate the principle identifying cognitive patterns and symptoms, dis-
cussed later in this chapter, that represent the defining characteristics of NLD.
Finally, because the diagnosis of LD-NOS also fails to reflect the emotional and
social ramifications so frequently associated with NLD, any appropriate Axis I
diagnosis (e.g., Major Depressive Disorder; Adjustment Disorder) should also
be assigned if the individual meets those particular criteria.
Differential Diagnosis
According to DSM-IV coding procedures, certain diagnoses must be excluded

or “ruled-out” before the diagnosis of a developmental disorder is appropriate.
The differential diagnosis section for learning disability in the DSM-IV again
reflects a poor understanding of the complexity of learning disability in general,

and NLD in particular. For example, rule out diagnoses are usually education-
ally focused, including mental retardation and other specific learning disabilities
such as Disorder of Written Expression. Kinsborne’s (1997) recommendations
reflect a better understanding of the complexity of NLD. Below are aspects of
particular disorders that Kinsborne feels may lead one to misdiagnose symptoms
as consistent with NLD.
1. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Difficulty with “automatized” learning such as multiplication tables and
number facts
Social insensitivity associated with poor impulse control
2. Depression
Impaired visuospatial performance
Mild left-sided neurological signs
3. Over focused attention (e.g., Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder)
Slowed information processing
Perseveration or rigid fixation of problem-solving techniques
Overly focused on individual standards to the point of ignoring social
conventions
4. Autistic spectrum disorders (e.g., high functioning autism, Asperger Syn-
drome)
Rigid problem-solving abilities
Circumscribed interests
5. Anxiety Disorder
Arithmetic skills disrupted by heightened anxiety
Interpersonal difficulties
6. Social Learning Disability
Poor social skills
The diagnosis of social learning disability and Asperger Syndrome warrant

discussion here because they both illustrate not only the controversial aspects of
NLD but also how the professional’s perspective is sometimes reflected in the
diagnostic label. Voeller (1991, 1997) considers children and adults who evi-
dence chronic difficulty relating to others to have another variant of “nonverbal”
learning disability: social-emotional learning disability (SELD). Noting that
these individuals usually present to psychiatrists and psychologists with anxiety,
depression, and school problems, Voeller posits that this group is united by their
incompetencies of social communication. Although Voeller readily notes the
cognitive investigations that raise the possibility of right hemisphere dysfunc-
tion with attendant attention and visual-spatial deficits, she describes the social
communication deficit as the defining or overarching characteristic of the disor-
74 CHAPTER 3
der. In contrast, Rourke (Rourke and Fisk, 1992) argues that the social, emo-
tional, and academic manifestations of NLD are a result of the interaction be-
tween neuropsychological deficits and preserved areas of cognitive function.
While Voeller discusses various DSM-based diagnoses that more or less suc-
cessfully capture the defining characteristics of SELD, the pervasiveness of so-
cial deficits across disorders, however, does not support the argument that
SELD is a primary disability. For example, in Gresham and Elliott’s view, spe-
cific social skill deficits are not unique to persons with learning disabilities
(Gresham and Elliott, 1989). Reiff, Gerber, and Ginsberg (1997) remind us that
the NJCLD definition for learning disabilities specifically states, “Problems in
self-regulatory behaviors, social perception and social interaction may exist...but
do not by themselves constitute a learning disability.” (p. 59) (Emphasis added.).
Thus, while the diagnosis of SELD might facilitate mental health services by
acknowledging the severity of social deficits, this label may actually restrict
other appropriate interventions. In order for these individuals to obtain appro-
priate treatment within the school system (for younger persons) or at vocational
rehabilitation agencies, psychoeducational and/or neuropsychological testing
must confirm deficits in cognitive abilities.
Later in this volume we will discuss the relationship between high func-
tioning autism and severe verbal learning disability. As noted by Rourke
(1989a) and others (Semrud-Clikeman and Hynd, 1990; Gillberg, 1983; Wein-
traub and Mesulam, 1983), another autistic spectrum disorder, Asperger Syn-
drome bears a rather striking similarity to NLD and may represent a more severe
expression of the same syndrome. In fact, Asperger Syndrome is distinguished
from high functioning autism by some of the defining characteristics of NLD.
That is, the normal development of language coupled with marked visual-spatial
deficits and motor clumsiness in the context of generally normal intellectual
function. While everyday language function is intact, as with NLD pragmatic
interactive language skills are usually deficient. In addition, individuals with
Asperger Syndrome display social impairment and as adults are frequently
overwhelmed by the complex demands of adult life.
A study by Klin, Volkmar, Sparrow, Cicchetti, and Rourke (1995) investi-
gated the validity of Asperger Syndrome in adolescents, comparing neuropsy-
chological performance to a group with high functioning autism. Noting the
similarities in presentation between Asperger Syndrome and NLD, the authors
hypothesized that the pattern of neuropsychological test scores in the AS group
would be similarly to that associated with NLD. Subjects who met rigorous di-
agnostic criteria for either high functioning autism or AS were selected from
consecutive admissions at a treatment center. Neuropsychological testing was
completed without knowledge of the psychiatric diagnosis. Using these results,
subjects were classified as meeting neuropsychological criteria for NLD by ex-
perienced clinical neuropsychologists after review of test results and behavioral
assessment (e.g., articulation, prosody, verbal content, empathy). Interrater reli-

abilities for both the psychiatric and neuropsychological classifications were
evaluated and found to be excellent for diagnostic assignment and very good for
the LD characterization. Groups were compared in terms of Verbal vs. Perform-
ance IQ difference, the overlap between psychiatric diagnosis and LD charac-
terization, and a broad range of a priori defined cognitive characteristics. Al-
though Full Scale IQ did not differ between groups, the AS group demonstrated
a higher VIQ and lower PIQ when compared to the autistic group. The degree of
overlap between psychiatric diagnosis and NLD was minimal with only 1 of 19 of
the autistic individuals meeting criteria for NLD but almost all (18/21) of the AS
group meeting that criteria. The neuropsychological profiles were also com-
pared with respect to 22 identifying characteristics of NLD. For each character-
istic the frequency of individuals in the two groups who exhibited deficits was
compared. The AS group evidenced a significantly higher frequency of indi-
viduals deficient in the following areas: visual-motor integration, visual-spatial
ability, visual memory, and nonverbal concept formation. The autistic group
showed a significantly higher number of individuals deficient in the areas of
auditory perception, verbal memory, articulation, vocabulary, and verbal output.
Frequencies were not different with respect to novel material, rote learning, ver-
bal content, and verbal concept formation. Based on these results, the investiga-
tors concluded that NLD can serve as a marker of AS, and that the neuropsy-
chological deficits associated with AS are distinct from those associated with
high functioning autism, especially when stringent psychiatric diagnostic criteria
are applied. In spite of the diverse neuropsychological characterization of these
two disorder, the authors caution that further research must be completed on the
developmental, genetic, and neuroantonomic aspects of the two conditions be-
fore further conclusions can be drawn regarding etiological similarities or differ-
ences. In any event, these findings suggest that the interventions and vocational
training appropriate for adults with NLD might have some clinical utility for
individuals with Asperger Syndrome as well.
Incidence and Prevalence
As noted in Chapter 1, approximately 50% of the children receiving special edu-

cation services in the United Sates have a learning disability of unspecified sub-
type (U.S. Department of Education, 1989). Expressed differently, approxi-
mately 1.3 million students between the ages of 12 and 21 with LD received spe-
cial education services (Dowdy, Smith, and Nowell, 1996). More recent data
indicate that between 5 to 20 percent of the general population has some type of
LD (Gadbow and DuBois, 1998; Gerber and Reiff, 1994). However, there is
little discussion of the incidence and prevalence of NLD in either children or
adults in the literature. This fact is probably not surprising due to the historical
76 CHAPTER 3
emphasis on reading disabilities, the continuing controversial nature of NLD,

and the lack of a clearly operationalized definition of this disorder. Early work
by Denckla (1979) identified a 1% prevalence of right hemisphere learning dis-
ability in a general clinical LD sample. More recently, Rourke (1995) estimated
that the prevalence of NLD within the general LD clinical sample is from 5% to
10%, an increase that perhaps is due to the somewhat better characterization of
NLD. Based on a conservative estimate of the 10% rate of unspecified LD in the
general population, Rourke’s data suggest the population prevalence of NLD is
between .5 and 1.0%. These statistics indicate that NLD is less prevalent than
internalized disorders such as Major Depressive Disorder and Generalized Anxi-
ety Disorder that occur in approximately 15% and 5% of the general population,
respectively (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). In contrast, NLD is as
prevalent as Schizophrenia, a thought disorder that also occurs in between .5 and
1.0% of the population (American Psychiatric Association, 1994).
Etiology and Neurobiological Correlates
The processing deficits associated with NLD suggest that dysfunction in the
right, or nondominant, hemisphere of the brain may account for this disorder.
However, as with definition, the etiology of NLD remains controversial. Some
like Hiscock and Hiscock (1991) assert that NLD is a variant of “normal” learn-
ing while others speculate regarding genetic and/or encephalopathic origins of
the disorder (Denckla, 1983; Pennington, 1991; Rourke, 1988; Semrud-
Clikeman and Hynd, 1990; Voeller, 1997). These encephalopathic or environ-
mental etiologies of NLD are considered variable and include pre- and perinatal
complications, acquired insults such as early head trauma, untreated hydrocepha-
lus, cranial radiation, and agenesis of the corpus callosum. Rourke (1988; Tsat-
sanis and Rourke, 1995) has developed a “white matter model” to describe the
brain mechanisms responsible for NLD. This model is based on the assumption
of the divided responsibilities between the two brain hemispheres, with the right
hemisphere being more involved in the intermodal integration and sharing proc-
essed information with the left hemisphere. In contrast, the functions of the left
hemisphere are more intramodal and discrete. In more everyday terms, the right
side of the brain appears to be specialized to synthesize diverse information,
process novel stimuli, and develop novel concepts. As Rourke notes, all these
activities depend on the greater density of white matter or the myelinated fibers
that are responsible for communication within the brain. Thus, the mechanism of
NLD may be the changes in particular brain circuits that are disproportionately
represented in the right hemisphere and are in this altered state “...less evolved
and less specialized” (Tsatsanis and Rourke, 1995, p. 481). As noted above,
these changes in white matter occur for various reasons such as abnormal devel-
opment, degenerative processes, or injury. This, in fact, may account for the
numerous syndromes (e.g., Fetal Alcohol, Asperger, Williams) that demonstrate

the NLD syndrome to a greater or lesser degree. (See Rourke, 1995 for an exten-
sive discussion of this topic).
Until recently the evidence suggesting that learning disabilities are associ-
ated with neurological dysfunction has been inferred from correlation studies.
While the literature exploring the right hemisphere function on learning and be-
havior is extremely limited, advances in technology have allowed for interesting
studies that are applicable to the mechanisms of NLD and validation of the white
matter hypothesis. An early study by Gur et al. (1980) measured regional cere-
bral blood flow and found a greater gray to white matter ratio in the left hemi-
sphere, confirming differences in the distribution of white matter between the
two hemispheres. Voeller (1986) identified a group of children from clinical
referrals who demonstrated right hemisphere findings on either a neurological
examination or a CT scan who also showed neuropsychological deficits sugges-
tive of right hemisphere dysfunction. These groups also had the typical NLD
intellectual ability profile (i.e., VIQ>PIQ) and variable academic skills showing
reading ability stronger than math ability. Nichelli and Venneri (1995) studied a
22-year-old man who demonstrated neuropsychological and academic deficits
highly consistent with NLD as described by Rourke. Although structural imag-
ing studies were normal, a positron emission tomograph (PET) scan indicated a
marked hypometabolism in the right hemisphere. This finding provides prelimi-
nary evidence to suggest NLD might reflect functional abnormalities in the brain
even when structural abnormalities are not appreciated.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
Neuropsychological assessment for individuals with learning disability has met

with controversy over the years. When considering these disabilities in children,
some have argued that neuropsychological batteries lacked validity when used
for this population (Coles, 1978). Others have successfully refuted this conclu-
sion with respect to the both children (Rourke, 1989a) and adults (Beers, Gold-
stein, and Katz, 1994; Goldstein, Katz, Slomka, and Kelly, 1993; McCue, Gold-
stein, Shelley, and Katz, 1986; Oestreicher and O’Donnell, 1995). In spite of
these studies confirming the construct and discriminant validity of the neuropsy-
chological methodology, some educators continue to strongly criticize these
techniques, feeling they have little to offer either in understanding the etiology of
the disorder or the effect of deficits on everyday functioning.
Calling into question the “disease model” of LD that emphasizes the source
of learning problems, Hiscock and Hiscock (1991) challenge the educational
utility of neuropsychological data in relation to academic problems. In a com-
prehensive discussion of this issue these authors posit that LD is a normal varia-
78 CHAPTER 3
tion of skills rather than a reflection of subtle neurological deficits. They charge
that the disease model justifies gathering extraneous information regarding per-
ception, attention, memory, motor skills, language, and reasoning that from an
educational perspective has little value. In fact, these authors feel that the appli-
cation of neuropsychological findings may actually distort the nature of the
learning disorder and contribute to unrealistic expectations regarding treatment
and outcome. As an alternative, Hiscock and Hiscock propose that investiga-
tions of LD should focus on the learning problem per se, with an emphasis on
academic remediation (For further discussion of the interface between special
education, neuropsychology, and neurobiology, also see Kershner, 1991 and
Duane, 1991). While we agree that early neuropsychological investigations fo-
cused almost exclusively on localization and lateralization (Morrow and Beers,
1995), the field has evolved from this narrow perspective. Based on both our
clinical experiences, the validation of neuropsychological methodology with
respect to LD (Selz and Reitan, 1979a, 1979b; O’Donnell, 1991), and recent
advances in neuroimaging, we feel that a comprehensive neuropsychological
assessment provides essential information for the accurate development of indi-
vidualized academic and psychological interventions. A neuropsychological
evaluation, based on the biopsychosocial model, actually seeks explanations
“other than” neurological impairment. When these other explanations are ruled
out, the evaluation synthesizes information regarding the integrity of the central
nervous system across the cognitive domains in order to develop effective re-
mediation and compensatory strategies. The next section of this chapter illus-
trates neuropsychology’s role in defining and treating NLD in particular.
Neuropsychology’s Role in Defining the NLD Syndrome
As noted earlier, NLD—at least as conceptualized by Rourke—evolved front

the methodology of neuropsychology. Because his early studies of children are
reviewed elsewhere (Beers, 1998), they will not be discussed in detail here.
Based on these and later investigations, Rourke has developed a dynamic pic-
ture of the neuropsychological strengths and weaknesses and emotional se-
quelae associated with NLD. Although not discussed in this chapter, Rourke’s
schema includes a hierarchy of neuropsychological deficits and strengths that
are related to academic performance and to social functioning (Harnadek and
Rourke, 1994). When considering this list of NLD symptoms and intact abili-
ties, one should note that this classification is based on shared features and that
all aspects of the classification are not necessary to define any individual case
(Fletcher, 1989).
1. Generalized tactile-perceptual problems and bilateral tactile-perceptual defi-

cits that may be disproportionately affected on the left side of the body;
2. Generalized psychomotor coordination problems again with the possibility

of more deficiency noted on the left side;
3. Deficient visual-spatial abilities;
4. Relatively preserved rote memory skills;
5. Deficits in nonverbal problem solving and difficulty discerning cause and
effect relationships;
6. Inability to benefit from feedback in novel and/or complex situations;
7. Lack of appreciation of humor at an age-appropriate level;
8. Rigidity and a general inflexibility resulting in an over reliance on routine;
9. Language deficits that include verbosity, lack of prosody in speech, and im-
poverished content of language;
10. Relative deficits in mechanical arithmetic and reading comprehension;
11. Intact reading recognition and spelling (spelling may be deficient but it is
usually phonetic); and
12. Impaired social functioning (e.g. perception, judgment, and interaction),
with a tendency toward social withdrawal.
Evidence from the few extant longitudinal studies suggests that there is a
developmental aspect to these deficits; that is, the cognitive and socioemotional
deficits become more debilitating as the child grows older (Casey, Rourke, and
Picard, 1991). This fact is particularly intriguing with respect to NLD as it
manifests in adults. However, a literature search conducted for the years 1997
though mid-2000 identified over 300 empirically based studies of adults with LD
but only three of these investigations differentiated between NLD and other sub-
types. Comprehensive adult studies of NLD are long overdue.
Neuropsychological Aspects of Adult Studies
As learning disability subtypes gained empirical validation in the pediatric popu-

lation, researchers turned their attention to validity and stability of these subtypes
in older individuals. Rourke’s group (Rourke et al., 1986b) compared the neu-
ropsychological test performance of adults (age range: 17 to 48) and children
exhibiting the NLD pattern, finding almost identical cognitive profiles pattern
but a general worsening of deficits. That is, adults were shown to have greater
performance deficiencies relative to their age-matched peers. Interestingly, all of
these adults had a history consistent with NLD as children (e.g., awkward and
poorly coordinated, academic problems in mathematics, geography, science;
relative success in language-based subjects; poor social skills), although none
had received learning support in school.
Considering that the early investigations of NLD were stimulated by aca-
demic problems, it is not surprising that research has extended into the area of
higher education. In his 1991 chapter, O’Donnell summarizes his own studies
80 CHAPTER 3
and those of others that investigated the construct and discriminate validity of the
Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery (HRNB) in young adults with
LD. Based on a sample of 233 young adults applying for college admission, his
work demonstrated that HRNB factor scores were correlated with academic
skills (i.e., reading, spelling, and arithmetic computation) and thus demonstrated
the test’s construct validity. In addition, the HRNB successfully differentiated
normal young adults from those with LD or head injury, supporting the discrimi-
nate validity of the instrument. In fact, results indicated that approximately 42%
of the young adults with LD experienced mild cerebral dysfunction, suggesting
that the neuropsychological evaluation serves as an appropriate tool for planning
interventions and accommodations in young adults. Finally, cluster analysis
techniques were applied to neuropsychological data, resulting in homogeneous
and valid LD subtypes. That is, the LD subtype with computational deficits in
mathematics was associated with visual-spatial and abstract reasoning deficits.
Other, smaller studies, have also explored the validity of LD subtypes within
the college population. For example, Morris and Walter (1991) applied Ro-
urke’s classification methods to study college students participating in a remedial
mathematics class. Results indicated that 21% of these students met criteria for
the arithmetic deficit subtype (21%), with the remainder exhibiting no learning
disability at all. In our own work with a group of college students with previ-
ously unclassified LD, a group with mild head injury, and controls, we regrouped
all students using a modification of the Rourke procedures (Rourke and Fin-
layson, 1978) into either a no LD or LD subtype (Beers, 1993; Beers et al.,
1994). The majority of students who met LD criteria (46%) were found to have
a global learning disability as defined by Rourke (Rourke and Finlayson, 1978).
That is, they showed similar deficiency in the three academic areas of reading,
mathematics, and written expression. Almost as many (43%) met criteria for an
arithmetic disability and exhibited the pattern of neuropsychological deficits
consistent with the more broadly defined NLD. A disability specific to reading
and writing was not as frequently identified, occurring at the rate of approxi-
mately 10%.
Although the pervasive and persistent aspects of LD were pointed out in a
position paper by the National Joint Committee of Learning Disabilities as early
as 1985 (Smith, 1996), by the year 2000 very few studies had focused on homo-
geneous groups of adults with LD outside the academic setting. In 1986, Sprean
and Haaf investigated the stability of three LD subtypes in an adult cohort (Mean
age = 24 years) that they had evaluated during childhood (Mean age = 10 years).
In both phases of this research the subjects were grouped using cluster analytic
techniques. While there was not complete concordance with cluster classifica-
tion at the two study points, visual-perceptual and graphomotor subtypes per-
sisted into adulthood. Important to the present topic is the finding that subjects
with LD displaying visual-spatial deficits in childhood maintained their level of

impairment over the course of the study.
Our own group completed a series of investigations of older adults with LD
who had been referred for vocational rehabilitation services. These studies dem-
onstrated the utility of the Halstead Reitan Neuropsychological Battery and the
Luria Nebraska in diagnosing and characterizing adult learning disability (Gold-
stein et al., 1993; Goldstein, Shelly, McCue, and Kane, 1987; McCue, Goldstein
et al., 1986; McCue, Shelly, and Goldstein, 1986; McCue, Shelly, Goldstein, and
Katz-Garris, 1984). McCue, Goldstein, et al., (1986) compared the neuropsy-
chological test profiles of 100 adults having a mean age and education of 24.4
years and 10.5 years, respectively. The entire sample was learning disabled.
Applying a rule-based method similar to that of Rourke and his colleagues, sub-
jects were classified into three groups: Reading Disorder, Global Disorder, and
Arithmetic Disorder. Findings indicted that only small proportions of the sample
exhibited either a Reading or Arithmetic Disorder comparable with Rourke’s
groups. Most of the adult sample showed poor performance on both reading and
arithmetic similar to Rourke’s Global Deficit subtype. These results must be
interpreted cautiously, however, as the sample was referred by the Office of Vo-
cational Rehabilitation and may not be representative of the adult LD population
as a whole.
A 1994 controlled study by Shafrir and Siegel is another of the large-scale
investigations (N = 331) that explored the validity of LD subtypes in an older,
nonacademic population (e.g., approximately 40% of this sample had not par-
ticipated in postsecondary education). These researchers investigated adoles-
cents and adults with LD (age range 16 to 72 years) classified by subtypes based
on the pattern of academic achievement as described in children by Rourke
(reading disability, arithmetic disability, reading and arithmetic disability) to
determine the presence of discrete patterns with respect to cognitive tasks requir-
ing attention, memory, and visual-spatial ability. The results of this study sup-
ported the hypothesis that homogeneous groups of learning disabled adults show
similar cognitive or neuropsychological patterns as children with similar aca-
demic deficits. Specific to this discussion of NLD, is the finding that adults in
the arithmetic disabled group did not show differences from normal controls with
respect to phonological processing but performed at a lower but not deficient
level on measures of vocabulary and reading recognition. In contrast, clear
group differences were noted with respect to visual-spatial abilities. On this
construct, the arithmetic disabled adults performed more poorly than both the
normal control and the reading disabled groups.
A more recent study also applied a neuropsychological testing to classify
individuals with LD receiving vocational rehabilitation services (Michaels,
Lazar, and Risucci, 1997). Earlier work had described adults with LD involved
in the governmental vocational rehabilitation setting as a homogeneous group,
82 CHAPTER 3
particularly as compared to college students with LD and individuals with LD

already in the work force. The goal of this study was to provide more focused
rehabilitation services. Comprehensive neuropsychological testing delineated
within group differences in abilities in the domains of visual and auditory per-
ception, verbal and nonverbal reasoning, and learning and memory. Subjects
also completed instruments measuring more general constructs such as intellec-
tual ability, academic achievement, and psychological adjustment. Measures of
central tendency documented the low function of this group, particularly with
respect to language, verbally mediated learning, and both verbal and nonverbal
reasoning. Clinically significant Verbal versus Performance IQ differences were
noted in 20 subjects (65% of these with PIQ > VIQ). However, the two IQ pro-
files did not relate to significant differences in cognitive functioning or language
ability, a finding that suggests this comparison does not provide particularly
relevant information at least in the OVR population. As the authors point out,
neuropsychological testing did describe particular patterns of strengths arid
weaknesses of this vocational rehabilitation group. The investigators present the
distributions of scores in the various cognitive domains grouped according to the
following classifications: deficient, impaired, low average, high average, and
superior. Visual inspection of these data indicated divergence from normality on
several of the constructs. For example, a weakness was noted on several lan-
guage dependent measures, including verbal learning, verbal reasoning, and ver-
bal learning and memory. While this might suggest more evidence of verbal LD
in this group of subjects, distributions also identified particular weaknesses in
the domains of visual perception, nonverbal memory, and semantic language,
areas often noted to be impaired in adults with NLD. From an overall stand-
point, these individuals manifested a generally low level of function similar to
the subjects in the McCue study (McCue et al., 1986) discussed earlier. How-
ever, the variability noted within this sample does suggest that vocational deci-
sions that are individualized based on neuropsychological assessment may have
a better outcome. As Michaels et al. note, “ [Neuropsychological] con-
structs...have the potential for being powerful predictors of service needs when
combined with ...more direct indicators of competency” (p. 551).
An Assessment Model
Adults with LD often have difficulty understanding particular aspects of their

learning disability and more broadly, how that disability actually affects their
lives (Buchanan and Wolf, 1986). As noted earlier in this chapter, one assess-
ment goal for adults with NLD is to understand how the disability interacts
across life settings, including educational, vocational, family, and social. Rather
than a narrowly focused assessment that attempts the identification of dysfunc-
tion in particular or even more general areas of the brain, results of a neuropsy-
chological evaluation should also provide information relevant to the areas out-
lined in Table 1. As McCue (1993) notes, “Central to the task of providing
services to persons with learning disabilities is obtaining a clear understanding
of how the disability impairs the ability to function....in employment, in higher
education, and in independent living” (p. 56). Contrary to the conclusions of
Hiscock and Hiscock (1991), we assert that a comprehensive neuropsychologi-
cal evaluation can delineate the impairment or underlying mechanisms of the
disability, suggest appropriate remedial and or compensatory educational strate-
gies, and provide the foundation for career counseling or vocational rehabilita-
tion services (Beers, 1998). Various components of LD assessment including
the clinical interview, functional assessment, psychoeducational assessment, and
neuropsychological testing are demonstrated in the following case presentation.
Essentially, a carefully considered neuropsychological assessment begins the
actual intervention process and guides the further efforts of remediation, com-
pensation, accommodation, vocational rehabilitation, and individual psychother-
apy as well.
Case Study: “How do I get to the bank from the grocery store?”
RS is a 48-year-old, married, Caucasian female referred for a neuropsychologi-

cal evaluation by her neurologist. While the patient’s neurological examination
and a recent magnetic resonance imaging scan were unremarkable, the referring
physician noted a history of academic problems characterized by reported diffi-
culties in reading comprehension, mathematical operations, and visual-spatial
orientation.
RS described a long history of “learning disabilities” that were noted in
school when her teachers realized she was “different.” Apparently never for-
84 CHAPTER 3
mally diagnosed with LD, RS states that her parents told her she was “stupid.”
RS indicated that she has always read fluently, but with poor comprehension.
Math was consistently her most difficult subject. She described long-standing
difficulty working puzzles, poor coordination, difficulty learning new proce-
dures, and problems finding her way around shopping malls and the city in gen-
eral. When describing her navigation problems, RS indicated that she had to
return home between each errand, otherwise she lost her way. RS also described
feeling extremely uneasy when the furniture is rearranged in her home. She re-
ported the recurring dream of being blind and in a state of complete hopelessness
and panic. In spite of these problems, RS recounted her assets as successfully
completing a nursing program. She has been steadily employed and reported
that she is successful in her profession. However, RS noted that she has particu-
lar difficulty with unpredictable situations or when over learned sequences
change. At these times she indicated that she experiences heightened anxiety
that in turn further compromises her effectiveness. RS recounted her problems
working with unfamiliar medical equipment, stating that she has much difficulty
learning how to set up a piece of equipment by watching a demonstration.
The patient’s medical history is essentially unremarkable. She had a breast
biopsy (benign) approximately 10 years earlier and a tonsillectomy and adnoi-
dectomy in the remote past. She had hepatitis as a child. RS did not endorse the
current use of alcohol but felt that she has used alcohol as a means to alleviate
her anxiety in the past. She described attention and concentration problems that
have worsened over the past 5 years or so, reporting a somewhat cyclical pattern.
RS was treated by a psychologist for depressive symptoms approximately 5
years ago. According to the patient, she was diagnosed with PTSD secondary to
her ridicule by her parents and with a “visual agnosia.” RM is prescribed Well-
butrin, 75mg three times a day by her family physician. The patient described
learning problems in her mother and her siblings that are similar to her own. Her
father was described as dysthymic.
While tearful at times during testing, RS appeared motivated to do her best.
Test results, shown in Table 2, appear to present a valid measure of the patient’s
current level of cognitive function.
86 CHAPTER 3
Level of Performance
RS obtained a WAIS-R Verbal IQ score of 107, a Performance IQ score of 87,

and a Full Scale IQ score of 98. She is therefore functioning in the average
range of general intelligence, but a great deal of scatter was noted among the
verbal abilities. Performance tests were all done below average levels. Her gen-
eral academic achievement, as evaluated with the WRAT-R, was at an average
level for word recognition, spelling, and mathematics. Reading comprehension,
however, was performed more poorly than reading recognition. RS does not
appear to have a discrepancy between IQ and achievement that is sometimes
seen in individuals with academic skill disorders.
Language
No significant impairment of basic language abilities was noted. Fluency, pho-

netic analysis, and auditory discrimination all appear to be within normal limits.
As indicated above, there was scatter on the WAIS-R Verbal scale marked by
above average performance on tasks assessing semantic knowledge and fund of
information, and relatively poor performance on linguistic tasks requiring atten-
tion and problem solving. That is, RS has an excellent vocabulary and general
knowledge of facts, but is relatively deficient with respect to verbal problem
solving.
Attention and Memory
RS had difficulty repeating digits, with a marked discrepancy noted between the
scores for the forward and backward conditions (10 vs. 4, respectively). Again,
a good performance was noted for an overlearned activity, but with relative
deficit indicated when more complex processing was required. Other tests of
attention, including the Rhythm Test and the Stroop Color/word Test, demon-
strated essentially the same phenomenon; normal performance on basic tasks but
mild impairment on more complex procedures. Memory function reflected a
similar pattern. RS preformed normally on immediate recall of stories, but there
was a substantial loss of information on delayed recall. On the California Verbal
Learning Test she did not appear to improve significantly over learning trials for
the first word list, and she demonstrated substantial susceptibility to interfer-
ence. Her delayed recall of nonverbal material was also poor. In general RS
appears to have a significant impairment of complex memory functions with
normal basic associative processes.
Perceptual and Motor Skills
Basic sensory-perceptual tests were not accomplished for this patient, but there
was no apparent evidence of neglect or significant tactile, visual, or auditory
dysfunction. On motor tasks, RS had normal strength of grip, but mild bilateral
slowness of tapping speed. Dexterity was normal with her right hand, but mildly
impaired with her left.
Spatial Abilities and Problem Solving
These two domains showed a strong interaction and thus, will be discussed to-
gether. Based on her educational level, RS performed below expectation (i.e.,
11th percentile) on the Category Test. She performed even more poorly on
problem-solving tasks with perceptual-motor demands. As perceptual-motor
88 CHAPTER 3
demands increased, she performed progressively worse. On visual-spatial tasks

RS generally performed poorly regardless of whether or not there was a con-
structional component. On Block Design, she made several configuration errors
(i.e., breaking the contour of the design) that are frequently seen in patients with
frank right hemisphere disease. Her performance on the Tactual Performance
Test, which is done blindfolded, strongly suggests that her spatial deficit is not
restricted to the visual modality, but is a more generalized deficit of spatial cog-
nition. She was able to correctly place 7 of 10 blocks after 15 minutes with her
right hand, but could only place 2 blocks with her left hand. She was not asked
to draw the blocks from memory because she seemed so upset about this task,
but was able to correctly name the shapes of most of the blocks. It would there-
fore appear that RS could identify the blocks tactually, but could not match their
configurations with the corresponding recesses in the formboard.
Discussion and Recommendations
RS appears to meet criteria for a nonverbal learning disability. While RS does

not manifest basic academic skills deficits, her weakness in reading comprehen-
sion is consistent with the NLD academic pattern. The visual-spatial and com-
plex problem-solving components of NLD are most prominent in this patient
and appear to be of sufficient severity to be substantially disabling. While the
presence of active right hemisphere disease is unlikely, there would appear to be
significant dysfunction in that hemisphere of the brain. RS did substantially less
well with her left hand than her right on the tactual performance and manual
dexterity tasks, and obtained a lower Performance IQ than Verbal IQ. Perhaps
most significantly, her error performance on Block Design was of a type dem-
onstrated in patients with frank lateralized right hemisphere disease.
The spatial disability as demonstrated by RS could be viewed as a subclini-
cal form of spatial agnosia, or as a developmental spatial agnosia. That is, it
appears to go beyond difficulties with representational spatial cognition and
may also impact on her topographical orientation in daily living. She would
certainly be an interesting individual to evaluate further with more specialized
tests of route-finding, facial recognition, and related tasks. Management of this
condition would involve taking precautions in unfamiliar environments and
conversely, making optimal use of over-learned spatial routines. Cognitive re-
habilitation directed toward spatial deficits is available in some rehabilitation
programs. RS appears to utilize verbal mediation appropriately and efficiently,
and can deal with spatial structures by naming them, as we saw on the Tactual
Performance Test. It appears that her problem is not so much temporal se-
quencing as it is organizing objects in a representational spatial array. She did well
on temporal sequencing tasks, but not on tasks in which she had to spatially organ-
ize information. It might therefore benefit RS to try to learn new information in

step-by-step temporal sequences rather than all at once.
PSYCHOSOCIAL CONSIDERATIONS
It is now appreciated that learning disabilities impact most, if not all, aspects of
everyday life. As Smith (1988) summarizes, “...adults with learning disability
are actually challenged and frustrated by their difficulties in achieving valued
cultural standards of literacy, job performance, social skills, and communication
skills” (p. 22). (Emphasis added). This statement is supported by the results of
a needs assessment of 381 adults with LD (mean age = 23.2 years) (Hoffmann et
al., 1987). Accomplished within a vocational rehabilitation setting, the survey
included the areas of daily living, social skills, and personal problems and was
completed by clients with LD, service providers, and advocates and/or parents.
Not surprisingly since 64% of the LD sample was either unemployed or working
only part time, all three groups concurred that adults with LD have major voca-
tional needs. Interestingly, both the service providers and advocates perceived
the LD sample as having significantly more social problems than did the adults
with LD themselves. All three groups agreed that personal problems were preva-
lent, with all indicating that low frustration tolerance, poor self-confidence, and
poor control of emotions and temper were particularly problematic. This survey
also demonstrated that few adults with LD had ever participated in any form of
therapy (i.e., 13%) and that none had ever participated in a social skills or self-
help group. In summary, these results not only strongly confirm the psychologi-
cal difficulties in adults with LD but also suggest that adults with LD either do
not avail themselves of such therapeutic services or do not know of their avail-
ability.
Although a comprehensive discussion of the psychosocial aspects of LD is
beyond the scope of this chapter, we refer the interested reader to a poignant
chapter that discusses in the most concrete of terms the social/emotional and
daily living issues faced by adults with LD (Reiff and Gerber, 1993). In spite of
a growing awareness of the pervasive implications of learning disabilities on
psychological function, it is our own clinical experience that adults with NLD
are frequently incorrectly diagnosed as having a primary psychiatric disorder.
There is often little or no appreciation of pre-existing learning deficits or the
continuing impact of these deficits on socio-emotional functioning.
Psychological Adjustment
Most studies of the psychological status of adults with LD are cross-sectional

and completed within the academic setting. However, an early longitudinal
90 CHAPTER 3
study completed by Peter and Spreen (1979) provided not only evidence that
learning disability extends into adulthood but also that the significant behavior
problems and emotional maladjustment of this groups persists as well. This in-
vestigation followed 177 children with LD who initially completed neuropsy-
chological testing between the ages of 8 and 12. Subjects were followed for
varying periods, some for as long as 12 years. In this follow up study adoles-
cents and young adults were grouped according to CNS status (brain damage,
minimal brain damage, no neurological signs) and compared to a control group
with no history of learning problems or brain injury. After adjustment for differ-
ences in age, gender, and IQ, all three groups with learning problems demon-
strated significantly more behavior problems and psychological distress than the
normal control group. Although this early study strongly suggests a meaningful
relationship between learning deficits and later emotional problems, as noted
above only a few studies have investigated the course of learning disabilities
through adulthood and even fewer have explored the psychosocial functioning of
this group. One more recent study (Lapan, Koller, and Holliday, 1991) of clients
with LD referred for vocational rehabilitation services found that almost one-
third met DSM criteria for a psychiatric diagnosis, including adjustment disor-
der, mood disorders, and personality disorders. !
In spite of the growing recognition that LD affects psychological function-
ing in both work and family life, the psychosocial status of adults in academic
settings continues to be the most frequently studied area. Saracoglu, Minden,
and Wilchesky (1989) investigated the general adjustment to college of students
with LD. As might be expected, this investigation documented significantly
poorer academic and emotional adjustment in the LD sample in comparison to a
peer group with no LD. However, the positive correlation between measures of
self-efficacy and self-esteem in both groups suggests that students with LD as
well as those with other academic difficulties demonstrate similar emotional and
adjustment problems. While another study comparing LD and nondisabled adult
students showed only a trend toward between-group differences in the level of
reported depression, depressive symptoms were significantly correlated with
dysfunctional cognitions in the LD group (Mattek and Wierzbicki, 1998). Other
investigations have identified differences in the type of symptoms manifested by
adults with LD. Hoy and colleagues (Hoy, Gregg, Wisenbakeret al., 1997)
compared two groups of adults with LD not classified by particular subtype. In
this case, college students with LD showed more symptoms of anxiety than a
group of student controls. Adults with LD in a rehabilitation setting were the
only study group to demonstrate significant differences with respect to level of
depression. Although this study suggests that psychological function in adults
with LD may be closely related to the particular demands of the environment,
another study provides evidence to dispute this conclusion. A study of adults
with LD who had obtained at least a baccalaureate degree and maintained a
minimum of one year of successful employment found a greater degree of de-

pression than noted in the general population (Stafford-Depass, 1998).
NLD, in particular, is frequently associated with affective disturbances in
children that become more salient during adulthood (Casey, Rourke, and Picard,
1991; Rourke et al., 1986b; White, Moffitt, and Silva, 1992). Semrud-Clikeman
and Hynd (1990) summarize several physiological studies of depression, specu-
lating that problems in the regulation of affect noted in children with NLD may
be directly associated with right hemisphere dysfunction.
Cognitive-behavioral theories suggest that difficulties in perceiving or react-
ing to the environment are associated with a higher risk for depression (Mattek
and Wierzbicki, 1998). These theories considered within the context of the
problem-solving and social skills deficits noted in NLD may have influenced
Rourke to hypothesize that NLD is associated with the increased likelihood of
social withdrawal, isolation, and depression in both children (Rourke and Fuerst,
1996) and adults (Rourke, Young, and Leenaars, 1989; Rourke et al., 1986b).
Rourke et al. (1986b) conducted a descriptive study of 8 adults (age range: 17 to
48) who exhibited a neuropsychological pattern consistent with NLD. These
subjects exhibited a pattern of deficits similar to children with NLD but what is
relevant to this discussion is the level of psychological problems. Serious occu-
pational maladjustment was manifested in 75% of the sample, with more serious
psychopathology noted in the remaining two individuals. All of these patients
exhibited psychological difficulties associated with depression; and 4 of the 8
were in active treatment at a psychiatric clinic. Discussing the adult conse-
quences of NLD, Rourke et al. (1989) focuses on the “practical, concrete ramifi-
cations” (p. 171) of the syndrome. They predict underemployment in jobs that
tax already compromised motor skills, an inability to adapt with new and/or
complex situations, an inability to recognize the significance of job problems,
and an inability to appreciate nonverbal communication. Taken together, these
deficiencies place the adult at great risk for emotional disturbance, including an
increased risk for suicide (Also see Bigler, 1989; Fletcher, 1989; Kowalchuk and
King, 1989; and Rourke, 1989b for an extensive discussion of this topic.).
Noting that NLD appears to lead to the development of depressive symp-
toms, Cleaver and colleagues completed a study of adolescents and young adults
hospitalized for psychiatric illness (Cleaver and Whitman, 1998). Based on aca-
demic achievement score comparisons, the 484 subjects were classified into four
groups: arithmetic disabled, reading disabled, generally disabled, and non-
disabled. Subjects were classified with respect to psychiatric diagnosis and the
presence or absence of suicidal ideation defined as either spoken or written evi-
dence of a wish to commit suicide. The reliability of the psychiatric diagnosis
was confirmed by a secondary study using the Structured Interview for the DSM-
III-R (SCID) (Spitzer, Williams, Gibbon, and First, 1992). Analyses indicated
that the arithmetic disabled group showed a significantly higher level of depres-
92 CHAPTER 3
sion than the remaining study groups but the groups did not differ significantly
with respect to suicidality.
Our own group (Katz, Kelly, Goldstein, Bartolomucci, and Comstock,
1992) investigated incidence and prevalence various LD diagnoses, including
those defined by visual-spatial and perceptual/motor deficits, associated with
three distinct MMPI profiles. In this study, subjects were not necessarily defined
by a single diagnosis. A cluster analysis of the MMPI scores identified three
valid clusters of varying severity: 1) high levels of psychiatric distress, primarily
with features of neurotic depression and anxiety; 2) similar neurotic features but
with lower levels of psychological distress, and 3) a normal MMPI profile. The
various subtypes were not differentially represented in any of these MMPI clus-
ters. That is, visual-spatial disability did not predominate in one MMPI cluster
and reading disability in another. The number of LD diagnoses, however, was
significantly different among the subtypes, with Cluster 1 containing individuals
with the most diagnoses. This finding suggests a positive relationship between
number of cognitive deficits and level of psychological distress. These results
are highly consistent with Peter and Spreen’s (1979) early study that indicated
overall intellectual level moderated the degree of psychological distress in their
learning handicapped subjects.
Rourke’s hypothesis of increased psychological dysfunction associated with
NLD has recently come under scrutiny. White, Moffitt, and Silva (1992) studied
teens with various LD subtypes (i.e., specific reading disability, specific arithme-
tic disability, and global LD), comparing them to a group of nondisabled con-
trols. While they noted that the group with specific arithmetic disability had a
neuropsychological profile consistent with NLD, all three disabled groups
showed similarly poor social-emotional adjustment. O’Donnell (1991) reports
unpublished data by Leicht (1987) who performed a subtype analysis of person-
ality function of young adults with LD based on a brief personality inventory.
Some but not all adults with LD exhibited “maladjustment,” but this was not
related to either academic skills or neuropsychological status. While these re-
sults do not support the conclusion that some LD subtypes are more apt than
others to show particular patterns of emotional symptoms, they must be viewed
as tentative. The assessment of emotional status was apparently completed with
a self-report instrument and not supplemented with a comprehensive psychiatric
interview such as the SCID.
Two more recent studies, however, support the findings of Leicht. A study
by Waldo et al. (Waido, McIntosh, and Koller, 1999) compared the personality
profiles of 3 LD subtypes defined by Wechsler IQ differences. All participates
were in a vocational rehabilitation setting. Although no statistically significant
between group differences were identified between the LD subtypes, 20% of
their adult sample displayed significant clinical elevation on at least one MMPI
scale. As the authors point out, these finding argue for attention to the emotional
consequences across all aspects of LD. Likewise, a study that defined subtypes
by cluster analysis found no differences in the prevalence of psychiatric diagno-
sis by subtype (Dunham, Multon, and Koeller, 1999).
Vocational Function
Because vocational rehabilitation services to individuals with LD have increased

dramatically over the last 10 years (Dunham et al., 1999; McCue, 1993), the
vocational functioning in LD adults has become a topic of particular interest. As
early as 1984 Kite stressed the importance of assessment and accommodation,
noting the heterogeneous nature of this population. In a needs survey Hoffman
el al. (1987) elaborated on the particular problems of adults with LD in the voca-
tional rehabilitation setting. Survey results indicated that very limited vocational
and career education had ever been provided, usually one high school course.
Only a quarter of the sample had participated in post-secondary technical, voca-
tional, or trade school training. The need for career counseling in the LD group
is best highlighted by the problems noted. The most frequently endorsed prob-
lems included locating a job or appropriate job training, filling out job applica-
tions, and reading classified advertisements. As in other studies, individuals
with LD often perceived themselves to have fewer problems than actually re-
ported by their supervisors or service providers.
Research indicates that less than half of high school graduates having LD
make the successful transition into employment (Faas and D’Alonzo, 1990). A
recent descriptive study compared vocational functioning of adults with LD of
nonspecific subtypes and nondisabled peers two years after high school gradua-
tion (Rojewski, 1999). This author noted that vocational goals were lower for
the LD group, with that cohort generally aspiring to moderate or lower level oc-
cupations, depending on gender. In addition, the LD group was more apt to be
employed, at the expense of pursuing higher education. A second study (Witte,
Philips, and Kakela, 1998) investigated job satisfaction in college graduates
(mean age: 25 years) and a control group matched in gender, major, degree, and
graduation year. The LD group took more time to graduate and obtained a lower
GPA. This study again highlights the fact that individuals with LD often have
difficulty with self-perception, as these individuals perceived themselves as get-
ting paid less, having fewer promotion opportunities, and less job satisfaction.
Interestingly, no salary differences existed between the groups.
A descriptive study by Holliday, Koller, and Thomas (1999) investigated
the long-term vocational outcome of a unique group of adults with LD. While
all were identified as gifted based on IQ scores (Verbal, Performance, or Full
Scale they experienced vocational problems consistent with other
individuals with more typical LD. All met state and federal Rehabilitation Serv-
ices Administration criteria for a specific learning disability. In spite of ex-
94 CHAPTER 3
pressed educational goals (e.g., 48% of the sample had expressed the goal of at
least 2 years of education past high school), the sample showed limited post-
secondary education. Only 21% completed more than 4 semesters of college.
Serious under employment was indicated by frequent job changes, limited earn-
ing capacity (e.g., 76% earned less than $6 per hour), and participation in un-
skilled jobs (52%). Thus, although these individual possessed definite assets,
their vocational functioning was highly limited, suggesting an inability to capital-
ize on strengths or perhaps, the tendency to overlook strengths in vocational
planning.
In spite of this increased interest in the vocational functioning of persons
with unclassified LD, information regarding the vocational functioning of indi-
viduals with NLD is sparse. Rourke et al. (Rourke, Del Dotto, Rourke, and Ca-
sey, 1990) provide anecdotal evidence of vocational difficulties in a young
woman, discussing her limitations in judgment and reasoning and their effect on
her vocational functioning. We located only one empirical study mat addressed
the occupational function of individuals grouped according to homogeneous
categories. Dunham et al. (1999) noted that the verbal vs. nonverbal LD distinc-
tion might be too simplistic to capture the cognitive, academic, and occupational
complexities of different jobs. They classified a group of 613 adults with LD,
using cluster analysis to group individuals according to their IQ (Verbal and
Performance IQs from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (Wech-
sler, 1981) and academic achievement (reading, mathematics, and writing sum-
mary scores from the Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Test Battery
[Woodcock and Johnson, 1990]). They identified three meaningful and valid
clusters labeled as “Linguistically/globally academically impaired,” “Linguisti-
cally/writing impaired,” and “Eclectic.” The latter group did not display the
language problems of the other groups, but nevertheless showed the VIQ<PIQ
pattern and mild academic deficits in reading and writing. While none of these
groups seem to capture the essence of NLD, this study did identify important
differences in vocational outcome for the three verbal LD clusters, suggesting
that a similar analysis with an NLD sample might elaborate differences in voca-
tional function for this group as well. In contrast, there were no significant be-
tween group differences with respect to psychiatric diagnosis, including anxiety
and mood disorders, with 30% of all the subjects evidencing the presence of a
secondary psychiatric disability. These data replicate the more recent work in
this area with respect to subtypes and suggest that in adults, psychiatric involve-
ment is relatively common in any LD subtype.
In summary, adults with NLD often exhibit psychological, social, and occu-
pational problems. Typically, they exhibit low self-esteem, social isolation, de-
pression, and withdrawal. Their lack of problem-solving skills is attributed to
difficulties that range from under appreciation of the significance of a problem to
over reaction to minor inconveniences.
INTERVENTIONS
It is suggested that the careful delineation of LD subtypes will result in more

informed interventions, directed at particular aspects of the noted disability and
refined based on individual needs (Hooper and Willis, 1989; Rourke and Fuerst,
1996; Torgesen, 1991). This section will briefly discuss the aspects of treatment
outlined in Table 1. While a more through discussion of this important area is
outside the scope of this chapter, we invite the interested reader to consult the
references cited for more information. Of course many treatments developed for
children with LD are also applicable with adults. While the following section
does review some particularly relevant aspects of the pediatric literature, more
detailed information is available regarding general intervention techniques
(Hooper and Willis, 1989) and those neuropsychologically-based approaches
that are directed toward NLD (Foss, 1991; Rourke, 1995; Rourke, Fisk, and
Strang, 1986a; Rourke, Bakker, Fisk, and Strang, 1983). Finally, few of these
interventions discussed below are associated with empirical research that evalu-
ates outcome. There is much work to be done in this area.
Capitalization on Strengths
A recurrent theme in the intervention literature is the use of career counseling to

encourage realistic educational and vocational goals. As Holliday et al. (1999)
note, to be successful this experience must be based on the foundation of well
understood strengths as well as deficits. However, this understanding may not
come easily for individuals with LD (Kronick, 1981). An early study of adults
with LD by Buchanan and Wolf (1986) demonstrated that some but not all sub-
jects could identify personal strengths. However, their perceptions were often
inaccurate. Reiff, Gerber, and Ginsburg (1997) discuss “learned creativity” as a
way that successful individuals with LD adapt to the demands of their environ-
ment. This concept builds on personal areas of strength to develop the strategies
and techniques that enhance performance. These highly personal strategies in-
volve the avoidance of weaker areas in favor of developing unique ways of ac-
complishing necessary tasks. However, key to this creativity is the anticipation
of problems, an activity that is sometimes highly demanding and involves the
introspection that is often difficult for individuals with NLD in particular. Ac-
knowledging this, Reiff and colleagues have developed a therapeutic model that
is addressed in detail later in this chapter.
96 CHAPTER 3
Remediation
Remediation implies treatment with the goal of curing or diminishing deficits.

As noted throughout this chapter, adults with NLD demonstrate social difficul-
ties that include poor social and conversational skills, the inability to negotiate
personal space, and difficulty interpreting novel or highly complex social situa-
tions. These social deficits are coupled with a remarkable lack of understanding
and insight into the functional effects of their disability (Denckla, 1993). Sev-
eral studies have addressed the social skills deficits manifested by adults with
LD (Holliday, Koller, and Thomas 1999; Ryan and Price, 1992; Sitlington and
Frank, 1990), but few have addressed the efficacy of various treatment strategies.
A recent study (Michie, Lindsay, and Smith, 1998) compared outcome of adults
(age range 19 to 63 years) with unclassified LD who participated in a 2-year
community living skills training program. The study groups included a class -
room training module, in vivo learning setting, and untreated controls. After the
treatment period, assessment of living skills and adaptive behavior indicated that
those individuals participating in vivo training performed significantly better
than the two other groups.
Denckla (1993) notes lack of empirical data to assess outcome of similar
interventions with adults with NLD. However, she cites anecdotal evidence that
indicates further research should be completed to assess the efficacy of various
remedial techniques. These include remedial academic approaches that use ver-
bal mediation to develop step-by-step formulas to encode and process complex
problems as well as cognitively based social skills training programs that address
problems in interpreting facial expression, body language, and tone of voice.
Difficulties with novel problem solving and abstract reasoning are probably
the hallmark of NLD. A study of high school students investigated a graduated
teaching sequence as a way to increase problem-solving skills (Maccini and
Hughes, 2000). This technique progressed from concrete applications through
semi-concrete procedures, in order to accomplish the ultimate goal of abstract
understanding of a mathematical concept. Importantly, students were taught an
explicit strategy to cue problem-solving procedures. Study results indicate that
both the use of strategy and performance improved across the instructional lev-
els. Generalization of this treatment effect was also noted.
When discussing effective remedial interventions for NLD, Foss (1991)
notes that they must address problems in the areas of planning and organization,
social cognition, and interpersonal communication directly and explicitly. She
asserts that the most effective procedures provide verbal labels and descriptions
for concrete objects, actions, and experiences with instruction heavily dependent
on verbal mediation and verbal self-direction. Several researchers and academi-
cians have developed metacognitive treatment programs that might be applicable
to NLD based on this group’s difficulties with novel problem solving in general.
However, few of these programs are based on the results of empirical research.
Hooper and Willis (1989) compare and contrast three metacognitive ap-
proaches that emphasize training in academic strategies, but note that none are
refined enough to address the rather specific deficits associated with the various
LD subtypes. Bireley’s 1995 chapter on academic interventions, while generally
addressing childhood learning problems, outlines a metacognitive model that
may be particularly applicable to adults with NLD. This 6-step program depends
on mulitsensory input, group discussion to facilitate elaboration, guided practice
and feedback, and generalization activities. Unfortunately, data on the efficacy
of this intervention are apparently lacking. Other models use neuropsychologi-
cal data to direct remediation (Hooper and Willis, 1989), offering the advantage
of providing a means to conceptualize a realistic treatment program that com-
pensates for weaknesses and builds on strengths. One recent and promising
development are investigations that explore the efficacy of subtype-to-treatment
matching. However, upon review of these studies one notes that most involve
children who have subtypes of dyslexia.
Compensation
Compensation usually involves instruction and practice in the use of alternate

strategies in a particular cognitive domain or social skill. While the pediatric
literature in this area is extensive, little work is available that directly addresses
the problems of adults outside the academic setting.
Levine (1987, 1994) discusses several compensatory strategies that have
applications in the adult population. Bypass strategies are based on the combi-
nation of functional and neuropsychological assessment and provide a means to
circumvent cognitive deficits or underdeveloped skills. These strategies are usu-
ally applied in the educational setting. Examples include adjustments to the rate
and/or volume of learning, the provision of multiple examples of complex con-
cepts, an emphasis on key learning points, the use of assertive devices, and the
alteration of standard classroom routines. Levine also discusses building on
strengths, stressing that individuals with LD should be provided the opportunity
to exploit, enhance, and demonstrate their preserved learning abilities.
Compensatory techniques have also been related to employment issues. An
article by Kohaska and Skolnik (1986) provides suggestions that are applicable
to adults with NLD. These include selecting a career that emphasizes cognitive
strengths, choosing a job that enables the individualization of work techniques,
obtaining social skills training to support interpersonal interactions, expending
more effort for success, and tolerating a realistic assessment of work perform-
ance.
98 CHAPTER 3
Avoidance
The self-imposed avoidance of problematic areas is probably the most univer -

sally applied intervention in NLD. For example, when discussing specific learn -
ing problems with a college sample, we found that many students with math dif -
ficulty avoided those subjects if at all possible (Beers et al., 1994). This being
the case, it is surprising that the topic of avoidance is rarely addressed in the
literature. Rourke’s treatment program for children with NLD (1995) encour -
ages the adoption of specialized learning procedures (e.g., concrete step-by-step
teaching, teaching specific strategies for recurring problematic situations) rather
than the avoidance of the difficult material
Counseling and Psychotherapy
Effective participation in counseling or psychotherapy may be particularly diffi -

cult for persons with NLD who often experience low self-esteem, loneliness,
depression, isolation, and withdrawal (Rourke et al., 1986b). While these are
challenging problems within any patient group, the neuropsychological ramifica-
tions of NLD, particularly the difficulties with novel problem solving and defi-
cits in understanding social nuances such as facial expression and body lan-
guage further complicate the therapeutic process. Certainly it behooves the
treating professional to develop comprehensive understanding of the deficits
associated with NLD before attempting treatment. It is particularly important for
treating professionals to appreciate that NLD extends beyond the educational
realm, as there is indication that many young adults with LD fail to understand
how their learning problems interact with other aspects of their lives. A descrip-
tive study by Blalock (1987) found that young adults with LD who completed
counseling or psychotherapy saw no relationship between their “other problems”
and their actual learning disability. Individuals with nonverbal problems were
especially noted to have little awareness of the functional significance of their
learning problems.
Effective psychotherapy for adults with NLD depends on moving away from
educationally grounded definitions and assuming a developmental lifespan ap-
proach (Bassett, Polloway, and Patton, 1993; Smith, 1996). This perspective
appreciates how NLD interferes with the multidimensional demands of adult
developmental stages that include moving away from home, establishing an oc-
cupation, selecting a life partner, and parenting. Holliday et al. (1999) point out
the need for therapies that strengthen self-confidence and interpersonal skills. In
their study of high IQ adults with LD, an important goal was that of helping deal
with the frustration produced by discrepant abilities. A recent controlled study
by Wachelka and Katz (1999) reported the effectiveness of an 8-week treatment
for reducing test anxiety in individuals with LD. Although all participates were
involved in the pursuit of secondary or post-secondary education, the age range

reached well into adulthood, from 17 to 52 years. Specific treatments included
the cognitive-behavioral techniques of progressive muscle relaxation, guided
imagery, and self-instructional training coupled with more academically based
instruction in study and test-taking skills.
In an effort to understand the ramifications of LD in the workplace and how
disabilities were overcome, Reiff and colleagues completed ethnographic inter-
views with 71 adults with LD. All of these adults had become highly or moder-
ately successful from a vocational standpoint (Gerber, Ginsberg, and Reiff,
1992; Reiff, Gerber, and Ginsburg, 1997). Through this process, the investiga-
tors compiled a model elaborating the interplay of factors that contributed to the
success of these individuals. Although this model generally focuses on voca-
tional outcome, we briefly discuss the model in this section because we feel that
it can inform the therapy process, in a sense outlining an Individual Educational
Plan (IEP) for adults. Reiff et al. found that successful adults with LD were able
to gain control of their lives by focusing on internal decisions and external mani-
festations of success. According to this model, individuals made highly per-
sonal, explicit, and focused decisions that related to the desire to attain practical,
realistic and attainable goals. Inherent in this process is reframing, or “reinter-
preting the learning disabilities experience from something dysfunctional to
something ftmctional”(p. 105). The process of reframing is an integral aspect of
treatment because it involves self-perception as well as change. Successful re-
framing works toward the recognition, acceptance, and understanding of the dis-
ability. Finally, a conscious decision must be made to take action, or to address
interpersonal and vocational goals. Once these internal decisions are clarified,
the model focuses on the external manifestations of success, translating internal
decisions into actual behaviors. These so-called action strategies focus on the
adaptability and creativity of the individual with LD and considers persistence;
environmental fit that maximizes strengths and downplays weaknesses; creativity
in the use of strategies, techniques, and devices that enhance performance; and
the willingness to establish support networks and mentors. In summary, voca-
tional, and in turn, personal success in individuals with LD appears to depend on
a process that requires learning about the disorder, learning about the self, and
developing a realistic action plan.
Support Groups
Brown (undated) describes support groups as a useful counseling strategy for

young adults with LD, providing a way for individuals to share successful coping
skills and become more informed about learning disability in general. Somewhat
surprisingly, we were able to locate little information regarding support groups
with the specific focus on LD. A consumer survey indicates that young adults
100 CHAPTER 3
with LD, approximately 35% of whom had been diagnosed with nonverbal prob-
lems, expressed the desire to participate in groups composed of others with LD
who were experiencing similar problems. While most viewed this interaction as
beneficial, it was generally not characterized as a long-term intervention (Bla-
lock, 1987).
Vocational Rehabilitation
According to Dunham et al. (1999), persons with learning disability make up the
fastest growing population served by the vocational rehabilitation system. Voca-
tional rehabilitation services provide counseling, rehabilitation, and placement
services to persons with learning disability whose functional abilities such as
communication, self-direction, and social skills are severely limited (Dowdy et
al., 1996). In this case the focus moves from educational issues to that of em-
ployability. The need for such transitional programming and vocational counsel-
ing for young adults with LD is frequently noted (Holliday et al., 1999; McCue,
1993; Rojewski, 1999), with studies identifying traits that predict vocational
success. For example, attainment of higher level vocations is associated with
personal characteristics such as motivation, persistence, and the realistic ability
to develop compensatory strategies (Reiff et al., 1997; Stafford-Depass, 1998).
Interestingly, the possession of knowledge about LD in general and an apprecia-
tion of ones strengths are also traits associated with vocational success.
ACCOMMODATIONS
As with interventions, a review of the literature found little discussion of ac-

commodations for adults outside of the educational setting and even fewer, if
any, discussions aimed at addressing domain-specific disabilities as recom-
mended by Stanovich (1999).
Academic
In response to Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities

Act in 1990, educational settings from elementary school though postgraduate
institutions have provided academic accommodations for students with LD. For
example, a survey of 105 medical schools in the United States and Canada re-
ported that 96% admitted students with learning disabilities (Faigel, 1998). All
reported academic accommodations with the most frequent being tutoring (93%),
untimed examinations (91%) computer-assisted learning (83%), and decelerated
curriculum (79%). Few medical schools, however, indicated a willingness to
adjust the curriculum to meet the special needs of students with LD. Only 14%
of the schools provided curricular exemption or alternative courses.
The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 provides for a variety of accommodations or
“academic adjustments” in the post-secondary setting (Brinckerhoff, Shaw, and
McGuire, 1996). The major accommodations are adaptations in the manner of
teaching, modifications in academic requirements (e.g., changes in time limit to
complete degree; substitution of courses), and the use of auxiliary equipment or
technology (word processors; proofreading programs; outlining devices; per-
sonal data managers). As Raskind notes, this last category of accommodations is
particularly appropriate for adults with LD as it moves away from the remedia-
tion model that seeks to cure or instruct (Raskind, 1993). Although outcome
research is needed in this area, by building on strengths and enabling the indi-
vidual to attain at a level more commensurate with intellectual ability, assistive
technologies provide a way for adults to compensate for their deficits and thus
lead a more productive life.
In spite of these mandated procedures, accommodations remains controver-
sial (Stanovich, 1999) and problems remain in their application. Difficulties are
associated with both student and faculty perceptions. A small sample of college
students with LD was interviewed to discover the students’ perceptions of the
faculty attitudes toward accommodation for persons with hidden disabilities
(Beilke and Yssel, 1999). This paper identified instructional accommodations
such as extended time on exams and special seating arrangements that are often
made reluctantly and within a “less than positive classroom climate” (p. 364).
Problems were also noted from the faculty perspective. A paper by Bourke,
Strehorn, and Silver (2000) discusses the actual practices of instructional ac-
commodations for college students with LD. A large group of faculty members
were surveyed about their perceptions regarding accommodations that included
untimed, proctored, and alternate-form examinations, note taking assistance, and
additional time for assignments. As might be expected, the faculty who under-
stood the need for accommodation and who believed that accommodations
would be effective tended to provide them. In addition, support from academic
departments also influenced faculty involvement in the program. As Bourke et
al. note, their findings indicate that close communication among with faculty,
administration and service providers is essential in providing effective accom-
modations at the secondary level. Another large study also investigated faculty
attitudes regarding accommodations across multiple sites (Vogel, Leyser,
Wyland, and Brulle, 1999). Table 3 shows more and less favored teaching and
examination accommodation procedures that relate to various academic needs.
As noted in the previous study, certain faculty characteristics were associated
with more or less willingness to provide accommodations. At first look, these
studies indicate progress in attitudes toward academic accommodations at insti-
tutions of higher learning. However, the results are probably skewed by the low
102 CHAPTER 3
return rate by faculty. For example, in both studies the response rate was ap-
proximately 35%.
One of the most commonly applied accommodations in the academic set-

ting is the provision of extended time on tests and research suggests that this
procedure is well founded. A recent multi-site controlled study (Alster, 1997)
indicated that a heterogeneous group of college students with LD obtained sig-
nificantly lower scores than their nondisabled peers on a timed algebra test.
However, students with LD were able to improve their scores to a level compa-
rable to the control group under the extended time condition. Interestingly, the
control group scores did not differ by testing condition. That is, the provision of
extended testing time did not result in any significant improvement in test
scores.
Workplace
Information regarding workplace accommodations comes from the consumer as

well as the scientist. Based on their study of the consumers of vocational reha-
bilitation services, Michaels et al. (1997) strongly recommended the application
of neuropsychological testing to understand the abilities and deficits of each
individual with LD. Brown and Gerber (1991), in a practical discussion, illus-
trate how neuropsychological constructs such as visual perception, spatial abil-
ity, and memory function can inform the accommodation process in the work-
place. Taking a somewhat different approach to accommodation, Reiff and col-
leagues (Reiff and Gerber, 1993; Reiff, Gerber, and Ginsberg, 1997) used eth-
nographic interview techniques to provide comprehensive information regarding
the success, or lack thereof, in adults with LD at work. While a comprehensive
discussion of their interesting and informative research is beyond the scope of this
chapter, we will highlight their findings that most directly relate to adults with
NLD in the employment setting.
Reiff and Gerber’s conclusion that, “social skills deficits, more than aca-
demic deficiencies or vocational incompetence, often lead to on-the-job difficul-
ties...” (p. 76) is particularly relevant to NLD. The authors’ extensive interviews
of successful adults with LD revealed several accommodations relevant to indi-
viduals whose deficits fall within the NLD spectrum. Accommodations to ad-
dress visual-perceptual problems included keeping work items displayed within
view to support weak visual memory skills, hiring a wardrobe planner to organ-
ize clothing so as to avoid discordant pattern or color combinations, and avoid-
ing settings with confusing visual arrays of products, such as the super sized gro-
cery store or pharmacy. Persons with NLD often exhibit problems driving or
even negotiating a large office building on foot. Suggestions to circumvent such
difficulties included relying on visual landmarks in place of maps, completing
multiple trial runs to learn the route to work or within the workplace, and provid-
ing a reminder of “left” or “right” by marking the appropriate side of the body
with a designated items such as a wristwatch or ring. Successful adults with LD
also provided suggestions to support organizational problems. These included
developing a rigid daily routine, obtaining assistance with shopping and schedul-
ing appointments, using visual supports such as a color-coded filing system,
computer programs, or extensive lists and notes. Finally, respondents suggested
that it is particularly important to allow extra time for most tasks.
Supported employment is another accommodation that has particular appli-
cation for adults with NLD. Supported employment is distinguished from other
vocational rehabilitation models in several ways (Inge and Tilson, 1993). First,
individuals are assisted in finding a job by a coach, or employment specialist,
who subsequently helps train the employee on work tasks and skills. Impor-
tantly, this coach also provides “off-the-job” training that includes negotiating
transportation, banking, or even the employee cafeteria. Second, supported em-
ployment differs from other models with respect to the amount and type of train-
ing provided. In this case the job coach provides an ongoing assessment of indi-
vidual training needs, providing only as much as is necessary to meet the particu-
lar job requirements and in the least intrusive manner. Instruction provided by
the job coach is tailored to the individual’s learning style and also relies on the
individual to help develop compensatory strategies and self-management proce-
dures to ensure successful employment. Finally, this system provides for follow-
up visits by the coach to determine if modifications are needed. With respect to
NLD, the coach acts as monitor and external “problem-solver,” supporting the
individual by teaching job related skills but also by helping him or her negotiate
the complex social system of the workplace.
104 CHAPTER 3
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
NLD in adults is becoming better understood, at least from a neuropsychological

perspective. Neuroimaging studies of NLD to date are few but this technology
offers promise for the further clarification of the neurobiological correlates of
NLD. Unfortunately, there is a dearth of literature regarding psychological
status, interventions, and accommodations for adults. In spite of proactive legis-
lation, increased advocacy, and the increased interest in adult learning, few pro-
grams that address intervention and rehabilitation are based on the results of
empirical research (Gajar, 1996). This is particularly true when NLD is consid-
ered. The literature outside academic settings is sparse and conclusions must be
interpolated from reports that consider heterogeneous groups of adults with LD.
Future studies are required that assess treatment by subtype paradigms to help
define interventions (Feagans, 1991). The psychological and vocational ramifi-
cations of NLD must be considered within the context of theories of adult devel-
opment to better understand the impact of this learning disability on the values
and expectations of adulthood. Finally, it is time for professionals -- be they
educators, neuropsychologists, or neurologists, to integrate research efforts,
building upon and integrating their various perspectives to better understand this
disability as it impacts the biology, the psychology, and the social functioning of
the individual.
4
ADHD
INTRODUCTION
Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder as a disorder of childhood has been

extensively documented in the research literature. However, since it has been
recognized as a disorder that continues into the adolescent and adult years, the
diagnostic process has taken on some significant dimensions that bear
discussion. Thus, we will examine the diagnostic process in some detail in this
chapter including the role of neuropsychological measures in the assessment
process and the saliency of comorbid conditions. In addition, we will address
issues involving incidence and prevalence and the roles that referral source and
gender play in setting these parameters. Etiological factors including genetics
will be addressed as well as theoretical perspectives on the neurochemistry and
physiology of the brain’s attention system that may underlie ADHD as a
disorder. The various research studies involving brain scans and mapping
techniques that shed light on the disorder will be included. The issue of
comorbidity and its relationship to personal adjustment and therapeutic
interventions will also be discussed in some detail as will adjustments to the
college environment and work place. Intervention strategies and treatments
including the critical role of medications, coaching, and reasonable
accommodations will be addressed as they relate specifically to young adults.
And, finally, the relevance of previous outcome studies to the young adult
population, which are highly suspect on account of past diagnostic and referral
biases, will be critically examined, in light of our current knowledge base.
105
106 CHAPTER 4
DEFINITIONS
Historical Foundations
At the present time in order for a diagnosis of ADHD to be made, diagnostic

criteria as set forth in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DMS-IV) of the
American Psychiatric Association (1994) must be met. Six or more symptoms
of inattention and/or hyperactivity/impulsivity must be present and must have
persisted for at least 6 months to a degree that is maladaptive (clinically
significant impairment) and inconsistent with developmental level. In addition,
some of the symptoms must have been present before age 7 years, some
impairment from the symptoms is present in two or more settings, and there is
evidence of clinically significant impairment in social, academic or occupational
functioning. Finally, the symptoms do not occur exclusively during the course
of another disorder or are not better accounted for by another mental disorder.
These criteria are applied whether the individual presenting for evaluation is a
child, adolescent or adult, even though the studies utilized to empirically
establish these criteria were conducted primarily with male children and the
history of the diagnostic process is steeped in the medical treatment of children,
again primarily males.
That this should be the case is not surprising given the history of the disorder
first described in 1902 (Still, 1902) and later reported by Bradley (1937) who
treated the male children he saw with Benzedrine. Following that early work,
ADHD became associated with“minimal brain damage” (Strauss and Lehtinen,
1947) as the children they observed resembled children who survived the 1917-
1918 encephalitis epidemic in terms of their behavioral and cognitive problems.
Then in 1968, the hyperactive component of the behavioral observations made
about these children came to the forefront and the new label “hyperkinetic
reaction of childhood disorder” was coined by the American Psychiatric
Association in their diagnostic manual.
It was not until 1972 that Virginia Douglas reported that level of activity
alone could not differentiate children with ADHD from those without the
disorder. Her focus included the importance of attentional components as a
distinguishing factor. The ability to use time efficiently, screen out distracting
stimuli, concentrate on tasks, and sustain focus with minimal external
reinforcers became the focus of much of her later research (Douglas, 1983). Her
work and the numerous studies of attention, impulsiveness, and other cognitive
variables eventually led to renaming the disorder “attention deficit disorder”
(ADD) when the DMS-III appeared in 1980 (Barkley, 1997a). Triolo (1999)
suggests that this shift from activity levels to an assessment of cognitive deficits
may be at least indirectly “responsible for the consideration of ADHD as a
lifelong condition” (p. 4).
ADHD 107
When the DSM-III-R was published (American Psychiatric Association,

1987) a distinction was then made between two types of ADD: one with
hyperactivity and one without. However, concerns then arose that the problems
of hyperactivity and impulse control which were deemed critical to a differential
diagnosis and also to predicting later developmental risks needed to be formally
recognized, hence a renaming of the disorder in DSM-IV to ADHD (Barkley,
1997a). In addition, three subtypes were now identified, ADHD, predominantly
Inattentive Type, ADHD, Combined Type, and ADHD, Predominantly
Hyperactive/Impulsive Type. A fourth category, ADHD NOS (not otherwise
specified) is provided for disorders with prominent symptoms of inattention or
hyperactivity-impulsivity.
While Barkley’s Hyperactive Children: A Handbook for Diagnosis and
Treatment (1981) established his place as a major researcher in the field and he
continues in this capacity at the present time, his work focuses on children and
his latest work sets forth the proposition that children who present primarily
with attentional difficulties are not properly classified as ADHD but rather
constitute a distinct disorder (Barkley, Duple, and McMurray, 1990; Barkley,
1997a). In defending his model of core deficits in self-regulation and executive
functions (mental activities he categorizes into four groups: working memory,
internalization, self-control of emotions, motivation and state of arousal, and
reconstitution), Barkley writes: “the conclusion is unavoidable that ADHD is
far more a deficit of behavioral inhibition than of attention” (p. 313), based
again on research conducted in the area of child psychopathology. Further,
“Many... researchers seem to be coming to view it (ADHD, Inattentive Type) as
probably a deficit in focused or selective attention and speed of information
processing that may have distinctive features from the other two types of ADHD
and may be more akin to internalizing rather than to externalizing disorders” (p.
9). As a consequence, his theoretical model applies primarily to those children
having hyperactive-impulsive symptoms, whether inattention is a factor or not.
Thus, in addition to the question of how much emphasis to put on
hyperactivity vs. inattention, we are now confronted with whether one or both of
these factors should take a second seat to the issue of “developmental
deficiencies in the regulation and maintenance of behavior by rules and
consequences...which give rise “to problems with inhibiting, initiating, or
sustaining responses” Barkley, 1990, p.71). Barkley goes so far as to suggest
renaming the disorder, “Behavioral Inhibition Disorder” (1997a, p.313). That
these controversies are still surrounding the diagnosis and definition of the
disorder(s) in children should give us pause as we attempt to define and
diagnose the disorder in adults.
108 CHAPTER 4
DSM-IV Criteria and the Diagnosis of ADHD in Adults
First, we must consider the impact of the DSM-IV criteria on diagnosing adults
with ADHD. If the diagnosis has not been made during the childhood years,
consideration must be given to the initial manifestation of symptom behaviors,
the presence of co-morbid disorders as suggested by Triolo (1999), and the
presence of particular coping strengths, environmental supports, and strategies
which have played major roles throughout the developmental years. Problems
with the criterion “some symptoms causing impairment were present before 7
years of age” immediately comes to the fore. Unless a child is presenting
substantial management problems to his or her parents prior to the kindergarten
years, this child will not be referred to the pediatrician or child psychiatrist.
Thus, this criterion would seem best to apply to those children presenting with
hyperactivity almost exclusively, and this DSM-IV subtype (Predominantly
Hyperactive/Impulsive) was found primarily among preschool children in the
DSM-IV field trials (Applegate et al., 1995). According to Barkley (1997b),
symptoms of inattention associated with the Hyperactive-Impulsive Subtype
emerge later in the development of the disorder and primarily manifest as
problems with sustained attention (persistence) and distractibility. The types of
problems with inattention seen in the Predominantly Inattentive Subtype “appear
to have their onset even later...” (p.67). If age of symptom onset is a limitation
of the criterion with children, then it certainly becomes a limitation in the
diagnostic process when working with adolescents and adults.
With respect to meeting the criterion “some impairment is present in two or
more settings” when the initial diagnosis is made in adolescence or adulthood,
comorbidity may indeed be a salient issue. A number of years ago, researchers
such as Shaffer and Greenhill (1978) and Stewart, Cumming, Singer, and
Deblois (1981) reported that the diagnosis of ADD closely overlaps that of
Conduct Disorder. Thus, one could speculate that if, as a child, observed
behavior at the beginning of his or her school years did not meet criteria for a
Conduct Disorder or a juvenile presentation of Bipolar Disorder, then his or her
level of activity could well have seemed within the bounds of appropriate
classroom behavior particularly if the child were able to control energy levels
until after the classroom day, having then the opportunity to engage in fairly
rigorous physical activity such as that presented by competitive sports. By the
time evenings were spent in the home environment, hyperactive motor behaviors
may well have been substantially diminished due to physical exhaustion. On the
other hand, if these same adults were dysthymic as children, typically the
classroom teacher or the parent would not have found their level of low arousal
or shyness especially noteworthy. Also, they may well have been judged to be
less bright than their peers, and as such, their quiet nature and poor academic
performance inaccurately attributed to this (Triolo, 1999).
ADHD 109
Once entering the adolescent or adult years undiagnosed, the individual “has
most likely traveled a path to other pathologies” (Triolo, 1999, p. 66). The
presence of comorbid disorders in the adult ADHD population has been well
documented (Biederman, Newcorn, and Sprich, 1991; Biederman et al., 1993;
Hallowell and Ratey, 1994; Wender, 1995; Katz, Goldstein, and Geckle, 1998).
But, often adults will seek professional interventions because of secondary
issues such as marital conflicts, alcohol and other drug abuse, anxiety,
depression, etc., unaware of the possible co-existence of ADHD. As a result,
they will most likely be treated for these common adulthood problems (the
presenting problem) vs. a disorder which traditionally has been linked with
childhood even though evidence of “clinically significant impairment in social,
academic or occupational functioning” comes closest to defining the nature of
the disorder in the young adult and adult population. Again, criterion B (some
symptoms causing impairment present before 7 years of age) may not be part of
the developmental history in many cases.
Further, it has been demonstrated that ADHD symptoms tend to decline in
number during the growing years (Achenbach and Edelbrock, 1981). While
reduction of symptoms does not stop at adolescence, core impairments remain
prominent and stable (Barkley, Fischer, Edelbrock, and Smallish, 1991),
although more disruptive behaviors tend to be less overt in adulthood. Here, the
capacity of individuals to develop compensatory strategies is limited only by the
extent of the individual’s own creative potential. Thus, when reviewing the
symptoms of inattention or hyperactivity-impulsivity with the individual, often
times, responses will include what he or she has done to cope with
distractibility, forgetfulness, lack of organization, fidgeting, interrupting, rapid
speech, etc. vs. the perceived impact of the symptom on functions in the home,
on the job, or in school. Years of employing strategies result in a tendency to
minimize possible negative consequences. Behaviors are viewed as problematic
only when the external environment does not reinforce the efficacy of such
strategies (e.g. poor performance appraisals on the job, near-failing grades,
marital discord).
For example, take the bright student who up until his freshman year in
college sailed through high school with minimal effort both in terms of input
and output, but whose parents provided the regulating, monitoring, and
structuring of his external environment on a daily basis. Failing out of a
prestigious school is a blow to the ego, can make one quite depressed, and the
process of self-doubt begins. When asked if there were problems with time
management, organization, distractibility, lack of follow through, or
forgetfulness during his earlier years in school or while growing up, the answer
may just as readily be “no” as “yes”. If his parents are available for collateral
information, they may well testify about their efforts. On the other hand, if one
or both of them also have undiagnosed ADHD, then their efforts may well be
par for the course rather than out of the ordinary.
110 CHAPTER 4
A final issue with respect to using DSM-IV criteria relates to the nature and
severity of current symptoms. Individuals may have significant difficulty
sustaining attention in a lecture hall or when reading required texts or when
filling out routine forms, while at other times they report no problems with
inattention or sustained focus when reading for pleasure, surfing the Internet, or
tackling a highly challenging and /or competitive endeavor. The DSM-IV docs
not take into account this vacillation between “hyperfocus” and lack of focus
often seen in adolescents and adults with ADHD. Parents will confirm the hours
spent and degree of intensity maintained by the young adult engaged in playing
with legos or computer games as a child playing hockey or watching sports
programs as an adolescent. At the same time, they will report that their child is
unable to sit quietly during a TV show in which other members of the family are
interested if the demands for attention are greater than 10 minutes. Adults often
incorporate the attributional labels given them on account of this waxing and
waning of attention and assign moral judgments to the perceived voluntary
nature of their behaviors. Thus, the symptom becomes a character trait, most
often a negative one, and again is not thought of as a characteristic symptom of a
disorder.
Subtyping
While the DSM-IV provides three subtypes and a “not otherwise specified”
category” (p. 85), a number of clinical researchers have begun to examine
subtypes based on brain imaging studies as well as neurochemical hypotheses.
Amen and Goldman (1998) have posited five clinical subtypes of ADHD for
both children and adults to which they have linked psychopharmacological
therapies based on SPECT studies. These include ADHD, combined Type,
ADHD, primarily inattentive type, Overfocused ADD, Temporal Lobe ADD,
and Limbic ADD. Both ADHD, Combined Type and ADHD, Predominantly
Inattentive Type show decreased activity in the basal ganglia and prefrontal
cortex during a concentration task. Overfocused ADD is identified with
increased activity in the anterior cingulate gyrus and decreased prefrontal cortex
activity and is associated with obsessive type behaviors. Temporal Lobe ADD
is associated with increased or decreased activity in the temporal lobes and
decreased prefrontal cortex activity and linked to aggressive behaviors. Limbic
ADD shows increased central limbic system activity and decreased prefrontal
cortex activity on SPECT and is associated with low arousal.
The theoretical work of Hunt (1997) attempts to link ADHD subtypes in
adults to four brain systems and disturbances in these multiple pathways and
their respective neurotransmitter networks (cognitive, arousal, behavioral
inhibition, and reward) resulting in four subtypes: Subtype I-Cognitive
Processing Deficit; Subtype II-Excessively Aroused ADD; Subtype III-Impaired
Behavioral Inhibition System; Subtype IV-Deficient Reward Systems.
ADHD 111
Faraone, Biederman, Mennin, et al. (1997) presented data to suggest that

comorbid ADHD with Bipolar Disorder (BPD) is a familially distinct and
nosologically discrete form of ADHD and may be related to childhood-onset
BPD. In other words, these researchers suggest that ADHD+BPD and
childhood-onset BPD may be the same disorder with a significantly younger age
of onset, a strong familial link, and the predominance of males (four times
greater than the rate in females, consistent with the literature on childhood
BPD). However, no adult subject data are available because at this point follow-
up studies of hyperactive children have not addressed the issue by assessing for
“a lifetime history of BPD (Weiss, Hechtman, and Perlman, 1985) or (have)
excluded children if the primary reason for referral involved aggressive
behavior, a prominent feature of juvenile BPD (Mannuzza, Klein, Bessler, et al.,
1993)” (Faraone et al.,p.l385).
This same group of researchers (Faraone, Biederman, Mennin, et al., 1998)
has published results from a four year follow-up study of children from
antisocial-ADHD families. Their findings confirm and extend previous work
and support their contention that Antisocial ADHD may be a nosologically and
clinically meaningful subtype of ADHD, distinct from other forms of ADHD.
These results are in keeping with the earlier behavioral subtyping work of
Dykman and Ackerman (1963). In their study, children with ADDHA
(hyperactive/aggressive) were found to be at increased risk for oppositional and
conduct disorders vs. those without hyperactivity or with hyperactivity and no
aggression.
While research into subtypes continues to occur and work such as Amen’s
and Hunt’s with adults remains somewhat controversial and/or theoretical, the
clinician must supplement DSM-IV criteria in a way that is clinically useful and
empirically sound if the various confounds described earlier are to be weighed
into the decision making process. In summary, in the words of Triolo (1999),
“the DSM-IV is a long way from providing the diagnostician all of the necessary
criteria for reliable and valid diagnosis of ADHD in adults” (p.70).
INCIDENCE, PREVALENCE, AND COMORBIDITY
Given what we know about the history of the diagnostic process and the
problems inherent when attempting to apply current criteria to an adult
population, information about incidence and prevalence rates as well as
comorbidity can be somewhat problematic. What we do know from clinical
studies is that approximately 40% to 50% of children with ADHD have
symptoms persisting into adulthood (Gittelman, Mannuzza, Shenker, and
Bonagura, 1985; Weiss, Hechtman, and Perlman, 1985), which allows us to
project that impairment in some level of functioning exists in some 1.5% to 2%
of the adult American population (Hunt, 1997). It has been estimated also that
112 CHAPTER 4
1% to 3% of the college age population has ADHD with symptoms severe

enough to warrant treatment and/or accommodations (Barkley, 1993).
Community studies of children have yielded prevalence rates between 1.7% and
16% depending on the population and the diagnostic methods used (Goldman,
Genel, Bezman, et al., 1998). These authors go on to report, “The evolution of
criteria from DSM-III to DSM-IV, although based on a progressively larger
empirical base, has broadened the case definition....This is largely a function of
the increased emphasis on attentional problems as opposed to a more narrow
focus on hyperactivity....As a result, girls have been diagnosed more
frequently...than they were in the past” (p.1102).” Historically, women have
been underdiagnosed or misdiagnosed with sex ratios of 9:1 and 6:1 reported in
clinically referred samples (Gittleman et al., 1985; Weiss et al., 1985; DSM-IV,
1994) and 3:1 in population-based samples (DSM-III-R, 1987; Szatmari, 1992).
Gender Issues
In a meta-analysis of research literature available between 1979 and 1992, Gaub

and Carlson (1997) were able to locate only 18 studies on ADD, that specifically
included samples of females. While their analysis suggested some gender
differences between girls and boys, many of the differences were clearly
mediated by source of referral and methodological limitations. In the few
studies available involving rating scales and structured interviews (Achenbach,
1991; Bauermeister, 1992; Erne, 1992; Zocccolillo, 1993; McDermott, 1996),
community based investigations (Berry et al., 1985; Breen, 1989; Horn et al.,
1989) and brain metabolism research (Ernst et al., 1994), findings are divergent
with respect to gender differences, with some studies suggesting that women
have a greater prevalence of comorbid internalizing and learning problems.
Beiderman et al (1994), in a systematic study of the differential expression
of ADHD between the sexes, found women to have equal rates of major
depression and anxiety disorders as their males counterparts. The referred adults
in their sample had not been identified or treated for ADHD as children, and the
authors commented that “the lack of childhood recognition of ADHD among
these adults is consistent with findings reported by Shekim (1989) and Zametkin
et al., 1990)” (p.26). Using self-report and interview data, Rucklidge and
Kaplan (1997) found that women in their sample who were diagnosed with
ADHD in adulthood were more apt to report depressive symptoms, were more
stressed and anxious, had more external locus of control, lower self-esteem, and
engaged in more emotion-oriented vs. task-oriented coping strategies than
women who did not meet diagnostic criteria for ADHD.
Similarly, in our recent work, (Katz, Goldstein, and Geckle, 1998) we found
women, again identified in adulthood, to have a far greater degree of
psychological distress than males with ADHD but more efficient cognitive
strategies. However, there were no significant differences between the genders
ADHD 113
on account of age, race, IQ, level of education, or comorbidity for either

learning disabilities or depression. Taken together these studies highlight the
possible risks of not being diagnosed with ADHD until adulthood, including
depressive symptomatology, anxiety symptoms, and lowered self-esteem, that
are based solely on one’s gender.
Comorbidity Factors
Complicating the establishment of prevalence rates further is the issue of

comorbidity, which we have touched on in our previous discussion of gender
issues. Reported overlap rates between the various disorders and ADHD in
children in a community sample between the ages of 9 and 16 were 50% for
depression, 22% for anxiety disorders, and 36% CD/ODD (Conduct
Disorder/Oppositional Defiant Disorder) in children diagnosed with ADHD. In
those diagnosed with depression, 27% had ADHD, 51% with anxiety disorders
had ADHD, and 93% of the children with CD/ODD had ADHD (Bird, Gould,
and Staghezza, 1993). In a recent study of 8 to 18 year old twins with and
without ADHD results indicated that all three DSM-IV ADHD subtypes were
associated with significant elevations of comorbid symptomatology as reported
by parents, teachers, and the children themselves (Willcutt, Pennington,
Chhabildas, et al., 1999). Biederman et al.’s (1993) data found rates of 31% for
major depressive disorder, 25% for substance abuse, 43% for generalized
anxiety disorder, and 52% for overanxious disorder in their sample of adults
diagnosed with ADHD, two-thirds of whom were males. In addition, having a
comorbid condition with ADHD contributes significantly to the persistence of
ADHD into adulthood (Biederman et al., 1996; Gittelman et al., 1985).
In an attempt to account for this substantial overlap between ADHD and
other disorders, Biederman, Newcorn, and Sprich (1991) have put forth six
competing hypotheses:
1) The comorbid disorders do not represent distinct entities but rather, are the
expression of phenotypic variability of the same disorder, 2) each of the
comorbid disorders represents distinct and separate clinical entities, 3) the
comorbid disorders share common vulnerabilities..., either genetic
(genotype), psychosocial (adversity), or both, 4) the comorbid disorders
represent a distinct subtype (genetic variation) within a heterogeneous
disorder..., 5) one syndrome is an early manifestation of a conduct or mood
disorder..., and 6) the development of one syndrome increases the risk for the
comorbid disorder...(p.565).
As a consequence, Biederman and his colleagues have published numerous

studies on major depression, bipolar disorder, and anti-social disorders and their
co-existence with ADHD attempting to parse out the possibility of a familial
link in addition to the previously established high levels of comorbidity seen in
both clinical and epidemiological samples in children and adolescents
114 CHAPTER 4
(Milberger, Biederman, Faraone, et al., 1995; Faraone and Biederman, 1997;

Faraone, Biederman, Mennin, et al., 1997; Biederman, Russell, Soriano,
et al., 1998).
Comorbidity with Learning Disabilities
In their text, ADHD with Cormorbid Disorders, Pliszka, Carlson, and Swanson
(1999) write, “There is probably more confusion over the comorbidity of
learning disorders (or disabilities; LDs) and ADHD than any other topic we will
address” (p. 188). They suggest that the confusion may have originated with
the term “minimal brain dysfunction,” which included both children with
learning problems and those with hyperactivity. By far the vast majority of
studies support a higher prevalence rate for learning disabilities in reading,
spelling, and arithmetic in children with ADHD than in controls (Pliszka,
Carlson, and Swanson, 1999). However, prevalence rates vary depending on
whether one is talking about LD as the initial diagnosis or ADHD as the initial
diagnosis. In the Cantwell and Baker (1991) study, 37% of the sample of
children diagnosed with early speech and language impairments met criteria for
ADHD at a five year follow-up. Of those who met criteria for a comorbid
psychiatric disorder (70%), ADHD was the most common comorbid condition.
Similarly, in the Shaywitz and Shaywitz (1988) study, while 11% of ADHD
children met criteria for LD, 33% of the children with LD also had ADHD.
Dykman and Achkerman (1991) reported that over half of their clinic-referred
ADD sample met criteria for a specific reading disorder (RD).
In general, both RD and ADHD are more prevalent among boys than among
girls when the samples are based upon clinic participants. Taking this finding as
a given, Willcutt and Pennington (2000) examined the comorbidity of the two
disorders differentiated by gender and subtype in a large community sample of
twins between the ages of 8 and 18. Their findings indicated that (1) individuals
with RD were more likely than individuals without RD to meet criteria for
DSM-IV Inattentive Type and Combined Type; (2) the phenotypic relationship
is different in boys and girls, with the association between RD and ADHD
restricted to the ADHD, Inattentive type in the females; and (3) when the
sample was subdivided by FSIQ, both the high and low IQ groups of boys with
RD exhibited a significantly higher frequency of both Inattentive and Combined
Type ADHD than did boys without RD. However, boys with low IQ RD were
significantly more likely to meet criteria for ADHD, Inattentive Type. They
concluded, “Taken together, these results suggest that higher intelligence may
represent a protective factor against symptoms of inattention for individuals with
RD, but does not affect the association between RD and H/I”
(Hyperactivity/Impulsivity) (p. 188). “And while the phenotypic analyses
reported support the hypothesis that RD and ADHD co-occur “significantly
more frequently than would be expected based on chance” (p. 188), they do not
ADHD 115
shed light on a possible etiological association between the two disorders,

although this has been suggested in the past (Stevenson, Pennington, Gilger, et
al., 1993) and also disputed (Faraone, Biederman, Lehman, et al., 1993).
With respect to a mathematics disorder, several studies have reported an
association with ADHD, Inattentive Type in particular (Ackerman, Anhalt,
Dykman, et al, 1986; Carlson, Lahey, and Neeper, 1986; Hynd, Lorys, Semrud-
Clikeman, et al., 1991; Zentall, 1993). Marshall, Hynd, Handwek, and Hall
(1997) suggest that although there is evidence to suggest a relationship between
ADHD and a math disability, the relationship is under-reported because it has
been under-investigated. Secondly, it has been found that math deficits are more
pronounced in older than in younger elementary school students (Ackerman et
al., 1986), and that older children with ADHD are more likely to have a math
disorder (Nussbaum, Grant, Roman, et al., 1990). However, both referral source
and test selection could explain math test performance differences to some
degree in these reported studies (Marshall et al., 1997).
Tourette’ s Syndrome
Finally, we refer the reader to the Pliszka, Carlson, and Swanson (1999) text for
an in-depth discussion of comorbid disorders and ADHD. In particular, there
are chapters devoted entirely to medical disorders, mental retardation and
pervasive developmental disorders, and tic and obsessive compulsive-disorders
as well as the more commonly discussed mood and anxiety disorders, although
the focus is on children rather than adults. In addition, the text edited by
Leckman and Cohen (1999) details the comorbidity and prevalence of Tourette’s
Syndrome (TS), tics, obsessions, and compulsions with ADHD and other
learning disorders. The chapter by Walkup, Khan, Scherholz, et al., (1999) is
devoted to Phenomenology and Natural History of Tic-Related ADHD and
Learning Disabilities, and in it the authors present data which estimate the
frequency of ADHD in Tourette’s Syndrome to be anywhere from 25% to 75%.
In a review of nine reports of 1500 cases of TS in individuals of all ages, ADHD
was present in approximately 62% of the cases (Comings and Comings, 1988).
Findings suggesting a relationship between the sequence of onset of Tourette’s
Syndrome and ADHD (earlier-onset ADHD being more etiologically
independent of Tourette’s Syndrome and later-onset ADHD being secondary to
the expression of Tourette’s) are regarded as hypothesis generating only at this
point in time (Pauls, Alsobrook, Gelernter, and Leckman, 1999). The text by
Fisher (1998) also devotes a chapter to comorbid disorders associated with ADD
including various neurobehavioral and neurological disorders including
Parkinson’s Disease, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, neurofibromatosis, and
toxicity, among others.
116 CHAPTER 4
ETIOLOGY
Genetic Studies
Twin and Adoption Studies
According to Tannock (1998), “ADHD is a paradigm for a true biopsychosocial

disorder, raising critical questions concerning the relations between genetic,
biological, and environmental factors” (p. 65). That there is considerable
evidence that ADHD is a heritable disorder is based upon data retrieved from
twin and adoption studies. Over ten years ago, Goodman and Stevenson (1989)
investigated a large sample of children with ADHD who were identical or
fraternal twins. They reported a concordance rate among monozygotic twins of
approximately 50% and a 33% rate for dyzygotic same sex twins. Stevenson
(1992) found heritability for mothers’ but not teachers’ ratings of hyperactivity
and a laboratory measure of attention; Gillis, Gilger, Pennington, and DeFries
(1992) found a high degree of heritability using a parent interview instrument
designed to measure problems of attention and hyperactivity. Both research
groups studied large samples of MZ and DZ twins using multiple regression
procedures. Family studies consistently support the assertion that ADHD runs in
families (Farone and Biederman, 1994a; 1994b).
Adoption studies of ADHD also implicate genes in its etiology. The first
study of foster children was conducted by Safer (1973) and investigated the
psychological status of maternal full and half siblings of children with minimal
brain dysfunction (MBD) who had been placed in different foster homes. Fifty
percent of the full siblings were diagnosed with MBD vs. 25% of the half
siblings, a finding compatible with genetic transmission. Boreland and
Heckman (1976) indicated a greater occurrence of ADD symptoms in the
biological siblings of diagnosed ADD children as did Cantwell (1975) and
Morrison and Stewart (1983). McGuffin, Owen, and O’Donovan (1994) also
reported significantly higher rates of hyperactivity (7.5% vs. 2.1%) in biological
parents of children with hyperactivity compared with adoptive parents.
A study by Van der Oord, Boomsma, and Verhulst (1994) provides even more
convincing evidence for the heritability of ADHD symptoms. Their study
involved biologically related and unrelated sibling pairs of international
adoptees (111 pairs and 221 pairs, respectively) as well as a group of adoptees
who grew up alone. The study is unique in that both the controls and the study
group (biologically related siblings) were raised by adoptive parents. Also, the
influence of multiple children within one family could be compared with
children raised as singletons. Their results indicated that a strong genetic
component (47% of the variance) was obtained for parental ratings of attention
problems on the Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach, 1991), with no
significant sibling interactions or shared environmental effects.
ADHD 117
Molecular Genetic Studies
According to Biederman and Spencer (1999):
Although the segregation analyses of ADHD suggest that a single gene is in

the etiology of ADHD, the differences in fit between genetic models were
modest....This suggests that ADHD may be caused by several interacting
genes of modest effect. This latter idea is consistent with ADHD’s high
population prevalence and high concordance in monozygotic twins but modest
recurrence risks to first degree relatives” (p. 1235).
Molecular genetic studies have produced mixed results to some extent.

However, one of the first association studies based on the dopamine transporter
gene DAT1 was reported by Cook, Stein, and Krasowski, et al. (1995). A
significant increase in the frequency of the 480 base pair allele of the dopamine
transporter gene DAT1 was found in a case-control study of 49 patients with
ADHD as defined by DSM-III-R criteria. Gill, Daly, Heron, et al. (1997)
replicated their findings in an Irish family-based association study of 40 children
with ADHD.
Some promising data have emerged from studies of the dopamine D4 receptor
(DRD4) gene as well. This gene encodes one of five known protein receptors
that mediate the postsynaptic action of dopamine (Tannock, 1998). The DRD4-
repeat region of the dopamine receptor gene, associated with the personality trait
of high novelty-seeking behavior, is thought to influence “postsynaptic
sensitivity” largely in the dorso-lateral prefrontal cortex, which is linked to
executive functions and the attentional system. Twenty-nine percent of the
ADHD samples under study have this repeat allele, double its rate in the general
population (Baird, Stevenson, and Williams, 2000). Both Ebstein (1996) and
Benjamin, Patterson, Greenberg, et al. (1996) reported an association of the 7-
repeat allele of DRD4 with novelty seeking. Persons high on this personality
trait are judged to be impulsive, exploratory, excitable, and quick-tempered,
features frequently seen in patients diagnosed with ADHD. And although their
findings were not replicated in a subsequent study of psychiatrically screened
normal controls and a group of alcoholic offenders (Malhotra, Virkkunen,
Rooney, et al., 1996), they were validated by the work of LaHoste, Swanson,
Wigal, et al. (1996), Sunohara, Barr, Jain, et al. (1997) and Swanson, Sunohara,
Kennedy, et al. (1998).
Biederman and Spencer (1999) continue, “Despite these encouraging DRD4
data, it would be premature to consider DRD4 to simply be an ADHD gene
because the positive association findings could be due to an unknown gene in
linkage dysequilibrium with DRD4” (p. 1235). Just so, researchers such as
Comings, Wu, Chiu, et al. (1996) followed receptor DRD2, enzyme dopamine-
b-hydroxylase, and transporter DAT1 gene polymorphisms in Tourette probands
and their relatives. They found significant associations between variations of
the three genes and those diagnosed with Tourette’s, ADHD, stuttering,
118 CHAPTER 4
oppositional defiant behavior, alcohol abuse, mania, and general anxiety.

According to Baird et al. (2000), “(T)hese studies confirm what must be
intuitively obvious: that these conditions have genetic underpinnings, are
polygenic, and likely form a continuum that manifests itself in a variety of
observed conditions, all interrelated” (p. 7).
Prenatal and Perinatal Factors
As ADHD was initially conceptualized as a result of minimal brain damage

caused primarily by infection, trauma, or complications during pregnancy or at
the time of delivery (Cruickshank, Eliason, and Merrifield, 1988), both prenatal
and perinatal factors have been implicated in the etiology of ADHD. However,
studies have been equivocal, and routine neurological examinations, clinical
evaluation with CT scans, MRIs, and EEG studies typically have not revealed
specific lesions or abnormalities in children with ADHD (Voeller, 1991;
Shaywitz, Shaywitz, Byrne, et al., 1993). However, more refined advances in
electrophysiological methods have resulted in some evidence for
structural/morphological differences in the brains of children with ADHD as a
group (Voeller, 1991).
Nichols (1980) in a review of the findings of the Collaborative Perinatal
Project, which followed 60,000 infants from birth to age seven, found
hyperactivity to be associated with maternal smoking and birth complications.
His findings are consistent with those reported by Chandola, Robling, Peters, et
al. (1992) and Biederman, Milberger, Faraone, et al. (1995). On the other hand,
Taylor, Sandberg, Thorley, and Giles (1991) did not find perinatal complications
and toxin exposure to be associated with hyperactivity later in childhood.
Sprich-Buckminster, Biederman, Milberger, et al. (1993) noted that studies they
reviewed to that point in time had used heterogeneous groups of children with
ADHD. In their study, they found evidence to suggest that the association
between ADHD and the complications of pregnancy, delivery, and infancy was
much stronger in the group with comorbidity (anxiety, major depression,
conduct disorder) as compared to the group without comorbidity.
In addition to prenatal and perinatal factors, issues surrounding food
additives, refined sugar, allergies and atopic disorders, and thyroid have been
put forward as causative with respect to ADHD in children. To date, data to
substantiate a causal relationships between any of these factors and ADHD have
not been forth coming (Riccio, Hynd, and Cohen, 1997).
And, while researchers have consistently found a relationship between
ADHD and certain psychosocial factors (Barkley, 1990), the issue remains one
of the chicken or the egg, at best. Biederman and his colleagues (1995),
following the classic studies of Rutter and his colleagues on the Isle of Wright,
found more chronic family conflict, decreased family cohesion, and parental
pathology, especially in the mother, in the families of children with ADHD than
ADHD 119
in control families. These findings, however, are not conclusive with regard to
the direction of effects, meaning that just as strong a case could be made for the
idea that ADHD in the child results in family disruption as the reverse (Hallahan
and Cottone, 1997). Just as there has been little evidence to suggest that
cognitive training combined with medication yields an additive effect over
medication alone for most children with ADHD (lalongo, Horn, Pascoe, et al.
(1993; Jensen et al., 1999), studies evaluating the effectiveness of parent
training lack a systematic method of research, have many methodological
inconsistencies, and include extremely small sample sizes (Hallahan and
Cottone, 1997).
Taken as a whole, the genetic studies available, the equivocal nature of
prenatal and perinatal studies, the questionable etiological role of psychosocial
stressors, and the familial links associated with comorbid disorders tend to
suggest that environmental factors alone in the majority of instances cannot
account for this developmental neurobehavioral disorder. And while not all
cases of ADHD can be traced to a familial predisposition, there is a substantial
body of research demonstrating that family-genetic influences exist that are
independent of psychosocial adversity (Biederman, Faraone, Keenan, et al.,
1992) and that the genetic transmission of ADHD is independent of the genetic
transmission of learning disabilities (Faraone, Biederman, Lehman, et al., 1993).
However, as Thapar, Homes, Pulton, and Harrington (1999) have pointed out,
while ADHD should be considered a complex multifactorial disorder, relatively
little is known about the interplay between genes and environment. The
inclusion of environmental factors within genetically sensitive designs will be
important as even when susceptibility genes are identified, environmental
factors may play an important protective or mediating role (Taylor, 1994).
NEUROLOGICAL CORRELATES OF ATTENTIONAL MECHANISMS
Neuroanatomical and Neurophysiological Findings
Studies of ADHD have been conducted from the perspective of neuroanatomy,

neurochemistry, neurophysiology, and neuropsychology. In this section we will
address the first three of these perspectives, both in term of research findings
and theoretical hypotheses. The neuropsychology of ADHD will be addressed
in the next section specifically in relation to the clinical diagnostic process.
There is a converging body of research evidence to support the view that a
dysfunction in the striatal-frontal regulatory system may be implicated in ADHD
(Drewe, 1975; Lou, Henriksen, and Bruhn, 1984; Zametkin, and Rapoport,
1986; VerFaellie and Heilman, 1987; Shaywitz, and Shaywitz, 1988; Lou,
Henriksen, and Bruhn, 1989; Heilman, Voeller, and Nadeau, 1991). Support for
frontal lobe involvement (particularly the right frontal area and specifically the
120 CHAPTER 4
posterior-medial orbital area) as a possible causal factor in ADHD comes from

positron emission tomographic (PET) scan studies with adults (Zametkin et al.,
1990), single-positron-emission-computed tomography (SPECT) studies (Amen,
Paldi, and Thisted, 1993), regional blood flow studies (Lou, Henriksen, and
Bruhn, 1984; Lou, Henriksen, Bruhn, et al., 1989), and MRI (Hynd, Semrud-
Clikeman, Lorys, et al., 1990). Mattes (1980) had suggested that a delay in
laying down myelin in the prefrontal area (among the last areas of the brain to
myelinate) (Yakovlev and Lecours, 1967) might explain much of ADHD
symptomatology, including the fact that males myelinate later than females
(Pontius, 1973). Taken together, these studies indicate decreased cortical
arousal and/or structural differences in the brains of children and some adults
with ADHD in these anterior brain areas. However, results of
neuropsychological studies of frontal lobe functioning in children with ADHD
have been equivocal (Loge, Staton, and Beatty, 1990).
In conjunction with the frontal lobe, the caudate nucleus (within the basal
ganglia) has been implicated in the neurological basis of ADHD, in part because
of the likeness of ADHD symptoms to those behaviors associated with
dysfunction in the caudate-frontal axis (Riccio, Hynd, Cohen, and Gonzalez,
1993). Evidence from cerebral flow blood studies has implicated decreased
metabolism in the right caudate (Lou et al, 1989). MRIs have shown the
absence of the normal asymmetry (right greater than left) in the caudate similar
to the absence of normal asymmetry documented in studies of the frontal lobes
in children diagnosed with ADHD compared to those without an ADHD
diagnosis (Hynd et al., 1993). Analysis of data from MRI scans has also
identified differences in the size of the corpus callosum in the children with
ADHD, specifically, a smaller corpus callosum in the anterior region (genu), the
posterior region (splenium), and the area anterior to the splenium (Hynd,
Semrud-Clikeman, Lorys, et al., 1991).
In a later study (Castellanos, Giedd, Eckburg, et al., 1994), compared
volumetric measures of the head and body of the caudate nucleus via MRI in 50
male patients with ADHD and 48 matched comparison subjects. Their work
was based on the premise that the caudate nuclei receive inputs from cortical
regions implicated in executive functioning and attentional tasks. Their findings
provide additional support for the presence of developmental abnormalities of
frontal-striatal circuits in ADHD. Their later work, (Castellanos et al., 1996)
confirmed specific predictions from the Heilman, Voeller, and Nadeau (1991)
right hemisphere theory of attention. Right anterior frontal, caudate, and globus
pallidus regions were smaller in an ADHD group than in a control group,
resulting in smaller asymmetries in these areas which were associated with
performance deficits on neuropsychological tasks (Casey, Castellanos, Giedd, et
al., 1997).
In addition, Filipek, Semrud-Clikeman, Steingard, et al. (1997) investigated
hemispheric and structural volumes in 15 subjects with noncomorbid AHDH
ADHD 121
and 15 controls. Their findings supported specific predictions from the Posner
and Raichle (1996) neuroanatomical network theory of attention. Namely,
children with ADHD had smaller brain volumes in anterior superior regions
(posterior prefrontal, motor association, and midanterior cingulate) and anterior
inferior regions (anterior basal ganglia). These abnormal findings implicate the
neuroanatomical networks of executive control and alerting (Swanson,
Castellanos, Murias, et al., 1998). Thus, it has been proposed that the caudate
(Lou, 1996) and the braking mechanism provided by the indirect caudate-globus
pallidus route to thalamic output neurons (Castellanos, 1997) may be the site of
a “neuroanatomical deficit” (Swanson et al., 1998) that results in symptoms of
ADHD.
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, Barkley (1997) has presented a new
theoretical model for understanding the symptoms of ADHD based on the
theoretical work of Bronowski (1967). He had suggested that the unique ability
of man to delay response to a stimulus may be explained by four axes:
separation of affect, prolongation, internalization, and reconstitution. Barkley
proposes that an impairment in delayed responding (response inhibition and self-
regulating measures mediated by these four variables) represents the core
impairment in ADHD. He further postulates that impairment in delayed
responding is mediated by underfunctioning of the orbital frontal cortex and
subsequent connections to the limbic system. The result is a hyperresponsivity
to stimuli producing hyperactivity primarily and secondarily, inattentiveness
(Zametkin and Liotta, 1998).
Finally, the inferior posterior lobe of the cerebellar vermis has been found to
be smaller in children with ADHD, although the significance of the finding is
not yet explicated fully. However, the cerebellum does project to the prefrontal
cortex via the thalamus (Middleton and Strick, 1994) and has been found to be
involved in both motor (Kim, Ugurbil, and Strick, 1994) and non-motor
cognitive tasks (Jueptner, Rijntjes, Weiller, et al., 1995).
Neurochemical Models of ADHD
The monoamine (dopaminergic) hypothesis of ADHD was first advanced by

Wender (1971) and suggested that many of the symptoms of ADHD could be
explained by a decreased turnover of dopamine. Wender (1998) wrote that the
dopaminergic hypothesis was based on a series of facts: (1) an elevated
occurrence of ADHD and conduct disorder symptomatology in children
recovered from von Economo’s encephalitis in the early part of the century,
many of whom then developed Parkinson’s Disease as adults; (2) idiopathic
Parkinson’s disease associated with a degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in
the nigro-striatal system; (3) drugs that are most effective in the treatment of
ADHD have been dopaminergic vs. more purely noradrenergic; (4)
dopaminergic drugs decrease ADHD-like behavior in animals.
122 CHAPTER 4
However, dysregulation of norepinephrine (NE) and serotonin (5-HT)

systems as well have been postulated to play a role in the etiology and
pharmacotherapy of ADHD (Kometsky, 1970; Mefford and Potter, 1989;
Arnsten, Steere, and Hunt, 1996; Pliszka, McCracken, and Maas, 1996;
Biederman and Spencer, 1999; Gainetdinov, Wetsel, Jones, et al., 1999).
Arnsten et al. (1996) hypothesized that dysregulation of the norepinephrine
(NE) receptor function in the prefrontal cortex resulted in deficits in inhibitory
control characteristic of ADHD. Mefford and Potter (19889) hypothesized an
imbalance in tonic epinephreine formation which disrupts the normal inhibition
of locus coeruleus neurons and results in inattention, distractibility, sleeping
difficulties, and some cognitive deficits. Caron’s group of researchers
(Gainetdinov et al., 1999) looked at a strain of mice that were missing the gene
for the dopamine transporter, which gates the amount of dopamine available to
the brain and thus had high levels of dopamine in their brains. Contrary to what
might be expected, these mice exhibited all of the behaviors that look like
ADHD in humans (e.g., hyperactivity, agitated response to novel environments,
etc). When injected with Ritalin, they calmed down, however; since they
already had high levels of dopamine in their brains, the researchers surmised
that some other neurochemical might be involved. The mice were then given
Prozac and calmed down even more as a result. Their work suggests that
although dopaminergic neurotransmission is required for locomotor activity,
serotonergic transmission plays an important role in the psychostimulant’s
calming effect.
Rogeness, Javors, and Pliszka (1992) in reviewing the three main
neurotransmitters implicated in ADHD, dopamine, norepinephrine, and
serotonin, submitted that ADHD may best be understood as an interaction of
multiple neurotransmitters and that the balance between the norephinephrine and
dopamine systems is critical. Following that line of investigation, an
explanatory model of ADHD that implicates dysfunction in these
neurotransmitter systems has been articulated by Pliszka, McCracken, and Maas
(1996). Their model is based on studies that have demonstrated that attentional
functions are distributed into a posterior attention system, an arousal system
centered in the right hemisphere responsible for holistic, parallel cognitive
functions, that orients to and engages novel stimuli; and an anterior system, an
activation system centered in the left hemisphere that specializes in analytic and
sequential cognitive operations, subserving executive functions (Tucker and
Williamson, 1984; Tucker, 1986).
Following Pliszka et al’s (1996) model, the posterior attention system
(superior parietal cortex, superior colliculus, and the pulvinar nucleus) receives
dense norepinephrine (NE) innervation from the locus coeruleus (LC). NE then
acts to inhibit the spontaneous discharge of neurons, enhancing the signal-to-
noise ratio of target cells, thus priming the posterior system to orient to and
engage novel stimuli. Regulation of the attention function then shifts to the
ADHD 123
anterior executive system (prefrontal cortex [PFC] and anterior cingulate gyrus),
where the responsiveness of the PFC and anterior cingulate to incoming signals
is modulated primarily by dopaminergic (DA) input from the ventral tegmental
area of the midbrain. Ascending DA fibers stimulate postsynaptic Dl receptors
on pyramidal neurons in the PFC and anterior cingulate, which in turn facilitate
excitatory NMDA receptor inputs from the posterior attention system. DA
selectively gates excitatory inputs to both the PFC and the cingulate which then
effectively reduces irrelevant neuronal activity during the performance of
executive functions. “According to Pliszka et al (1996), the inability of NE to
prime the posterior attention system could account for the problems with
inattention seen in children with ADHD, and the loss of DA’s ability to gate
inputs to the anterior executive system may be linked to the deficit in executive
functions characteristic of ADHD” (Himelstein, Schulz, Newcorn, and Halperin,
2000, p. 463).
Hunt (1997) has proposed a neurobiological model of ADHD in which he
attempts to link the particular brain systems involved with information
processing, arousal, behavioral inhibition, and the limbic system, disturbances in
their neurotransmitter pathways (DA, NE, 5-HT, and neuropeptides and
endorphins), and the symptoms manifest in ADHD as a means to form the basis
for pharmacological interventions. “The neurotransmitters and neuropeptides
bridge information between neurons and are key to perception, cognitive
processing, arousal, inhibition, and reward....Medications mitigate the
neurobehavioral dysfunctions in ADHD by modulating the neurotransmitter
mechanisms at the synapse” (p. 579).
According to Hunt’s schema, a defect in the cognitive-processing system,
primarily a disorder of selective attention and information processing and
possibly related to hypoactivity of the dopamine system, is hypothesized to
involve the gating capacity of the nucleus accumbens, cortical sensory
integration centers, the ability of the hippocampus to identify change in the
environment, and response selection capacities of the prefrontal cortex.
Symptoms of excessive arousal (aggression, impulsivity, increased motor
activity and comorbid mania and/or conduct disorder) are thought to relate to
hyperactivity of noradrenergic circuitry involving the locus coerulus and the
reticular activating system. Impaired behavioral inhibition results from the
combined dysfunction of serotonergic and dopaminergic circuits in the
prefrontal cortex and in the caudate nucleus and thalamus. Deficits in the
reward system are thought to arise from affect regulation defects in limbic
circuitry, which then impact responsivity to reward and punishment and faulty
cognitive analysis and integration of information arising from defects in
prefrontal and associative cortex. Both dopamine and the neuropeptides and
endorphins are hypothesized to be dysregulated.
Taken as a whole, research devoted to the neurochemical aspects of ADHD
does appear to give evidence of dysfunction in multiple neurotransmitter
124 CHAPTER 4
systems (Hornig, 1998; Zametkin and Liotta, 1998; Himelstein, Schulz,

Newcorn, and Halperin, 2000). Although there are inconsistencies in the various
findings, given the heterogeneity of individual symptom manifestations across
groups, it is not surprising that a uniform deficiency in one neurotransmitter
system may not be found across the varied presentations of the disorder. While
the neuropsychological, neurochemical, genetic, and neuroanatomical literature
gives partial support for the models of ADHD suggested by Pliszka et
al.,(1996), Arnsten et al., (1996), Barkley (1997), and Hunt (1997), the
inconsistencies in the research do not allow unqualified support for any single
model of ADHD. “A most promising direction for future research in the neural
substrates of ADHD appears to be in the continued efforts to find meaningful
subgroups...within the disorder which yield more uniform neurobiological
profiles” (Himelstein et al., 2000, p.474).
COMPONENTS OF THE DIAGNOSTIC PROCESS
Triolo (1999) has set forth six sequential components for the diagnostic process
with adults:
Rule out medical problems that may mimic ADHD symptoms
Conduct a clinical interview incorporating a retrospective history and
observations as well as DSM-IV criteria as appropriate
Conduct an independent collateral interview
Quantify subjective reports of ADHD symptoms with standardized
measures (Inventories)
Conduct a brief analysis of personality traits and emotional dispositions
When warranted, neuropsychological testing
In his text Triolo spends an entire chapter on the diagnostic process which is
complete and readily accessible by the clinician. Thus, we will not review in
detail all of the six components which he describes, but rather focus on the last
three, namely, the use of self-report inventories, personality assessment, and the
use of neuropsychological testing, as these are more typically included in
evaluations conducted by psychologists and neuropsychologists in addition to
the other three information sources.
Self-Report Inventories
While there are numerous checklists available for use with adults (Weiss, 1992;
Hallowell and Ratey, 1994; Murphy and LeVert, 1995, Amen, 1997)), they are
not standardized and at times the cutoff points are arbitrary at best. In addition,
many checklists included in the lay literature and on the Internet are so inclusive
that no one would escape identification as having ADHD. Triolo (1999) points
out also that some checklists and questionnaires can appear to be statistically
ADHD 125
developed with normative parameters but are not. Here, he cites the Owens and
Owens (1993) Adult Attention Deficit Disorder Behavior Rating Scales. That
having been said, there are at least four published instruments which are normed
through the entire age range for adults, the Adult Attention Deficit Evaluation
Scale, A-ADDES (McCarney and Anderson, 1996), the Brown Attention Deficit
Disorder Scales (Brown, 1996), the Attention Deficit Scales for Adults (ADSA)
(Triolo and Murphy, 1997), and newest, the Conners’ Adult ADHD Rating
Scales (CAARS) (Conners, Erhardt, and Sparrow, 1999). The ones we have
found most useful are the Brown ADD Scales, one for adolescents and one for
adults.
Impetus for the Brown ADD Scales, according to the developer (Brown,
1996), came from clinical conversations with students who suffered from
“chronic underachievement despite high IQ and apparently strong wishes to do
well in school” (p. 4). The Scales cover the age ranges of 12 through 18 years
and 18 years and older, and the 40 self report items are grouped into five clusters
of “conceptually related symptoms” (Brown, 1996) of attention deficit disorders
(ADDs). These are organizing and activating to work, sustaining attention and
concentration, sustaining energy and effort, managing affective interference, and
utilizing working memory and accessing recall. While the items assess
symptoms included in the DSM-IV criteria, they also incorporate symptoms
taken from clinical studies. Brown goes on to say that certain assumptions
underlie the nature of the ADDs and thus the construction of the test items.
These are listed below.
ADDs are dimensional disorders.
ADD symptoms may vary according to tasks and context.
Difficulty with activating and getting started is often an important element of
ADD impairment.
Chronic impairments in working memory and in recall of learned
information are often important in ADDs.
Hyperactivity/Impulsivity is not an essential element in ADDs.
ADDs often include aspects of other psychological disorders and frequently
overlap with other emotional or behavioral disorders in comorbid
combinations.
ADDs are not impairments of attention only; they are disorders affecting
many aspects of cognitive functioning.
Thus, Brown’s definition of ADHD with adolescents and adults takes into
account the frequency and intensity of symptoms, the stimulus bound nature of
sustained attention, problems with activation of behavior in addition to
insufficient inhibition, and impairments in active working memory (Baddeley,
1986; Goldman-Rakic, 1987, 1994) and its “file manager” (p. 8) function in
accessing recall. The central impairment of ADHD is not viewed as disruptive
behavior or failure of inhibition or of inattention only, but rather as impairments
in a broad range of cognitive functions, and that a significant overlap of
126 CHAPTER 4
symptoms between ADD and other disorders is a given. The Scales also include
a diagnostic form for the clinical history interview and the opportunity for multi-
rater capacity on the Scales themselves.
There is one caveat that Triolo (1999) discusses with respect to the IQ levels
of the groups on which the Brown Scales were normed. Of the 142 clinical
subjects, 52 had an IQ within the average range and 90 had an IQ of 110 or
greater. However, one must keep in mind that the nonclinical group used in the
discriminant validity study were matched for age and socioeconomic status but
not on IQ. That the IQ level of the majority of the clinical group is above
average is not surprising given the fact that Brown’s initial work with high
school and college level students led to the development of the Scales.
Should IQ level be a concern for the practitioner, perhaps the items elicited
by the ADSA (Triolo and Murphy, 1996) or those elicited by the CAARS
(Conners, Erhardt, and Sparrow, 1999) might be more useful. The ADSA was
initially normed on a community sample of 306 adults with no childhood history
of problems with attention or hyperactivity, estimated IQs of 80 or above, no
reported history of drug or alcohol abuse or felony convictions, and age 17 or
older. Data were later collected on 97 clinical subjects, age 17 years or older,
who were diagnosed with ADHD prior to involvement in the validity study of
the ADSA (Triolo, 1999). Conners et al. (1999) report age and gender based
norms from a sample of 2000 nonclinical community adults as well. The
CAARS has a both a self-report and an observer rating format as well as long,
short, and screening versions.
Triolo’s (1999) other concern was that the Brown Scales overemphasized the
core symptom of inattention. In this regard, the reader is referred to a study by
Millstein, Wilen, Biederman, and Spencer (1997) in which they evaluated the
clinical presentation of ADHD in adults. Their results indicated that inattentive
symptoms were most frequently endorsed in over 90% of their adult sample.
Fifty-six percent of the group met criteria for ADHD, Combined Type, 37%
Inattentive Type, and 2% Hyperactive/Impulsive Type. Also, psychiatric
comorbidity with ADHD was more prominent in adults with hyperactivity-
impulsivity as part of their clinical picture. They concluded, “Given that
ADHD adults are presenting from multiple domains, clinicians should carefully
query for the inattentive aspects of ADHD when evaluating these individuals”
(p. 159).
In summary, behavior rating scales have been the mainstay in the clinical
assessment of children with ADHD for more than 20 years (Halperin, Newcorn,
and Sharma, 1991). However, even with children, teacher ratings suffer from
halo effects (Schachar et al., 1986), and parent ratings have been found to have
poor reliability (Rapoport et al., 1986). With adults, in a study by Klee,
Garfinkel and Beauchesne (1986), while the index group (diagnosed with
ADHD) rated themselves as having more problems with concentration, lower
frustration tolerance, impulsivity, and restlessness as children than did the
ADHD 127
control group, there was greater similarity between the two groups on current
behavior rating as the index group rated themselves as much improved when
compared to their childhood ratings. These findings suggest real limitations in
relying on rating scales solely to identify symptoms in adults, when in fact, the
nature of symptomatology in adults may well be altered. In addition, with the
exception of the Brown Scales, behavior rating scales have generally not been
particularly helpful in the diagnosis of ADHD, Inattentive Type, which has been
documented to be more common in adults and in women (NIH Consensus
Statement, 1998). Given these concerns, the use of self-rating scales should be
considered as one among a number of measures used in the diagnosis of adults
Personality Measures
While the assessment of personality and emotional dispositions will tend to

reflect the preferences of the clinician and an established comfort level with
either objective or projective measures, we will present a selection of objective
measures that we utilize on a regular basis with either adolescents or adults.
These measures assist with rule outs regarding major psychiatric disorders or
long standing personality traits, that may affect either the quality of performance
on other cognitive measures or provide support for comorbidity.
With adolescents a clinically useful battery may consist of either the Beck
Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) (Beck, Steer, and Brown, 1996) or the
Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale (RADS) ( Reynolds, 1987), the SCL-
90-R (Derogatis, 1994), and the Adolescent Psychopathology Scale (APS)
(Reynolds, 1998). Useful also, again depending upon the clinician’s preference,
are the Millon Adolescent Personality Inventory (MAPI) (Millon, Green, and
Meagher, 1982) and the Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory (MACI) (Millon,
Millon, and Davis, 1993). While available as hand-scored measures, they are
most efficiently scored and profiled using the NCS Microtest Q Software. The
APS is also available in a software program with uses purchased in units of 25
through a Key Disk, much less expensively than the Microtest Q Software
package, which requires an annual licensing fee in addition to a set fee per test
use. In either case, having access to self-report data can be extremely useful in
augmenting the clinical interview, and the redundancy of the measures to some
extent has been valuable in counteracting the tendency of some adolescents to
access the “zero” or “false” category as a default response pattern. The SCL-90-
R and APS response format are most helpful in this regard.
With adults, use of the Beck, the SCL-90-R, and the MCMI-III (Millon,
Davis, and Millon, 1997) is a standard part of the comprehensive evaluation
process. The three measures give a good picture of the quality of depressive
symptoms (neurovegetative vs. reactive), the current severity of psychological
and/or somatic stressors, and long-standing behavioral patterns and personality
traits.
128 CHAPTER 4
Having said that, there are certain cautions that must be taken into
consideration during the interpretation process, as with the exception of the
APS, none of the other measures have necessarily included individuals with
ADHD in their clinical norms. It is our experience, as has been reported
elsewhere in the literature, that the Obsessive-Compulsive Scale on the SCL-90-
R is generally elevated in adults and adolescents with ADHD because the items
included in this scale deal with worrying excessively, ruminating thoughts,
difficulty with decision making and concentration, and memory problems. With
the BDI-II, items involving past failure, self-disappointment, agitation, and
concentration difficulty are most often rated as problematic. These items on the
BDI-II illustrate to some degree the reactive nature of the depressed feelings
particularly when the individual has experienced failure in the school setting or
on the job. With the MCMI-III, the scales tend to take on a spurious nature with
individuals who have lived with their ADHD over the years particularly if they
have a childhood history of hyperactivity and/or impulsivity. Resultant profiles
often tend to reflect a pre-occupation with self and the lack of awareness or
reported concern for others, which may or may not be totally accurate. As a
result, the validity of personality measurement given the instruments available at
this time should be viewed with caution and always in light of information
derived from a comprehensive history and access to corroborating data
whenever possible.
Neuropsychological Assessment
Barkley’s (1991; 1994a) analysis of the utility of neurospychological tests In

distinguishing children with ADHD and those without found them to be of little
merit for the most part with the exception perhaps of continuous performance
measures. At the same time he wrote a critical review on the assessment of
attention in children (Barkley, 1994b) using Mirsky et al.’s (1991) model of
human attention and the possible measures for evaluating its components: focus-
execute, sustained, shift, and encode. In that chapter Barkley attempts to equate
various attention measures with these components and then critiques their
ecological validity as well. Some of the measures included were the Stroop
Color-Word Interference Test (Stroop, 1935), the Trail Making Test (Parts A &
B; Reitan and Wolfson, 1985); various Digit Symbol or Coding tests, the
Wisconsin Card Sort Test (WCST) (Heaton, 1981) and the Categories Test from
the Halstead-Reitan Battery (Reitan and Wolfson, 1985). Overall, his critiques
can be summarized as “more research is needed on the ecological validity of this
test as a measure of attention in children” (p.85), in reference to the Stroop, the
Trail Making Test, the Digit Symbol and Coding subtests of the WAIS-R and
WISC-R, and the Children’s Embedded Figures Test (Witkin, Oltman, Raskin,
and Karp, 1971) and “the ecological validity of this measure deserves further
study” (p. 87) (in reference to the WCST). With respect to continuous
ADHD 129
performance tests (CPT), Barkley (1994b) concludes that while children having
ADHD often make more errors as a group than do groups of children without
such disorders, they have not been particularly effective in differentiating
between children with ADHD and “other clinical groups presumed not to have
sustained attention problems” (p. 80).
On the other hand studies utilizing neuropsychological measures have
demonstrated deficits in adults consistent with those found in children
(Matochik, Rumsey, and Zametkin, 1996; Downey, Stetson, Pomerleau, and
Giordani, 1997; Jenkins, Cohen, and Malloy, 1998; Seidman, Biederman, and
Weber, et al., 1998; Corbett and Stanczak, 1999; Lovejoy, Ball, and Keats,
1999). Further, work by Seidman et al. (1998), suggests that because the
diagnosis of ADHD in adults is controversial to the degree that it is dependent
on a retrospective diagnosis, external validation of cognitive-neuropsychological
functions, particularly attentional and executive processes, which have been
found to be frequently impaired in children with ADHD, “would help to clarify
the validity of the adult diagnosis and supplement the clinical picture” (p. 260).
In addition, cognitive performance measures are useful validating criteria
because they do not share method variance with other measures and by their
very nature allow direct assessment of performance. “Identification of core
neuropsychological deficits in adults with ADHD is also important both as an
empirical study of performance relevant to adaptive functioning and as a
window into hypothesized alterations in brain functioning in frontostriatal
systems (Grodzinsky and Diamond, 1992)” (Seidman et al., 1998, p. 260).
In the study involving unmedicated adults with ADHD and controls reported
by Seidman et al. (1998), the neuropsychological battery utilized included an
estimated Full Scale IQ from the WAIS-R (Wechsler, 1981), using the
Vocabulary and Block Design subtests. The Digit Symbol, Digit Span, and
Arithmetic subtests were used to compute a Freedom-from–Distractibility IQ as
well. In addition, the Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised (WRAT-R)
(Jastak and Jastak, 1985), Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure (ROCF) (Rey, 1941),
the California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT) (Delis et al., 1987), the Wisconsin
Card Sorting Test (WCST) (Heaton et al., 1993), the Stroop Test (Golden,
1978), the scattered letters version of visual cancellations (Weintraub and
Mesulam, 1985), and an auditory CPT (Zametkin et al., 1990) were
administered. Overall, the adults with ADHD demonstrated milder
neuropsychological impairments than had been previously reported with
children and adolescents using an identical battery (Seidman, Biederman,
Faraone, et. al, 1997). The adults assessed were not impaired on the Stroop, the
WCST, or the ROCF as the children had been, nor did they show significant
impairment on the Freedom-from-Distractibility Index. However, they were
significantly more impaired than controls on the CVLT for words learned on
trials 1-5, on semantic clustering, and on the number of words recalled after long
130 CHAPTER 4
delay; the auditory CPT; and on the arithmetic subtest of the WRAT-R. These
results were similar to those reported by Holdnack et al. (1995).
In recognition of the high degree of comorbidity between ADHD and
depression, which has been documented from both epidemiologic (Anderson et
al, 1987; Bird et al., 1988) and clinical studies (Jensen et al., 1988; Woolston et
al, 1989; Biederman et al., 1990), we (Katz, Wood, Goldstein, et al., 1998)
investigated the potential of various neuropsychological measures to
discriminate between groups of adults with ADHD comorbid with depression
and those with a diagnosis of ADHD without depression. Variables derived from
the CVLT, the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT) (Gronwall, 1977),
and the Stroop Test were found to discriminate between the groups at a level
significantly exceeding chance. But while the neuropsychological tests used
appeared to be quite sensitive to ADHD, they were also sensitive to depression
in some cases. Results suggested that the differential diagnosis of ADHD and
depression in adults may be complicated to some extent because of the shared
characteristics of the disorders in adults.
Suggested Neuropsychological Testing Protocol for Adolescents and Adults
Given that no standard battery of neuropsychological tests exists specifically

for the identification of ADHD, the clinician is left with a variety of instruments
that may be quite useful in identifying specific cognitive or processing deficits
and in demonstrating the impact of the underlying ADHD on cognitive
performance. From a neuropsychological perspective, an understanding of (1)
how the brain processes information and novel stimuli, (2) the differential access
to visual or auditory modalities on learning and memory, (3) the impact of
working memory’s encoding function on storage and retrieval, (4) the ability to
sustain attention and vigilance to task, (5) the level of initial sensory arousal,
and (6) the limitations imposed on reading comprehension and/or written
language output can be helpful not only in validating the diagnosis of ADHD in
adolescents and adults but also in facilitating their understanding of how the
disorder impacts their learning or vocational endeavors.
Based upon assessments conducted with hundreds of adolescents and adults,
we offer the following annotated testing protocol which we have found useful in
addressing the cognitive variables listed above from a neuropsychological
framework concerned with functional systems, impairment, and the possible
limitations imposed on behavior/performance. The reader will also notice that
the protocol contains a strong psychoeducational component. As well
documented in the literature, comorbidity rates of from 40 to 60% for a learning
disability have been reported (Cantwell and Baker, 1991).
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-III (WAIS-III) (Wechsler, 1997). It is
our experience that the WAIS-III is an improvement over the WAIS-R
in general because it allows for greater qualitative interpretation of test
ADHD 131
performance and error analysis. Specifically, having access to the Letter-

Number Sequencing subtest allows for comparison with Digit Span.
With individuals who are capable of hyperfocus when stimulus material
is highly challenging, performance can be greatly enhanced. Thus, often
the measured performance on the Letter-Number Sequencing Task is
better than on the Digit Span subtest. One can examine also the
requirement for repetition of auditory input to evoke initial sensory
arousal on the Arithmetic subtest, which again enhances working
memory, an opportunity not provided with Digit Span. The WAIS-III
provides the opportunity to assess the impact of untimed performance on
cognitive, nonverbal tasks via the Matrix Reasoning subtest in particular
vs. the Block Design subtest. Also, access to cued and free recall for the
Digit Symbol subtest gives additional evidence regarding the impact of
repetition and practice on working memory. Difficulties with the
Information subtest give some initial indication of the impact of a
possible ADHD on the early learning environment. Finally, Verbal,
Performance and Full Scale IQs give us a self-referrent base for
comparison purposes.
Wide Range Achievement Test-III (Wilkinson, 1993). With adolescents
and adults the WRAT-III provides a screening tool to establish the
possible co-existence of a specific learning disorder, whose co-morbidity
with ADHD has been well established and was reviewed under the co-
morbidy section of this chapter. With the Spelling and Reading
Recognition subtests, an analysis of error patterns enables the evaluator
to determine whether to proceed with a more in-depth evaluation of
language functions. Also, since two forms are available, math operations
skills can be assessed with and without access to a calculator, and again
error analysis can help pin-point errors resulting from inattention to
detail (misaligning numbers, misreading “+” and “-” signs, etc.).
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (CTOPP) (Wagner,
Torgesen, and Rashotte, 1999) or the Woodcock Language Proficiency
Battery-Revised (Woodcock, 1991). Because research has demonstrated
the necessity to evaluate for a phonological processing deficit highly
specific to the majority of reading disorders, components of each or both
of these measures are extremely useful and both provide norms for
adults through the age of 24. However, it should be pointed out that
there are differences more often than not between the core and
alternative subtests with the CTOPP, and it has been our experience that
it is necessary to administer the entire test in order to obtain a more
accurate assessment of rapid naming, for example. This is further
discussed in the chapter on disorders of reading and written language.
Test of Mathematical Abilities-2 (TOMA-2) (Brown, Cronin, and
McEntire, 1994). The TOMA-2 often provides additional information
132 CHAPTER 4
on math functions and operations should the need to rule out a specific
mathematics disorder seem appropriate. The TOMA-2 provides subtests
dealing not only with computation but also with story problems, math
vocabulary, general concepts, and attitude toward math. As it is normed
on individuals between the ages of 8 an 18-11, its use may be restricted
more appropriately to young adults unless it is used primarily for
providing qualitative information. Alternatively, the several math
measures (calculation and applied problems) from the Woodcock-
Johnson Tests of Achievement-Revised (Woodcock and Johnson, 1989)
provide a more in-depth view of math skills for the college population in
particular.
Woodcock Language Proficiency Battery-Revised (WLPB-R)
(Woodcock, 1991). The Woodcock provides several measures for
assessing written language skills including punctuation, spelling, and
grammar (usage). There is also a measure of writing fluency under
constraints of timed performance. As with the Woodcock-Johnson Tests
of Cognition and Achievement (WJ-R) (Woodcock and Johnson, 1989),
norms are provided for adult subjects.
Test of Written Language–3 (TOWL-3) (Hammill and Larssen, 1996).
Should a spontaneous writing sample be required to further assess
written language output, the TOWL-3 may be utilized, as long as one
takes into account a degree of score inflation as the referent group is
high school seniors. However, despite that issue, a qualitative analysis
of theme development, logical thought progression, and efficient
production of written language under timed and extended time
conditions can be made.
Nelson-Denny Reading Test (Brown, Fishco, and Hanna, 1993) and the
Gray Oral Reading Test (GORT-3) (Wiederholt and Bryant, 1992). We
routinely administer the Nelson-Denny, a silent reading comprehension
measure, which also allows for measurement of reading rate, in addition
to the GORT-3. Invariably, unless a reading disorder is present, the
individual with ADHD will improve his or her comprehension and
reading rate scores under conditions of oral reading. We suggest that
these measures help to demonstrate the impact of multi-modal sensory
input on working memory. Again, the norms are restricted to college
graduates on the Nelson-Denny and ages 18-11 on the GORT-3.
However, these measures much more closely resemble the kinds of
reading materials and multiple-choice exam questions an individual is
likely to experience in the later secondary and postsecondary years.
Also, it is our experience that while the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of
Achievement (Woodcock and Johnson, 1989) are normed on an adult
population as well as children, the subtest assessing passage
comprehension overestimates reading comprehension skills in
ADHD 133
individuals with above average measured IQ and fails to uncover the

problems made manifest when individuals are faced with decoding
extensive reading passages over a period of time similar to those found
in college and/or post baccalaureate texts.
Wechsler Memory Scale-III (WMS-III) (Wechsler, 1997). While we
utilize this measure on a routine basis, we have found the results to be
somewhat equivocal with respect to the Working Memory Index when
evaluating adults. Based upon numerous clinical observations of test
results, we hypothesize that because the Index is based solely on the
performance scores from two measures, Letter-Number Sequencing and
Spatial Span, that more often than not we are measuring the individual’s
ability to “hyperfocus” (as mentioned previously) and the impact of
multi-modal sensory input (both tactile and visual for the Spatial Span
subtest) vs. working memory per se.
California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT) (Delis et al., 1987). On the
other hand, if the individual manifests significant difficulty with the
Paired Verbal Association subtest (performance is significantly below an
expected level given his IQ), we will then administer the (CVLT) to help
in understanding the differential in auditory processing, encoding, and
retrieval. The CVLT also gives the opportunity to assess semantic
learning strategies and the effects of cued recall and a condition of
recognition recall.
Routinely, we will include the Stroop Color and Word Test (Golden,
1978), the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT) (Gronwall,
1977), the Trail Making Test (Reitan and Wolfson, 1993), and the
Smith’s Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SSDMT) (Smith, 1982). The use
of the Stroop and the PASAT further substantiates the ability to
hyperfocus on discrete auditory or visual input and/ or demonstrates
significant problems with selective attention and response inhibition.
Thus, both factors must be taken into consideration when interpreting
results. The SSDMT gives us another measure of psychomotor speed
and working memory should we need to give certain measures under
conditions of medication and without medication. With the Trail
Making Test, it is our experience that one may often find a discrepancy
between Trails A and Trails B performance scores, favoring one or the
other, again dependent on how challenging the task is of the examinee’s
visual attention, that is, does it capture attention or it is perceived of as
too simple and simply not worth the effort.
Category Test (Reitan and Wolfson, 1993) or the Wisconsin Card
Sorting Test (WCST) (Heaton, 1993). It is our experience that the
brighter the subject the less challenging the WCST is. However, it is our
choice with adolescents in particular. Although with both the Category
Test and the WCST performance is somewhat variable, what concerns
134 CHAPTER 4
us most is whether there is a substantial impact on frontal lobe mediated

executive functions as purportedly measured by either of these
instruments.
Use of such a comprehensive battery in combination with an extensive clinical
interview, access to collateral data (previous evaluations and/or interview with
parent or significant other), and the use of self-report behavior and personality
inventories have become the routine rather than the exception in our clinical
practice. It is in keeping with the Educational Testing Service (ETS) policy
statement and standards with respect to the documentation of ADHD in
adolescents and adults (1998) and with those documentation standards imposed
by professional organizations and licensing bodies such as the National Board of
Medical Examiners and the various state law boards (Richard, Finkel, and
Cohen, 1998).
TREATMENT AND INTERVENTIONS
Pharmacotherapy
Psychostimulants
Psychostimulants, first-line medications for treating the Combined and

Inattentive Types of ADHD both in children and adults include the following:
methylphenidate (MPH) (generic) Ritalin and Ritalin SR, and Concerta (brand
names); dextroamphetamine (DEX) (generic), Dexedrine, Dexedrine Spansule,
and Adderal (brand names); and pemoline (Cylert). Both MPH and DEX are
thought to promote the release of dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain.
They are taken orally and are absorbed within 30-45 minutes. While robust
response rates have typically been reported in close to 70% of children (Barkley,
1977; Wilens and Biederman, 1992), studies with adults have shown much more
equivocal results with response rates ranging from 25% to 73% in controlled
studies (Spencer, Biederman, Wilens, Harding, et al. (1996).
Concerta (methylphenidate HC1) was just released in the summer of 2000.
Concerta uses an osmotic system of delivery in a pulsed pattern, allowing a 12-
hour response from a single daily dose. Several double-blind crossover studies
with children between the ages of 6 and 12 have been conducted comparing
once a day dosing to three times daily dosing with immediate release
methylphenidate or placebo. Results supporting the efficacy of the medication
were reported at the Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Child
and Adolescent Psychiatry in Chicago, I1 (Pelham and Swanson, 1999).
Spencer, Biederman, Wilens, Harding, et al. (1996) reported that in contrast
to the 155 controlled studies on the use of stimulants with children, there were
fewer than ten in the adult literature. However, these studies do support the
ADHD 135
efficacy of stimulant medication with adults (Wood, Reimherr, Wender, and

Johnson, 1976; Wender, Reimherr, and Wood, 1981; Yellin, Hopwood, and
Greenberg, 1982; Mattes, Boswell, and Oliver, 1984; Gualtieri, Ondrusek, and
Finley, 1985; Wender, Reimherr, Wood, and Ward, 1985; Wilens and
Biederman, 1992; Matochik, Liebenauer, King, et al., 1994; Spencer, Wilens,
Biederman, et al., 1995), the most recent of which has used a double-blind,
placebo, controlled crossover design.
In a seven week study of 23 adults with ADHD, Spencer, et al.(1995)
reported a 78% response rate for methylphenidate (MPH, Ritalin) treatment vs. a
4% response rate for placebo. The response rate was independent of gender,
psychiatric morbidity, or family history of psychiatric disorders. They also
reported a more robust improvement in symptoms with a 60-80 mg. daily
dosage vs. a modest improvement with 30-40 mg. daily dosage.
In terms of clinical management of ADHD in adults with psychostimulants,
Spencer, et al. (1995) suggest that treatment should be initiated with short-acting
preparations at the lowest possible dose (5mg. of either MPH or DEX) once-
daily in the morning, to 2 to 4 daily doses until an acceptable response is noted
(average adult doses range from 20-80 mgs). In a study by Rush, Kollins, and
Pazzaglia (1998) across an eightfold range of doses, methylphenidate produced
discriminative-stimulus and participant rated effects that were essentially
indistinguishable from those observed with d-amphetamine.
Side effects of the stimulants are generally considered mild and managed
with adjustment of timing of administration or dose (i.e., insomnia, edginess,
diminished appetite, weight loss, dysphoria, and headaches). In terms of adverse
or serious toxicity, Diener (1991) reports, “Over a period of more than 30 years
of worldwide clinical experience with MPH, remarkably few reports of adverse
reactions or serious toxicity have been recorded and/or published in the medical
literature. Even reports of adverse effects due to intentional overdosage or drug
abuse are relatively rare” (p. 42). Diener adds that only a very few reports were
cited by Baselt (1982) about the related hazard of intravenous MPH abuse and
the development of talc granulomatosis resulting from the attempted solubilizing
and injection of the contents from tablets intended for oral use.
Pemoline, because of its long half-life is given once or twice a day, usually in
a 37.5 mg dose, and may take up to six weeks until it reaches efficacy. However,
more recent concerns about toxic effects on liver functions have seen its use
diminish in clinical practice (Jaffe, 1989; Fargason and Ford, 1994; Amen and
Johnson, 1996; Wender, 1998).
Nonstimulant Medications
Despite the use of stimulant medication with adults diagnosed with ADHD,
some 30% to 50% do not respond positively to the medication, experience
unpleasant or untoward side effects, or have comorbid depressive or anxiety
136 CHAPTER 4
disorders. As a result, nonstimulant medications are used with adolescents and

adults including various antidepressant medications, antihypertensive agents,
and amino acids (Wender, Wood, Reimherr, and Ward, 1983; Wood, Reimherr,
and Wender, 1983; Hunt, Capper, and O’Connell, 1990; Wender and Reimherr,
1990; Hunt, Arnsten, and Asbell, 1995; Wilens, Spencer, and Biederman,
1995a;Wilens, Spencer, and Biederman (1995b).
Wilens, Biederman, Mick, and Spencer (1995) reported positive responses to
desipramine and nortriptyline; 52% of 37 adult subjects with a mean age of 41
years reported marked improvement in symptoms. In addition, Wender and
Reimherr (1990) reported the atypical antidepressant, Wellbutrin (bupropion) to
be helpful in reducing ADHD symptoms in a group of 19 adults treated with an
average of 360 mg for a period of six to eight weeks (74% reported moderate to
marked response). Gelenberg, Bassuk, and Schoonover (1991) suggested that
bupropion might be most helpful for adults with ADHD who also have cardiac
abnormalities (in contrast to the tricyclics) and/or comorbid mood instability. In
the study by Rush, Kollins, and Pazzaglia (1998), bupropion produced some d-
amphetamine-like, participant-rated drug effects but did not occasion significant
levels of d-amphetamine-appropriate responding (Drug A or not Drug A) in an
experiment involving d-amphetamine trained humans. They reported that their
findings were congruent with previous studies of a dissociation between the
discriminative-stimulus and participant-rated effects of drugs.
According to Ratey, Hallowell, and Leveroni (1993) the challenge to treating
ADHD in adults is finding the medication or combination of medications that
work for the individual. In prescribing tricyclics, they report positive effects
experienced particularly at a very low dose range that is often lost as the dose is
increased. Norpramin is prescribed initially at l0mg once daily for a period of
one week to ten days and then raised to 20 to 30mg/day if needed. Ratey,
Greenberg, and Lindem (1991) also reported the use of a combination
psychostimulant and nadolol (a peripherally acting beta-adrenergic blocker).
The medications were used in a group of adults with ADHD for whom the
tricylics were unsuccessful and methylphenidate alone did not help with
symptoms of anxiety and impulsiveness. In treating adults, Ratey, et al.(1991)
write that in their clinical experience the “persistent somatic anxiety created by
the attention deficit itself...while sometimes fully treated in children and
adolescents with methylphenidate alone...often remains a problem and requires
dosage adjustment or adjuncts such as clonidine” (p. 700), [another
noradrenergic agonist]. Williams, Mehl, Yudofsky, et al. (1982) had earlier
hypothesized that propranolol’s mechanism of action in modifying behavior
might be in part secondary to beta adrenergic blockade “which breaks a vicious
cycle of interaction between anxiety and adrenergically mediated physical
sensations (Easton and Sherman, 1976)” (p. 134).
Amen and Goldman (1998) present a medication decision tree for the primary
care physician listing clusters of symptoms, e.g., inattention, distractibililiy;
ADHD 137
disorganization; hyperactivity and impulsivity, and ADD/overfocus symptoms

(cognitive inflexibility, worrying, trouble shifting attention, etc.). Attached to
each symptom cluster are first-line and seond-line medications. In the case of
attention/focus symptoms and hyperactivity/impulsivity, the first line
medications are the various psychostimulants; second line include tricyclics,
bupropion, guanfacine (Tenex), and clonidine. For the ADD/overfocus
symptoms, Amen and Goldman suggest the SSRIs (venlafaxine, sertraline,
paroxetine, and fluoxetine) as first-line medications and fluvoxamine,
clomipramine, and nefazodone as second-line medications.
Finally, a pilot study reported in the American Journal of Psychiatry (Wilens,
Biederman, Spencer, et al., 1999) held that a nicotine-like drug provisionally
named ABT-418, might hold some promise for adults with ADHD. The drug is
a prototype of a new class of compounds called selective cholinergic channel
activators. Previous research has suggested that nicotine patches might be
useful for some adults with ADHD (Conners, Levin, Sparrow, et al., 1996).
Conners et al. comment: “The high prevalence of smoking among adolescents
and adults with ADHD and the stimulant-like properties of nicotine suggest that
ADHD patients may smoke as a form of self-treatment for their symptoms” (p.
67). For a thorough discussion of medications and their use in ADHD the reader
is referred also to the text by Copeland and Copps (1995), Medications and
Attention Disorders and Related Medical Problems.
Alternative Medicines
Arnold (1999) presented the results from a meta-analysis of 23 alternative

treatment approaches to ADHD other than psychoactive medication and
behavioral/psychosocial interventions. The treatments included such
interventions as oligoantigenic or few-foods diet, relaxation/EMG biofeedback,
deleading, Chinese herbals, EEG biofeedback, meditation, channel-specific
perceptual training, single-vitamin megadosage, laser acupuncture, and essential
fatty acid supplementation, among others. Some of the procedures were
conducted under controlled conditions, others were present in the literature as
pilot or case studies. Arnold concludes his review with the comment that “the
most basic recommendation for future research on treatment alternatives for
ADHD is that there should be more....most...have been relatively neglected
by... mainstream investigators and by peer-reviewed funding” (p.42). For those
interested, suggested effects from various antioxidant, vitamin and mineral
preparations, and herbal extracts are discussed in a paper by Ludwikowski and
DeValk, (1998). Their clinical work is specifically with children, however, they
are using some of these substances for medication-naive patients and for others
whose psychostimulant medication needs have been able to be reduced as a
result.
138 CHAPTER 4
Young Adults: College Students and Medications
With respect to individuals in postsecondary settings, the issue of whether or not

medication is an efficacious treatment strategy to counteract the effects of
inattention and distractibility on academic performance and /or interpersonal
interactions has been well documented (Nadeau, 1995). What is at stake is the
young adult’s mind-set regarding the use of medication. Noncompliance
becomes a serious issue in medication management for a number of reasons.
First, with individuals diagnosed at an earlier age, medication management has
become equated with behavior control or a form of discipline either at home or
in the classroom. When the individual moves from mid-adolescence into young
adulthood, discontinuance of medication heralds a breaking away from parental
control, tangible evidence of independence and self-management.
At the same time, peer-pressure is still strong, and peer-endorsed drug and
alcohol experimentation adds to the illusion of being in control of one’s fate,
engaging in independent judgments, and dealing effectively with consequences
of those judgments. The very students who argue that prescribed “drugs” are
changing their personalities, restricting their usual levels of high energy and
enthusiasm, and altering their creativity and spontaneity, find themselves self-
medicating with nicotine, caffeine, marijuana, LSD, and alcohol (Henningfield,
Clayton, and Pollin, 1990; Lambert and Hartsough, 1998). This is particularly
troublesome as there is an emerging literature showing that the persistence of
ADHD into adulthood may be a risk factor for a pychoactive substance use
disorder (Blouin, Bornstein, and Trites, 1978; Mannuzza, Kein, and Bessler,
1993; Wilens, Biederman, Spencer, et al., 1994; Biederman, Wilens, Mick, et
al., 1995; Tzelepis, Schubiner, and Warbasse, 1995; Wilens, Biederman, Mick,
et al., 1997). It is has been reported as well that ADHD is associated with a
longer duration of a psychoactive substance use disorder and a significantly
slower remission rate (Wilens, Biederman, and Mick, 1998).
Third, college age young adults often have never been given the
responsibility to understand the consequences of the disorder on their lives by
treating clinicians. Medications are prescribed with little education for the
prescribee; at other times dosages are not titrated with enough attention given to
target behaviors. If they have been medicated as children, it is their parents,
more often than not, who read up on the medications, ask questions, and observe
behaviors. It is their parents who opt for medication holidays and summers
without medication; it is their parents who reluctantly agree to the use of
medication as a last resort. Young adults are left with no real understanding of
what prescribed medications are intended to do. When a fellow student asks to
use the prescribed medication or to offer to demonstrate how to “snort” Ritalin
for a quick high, there is no internalized behavioral repertoire from which to
draw. When the popular press demonizes the use of Ritalin (Gibbs, 1998), both
the parents’ guilt and the young person’s reluctance are greatly reinforced.
ADHD 139
Malcom Gladwell (1999) in critiquing the impact of the popular press on

individuals with ADHD writes, “Only by a strange inversion of moral
responsibility do books like Ritalin Nation and Running on Ritalin seek to make
those parents and physicians trying to help children with ADHD feel guilty for
doing so” (p. 84). He then opines that the rise of ADHD is a consequence of
what might otherwise be considered a good thing. “...The world we live in
increasingly values intellectual consideration and rationality—increasingly
demands that we stop and focus. Modernity didn’t create ADHD. It revealed it”
(p. 84).
EDUCATIONAL, BEHAVIORAL, AND PSYCHOSOCIAL

INTERVENTIONS
Strategies in the Postsecondary Education Environment
In addition to the use of medication, the single most important intervention for
adults dealing with ADHD is education, whether in the academic arena, the
world of work, or in the context of personal and social relations. Hallowell
(1995) writes that the comprehensive treatment of ADHD begins with diagnosis
followed by education, structure, psychotherapy, and medication. “The first
two” (diagnosis and education) “are invariably essential; the third, almost
always; each of the final two may or may not be necessary” (p. 147).
Self-education and self-awareness are keys to well-informed decision making
and to understanding the expectations and roles that derive from being a student
in a post-secondary college or university setting. Without them, the student is
confronted with a myriad of pitfalls that mitigate the chance for success. Despite
a reliance on external structures that were in place in the earlier years or self-
devised compensatory strategies that might have proved more than adequate for
the demands posed by earlier educational experiences, once faced with the
complexity of demands on the person in this unstructured, self-directed, highly
diverse environment, the old approaches are no longer functional. Lack of well-
integrated and self-regulated time management, organization, and planning skills
coupled with the inability to cope with an inertia that feeds upon itself and
culminates in excessive procrastination, [that reacts only to intense pressure],
leaves the young adult student vulnerable to failure, low-esteem, and depression.
Self-evaluation becomes laden with self-criticism, negative projections, and self-
anger if the individual does not understand the role that ADHD plays in his or
her academic life.
Direct, explicit instruction in how to set priorities, how to manage the
demands on one’s time while at the same time planning for down-time, and how
to replace the unincorporated “parent monitor” with strategies and devices that
are one’s own, either internal or external, are critical. The instructor or
140 CHAPTER 4
counselor cannot assume that once the individual has a day-planner or palm
pilot, for example, that he or she will be able to follow a schedule, get to class
on time, hand in reports on time, or establish a sense of priorities. The key will
be in connecting relevance to behavior by establishing a direct link between
desired outcome and steps to achieve that outcome and positively reinforcing
behaviors that reflect cognitive and metacognitive understanding in their
enactment. Knowing “what works” and why and then being willing to give up
ineffective learning strategies that have been intermittently and successfully
reinforced in the past are examples of both cognitive and metacognitive
understanding.
Reasonable Accommodations in Postsecondary Settings
In addition to self-education and self-awareness, the university or advanced

degree student is also eligible for reasonable and appropriate accommodations.
In 1991, the U.S. Department of Education issued a memorandum clarifying the
status of ADD, recognizing that ADD can result in significant learning
problems, and confirming that children with ADD may be eligible for services
under the Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), passed in 1975 as The Education
for All Handicapped Children Act, and under the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (29
U.S.C. 701). The rights of postsecondary students with ADHD stem primarily
from three sources, the Constitution, statutes and regulations prohibiting
discrimination, and cases decided by courts, departments, and agencies (Latham,
1995).
The two principal laws giving rise to the legal rights of postsecondary
students are the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities
Act of 1990 (ADA). Section 504 of the Rehab Act applies to postsecondary
institutions that receive federal funds; Title II of the ADA applies to public
postsecondary institutions, and Title III of the ADA applies to private
postsecondary institutions. (Latham, 1995). Eligibility under these statutes is
individually determined (ADD is a disability when it substantially limits a major
life activity) (Latham and Latham, 1993), and not all students with ADHD
benefit from identical modifications and accommodations, nor do they use them
in the same way or to the same degree (Richard, 1995).
Postsecondary students with ADHD, who provide documentation of their
disabilities in a timely manner and are qualified for the program, are entitled to
appropriate academic adjustments and auxiliary aids and services. Standard
criteria for documenting attention deficit disorders have been developed by the
Consortium on ADHD Documentation (1998) and are available for use by
“postsecondary personnel, examining, certifying, and licensing agencies, and
consumers who require documentation to determine reasonable and appropriate
accommodation (s)...”(p.4).These accommodations must be provided at no
ADHD 141
additional expense to the student, unless such provision would pose an undue
hardship (Southwestern Community College v. Davis, 1979).
Life-Management Skills
When working with the young adult as therapist, counselor, or coach, the roles
outlined by Nadeau (1995) are highly appropriate in this regard. Nadeau writes
that the clinician working with adults with ADHD needs to take into
consideration all of the aspects of daily functioning that are affected by the
cognitive skills deficits associated with ADHD. Citing the work of Zametkin,
Nadeau states that as the frontal lobes are one of the major neurological
structures involved in attention deficit, the executive functions they control are
the “oversight or managerial functions so often affected in adults with ADD”
(p. 191). She lists various executive functions that include attention, memory,
organization, planning, initiation, self-inhibition (self-discipline), ability to
change set, strategic behavior, and self-monitoring in relation to time. Her
chapter is then devoted to the effect of executive functions on practical life
management skills.
Next, Nadeau (1995) sets forth roles for the therapist. She writes that an
essential role is to educate and thereby enable the individual to better understand
the neurological basis for the ADHD symptoms. The process of education is
supported through reading, participation in support groups, and ongoing therapy
in some cases. The therapist is also a supporter, moving the individual from
“victimization to empowerment in relation to the ADD symptoms” (p. 193).
The therapist is an interpreter, validating the disabling effect of ADHD on the
individual’s life whether to a spouse or employer. Finally, the therapist is a
structurer and a rehabilitation counselor, providing guidelines, homework
assignments, and information and strategies for both accommodations and
environmental restructuring. She goes on to detail strategies focused on
attention-enhancing techniques; on the avoidance of prolonged under or over
stimulation, everyday, semantic and prospective memory problems, and the use
of compensatory strategies; building problem-solving skills; time management
issues including chronic lateness; and stress management and the reduction of
distractions. Her model, which is based on an assessment of executive functions
in daily living, relies in part on the work of Sohlberg and Geyer (1986) and
Pollens, McBratnie, and Burton (1988).
Coaching
Hallowell (1995) writes that in psychotherapy with patients who have ADHD it
is useful to be overtly encouraging rather than emotionally neutral and to be
directive rather than withholding of advice. “In this posture the therapist
becomes like a coach: that individual standing on the sidelines with a whistle
142 CHAPTER 4
around his or her neck, barking out encouragement, directions, and reminders to
the player in the game” (p. 148). According to Nancy Ratey (1997) “coaching is
about a partnership ...it’s about helping the person learn how to manage their
brain” (p.8). Coaching is also an example of a point of performance
intervention (Barkley, 1997). Barkley sees the problems experienced by
individuals with ADHD not as skill deficits but rather problems with behavioral
execution. Because of the difficulties encountered in executive functions’
successful performance is impaired despite the individual’s existing knowledge
of effective coping strategies.
Consistent with Berkley’s theory, Turnock (1998) reported the results of a
survey conducted at Colorado State University involving students with ADHD.
Results suggested that students within the high-symptom group used
significantly fewer coping behaviors than their low-symptom peers. They
approached studying in a less organized, less methodical way, procrastinated
more, and employed fewer self-control/self-disciplinary behaviors. Academic
success in the high-symptom group was related primarily to their level of
intelligence, but significantly lower grades and high drop-out rates were greater
among this group than among their low-symptom peers. In the words of
Hallowell again, “This approach (coaching) takes into account the neurological
inability of the ADD mind to focus and organize as efficiently as other minds”
(p. 149).
In like manner, Ratey, Hallowell, and Miller (1997) define coaching as an
action oriented rather than insight oriented process. They suggest that while the
coach may be a partner or friend, retaining a professional coach may be the most
productive arrangement. The interaction between the coach and the adult with
ADHD may be face-to-face meetings, phone calls, faxes, or e-mails, and in this
relationship the coach acts as a kind of “neurocognitive prosthetic device” (p.
586). As such, the coach assists the individual to compensate for deficiencies in
his or her executive functions that impede the ability to plan, organize, and
monitor behavior.
Coleman and Sussman (Unpublished manuscript) suggest that a
comprehensive approach towards coaching individuals with ADHD can be
summarized in four words: structure, support, skills, and strategies. Structure is
operationalized as (1) clearly defined vision, goals and values that are clarified
in the early phases of coaching; (2) systems for managing daily life (e.g.,
shopping, bill paying, handling mail); (3) a time management system that
enables the individual to identify priorities, break them into manageable steps,
and schedule them into a calendar; (4) a single action taken every day to
reinforce a sense of accomplishment; and (6) daily habits that are small,
constructive actions done on a routine basis.
Support is provided through a variety of means. In this regard the coach
serves a variety of roles that include witness, empathizer, provider of feedback,
and a personal advocate, among others. Hallowell (1995) organizes these
ADHD 143
functions with the acronym H-O-P-E (Help, Obligations, Plans,

Encouragement). Skill building focuses on consistency of application most
generally in the areas of time management, goal setting, setting boundaries, and
dealing with transitions. Strategies are those creative and highly individualized
tools developed in partnership to deal with every day life management tasks and
for achieving personal goals. Hallowell would liken these strategies to external
structure such as lists, notes to self, color coding, rituals, reminders, files, and
choosing healthy addictions, O.H.I.O. (with paperwork, only handle it once).
He offers “50 Tips on the Management of Adult Attention Deficit Disorder” (p.
157). These are a series of directive suggestions/ behavioral prescriptions that
can be given to patients to help them in their day-to-day lives, and that he hands
out to his patients at the beginning of treatment.
Two other strategies that Coleman and Sussman (Unpublished manuscript)
suggest are visualization and verbalization. Mind mapping is particularly useful
for students who tend to get overwhelmed because they see the whole picture
but cannot pick out the details. The technique can be used also with detail-
intensive texts where the student is trying to put a complex of ideas into order or
into perspective. The software, Inspiration, can be useful to the college or
university student who experiences a mental block when faced with a writing
project because there is no way to express or contain the flood of ideas that are
present simultaneously in their brains. Visualization can also be used to deal
with time, for example. Here the mental image involves size and shape vs. a
linear construct.
Verbalization is a means for individuals to “down load” extraneous thoughts
so that they can focus on the task at hand. The coach sets aside a specified
amount of time either by phone or in person during which the individual can
verbalize the myriad of thoughts and ideas, which are racing unproductively and
getting in the way of directed performance. Peterson (Unpublished manuscript)
suggests that students write down their creative ideas or distracting thoughts at
the point at which they occur rather than allowing them intrude when a
significant amount of attention to task is required. Peterson calls this creating a
home for thoughts, a parking lot of sorts. Use of this strategy may enable the
individual to gain more control over his or her creative ideas while at the same
time modifying the dysfunctional nature of impulsivity and/or obsessive
ruminations.
Finally, there is a program known as “Work Flow Coaching” based on the
model developed by David Allen & Co. (www.davidco.com) that is applicable
to persons with ADHD in the work place. In the words of Allen, “Our trainers
and coaches deliver well-defined and proven methods that help individuals
manage the intensity and volume of ‘knowledge work’—a meta-skill set
encompassing time and project stress management, team building, and
communication issues” (www.davidco.com). The program was developed for
implementation in the individual’s physical work environment with subsequent
144 CHAPTER 4
telephone reinforcements. Phase one of the program, Installation Intensive, is

done in two consecutive days, on site at the individual’s place of work followed
up with a telecoaching session one to two weeks afterward. The second phase,
Building Consistency Telecoaching Program, consists of telephone calls over an
extended period of time, usually structured as four end-of-week one-hour private
telephone sessions scheduled at the individual’s convenience.
THE WORKPLACE AND REASONABLE ACCOMMODATIONS
Developmental Issues
Although anecdotal and clinical reports are available that may be useful in
understanding the employment issues faced by individuals with ADHD (Weiss,
1992; 1994; Hallowell and Ratey, 1994; Latham and Latham, 1994; Kelly and
Ramundo, 1995; Levine, 1995; Nadeau, 1995), there is no empirical
documentation to support the use of any particular strategy (Carroll and
Ponterotto, 1998). Thus, we are left with relying on the clinical experiences of
these individuals for the most part. Further, Nadeau (1995) writes that career
counseling with adults who have ADHD is a complex process that requires
knowledge of career issues, neurodevelopmental issues as they affect workplace
performance, psychological disorders that may be related to ADHD, and
personality factors that interact with attentional difficulties. “There is no single
course of training that can provide this level of expertise in such a broad range
of disciplines” (p.326).
Moore (1997) writes that making the transition from student to worker is a
difficult process for most individuals, but the individual with ADHD may face
some significant obstacles from the start. In addition to possible issues
surrounding emotional maturity, the tendency toward impulsive responding may
be problematic from the perspectives of both interpersonal relationships (e.g.,
impulsive comments that interrupt coworkers or meetings) and
overcommitments, taking on projects that cannot be handled successfully by one
person. In addition, the “flush of enthusiasm” (p. 3) often gives way to boredom
when the task requires follow-through and attention to details that are perceived
to be tedious. Other obstacles involve frustrations by coworkers on account of
the problems with clutter, confusion, lack of time management, and
idiosyncratic “piling systems” that person with ADHD often evidence. Lastly,
according to Moore, the most difficult job relationship for many to handle may
be the crucial connection between the employee and the supervisor, because of
the tendency to display independent attitudes vs. a teamwork approach, chafing
at traditional procedures and rules, and a distaste for authority figures. She then
goes on to write about the work of Brainworks in Carrollton, Texas, where both
ADHD 145
individual and common problems for individuals with ADHD in the workplace
and in their personal relationships are the focus of treatment.
In an effort to assist school counselors with decisions regarding postsecondary
preparation or direct job placement, Levine (1995) investigated “ADHD-
friendly” occupations using three criteria: 1) does a given occupation facilitate
autonomy; 2) does it provide for active engagement and movement rather than
staying in one place all day; and 3) does it provide a variety of duties, that allow
creative contributions in some form. She investigated 30 job areas including
computer technology, consulting, engineering, education, nursing, technical,
legal, medical, managerial, laborer, construction, and scientific. As an example
in the technical area, some of the representative jobs that allowed for autonomy,
variety, and multiple settings were those involving biomedical equipment
technician, sound effects technician, field engineer, and electronics mechanic.
Interestingly, in the area of law, while the nature of the work of trial attorneys
and litigators was judged to be “ADHD-friendly,” insurance or corporate law,
requiring constant attention to detail, made it an “ADHD-unfriendly”
occupation. Her work has been cited by several authors working in the area of
employment counseling (Carroll and Ponterotto, 1998; Schwiebert, Sealander,
and Bradshaw, 1998).
Reasonable Accommodations and Personal Accommodations
In her chapter on ADD in the Workplace Nadeau (1995) provides a list of

reasonable accommodations to be provided by employers of adults with ADHD,
which were gleaned from a variety of sources. Among these are suggestions for
the provision of a nondistracting work space, flextime, more structure and
immediate deadlines, assistance with a filing system, and the use of memos and
e-mail in addition to verbal directions. In one of the few studies investigating
accommodations that have proven useful for adults with ADHD in the
workplace, the Job Accommodation Network (JAN), a service of the President’s
Committee on Employment of People with Disabilities, conducted a follow up
survey of accommodation outcomes (Means, Stewart, and Dowler, 1997).
Respondents to the survey were from 25 states, the District of Columbia, and
one Canadian province, and included employers, persons with disabilities, and
others (rehabilitation professionals, parents). ADD was reported as the only
disability in 41% of the 61 participants. The accommodations were categorized
as environmental changes, policy changes, assistive devices, training/retraining,
or medical. In contrast to the ADD/LD group, those in the ADD only group
were more likely to incorporate assistive devices and environmental changes as
a means of acommodation and twice as likely to self-accommodate. The authors
commented that environmental changes that reduce or eliminate distractions aid
in task organization, and while these are low cost or no cost, they can
dramatically impact a worker’s performance.
146 CHAPTER 4
Nadeau (1995) also lists numerous practical and direct symptom

management techniques and strategies that the adult with ADHD might employ
in the workplace. These strategies are clustered around problems with
hyperactivity/motor restlessness, distractibility, organization, time management,
procrastination, interpersonal conflicts on the job, prioritization, and memory.
The recommendations offered would be highly beneficial for any clinician,
coach, or educator to share with adults entering or already in the workplace,
both young and older, who are diagnosed with ADHD. Their relevance is even
more critical given the results from the JAN study (Means, Stewart, and Dowler,
1997), that found individuals with ADHD more likely to self-accommodate than
workers with learning disabilities or psychiatric disorders.
FOLLOW-UP AND OUTCOME STUDIES
Limitations
In reviewing nearly all follow-up and outcome studies involving adults with
ADHD, certain methodological concerns must be taken into account that suggest
that interpretations drawn from these studies must be narrowly defined. First
and foremost, nearly every major study (Hechtman, Weiss, Perlman, Hopkins,
and Wener, 1981; Weiss, Hechtman, Milroy, and Perlman, 1985; Mannuzza,
Klein, Bessler, 1993; 1998; Hansen, Weiss, and Last, 1999) has involved males
who were diagnosed as children and in DSM-IV terminology would meet
criteria for ADHD, Hyperactive/Impulsive Type. Data that address outcomes in
ADHD, Inattentive Type with adults are largely nonexistent (Schwean, 1999).
Second, the samples were all clinically drawn and thus, by their very nature,
reflect concern for behaviors that were judged to be highly indicative of
pathology in the first place, often times conduct disorder. And third, the loss of
one-third of the sample in the 15 year follow-up study reported by Weiss et al.
(1985) gives reason for pause in terms of generalization of results, although the
researchers speculated that those subjects lost might have represented a worst
outcome subgroup, coloring to some degree their outcome findings. They
concluded, however, that “There was evidence that the hyperactives had more
overall psychopathology and functioned generally less well than did normal
controls” (p.211).
Results reported by Biederman, Wilens, Mick, et al. (1995), Mannuzza et al
(1998), and Hansen, Weiss, and Last (1999) concur, suggesting that children
with ADHD are at significantly higher risk for a specific negative course marked
by antisocial and substance-related disorders, are more likely to have dropped
out of high school, and more likely than controls to report problems in
psychological functioning. Again, the samples were drawn primarily from
Caucasian (The Mannuzza study in particular, as the others do not specify race.)
ADHD 147
males diagnosed as children as hyperactive. Findings were similar in the study

reported by Barkley, Murphy, and Kwasnik (1996), although their sample
contained both males and females. Adults with ADHD were found to have
shorter durations of employment in their full time jobs than adults in the control
group, as well as greater psychological distress and maladjustment on all scales
of the SCL-90-R. They also reported committing more antisocial acts,
particularly involving thefts and disorderly conduct.
While studies exploring the mental health of parents of children with ADHD
report a higher prevalence of mental disorder as well as ADHD (Biederman,
Faraone, Keenan, Knee, and Tsuang, 1990; Biederman, Faraone, Keenan, et al.,
1992; Biederman, Farone, Spencer et al, 1993), much research underscores the
protective role that families play in successful adjustment of children and adults.
In a recent study by Gardiner and Schwean (1998), one of the most powerful
protective factors associated with resilient adults with ADHD was the family.
“Those adults who grew up in families who were warm and affectionate and
where there were clear and fair parameters for behavior expressed significantly
greater happiness and satisfaction with their lives as adults” (p. 601). In
addition, greater life satisfaction was expressed by those adults who had a
strong, close relationship with at least one grandparent as they were growing up.
Finally, in the few studies that look at college students, with a childhood
history of ADHD (Dooling-Litfin and Rosen, 1997), self-esteem was positively
correlated with greater social skills and negatively correlated with current
symptoms. On the other hand, achievement/talent, having had a mentor or
special person, and treatment history were not associated with self-esteem in
college students with an ADHD history.
Hechtman (1989) summarized the then available literature on the adult
adjustment of children previously diagnosed with ADHD and identified three
possible outcomes: Adults who function fairly normally compared to matched
controls; adults who continue to have significant difficulties with work,
interpersonal relations, poor self-esteem, irritability, impulsivity, anxiety, and
emotional lability to varying degrees; and adults who have significant
psychiatric and antisocial pathology. Given the nature of the study samples
previously discussed, one is struck that two out of the three possible outcomes
are relatively positive. Outcome three more than likely represents individuals
having comorbid psychiatric disorders as has been well documented in the
literature reviewed. In addition, 50% of the time ADHD symptoms do not
continue into adulthood, requiring no particular treatment or intervention.
Aggregate findings would suggest, finally, that particular adult outcomes are not
associated with any one specific or initial variable but with the additive
interaction of personality characteristics and social and familial parameters
(Schwean, 1999).
148 CHAPTER 4
SUMMARY
Throughout this chapter we have made an effort to highlight the many problems
associated with the diagnosis of adults with ADHD as well as the presentation
and ramification of the disorder in their lives, with a particular focus on young
adults in postsecondary educational settings. In addition, we have reviewed a
number of significant studies in the fields of genetics, neurobiology,
neurochemistry, and neuropsychology in an attempt to capture data that are
relevant to our understanding of ADHD in an adult population. Strategies
including pharmacotherapy, psychosocial interventions, and current intervention
practices have been detailed, again with a focus on adults, recognizing that
much of the knowledge is based on clinical rather than empirical validation. [In
light of the existing limitations on research involving adults and the outcome
studies currently in the literature, in the future, we will be most anxious to see
research that includes both men and women, differentiates between Inattentive,
Hyperactive/Impulsive, and Combined Types in the subjects drawn for study,
begins to address the subtypes suggested by Amen and others for purposes of
treatment interventions. Investigations of treatment strategies such as coaching,
support groups, and directive psychotherapy as they may impact on the lives of
adults with ADHD, whether diagnosed as children or adults will be critical as
well].
5
HIGH FUNCTIONING AUTISM
INTRODUCTION
Autism is a developmental mental disorder that we usually associate with

childhood. We hear the phrase "autistic children" so commonly that it is easy to
forget that autism is a life-span illness that begins in early childhood, but is an
incurable disease that persists throughout life. Autism is also a disorder with
extremely varying severity. Some individuals with the disorder are mute and
severely retarded, while others have fluent speech and levels of intellectual
function that may range to superior. The research evidence clearly supports the
view that it is all the same disorder in which intellectual level will vary
substantially. As a widely accepted convention, first suggested by Michael
Rutter, IQ is considered to be a reasonable index of the severity of autism
(Rutter and Schopler, 1987). An IQ of 70 has usually been adopted as the cut-off
point separating high functioning from low functioning autism.
In this chapter, we will only discuss high functioning autism for several
reasons. Since the book is about learning disabilities, individuals with IQs in the
retarded range would typically not have learning disabilities as they are
currently diagnosed, and it is more likely that any academic difficulties they
may have are more likely to be attributable to mental retardation than to a
specific learning disability. There is also the practical matter that low-
functioning individuals with autism are generally not good candidates for the
psychometric and neuropsychological testing that provide the basis for much of
the learning disability literature. It is now widely accepted that the information
gained from such assessments is pertinent to the entire ability spectrum of
autism, but is only obtainable from higher functioning individuals. In high
functioning individuals, it is also possible to separate what is attributable to the
autism from the frequently confounding influences of mental retardation.
Finally, autistic individuals with mental retardation frequently have other
149
150 CHAPTER 5
disorders as well, and their influences would have to be determined in each case.
Higher functioning individuals often find their ways into regular schools and
special education classes, but that is rarely the case for lower-functioning
individuals. When these high functioning individuals enter school, they typically
demonstrate forms of learning disorder that appear to be relatively unique, and
are, in any event, quite different from what characterizes dyslexia and other
academic skill disorders.
DIAGNOSIS
In contemporary practice, autism is diagnosed quite precisely. There are other

disorders that share some of the features of autism, and there are autism-like
syndromes associated with identifiable diseases, but these conditions are
currently not diagnosed as autism. Some of the diseases that can produce autistic
like syndromes are Fragile-X syndrome, tuberous sclerosis, and other genetic
and infectious disorders. One also encounters the term "autistic behaviors" or
behaviors that characterize autism without the full syndrome being present, as in
the DSM IV diagnosis of Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise
Specified (APA, 1994). The DSM system classifies autism as a pervasive
developmental disorder within a category of diagnoses described as “Disorders
Usually First Diagnosed in Infancy, Childhood, or Adolescence.” These
disorders are associated with deficits in multiple areas of development, and
typically involve impairment in social relations, communication, and range of
interests and activities. DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for Autistic Disorder are
divided into three sections, the first of which includes behaviors that
characterize the disorder with regard to impairment in social interaction,
communication, and the presence of restrictive, repetitive, and stereotyped
patterns of interest. Examples of impaired social relations would be failure to
develop peer relationships appropriate to developmental level and lack of social
or emotional reciprocity. Communication deficits are manifested as impairment
of language development, lack of ability to sustain a conversation, stereotyped
or idiosyncratic language, and lack of spontaneous or imitative play. There may
be an encompassing preoccupation with stereotyped and restricted patterns of
interest, inflexible adherence to routines and rituals, stereotyped, repetitive
movements, or persistent preoccupation with parts of objects. The second
section of the criteria requires delays in social, language, or play development
with onset before age 3 years. Finally, the disturbance cannot be better described
as one of the other pervasive disorders.
The criteria are somewhat child-oriented, but they appear to work well with
adults. They do so because the diagnosis is of necessity based in part on an
adequate developmental history and cannot be made from current clinical
HIGH FUNCTIONING AUTISM 151
phenomenology. For that reason, a structured diagnostic interview has been

developed for autism, the Autism Diagnostic Interview (ADI) (LeCouteur et al.,
1989; Lord, Rutter and LeCouteur, 1994). It is administered to a parent or
caregiver who has knowledge of the individual's early history. It is particularly
important to document the existence of a developmental delay before age 3
years, because the diagnosis cannot be made without such evidence.
Administration of the ADI is often accompanied by use of the Autism
Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) (Lord, Rutter, and Goode, 1989), a
structured role-playing procedure that allows for direct observation of the
patient. The ADI and ADOS were designed to facilitate making of a reliable
DSM diagnosis.
HIGH FUNCTIONING AUTISM
The group of older children or adults with high functioning autism constitutes
about 20 - 25% of the cases. The remaining cases have varying degrees of
mental retardation or are mute. The conclusion reached by most experts is that
autism is the same disorder regardless of level of intelligence and
communicative ability. These latter factors are indicators of severity, and do not
define the disorder itself. Autism is thought to be present if DSM-IV criteria are
met, and if further clinical and laboratory examination does not rule it out.
The high functioning individuals, despite the early developmental delays, go
on to develop adequate language and often enter special education programs or
regular schools. As noted earlier, they often have academic difficulties, but they
are quite different from the learning problems typically experienced by children
with dyslexia or other forms of academic skill disorder. For this reason, special
attention needs to be paid to the educational needs of children with autism, since
the more traditional remedial methods do not appear to be applicable (Siegel,
Goldstein, and Minshew, 1996). We will elaborate on this point extensively as
we proceed. These differences appear not to be directly related to the social
skill impairment or clinical phenomenology of the autism, but to major
differences in cognitive function among autism, the specific academic skill
disorders, and normal function. Indeed, some authorities hold the view that the
clinical phenomenology of autism is founded in the way in which individuals
with autism think. There is a very large literature on cognitive function in
autism that we will briefly summarize before dealing more directly with the
matter of learning disability.
152 CHAPTER 5
COGNITIVE FUNCTION IN AUTISM
The core cognitive deficit in autism has been sought for many years, and there is
no consensus in the field at present. Domains of function implicated have
included attention, memory, language, conceptual reasoning, and executive
function. More specifically, impairments of working memory and selective
attention have been viewed as areas of particular involvement. Autism has been
characterized in terms of comprehensive conceptualizations describing it as a
disorder of memory, executive function, or complex information processing.
While the neurobiology of autism is essentially unknown, these theoretical
formulations have suggested various localizations of the disorder including the
temporal-limbic system, the frontal lobes, the amygdala, and the cerebellum. A
wealth of formal experiments comparing individuals with autism with
appropriate control and comparison groups has been accomplished in efforts to
document these theories. Early work in this area is difficult to interpret because
of the lack of agreed upon diagnostic criteria, but since the appearance of DSM-
III, the diagnostic problem has been largely resolved.
We will briefly review the general theories of cognitive function in autism,
and attempt to make an evaluation and synthesis. Originally, autism was
thought by Kanner and his co-workers (Kanner, 1943; Kanner, 1977; Kanner,
Rodriguez, and Ashenden, 1972) to be an environmentally acquired disorder
produced by obsessive, distant parents; so-called "refrigerator parents." Since
these early observations, it has become increasingly apparent that autism is a
neurodevelopmental disorder, and that while Kanner's description of its
phenomenology was quite astute, his assumptions about its cause were
essentially incorrect. Most modern theories of autism are variants of the general
concept of a neurodevelopmental disorder, although the neuropathology is not
yet understood. There is also a, at least implicit, widely held view that autism is
fundamentally a cognitive disorder, despite the fact that the clinical
phenomenology most apparently involves social function and communicative
behavior. It could be said that autism is now thought to be a neuropsychological
disorder, and a great deal of the research done in recent years involves
experimental neuropsychology. There have been numerous studies of the major
domains of neuropsychological function, which include attention, memory,
language, spatial abilities, perceptual and motor skills, and conceptual abilities
or executive function.
Memory
Historically, the memory theory was the first of the neurocogitive theories
extensively considered. Some time ago, we had the so-called "amnesic theory"
of autism that asserted that memory is a cardinal deficit in autism, particularly
since post-mortem studies have identified abnormalities in the hippocampus
(Bauman and Kemper, 1985), and animal model studies have proposed a
resemblance between autistic behavior and that observed in monkeys with
medial temporal structure ablations (Bachevalier, 1991). Boucher and
Warrington (1976) found resemblances between the pattern of memory found in
individuals with autism and those with amnesic disorders. These resemblances
were impaired free recall, a reduced primacy effect with a normal recency effect
on list learning, and improvement with external cuing but not through use of
internally produced cues. That is, they shared the pattern of intact and impaired
memory function found among individuals with an amnesic syndrome.
Numerous studies confirmed the existence of a reduced primacy effect, and the
apparent lack of ability of individuals with autism to produce internal cues that
aided new learning. Subsequent studies supported the view that failure to
produce organizational strategies was the key to the memory difficulty in
autism, and further, when demands on such cuing was minimal, as in the cases
of simple associative learning or short-term memory, the memory of individuals
with autism was as good as that of appropriate normal controls.
To confirm this view a study of memory involving a detailed investigation of
the California Verbal Learning Test was done by Minshew and Goldstein
(1993). Comparing high functioning subjects with autism with matched controls.
They looked for differences on the many scores that can be derived from this
procedure. Very few significant differences were found. Of the 33 measures
compared, significant differences were obtained for number correct on Trial 5
for List A, List A Total Intrusions, List B - Number Correct, Semantic-Cluster
Ratio and Global Cluster Ratio, and List A Short Delay - Total Intrusions. The
major findings therefore were that the subjects with autism produced more
intrusions than controls, and they did less semantic clustering than controls.
They were also more susceptible than controls to proactive interference. We
should add the cautionary note that when a Bonferroni correction for multiple
comparisons was made, all significant differences disappeared. An additional
analysis determined for each measure whether the mean score for the autistic
sample was better, worse, or tied with the control sample. Of the 33 scores,
there were only 3 on which the subjects with autism did better than the controls.
Using a sign test, it was determined that this result far exceeded chance. It was
also found that the learning curves for the 5 A List trials had similar shapes in
both groups, but the score was lower for each of the trials in the case of the
autism group. It was concluded that memory in autism is less efficient than
normal as indicated by analysis of the direction of the differences between
autistics and controls.
In subsequent research in the area of memory, differences from controls were
found on delayed recall tasks but not on associative memory tasks (Minshew,
Goldstein, and Siegel, 1997). Increasing difficulty with memory as task
complexity increased was also found in autism. For example, on a stylus maze
task, the impairment of a sample of individuals with autism relative to controls
154 CHAPTER 5
significantly increased as the number of elements in the stimulus increased.

Furthermore, while it was originally thought that nonverbal memory was
relatively spared in autism, more recent evidence suggests that task complexity
is the crucial element rather than stimulus modality. Of particular interest to the
area of education is a study by Boucher (1981) in which it was shown that
individuals with high functioning autism remembered less about activities they
recently engaged in than did controls. In summary, while memory difficulties
are typically present, high functioning autism is not an amnesic syndrome. That
is, while individuals with high functioning autism are not severely forgetful or
disoriented, they do have difficulties in learning and retaining new information
that has important implications for education.
Deficits of Attention
Attention dysfunction also has a long history in the study of autism. It

became a matter of particular interest when attentional difficulties were
associated with recent findings concerning abnormalities in the cerebellum of at
least some individuals with autism (Courchesne et al., 1995). Numerous models
of attentional dysfunction have emerged in the autism literature and may be
divided into those proposing that the origin of the dysfunction is at the sensory-
perceptual level and those supporting the view that the dysfunction is at the
conceptual level (Burack, Enns, and Johannes, 1997). More recent theories have
generally taken the latter view. Early models generally understood attention
deficit in autism to exist at the sensory-perceptual level. For example, one
theory attempted to explain the propensity to engage in repetitive, stereotypical
movements, respond in an atypical manner to the environment, and the failure to
develop socially, as a deficit in the modulation of arousal (Dawson and Levy,
1989; Hutt, Hurt, Lee, and Ounsted, 1964; Ornitz and Ritvo, 1968). Another
early but still widely cited attentional model attributed the autistic individuals'
intense focus on detail and failure to interpret multiple social cues in the
environment to overselective attention (Lovaas, Koegel, and Schriebman, 1979;
Pierce, Glad, Schriebman, 1997). Rincover and Ducharme (1987) contended
this overselectivity of attention was due to "tunnel vision" or an overly selective
attentional gaze.
In contrast, other studies have explored the possibility of deficits in the ability
to filter out irrelevant stimuli in autism (Bryson, Wainwright, and Smith, 1990;
Burack, 1994). Deficits in reflexive orienting have also been reported in
individuals with autism (Casey, Gordon, Mannheim, and Rumsey, 1993). Many
of these theories were later disconfirmed or reformulated, although there are
limited data to suggest that individuals with autism are slower in processing the
demand characteristics of more complex tasks (Burack and Iarocci, 1995;
Wainwright and Bryson, 1996; Wainwright-Sharp and Bryson, 1993).
Another much researched attentional model hypothesized that the lack of

interest in people was due to an inability to direct attention to extrapersonal
space or from one stimulus to the next (Ornitz, 1988; Townsend and
Courchesne, 1994). This proposed deficit in the ability to direct attention to
extrapersonal space has been implicated as a core symptom underlying the
clinical manifestations of autism (Ornitz, 1988; Townsend and Courchesne,
1994). The dysfunction in directing attention to extrapersonal space was
attributed to parietal lobe dysfunction. Courchesne and colleagues have also
hypothesized that individuals with autism are deficient in the ability to shift their
attention between modalities and to disengage their attention (Courchesne et al.,
1994). Support for this hypothesis was derived from modality shift and reaction
time tasks (Courchesne et al., 1993; Courchesne, Akshoomoff, Townsend, and
Saitoh, 1995; Courchesne et al., 1994), and was attributed to cerebellar
abnormalities by Akshoomoff and Courchesne, (1992). As these investigators
put it, the difficulty is in rapidly and accurately moving the "spotlight of
attention." Taken together, the above models and investigations imply that the
attention problem in autism is a perceptual one.
Difficulty in shifting attention has also been extensively explored with
cognitive measures, notably the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) (Ozonoff,
1995a, Ozonoff, Pennington, and Rogers, 1991; Prior and Hoffmann, 1990).
These studies concluded that the difficulty in shifting of attention was the result
of a primary deficit in executive function in autism. Numerous investigations
have eventuated in a well-developed model proposing that individuals with
autism perform poorly on tasks that involve executive function, such as joint
attention, inhibition of responses, difficulty shifting cognitive sets, and working
memory tasks (Hughes and Russell, 1993; McEvoy, Rogers, and Pennington,
1993; Ozonoff, Pennington, and Rogers, 1991; Ozonoff Strayer, McMahon, and
Filloux; 1994; Pennington, Rogers, Bennetto, et al, in press). Yet another recent
model described attention deficits in autism as associated with an inability to
coordinate and modulate attentional resources, and not a deficit in shifting
attention (Pascualvaca, Fantie, Papageoriou, and Mirsky, 1998).
In summary, apparent behavioral deficits in autism have been attributed to
varying components of the general theoretical construct of attention.
Theoretical models generated from extensive research efforts have differed in
their views of whether attentional problems in autism are at the perceptual,
reflexive, conceptual, or executive control level. Strong evidence has been
generated from more recent, well-controlled studies to indicate abnormalities in
attention in autism are related to the information processing aspects of tasks and
the voluntary or executive control of attention, and not to deficits in reflexive,
orienting abilities (Burack, Enns and Johannes, 1997).
In order to provide a comprehensive assessment of attention and to clearly
define the components of attention evaluated, an empirically derived four factor
neuropsychological model was applied (Mirsky, Anthony, Duncan, et al.,
156 CHAPTER 5
1991). This model was based upon a series of distinctions among types of
attention originally formulated by Zubin (197S). In this model, attention is
divided into the ability to 1) focus on a target object and perform a task in the
presence of distracting objects, 2) maintain vigilance over a sustained time
period, 3) adaptively shift focus of attention, and 4) efficiently receive and
interpret incoming information. The factors derived from this model were
termed focus-execute, sustain, shift, and encode. The model was applied in the
Mirsky et al., study in order to clarify what components of attention might be
intact and impaired in autism.
In many tests of attention, speed of performance is used as the response
measure. Such tests load in the Mirsky group factor analysis on the Focus-
Execute factor. Indeed Mirsky et al., (1991) characterized that factor as
reflecting perceptual-motor speed. It has been well established that individuals
with autism commonly have psychomotor deficits in the form of slowness,
awkwardness, or poor coordination (Bauman, 1992; Gillberg and Coleman,
1992; Hughes, 1996, Smith and Bryson, 1994; Rapin, 1997). Thus, the direct
interpretation of tests involving speed scores as measures of attention is
confounded in autism by psychomotor impairment, and it is necessary to
account for the influence of that impairment on performance outcome.
This comprehensive analysis of attentional functioning in individuals with
carefully diagnosed high functioning autism demonstrated that the major
dysfunctions relative to normal controls are on those measures of attention that
utilize psychomotor speed, as opposed to accuracy or span of apprehension, as a
dependent measure, or that require cognitive flexibility. That is, differences
were noted only on the Focus-Execute and Shift factors of the Mirsky group
model, and not the Vigilance and Encode factors. Correspondingly, the Mirsky
group was unable to confirm the view that individuals with autism have
difficulties in encoding information and sustaining attention over time. This
finding is well supported by other studies in which subjects with autism
performed normally at repeating digits and calculating (Minshew, Goldstein,
Muenz, and Payton, 1992; Minshew, Goldstein, and Siegel, 1997). The
sustained attention or vigilance data indicate that when a challenging attentional
task does not have a conceptual or psychomotor component, the autism group
does not differ from controls.
The data would suggest that in the case of autism, unequivocal evaluation of
attention cannot be accomplished using dependent measures based on speed of
movement. We would offer the proposal that significant differences between
individuals with autism and controls may be found on experimental measures of
attention that actually assess such processes as conceptual reasoning, executive
function, rapid decision making, problem solving, and working memory;
abilities that are widely believed to be impaired in autism (McEvoy, Rogers, and
Pennington, 1993; Minshew, Goldstein, and Siegel, 1997; Ozonoff, 1995b;
Ozonoff et al., 1994, Ozonoff, Pennington, and Rogers, 1991). With regard to
the Mirsky model shift factor, there is evidence from other research indicating
that individuals with autism do not have difficulty with elementary perceptual
shift tasks, but do have difficulty when shifting must be accomplished at a
conceptual level. In a study of saccadic eye movements, subjects with autism
performed normally on visually guided saccade tasks involving shifting of focus
of attention. However, they performed abnormally on a volitional saccade task
in which the eyes must accurately move to the point at which the target stimulus
was previously present, but had disappeared. This latter task has a substantial
working memory component (Minshew, Luna, and Sweeney, 1999).
Furthermore, numerous other studies involving the WCST have produced
equivocal results, with several reports of normal functioning by autism samples
on several of the measures derived from this test (Minshew, Goldstein, and
Siegel, 1997, Ozonoff, 1995a). In the Mirsky group study, the autism group did
not differ from controls on a relatively simple perceptual shifting task, but made
significantly more perseverative errors on the WCST than controls. The Mirsky
group's subjects averaged 9 years of age, and had a mean WISC-III Full-scale IQ
score of 78. The group studied by Minshew et al., (1992) with the WCST
averaged 21 years of age, and had a mean WAIS-R Full Scale IQ score of 96.
This group of individuals with autism made considerably fewer perseverative
errors on the WCST (M = 18.3) than the Mirsky group's autism sample (M =
60.7) Considering the literature as a whole, including these results, differences
in various scores from the WCST between individuals with autism and normal
controls may be a matter of the presence of autism in combination with
developmental considerations and general ability level. Thus, evidence for
impaired shifting of attention in autism appears to be associated with working
memory and other aspects of complex information processing, and not with
perceptual shifting of focus of the type that may be mediated by cerebellar
function. Furthermore, this deficit, at least when measured by such procedures
as the WCST, may not appear in higher functioning individuals with autism.
These findings make it appear likely that the well established cognitive deficits
and their associated abnormal behaviors associated with autism are not the result
of a failure to incorporate information, or to sustain concentration, or to resist
distraction. Such considerations as working memory, the ability to organize
information, and the capacity to monitor ongoing events and make rapid
adjustments are likely to be relevant considerations.
Language and Communication Skills
Language and communication in autism have been extensively studied. The

high functioning individual with autism who is not mute or retarded may
nevertheless have significant language problems, some of which involve
academic skills. Studies of academic abilities in autism were originally
stimulated by reports of autistic-savants who did remarkably well at calculation
158 CHAPTER 5
or related specific skills, and by a literature suggesting that high functioning

individuals with autism may master the mechanical aspects of reading, but may
not comprehend affective, metaphorical, or inferential aspects of text. Their
reading is sometimes characterized as hyperlexic, connoting excellent command
of phonetics, but limited comprehension of what is read. Much of the language
research in autism contrasts procedural and mechanical academic skills with
skills requiring comprehension and interpretation. Three test batteries that allow
for such comparisons are the Revised Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests
(Woodcock, 1987), the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement (Kaufman
and Kaufman, 1985), and portions of the Detroit Tests of Learning Aptitude
(Hammill, 1985). In a series of studies (Goldstein, Minshew, and Siegel, 1994;
Minshew, Siegel, Goldstein, and Weldy, 1994) it was found that, comparing
high functioning subjects with autism with well-matched controls on these
batteries, the autism group did not differ from controls on mechanical tasks such
as those assessing spelling ability or phonetic analysis, but did differ on the
Passage Comprehension subtest of the Woodcock Reading Mastery Test and the
Reading Comprehension subtest of the Kaufman Test of Educational
Achievement. Thus, individuals with autism are not dyslexic, nor do they
exhibit the academic deficits found in individuals with verbal learning disability.
The difficulty appears to be at the level of comprehension and interpretation. A
surprising finding occurred in the case of the Detroit Tests. Significant
differences were found for the Oral Directions, Word Sequences, and Letter
Sequences subtests, with Oral Directions producing the greatest difference.
These tests do not require judgment or inference making, but the sequence
strings are relatively long and complex, and therefore may have required
formation of organizing strategies to promote accurate recall. We have
considered the possibility that a specific deficit in working memory is involved
here.
While DSM-IV does not specifically require delay in language development
to make the diagnosis of autism, in neuropsychological assessment it is desirable
to require it to make a specific diagnosis in order to avoid inclusion of
individuals with Asperger's disorder. To diagnose Asperger's disorder, which
has many resemblances to autism, there must be no clinically significant delay
in language development. Therefore, language development may be a crucial
consideration in differential diagnosis and possible associated neurobiological
differences among developmental disorders.
In an autism vs. control developmental study of a series of psychoeducational
tests (Goldstein, Minshew, and Siegel, 1994) subjects were divided into age
groups ranging from less than 8 to over 18. A cross-sectional analysis was
accomplished. Two tests were of particular interest, one assessing a procedural
skill and the other an interpretive skill. The Word Attack (procedural skill) and
the Passage Comprehension (interpretive skill) subtests from the Revised
Woodcock Reading Mastery Test with age adjusted standard scores were used
as the measures. On Word Attack, the subjects with autism were actually a little
better than the controls, and this relationship persisted into the 18 years and
older group. The picture for Passage Comprehension was quite different. The
younger subjects with autism did better than or as well as controls up until the
10-11 year old group, after which the controls did consistently better, and
dramatically so in the 18 and older group. It would therefore appear that
individuals with high functioning autism might keep up with their peers
indefinitely with regard to mechanical or procedural linguistic tasks, but lose
ground as the cognitive demands of tasks increase as appropriate for normal
language development.
Upon combining formal language and psychoeducational tests in studies of
autism there appears to be a consistent pattern of absence of significant
differences on the simple tests including measures of verbal fluency, phonetic
analysis, word knowledge, and calculation, as contrasted with significant
differences on measures of language comprehension, pragmatic language, and
comprehension of complex grammatical structures. The role of working
memory may be important in conceptualizing these results, but the deficits noted
on several of the complex tests suggested a more pervasive impairment of
language comprehension than could be explained solely on the basis of a deficit
in working memory.
Abstract Reasoning and Problem Solving
Going on to abstract reasoning and problem solving, many autism scholars

were clearly struck by the failure to obtain significant differences between
subjects with autism and controls on the "gold standard" measures; the WCST,
the Halstead Category Test, and Part B of the Trail Making Test. Minshew,
Goldstein, Muenz, and Payton (1992) made the observation that subjects with
autism failed to shift from one basis of sorting to another on the Goldstein-
Scheerer Object Sorting Test, often remarking that the way they placed the
objects was the way they belonged or there was no way of sorting them
differently. We therefore felt that they had identified a deficit in cognitive
flexibility that was not sufficiently challenged by the WCST. A method used in
a later study (Minshew, Siegel, Goldstein, and Weldy, 1994) was a Twenty
Questions procedure used some time ago by Nelson Butters (Laine and Butters,
1982) to study problem solving in chronic alcoholic patients, and by Mosher and
Ornsby (1966) to study the cognitive development of children. The results were
quite striking. The subjects with autism did exceptionally poorly on this task.
The important variable was the constraint seeking score that indicates the
percentage of times the subject asks a question that constrains the number of
possibly correct answers. This is the classic "Is it animal, mineral or vegetable?"
question. Rather than ask such questions, the participants with autism were
more inclined to ask hypothesis-scanning questions, which amounts to guessing.
160 CHAPTER 5
Thus, if one divides abstraction, as the literature suggests, into rule learning,
attribute identification, and hypothesis testing or true concept formation rather
than identification, then subjects with autism in the non-retarded range appear to
have their major difficulty in the hypothesis-testing component. Another way of
putting it is that they can identify concepts, but have difficulty in forming them.
A Summary of Cognitive Findings
It appears that individuals with high functioning autism have cognitive deficits
in various domains at the complex, but not at the simple skill level. That
conclusion applies to memory, attention, language, and abstraction and problem-
solving domains. Recent investigations suggest there does not appear to be
modality specificity. That is, vision or hearing is not specifically involved in the
cognitive function of individuals with autism. However, visuospatial abilities
appear to remain intact, for unknown reasons, and individuals with autism may
do exceptionally well on spatial and constructional tasks that do not use social
stimuli.
In order to suggest that this cognitive profile has some biological significance,
we can briefly mention a portion of a study in which cognitive test results were
correlated with Phosphorous Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS) data
(Minshew, Rogers, and Pennington, 1993). We will only comment on the
correlational data for phosphomonoesters (PME) and phosphodiesters (PDE),
both of which reflect phospholipid metabolism. The conclusion reached was
that phospholipid findings in autism reflect under synthesis and enhanced
degradation of brain membranes. There were very robust correlations between
cognitive test scores and PME and PDE levels. PDE goes up and PME goes
down as scores get worse. These high correlations were not seen in the normal
controls, nor were they seen in the subjects with autism for such basic skill tasks
as the Reading Decoding and Spelling subtests of the Kaufman Test of
Educational Achievement. Correlations with low information processing load
tasks of this type were non-significant in both autism and control groups. While
this study was very preliminary, there is nevertheless the suggestion that there is
an association between cognitive function and metabolic energy state of
phospholipids involved in high functioning autism.
Based on these results and a review of the now extensive literature on high
functioning autism, we would like to propose the following conclusions.
1. Autism represents a deficit state in complex information processing with
sparing of basic, simple cognitive processes.
2. The underlying cognitive deficits for autism are not specific to any particular
domain of cognitive function or to any particular modality. Autism is not
primarily a deficit in attention, memory, language, or executive function, but
involves all of these cognitive domains.
3. The most likely neurobiological basis for autism is in the form of a network
of numerous subcortical and cortical structures. The actual pathology may be at
the cellular level, reflecting some variation in dendritic architecture. The
preliminary magnetic resonance spectroscopy findings would support this view.
4. Correspondingly, autism is not a localized or lateralized disorder. It is a
disorder at the system level. While frontal, temporal-limbic, and subcortical
localizations have been suggested, none of these views has shown a consistent
relationship between the hypothesized localizations and the clinical
phenomenology of the disorder.
5. The specifics of the network remain unknown, but would appear to be
ultimately discoverable with more research and emerging technologies.
In autism, the brain has invented a disorder that does not have a neat, discrete
neurocognitive space. It doesn't seem to live anywhere. It isn't like ideational
apraxia or the WCST or other entities that appear to have found homes in the
frontal lobes or elsewhere. What this appears to suggest is that the brain can
code complexity. If it couldn't, it couldn't produce a disorder in which
complexity appears to be selectively impaired. Furthermore, in autism,
complexity is selectively impaired regardless of domain or modality. The
impetus to localize autism in the frontal lobes, or cerebellum, or hippocampus
appears to be based upon traditional views arising from modularity or
localization concepts. However, it is a disorder that can be more economically
explained in what have been described in the past as mass action,
equipotentiality, or holistic concepts. These early conceptualizations have
evolved into system or network theories in which localized functions are
integrated in the manner of Luria's functional systems. Since the brain can
produce a disorder like autism, it would appear to be able to process information
at a system level just as if it can produce a disorder like alexia without agraphia,
it can process information in a highly discrete, circumscribed way. It is not
necessary to return to the days when there was some belief that the brain always
functions as a unified whole. On the other hand, autism helps teach us that it is
not always necessary to understand cognitive function as representing some
specific domain or modality, or even some combination of them. There appears
to be the implicit belief that complex activities are based on the interaction of
localized structures that work together in a seamless way, giving rise to the
illusion of unified behavior. When a link in the system is disrupted, the
behavior becomes impaired. The problem in autism is that we have not been
able to find the disrupted link. It is not in attention, or memory, or language, or
executive function, but is in all of them. It therefore appears more like the
mischief is in the system itself, and not in some particular component. Perhaps
we need to know more about the emergent properties of systems as they apply to
brain function.
162 CHAPTER 5
NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
Neuropsychological assessment of individuals with high functioning autism is

typically highly feasible utilizing standard tests and batteries. We have found
these individuals to be quite cooperative, and fully capable of providing valid
and reliable test data. They usually tolerate extensive testing quite well, and the
more lengthy standard batteries can be administered in a manner that is routine
for most clinical settings. The extensive neuropsychological research done
provides extensive information regarding selection of tests. Much work has
been done with experimental procedures designed for particular studies, but
much of the research has been done with standard clinical tests including the
various Wechsler intelligence scales (WAIS; WAIS-R; WAIS-III) (Wechsler,
1955; 1981; 1997), the Revised Wechsler Memory Scale (Wechsler, 1987),
portions of the Halstead-Reitan Battery (Reitan and Wolfson, 1993), the Luria-
Nebraska Battery (Golden, Purisch, and Hammeke, 1985), the WCST (Heaton,
Chelune, Talley, et al., 1993), the California Verbal Learning Test (Delis,
Kramer, Kaplan, and Ober, 1987), the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure
(Osterrieth, 1944) and numerous psychoeducational tests and batteries.
In the following, we will outline a model for assessment that will hopefully
characterize the major features of high functioning autism, and provide useful
recommendations. Consistent with recent thinking about psychiatric diagnosis,
neuropsychological assessment should not be used to diagnose autism. That
matter is better left to other established procedures, notably the ADI and ADOS.
However, neuropsychological and psychoeducational tests have been found to
be quite useful in characterizing autism, and may reveal core deficits that
underlie the clinical phenomenology.
As is the case for all neuropsychological assessment, the assessment of autism
should generate data from the major cognitive domains; abstract reasoning and
problem solving, memory, attention, language, spatial abilities, and perceptual
and motor skills. There should also be an evaluation of general intelligence and
academic achievement. Personality evaluations, such as the MMPI, are not
typically done for individuals with autism, for reasons that are unclear. Perhaps
the disorder is so blatant, and the ADI, ADOS, and other scales, notably the
Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) (Schopler, Reichler, and Rochen-
Renner, 1980) serve that purpose so well, particularly in mentally retarded
individuals, that tests of the MMPI type add little unique information. Based on
the literature, it is also important to include in the battery both simple and
complex tests within the same domain, and to place some stress on areas likely
to be dysfunctional including concept formation, metaphoric language, skilled
motor activity, reading comprehension, and delayed recall of material that is
verbally or geometrically complex, such as stories or the Rey-Osterrieth Figure.
Since spatial-constructional abilities are typically good or better in autism, it is
valuable to assess this area for its compensatory potential. Because of varying
reports of discriminative validity concerning the same tests, it has become

critically important to carefully evaluate the samples upon which the studies
were based. As indicated, autism is an extremely variable disorder from the
standpoint of general ability level and what discriminates between individuals
with autism and controls in one IQ range may not discriminate in another range.
Thus, while the domains mentioned here should ideally all be assessed, the
particular tests chosen may vary with regard to sensitivity and specificity across
ranges. Particularly in the case of those tests that tend to be highly correlated
with IQ, relatively small differences in IQ level can be associated with presence
or absence of abnormal scores. The clinician should therefore have available a
repertoire of tests in each of the domains that vary in level of difficulty.
The Wechsler Scales
The Wechsler intelligence scales have proven to be of particular value in autism

because of the large number of studies done, and the clinically useful results
(Siegel et al., 1996). There is a reasonably good prototypic profile characterized
by a high point on Block Design and a low point on Comprehension. It is not
unusual for the Block Design score to be in the 12-13 range, even when the rest
of the profile does not attain that level. From the standpoint of differential
diagnosis, individuals with high functioning autism have a dramatically different
WAIS-R profile from what is seen in adult learning disability, as illustrated in
Figure 1. These profiles were derived from samples of 102 adults with learning
disability (McCue and Goldstein, 1991) and 35 individuals with high
functioning autism. While the Performance subtests are reasonably comparable,
the Verbal subtests have very different patterns, with the LD group showing an
elevation on Comprehension and Similarities and a depression on Information,
Arithmetic, and Digit Span. Essentially the case is reversed in the autism group.
The WAIS-R profile characterizes the autism group nicely, as having relatively
normal development of semantic knowledge relative to poor development of
both linguistic and social comprehension, as well as particularly good spatial-
constructional ability when the task does not have a social component. This
dissociation between social and non-social performance tasks is not seen in the
LD group. It has the anticipated evidence of poor development of semantic
knowledge and calculation skills. There is, in fact, preliminary evidence that the
WAIS-R has a different factor structure in autism from what is found in normal
individuals and people with adult LD, reflecting differences largely with regard
to social content of the test material (Lincoln et al., 1988). The Wechsler
intelligence scales therefore can be recommended as a good assessment
procedure for autism and for discriminating between autism and adult LD.
164 CHAPTER 5
Abstract Reasoning
The assessment of abstract reasoning and concept formation in autism requires a

rather sophisticated approach. It has been noted that the WCST, taken to be the
"gold standard" for conceptual reasoning tests, did not discriminate between
autism and control groups in several studies, despite the heavy emphasis placed
by some authorities on perseverative thinking and executive dysfunction in
autism. Review of several studies suggests that the absence or presence of a
significant difference is a matter of general level of ability, or IQ. This absence
of significance has also been noted for the Halstead Category Test and Part B of
the Trail Making Test, both of which are widely accepted measures of
conceptual reasoning ability. In ongoing unpublished work done in collaboration
with Dr. Nancy Minshew, one of the authors (GG) noted a distinction in autism
between two classes of conceptual reasoning tests, one evaluating rule learning
or attribute identification, and the other, concept formation. A concept
formation test is different from rule-learning and attribute identification tests in
that in the latter tests, the concept is predetermined and the test-taker has to
identify it, or learn what it is. In concept formation, the test-taker has to
generate hypotheses in an open-field situation. The classic concept formation
task is the sorting test in which an array of material is placed before the test-
taker, who is asked to group those together that belong together. An increased
challenge is presented by having the test-taker group the material in ways
different from what was done on the initial sort. The Goldstein-Scheerer Object
Sorting and Color Sorting tests (Goldstein and Scheerer, 1941) and the
Hanfman-Kasanin Concept Formation Test have this characteristic (1936). The
20 Questions task used in our own work also has it. Clinically, we have seen
patients with autism who did well on the WCST and Category Test but who
could not form a consistent organization of questions that corresponded with
formation of hypotheses that would constrain the number of possible correct
answers. In the case of tests of this type, consistently robust significant
differences between subjects with autism and controls have been found
(Minshew et al., 1994).
The general principle here seems to be that the rule learning and attribute
identification tests may be done at an impaired level by individuals with autism
in the lower end of the high functioning range. However, individuals with
higher IQs often need to be more challenged with concept formation tasks. It
would therefore be wise to have in one's assessment repertoire tests of the free
sorting or 20 questions type. The discriminative validities of these kinds of tests
appear to be better across a broader range of high functioning autism.
166 CHAPTER 5
Memory
The evaluation of memory is probably best accomplished with tests of the

Wechsler Memory Scale type that contain both simple and complex material.
One can generally anticipate normal or near normal performance on simple
material such as repeating digits or paired-associate learning, and abnormal
performance on story recall or recall of complex material, particularly under
delayed memory conditions. More elegant analyses of simple material such as
analyzing for a primacy-recency effect or for semantic clustering of the items
may also reveal areas of impairment. The research suggests that the general
principle is that individuals with autism do not benefit from contextual cues that
support memory. Theoretically, they may do no better at remembering a story
than a random list of words of the same length. Several studies have shown that
they do not show the anticipated improvement in learning from organized
material compared with unorganized material. Simple associative learning and
short-term memory tests may be administered for contrast purposes, but they are
likely to produce normal results.
Attention
The clinical assessment of attention in autism is a complex matter. The standard

measures of simple attention such as repeating digits are typically non-
revelatory, and tests for which psychomotor speed variables are used as the
score (e.g., reaction time, cancellation tasks) are confounded because of the
well-established reduction in psychomotor function often found in individuals
with autism. Spatial attentional deficits, such as unilateral neglect, are not a part
of autism. Probably the most sensitive tests of attention for autism are measures
of working memory in which ongoing activity is monitored. In particular, span
tasks that contain multiple components appear to be particularly sensitive. For
example, the Word Span and Oral Directions subtests from the Detroit Tests of
Learning Aptitude (Hammill, 1985) or the Daneman and Carpenter (1980)
Reading Memory Test may be quite sensitive. Apparently more complex tests of
attention such as Part B of the Trail Making Test are less suitable because of
confounding with psychomotor speed, as well as the existence of data from
several studies indicating that this test does not discriminate between individuals
with high functioning autism and controls (Minshew et al., 1992).
Language and Academic Skills
While individuals with low-functioning autism may be mute, individuals with

high functioning autism are not aphasic. Therefore, the language difficulties
they evolve are not generally captured by the standard aphasia examinations,
with few exceptions. Specifically, these individuals do not have difficulties with
word finding, repetition, enunciation, oral reading, spelling, handwriting, simple

calculation, and basic auditory analysis. Their language difficulties lie mainly in
the areas of prosody, reading comprehension, understanding of metaphor and
figurative speech, and analysis of complex grammatical structures. Thus, the
only aphasia tests that may show some sensitivity to the disorder are instruments
of the Token Test type. This sensitivity is found particularly for instructions that
have complex grammatical structures. The language tests that are most sensitive
are generally from intelligence tests and psychoeducational batteries, notably
tests like the Comprehension subtest of the Wechsler series, and the various
standard reading comprehension tests. Research supporting this conclusion has
been done with the reading comprehension sections of the Woodcock Reading
Mastery Test and the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement. The Test of
Language Competence (TOLC) (Wiig and Secord, 1989) has also been shown to
be very sensitive to high functioning autism, particularly the Metaphoric
Expression subtest.
The clinical phenomenology of the language dysfunction involves fluent
speech with limited intonation and a variety of comprehension deficits such that
spoken or written prose are often, at best, only partially understood. The
severity of the comprehension loss increases with the complexity or the
metaphoric content of the language used. There is often a failure to respond to
humor. Discourse is typically not bizarre or incoherent, as in the case of
schizophrenia, but may reflect the individual's narrow range of interests. This
narrowness sometimes has "idiot-savant" characteristics such that there is
remarkable expertise regarding one topic, but little breadth of information. The
man with autism in the movie "The Rain Man" is a good example of this
phenomenon, as illustrated by his fear of flying in combination with his
extremely detailed knowledge of accident statistics.
The evaluation of academic skills is of particular importance for autism, even
in adults who have completed their educations, because the tests most sensitive
to communicative dysfunction associated with the disorder are found in
psychoeducational tests, clearly to a greater extent than is the case for the
traditional neuropsychological tests of language. Also quite important are the
tests of verbal reasoning and comprehension contained in intelligence tests, and
tests of the 20 Questions type. We have referred to WAIS-R Comprehension,
but such tests as the Verbal Absurdities, Picture Absurdities, and Plan of Search
from the Binet scales are relevant also to the language dysfunction of high
functioning autism. As indicated above, the TOLC, which deals with issues of
metaphor, ambiguity, and inference making, seems to be exceptionally sensitive
to the language deficit in autism. In the following section we will deal more
specifically with learning disability aspects of autism and their management, but
here we wish to point out that the psychoeducational tests contain what are
perhaps the most important parts of the language evaluation for high functioning
autism.
168 CHAPTER 5
Spatial Abilities and Perceptual-Motor Skills
Perhaps one of the most widely observed but puzzling aspects of cognition in
high functioning autism is the intact, and often better than intact, spatial abilities
found in individuals with autism. They are good at building things, analyzing
visual material, and solving pictorial puzzles, and seem to enjoy doing those
things. The exception seems to be the task that has a social content, such as the
Picture Arrangement subtest of the Wechsler intelligence scales, where
comprehension of the social situation contributes to the solution. As indicated
previously, Block Design is typically the high score on the Wechsler scales, and
other constructional and copying tasks are usually done in a comparably normal
manner. However, when a spatial task is combined with a delayed recall task
mild impairment may be found, particularly if the spatial task is complex. For
example, a study has shown that individuals with high functioning autism do
less well than controls on delayed recall of the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure.
It has been suggested that the network dysfunction that underlies autism is not of
the type that is thought to mediate spatial abilities, such as the pattern of cerebral
organization found primarily in the right cerebral hemisphere. Largely because
of the apparent communicative problems seen in autism, it was suggested in the
past that it was primarily a disorder of the left cerebral hemisphere (Hoffman
and Prior, 1982), but that view is not widely supported at present.
With regard to perceptual and motor skills, autism does not involve any
apparent physical disability with regard to any of the senses or the motor system.
However, there is a commonly observed motor awkwardness or dyskinesia often
documented by neuropsychological tests of dexterity. The typical pattern is
normal simple motor skill, such as finger tapping, with impaired dexterity as
assessed with psychomotor speed or pegboard tasks. A similar pattern exists for
perception such that basic sensory-perceptual skills are usually intact, but there
may be impairment at a more complex level as is assessed by such procedures as
fingertip number writing from the Halstead-Reitan Battery.
It has been reported that relatively pure tests of psychomotor speed can
discriminate better between individuals with autism and normal controls than
can tests in which the psychomotor component of the task is combined with a
challenging cognitive component. Thus, individuals with autism may do
significantly worse than controls on Part A of the Trail Making Test, which has
minimal cognitive demands, but not on Part B, which requires substantial
cognitive resources (Minshew et al., 1994). The documentation of impairments
of skilled planned action in autism is provided by an extensive experimental
literature (Smith and Bryson, 1994).
The Neuropsychological Profile and Its Implications
The profile we have been describing contains a combination of some rather

distinct, straightforward dissociations and some more subtle distinctions. There
is an apparent dissociation between simple and complex abilities across
domains, with intact basic skills and often significantly impaired complex skills.
There is also an apparent intactness of spatial-constructional skills, except in
those cases in which the stimulus material has social content. Even with social
content, however, spatial tasks are done better than linguistic tasks with social
content. For example, on the WAIS-R, Picture Arrangement is typically done
better than Comprehension. In language and memory, a key factor appears to
involve voluntary utilization of contextual cues. While basic linguistic and
associative skills appear to be intact, the application of strategies that utilize
contextual cues or that provide them appear to be impaired in autism. For
example, individuals with autism do not tend to organize words into semantic
categories when learning a list, nor do they utilize contextual cues in stories in
promoting recall. Since they do not organize material effectively,
comprehension may be substantially compromised. The classic situation is the
individual with autism who reads a passage aloud without error, but has little
understanding of what was read.
With regard to abstract reasoning, there is a dissociation between the ability to
identify relevant attributes of a stimulus array and to learn rules regarding them,
and an impairment in concept formation, which involves voluntary initiation of
alternative hypotheses. Thus, individuals may perform normally on rule-
learning and attribute identification tasks such as the Wisconsin Card Sorting
Test, but poorly on sorting tasks that require initiation of hypotheses.
There is often a dissociation between normal performance on basic perceptual
and motor tasks and at least mildly impaired performance on tasks that require
integration of sensory input, such as identifying numbers on the fingertips, or
that require dexterity and speed, such as pegboard tasks. We would add here
that seizures occur in individuals with autism more frequently than they do in
the general population (Minshew, Sweeney, and Bauman, 1997). Thus,
neurological dysfunction may occur in association with the seizures or the
medications used to treat them.
This profile is probably most consistent with the theory of autism that
characterizes it as a disorder of complex information processing. It is apparently
not a domain specific disorder of language or memory, because impairments
have been identified across several domains. Characterization of autism as a
disorder of executive function has much to be said for it, except for two
considerations. First, individuals with high functioning autism often perform
normally on the WCST, the test that most authorities use as the "gold standard"
measure of executive function. Second, the deficits noted in reading
comprehension, understanding of metaphor, and perceptual integration go
170 CHAPTER 5
beyond the usual definition of executive function involving maintenance of

goal-directed behavior, adapting to changes, and planning abilities. It is not
being suggested that individuals with autism do not often have executive
function deficits. Rather, it is being suggested that the core deficit appears to go
beyond that particular construct.
INTERVENTIONS
Preliminary Remarks
In order to provide a basis for what we will describe as "Interventions" it seems

advisable to point out that autism is a life-long incurable disorder, and while
there may be some developmental changes in symptom severity, the disease
process does not remit spontaneously or in response to any known biological or
psychological treatment. In essence, there is no cure for autism. We therefore
will limit the use of such terms as treatment, therapy, and rehabilitation in
describing interventions accomplished with individuals with autism. However,
there is substantial evidence that individuals with autism can learn, and may
alter their behavior as a result of behavior modification efforts (Schriebman,
Koegel, Charlop, and Egel, 1982). It is also the case that individuals with
autism are entitled to an education, and it is proper to use the best educational
methodologies and strategies that show promise of being effective with the
disorder. We will not be discussing the behavior therapy work here, but rather,
will focus on the design of instruction and educational environment. This
section is based largely on a paper by Minshew, Goldstein, and Siegel (1996), to
which the reader is referred for more detailed information. We would note that
the paper is largely devoted to providing ideas based upon what is known about
cognitive function in autism and how certain available educational programs and
strategies may be productively applied. There is little if any published research
establishing the empirical basis for efficacy of these methods as applied to
individuals with autism. This information may also help to distinguish between
instruction appropriate for individuals with autism and other disabled learners,
such as individuals with dyslexia and other specific academic skill disorders
(Rumsey and Hamburger, 1990; Shea and Mesibov, 1985; Bartak and Rutter,
1976; Lincoln et al., 1988). While individuals with high functioning autism
have educational difficulties that may be characterized as learning disability,
they typically do not have dyslexia, or the specific academic skill disorders.
Reading
Neuropsychological study of high functioning individuals with autism has

demonstrated a psychoeducational profile distinct from dyslexia (Rumsey and
Hamburger, 1990; Shea and Mesibov, 1985) and characterized by intact
encoding and declarative skills with impaired comprehension and interpretative
skills (Goldstein, Minshew, and Siegel, 1994; Minshew, Goldstein, Taylor, and
Siegel, 1994). There is a dissociation between mechanical reading ability and
acquiring meaning from printed text (Frith and Snowling, 1983 Minshew et al.,
1994). The phenomenon of excellence in oral reading may be seen as a savant
skill in the hyperlexic autistic individual who in the absence of any formal
instruction demonstrates an advanced ability to read single words (Goldberg,
1987; Whitehouse and Harris, 1984). Deficits in comprehending text are
evident, however, despite adequate word knowledge and general fund of
information, and this often excellent oral reading fluency.
Considering an intact ability to employ phonetic analysis rules to read
fluently, with deficient comprehension of reading material, certain implications
emerge for teaching. Unlike instruction designed for the dyslexic individual,
there does not need to be training for phonological deficits such as sound-
symbol relationships, remediation of phonetic or structural analysis skills, or
teaching the orthographic features of words, syllabication, or blending. Rather,
the emphasis needs to be on understanding what was read, something that is
often quite deficient even in high functioning individuals with autism.
Numerous methods of specific strategy training for reading comprehension are
reviewed in Siegel, Goldstein, and Minshew (1996). They all involve
previewing the passage, outlining the main ideas, re-reading it in greater detail,
asking questions about it, and reviewing the passage again if necessary.
Appropriate interventions would also be the use of vocabulary material that
develops knowledge of secondary meanings of words, use of organizers that
represent story events in a temporal sequence with pictures, or instruction in
interpreting cause and effect and other logical relationships, and developing
hypotheses about intervening events. Practice in answering Who, What, Where,
Why, When questions about a reading selection can function as an aid for
organizing story details.
Compensatory approaches to reading instruction might include the use of high
interest reading material, perhaps involving the student's special interest, and
using text that is grammatically simple. During class discussion of reading
material, if there is a relative emphasis on recalling facts and details rather than
on understanding the motivation of characters or formulating inferences about
story events, the student with autism might be relatively successful.
Capitalizing on the strength in mechanical reading ability, individuals with
autism can participate in classroom activities by reading instructions or class
announcements, thereby possibly gaining positive peer recognition. The focus,
172 CHAPTER 5
however, should be directed toward comprehension, and development of

organizing skills that become increasingly self-initiated. There is some evidence
that oral reading improves comprehension when well-organized text is used
(Hinchley and Levy, 1988), opening the possibility that the systematic use of an
intact ability may support learning of an impaired ability.
Mathematics
Arithmetic calculation is an automatic, procedural skill that is not typically

deficient in high functioning autism (Minshew et al., 1994). Indeed there ah
case reports of individuals with autism who are lightning calculators (Steel,
Gorman, and Flexman, 1984). In contrast to intact computational abilities, there
is often a deficit in understanding mathematical concepts as applied to everyday
applications, and mathematical reasoning and problem solving such as are
required in arithmetic story problems (Minshew et al., 1994). These deficits
may be attributable to several factors including the complex language embedded
in the wording of the problems, the need to generate hypotheses and strategies to
solve the problem, and the ability to proceed toward a solution by flexibly
testing hypotheses. Thus, in autism, there may be dissociation between
mechanical arithmetic skills and mathematical reasoning, a somewhat different
situation from what is the case in other individuals with mathematical learning
disabilities (Rourke, 1993).
If this situation is the case, then instruction may deal mainly with
mathematical problem solving rather than the more traditional areas of number
concept and calculation skills. Mathematical language may be emphasized such
that the student may become familiar with the mathematical terminology in
story problems that indicate the process required to solve the problem. For
example, key words such as both, combined, and more indicate that the
operation of addition is required, while part, equal, and half, convey that
division should be performed. The student underlines such words in the
problem statements, as an aid in comprehending the question. Story problems
can also be organized into component parts by separating the information given
from the question to be answered. Problem statements can be represented
pictorially to illustrate the processes necessary for obtaining a solution.
Communication and Language
The high functioning individual with autism possesses basic communicative

competence but demonstrates selective linguistic deficits (Minshew et al., 1994).
In high functioning autism there is fluent narrative discourse and intact word
knowledge, with specific linguistic impairment in semantic and pragmatic
aspects of language (Baltaxe and Simmons, 1992; Brook and Bowler, 1992). In
particular, the comprehension of metaphorical or figurative aspects of language
are deficient in high functioning individuals with autism. There is a disability in

understanding figures of speech or ambiguous statements. Complex relational
terms may also be poorly understood (Goldstein et al., 1994). Reciprocal
communication is impaired by a limited capacity to adopt another's perspective,
accurately interpret affective meanings, understand cause and effect or temporal
relationships, develop inferences about intervening events, or to alternately
exchange speaker-listener roles (Baltaxe, 1977). Comprehension of humor is
likely to be deficient (Van Bourgondien and Mesibov, 1987). Limited use of
inflection, prosody, eye contact, and recognition of gestural cues are present and
impact adversely on social functioning (Yirmiya and Sigman, 1991).
Considering these deficits, the student with autism will experience difficulty
learning in educational settings where there is a preference for oral presentation,
reliance on verbal instructions and lecture, use of figurative expressions in
conversational speech, and reference to meaning by way of analogy, metaphor,
or humor. The social deficits persist throughout life, and relationships will
always be difficult to develop. The individual with autism may be perceived by
others as odd, and thus, difficult to relate to in both work and play situations.
These deficits are part of the autism and cannot be reversed except in the sense
that specific target behaviors such as eye contact or abnormal posturing may be
altered through behavior modification procedures. However, it is possible to
capitalize on assets and to provide various accommodations.
The relative strength in fluency and verbal production can be used as an asset
since it is possible to request the student to make oral presentations containing
factual information, describe special interests, or recite poems, or share story
details or current events. Clinically, we have heard high functioning individuals
with autism make relatively eloquent presentations of their special interests.
Due to the deficit commonly found in the auditory or visual comprehension of
language, instructors can provide accommodation by communicating in short,
syntactically simple sentences that contain one idea per utterance. Oral
directions, particularly those containing multiple sequences or complex phrasing
should not be used, while lengthy discourse should be generally avoided.
Directions may need to be repeated by the teacher and then spoken aloud by the
student to insure commands have been understood. It has been demonstrated
that individuals with autism while impaired in their ability to respond
immediately to spoken communications, are as capable as normal controls when
written information is present (Boucher and Lewis, 1989). Therefore, printed
instructions should always be available on assignment sheets and displayed in
the room for ready reference by the student with autism, or instructions may be
provided both orally and in writing. The difference between oral and written
instruction may relate to processing time. Once an oral instruction is given it is
gone, but written instructions are more amenable to being reviewed over a
lengthy time span. Thus, accommodation may be provided by allowing more
174 CHAPTER 5
time for receiving instructions, with the opportunity for repeating the
instructions in the case of oral presentation.
Teachers should be sensitive to the inability of individuals with autism to
misunderstand or not comprehend slang, jokes, pop culture jargon, and
nonverbal communication through gesture or expression. It is generally
desirable to explain social conventions, rules, and standards in concrete terms.
It is always necessary to consider that a message may not have been understood,
and may require repetition, rephrasing, or concretization. Sarcasm and non-
verbal communication to praise, kid, or reprimand through tone of voice, facial
expression, or physical posture may well not be understood by the high
functioning individual with autism. Active, declarative, and affirmative speech
without use of transformations or complex phrasing is preferred. Alternatively,
the student with autism should not be expected to deliver complex messages to
others.
Reasoning and Problem Solving
Deficits in verbal reasoning, concept formation, and in generating strategies for

problem solving have been documented by autism research (Minshew, et al.,
1992; Rumsey and Hamburger, 1988; Tager-Flusberg, 1985). These difficulties
are made evident in perseverative efforts at problem solving with an inability jo
shift and develop strategies that are heuristic (Minshew et al., 1994; Prior and
Hoffman, 1990; Rumsey, 1985). Nevertheless, as indicated above, rule-learning
and attribute identification aspects of abstraction have been reported to be intact
in at least some high functioning individuals with autism (Minshew et al., 1992).
Those that possess these abilities, however, may still require instruction in
concept formation, development of self-initiated strategies, and conceptual
flexibility. The issues here revolve around how one forms hypotheses, drops
prepotent tendencies when they don't work, and develops alternatives.
Appropriate methods for teaching conceptual skills to mentally ill patients have
been developed outside of the area of autism, and, in particular, there have been
extensive efforts to teach patients with schizophrenia to improve their
performance on the WCST (e.g., Green, Satz, Ganzell, and Vaclav, 1992). The
results have been mixed, but some success has been obtained either by using
monetary reinforcement or simplifying the task. One simplification method is
providing in advance the relevant categories, such as form, color, and number,
and requiring the student only to identify the appropriate one. Concept
development can be taught in general through teaching recognition of relevant,
salient features of a stimulus array, suppressing prepotent responses, and
identifying principles such as similarity and difference, part-to-whole
relationships, and causality. Abstract ideas and concepts are often introduced to
children through concrete representations. Ongoing monitoring of behavior
through such means as self-questioning may aid in breaking down rigidity and
perseveration. For example, after a response the student may be encouraged to

ask, "Is this right?" "Why did I get this wrong?" "Can it be done some other
way?" A clinical observation made in a study of an object sorting test was that
when asked to shift sorts, almost all of the participants with autism indicated that
there was no other way possible to sort the objects. The initial sorts were
generally quite plausible, but there was little capacity to formulate other bases
for sorting (e.g., going from color to function) (Minshew et al., 1994).
Presenting alternatives may be helpful in breaking down this severe rigidity
along with stopping perseverative behavior when it occurs.
Memory
Early clinical accounts of autism noted an excellent memory for remote events,
often phenomenal rote memory for poems and names, and the precise
recollection of complex patterns and sequences (Kanner, 1943). As part of the
observation of preoccupation with sameness, clinicians noted the remarkable
capacity of individuals with autism to detect the slightest change in a familiar
environment, such as a room. Memory ability in autism is quite different from
that of individuals with learning disabilities. For example, in a study comparing
members of the two groups, the participants with autism demonstrated intact
performance on an auditory rote memory task while demographically matched
dyslexics demonstrated deficient rote memory (Rumsey and Hamburger, 1990).
Considering intact rote memory processes involving visual and verbal
modalities, the capacity for high functioning individuals with autism to benefit
from the use of semantic information to encode information, and the difficulty
using strategies to organize new information, several implications emerge for
instruction that would make such instruction different from what would be
appropriate for dyslexia. A strength-matched approach could exploit the intact
ability to form verbal associations, as demonstrated by good performance on
paired-associate learning tasks. This method of developing recall can be
adapted to curriculum content. For example, this procedure might work in
geography by associating the names, locations, natural resources, and capitals of
states; in history for learning the names of explorers and their discoveries, and in
science when learning equations for velocity and acceleration. It is therefore
possible that intact associative learning can be utilized through providing
students with autism with organized lists of materials rather than expecting them
to generate meaningfully related content and categories from text.
Ecological and Other Considerations
Clinical reports of individuals with autism describe such characteristic

behavioral features as resistance to change and an insistence on sameness
(Kanner, 1943; 1971). Processing of sensory information is also often deficient
176 CHAPTER 5
and may be evident in a heightened sensitivity to noise or physical contact, an

apparent insensitivity to pain, a fascination with certain sensory input such as
textures or smell, or diminished performance in settings where stimuli are
inconstant. Abnormal motor behavior involving odd body posture, poor
coordination, or stereotypies, and hyperactivity may also be observed (Minshew
and Payton, 1988). This cluster of behaviors can be accommodated for in school
by providing considerable structure (Volkmar, Hoder, and Cohen, 1985).
Consistent and predictable behavior by the teacher in the delivery of
consequences and reinforcement with the use of established routines will
provide security and comfort. Daily schedules can be reviewed upon entering
the classroom in the morning or posted. Work periods should be brief,
structured, with tasks organized into small units that can be completed within
reasonable time periods. This is especially important when new skills are
introduced. Any change in location or content of activities should be planned in
advance and supported. Alertness to special events as they occur in the course
of the year is important (e.g., assembly programs, a class party or trip, teacher
absence) in order to assist the student in anticipating these changes in advance.
If repetitive statements, conversation only about the student's restricted range of
interest, or arguments persist, it may be helpful to rephrase directions, require
that the individual prepare a list of concerns that can be examined at another
time, or firmly redirect the conversation.
It has been demonstrated that small group arrangements in the classroom is
effective in increasing the amount of interaction time for students with autism
(Kamps, Walter, Maher, and Rotholz, 1992). If collaborative projects or
structured recreational activities (e.g., playing table games) are provided,
conversation may more likely be appropriately related in content to performing
the common activity. Pursuit of the object of the game or completion of the task
can also serve as intrinsic mechanisms for turn-taking in communications. While
individuals with autism may be able to participate in simple table games,
adaptations to the physical education program may be necessary to provide
success and avoid social censure due to their poor motor coordination skills.
High functioning individuals with autism seem to share with individuals with
attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) executive function deficits
involving the ability to initiate, sustain, inhibit, and shift mental activity
(Denckla, 1989). Differences between these disorders in other aspects, however,
are greater than their similarities. For example anything novel, challenging, and
varied may enhance the performance of individuals with ADHD while
individuals with autism encounter considerable difficulty tolerating change in
the environment.
Considering the heightened activity level and inattentiveness described for
some individuals with autism, distractions and disruptions need to be minimized
with extraneous classroom stimuli eliminated. Seating assignments need to
consider proximity to the teacher, egress to the room, high-activity areas, and
the behavior of other students which may overload thresholds for stimulation.
Brief time-out periods may be beneficial in enabling the student to become
comfortable subsequent to excessive stimulation. These considerations extend to
adults not in school but who are with other people at work or in social situations.
A low-key, stable, small group environment seems to be preferable.
Educating high functioning individuals with autism poses unique challenges.
Knowledge of the neuropsychological profile is valuable in this effort because it
contributes to understanding aptitude and educational interactions specific to the
disorder. We have presented some suggestions for educational intervention
consistent with the neuropsychological findings. It was not intended to evaluate
the use of specific teaching methodologies developed for students with autism
such as auditory training or facilitated communication, special curriculum such
as TEACCH (Reichler and Schopler, 1976), or technology and materials such as
computers. Some of these interventions remain controversial and are often only
appropriate for severely impaired students, while some may be considered for
use with high functioning students with autism. It should also be noted that
while the strategies developed for instruction and the classroom environment
emerge from research on neuropsychological functioning in autism, they are
presented only as possible interventions.
SUMMARY
Based on extensive research, it has been suggested that the particular

educational needs of individuals with high functioning autism are in relatively
delimited areas. These include (1) instruction in organization and planning to
promote improved comprehension and recall of complex material, such as text.
(2) Teaching skills in initiation of hypotheses during problem solution that
consider alternatives and that discourage perseverative behavior. (3) Providing
accommodation through limiting use of figures of speech, metaphors, and
extended, grammatically convoluted language in communicating information.
(4) Providing accommodation for the social deficit that is a part of autism
through various means including maintenance of a relatively subdued and stable
environment, adequate preparation for and gradual introduction of change, and
behavioral management of self-destructive and socially inappropriate actions.
This field does not have a set of established, empirically based treatments, and
it is only possible at this point to provide a tentative blueprint of educational
needs based upon a large amount of cognitive research. Actual validation of the
effectiveness of these strategies will need to be obtained from systematic and
controlled studies, but hopefully the available research may guide us away from
inappropriate but firmly entrenched methods such as phonics training. Clearly,
the specific educational needs of a high functioning individual with autism
178 CHAPTER 5
cannot be based only on group results, as the individual may depart from the
performance of the group by a considerable degree.
As a final comment on intervention, possibly the optimal treatment program
for high functioning autism involves a multidimensional approach coordinated
by a case manager who has particular expertise in the area. The case manager
can coordinate medical intervention activities, particularly if there is an
associated illness such as epilepsy, teachers, parents, and clinicians who provide
specialized procedures, notably behavior therapy. Very often, the case manager
is the individual who is most prepared to deal with the frequent life crises
commonly occurring with individuals with autism because of episodes of
inappropriate behavior or exposure to an unanticipated stressor. Behavioral
management techniques in combination with instructional strategies may
provide an ideal program for maximizing learning for the high functioning
student with autism.
6
CONCLUDING THOUGHTS
We have addressed a group of learning disabilities in young adults from a neu-

ropsychological perspective with the intent that such a perspective would indeed
have clinical utility. In doing so we have discovered that while the knowledge
base in each of the disorders reviewed in the previous chapters has been en-
larged considerably within the past decade, much remains to be understood. In
many cases, research is lacking and clinical practice reflects the biases of the
practitioner’s specific discipline. For example, when we look at those disorders
most reflective of academic pursuits, reading, written expression, and math,
there is little crossover between the fields of special education, cognitive psy-
chology, neurology, or neuropsychology. Hiscock and Hiscock (1991) go so far
as to challenge the educational utility of neuropsychological data in relation to
academic problems, opining that the “disease model” gathers extraneous infor-
mation with little utility (see a discussion of this issue in the chapter on Nonver-
bal Learning Disability). Medical research in the area of “dyslexia” has con-
fined itself to neuroanatomical case studies and/or genetic transmission and twin
studies. And while the Shaywitz group, which does in contrast involve pediat-
rics, neurology, and educational psychology, has one of the most comprehensive
of the follow up studies ever conducted, not all researchers agree with their basic
assumptions regarding the etiology and definition of reading disorders. Further,
in their work and that of others, while the basis for deficits in reading with
young children has certainly been addressed in terms of early acquisition of
phonological skills, at times the focus on such a highly specific deficit has pre-
vented the inclusion of constructs such as temporal processing and orthographic
processing in the research design. This “one size-fits-all” paradigm is particu-
larly distressing to those of us who work with adolescents and adults and cer-
tainly should be distressing to those who work with children, each of whom has
a unique learning style.
179
180 CHAPTER 6
When we then look at continued problems with efficient reading and/or com-
prehension in the young adult population, interventions based upon strategies
developed with young children tend to remain in practice in many literacy pro-
grams, although work on metacognitive strategies has produced curricular offer-
ings at the high school level (e.g., the work coming out of Deshler’s group at the
University of Kansas). Other investigators continue to focus on the non-utility
of intelligence measures in the assessment of reading disorders in children and
adults, and in their singular focus on this issue, fail to appreciate the cognitive
processing information that such instruments provide to the trained clinician that
consequently contribute to treatment plans involving remediation and/or appro-
priate accommodations for young adults in academic or vocational settings.
Even more discipline-specific is work in the areas of written language and
math disorders in adults. Neuropsychology has tended to focus on acquired dis-
orders affecting language or math calculations following some sort of brain
trauma, while special educators are still not of one mind with respect to the exis-
tence of these disorders as stand alone conditions. Other educational researchers
focus entirely on spelling as the single manifestation of written language
production again in terms of early acquisition of skills. While the use of
manipulatives has been demonstrated to enhance the acquisition of basic
mathematical operations, there is little if any empirical research on effective
methods for teaching higher-level math functions even though these skill
subjects remain especially difficult for many college level students. However,
more recent work by investigators such as Geary (2000) give us hope that
studies incorporating neuroimaging and work done on semantic and
phonological memory systems may shed light on the cognitive underpinnings of
mathematical disorders, which have been postulated in the literature (Nolting,
1988), and ultimately on intervention strategies.
In contrast to the predominant discipline-specific nature of research in the
academically based disorders, work done in the areas of autism and attention
deficit disorder illustrate what can be accomplished when research and practice
are multidisciplinary in nature. The work of all of the major researchers in both
fields utilizes data coming from the areas of educational psychology, neuropsy-
chology, psychopharmacology, and neurology. The work of Minshew’s group at
the University of Pittsburgh and the Biederman group at the University of Mas-
sachusetts illustrate the rich knowledge base that can be made available to the
clinician who works with adults, although work with high functioning autistic
adults in still in the infancy stage. Particularly rich is the more recent focus on
psychopharmacology with the ADHD population including adults as the disor-
der has come to be recognized as a life-long condition much in the same way
that “LD” was acknowledged to affect the lives of adults twenty years ago. That
research taps behaviors in a variety of settings and has included measures spe-
cific to academic performance as well as working memory.
CONCLUDING THOUGHTS 181
As with the reading and written language disorders literature, the issue of sub-
typing remains dominant in the ADHD diagnostic literature. Subtyping studies
with reading disorders in children have produced numerous subclassifications,
but their utility in the classroom setting has never been demonstrated. Studies
involving subtyping in adults with have been rather simplistic and thus have not
proved to be particularly useful to clinicians. On the other hand, subtyping clas-
sifications such as those postulated in studies with individuals, adults and chil-
dren alike, with ADHD would appear to be more useful to the clinician as well
as fruitful areas of investigation (see the neurochemical mechanisms section of
the ADHD chapter).
The new kid on the block, NLD, suffers from neglect to some degree. While
the Rourke group has done seminal work in the field in terms of identification,
there is little empirical research involving a cross-disciplinary approach perhaps
as a consequence of the controversy that surrounds the diagnosis of a specific
right-hemisphere disorder. Work such as that on the neuroanatomical underpin-
nings of dyslexia or on neuroimaging studies including fMRIs are surprisingly
absent in the literature. Studies involving the adjustment of adults with NLD,
academically, or vocationally, would seem to be lumped together with LD out-
come studies in general, and thus we can say little about outcome. Future stud-
ies including the spectrum of NLDs (e.g., Asperger’s) may shed light on appro-
priate interventions in much the same way that the early work on high-
functioning autism is now doing. The work of Klin et.al (1995) with respect to
the similarities in neuropsychological functions between NLD and Asperger
Syndrome give us strong hints that interventions for the two groups may well be
compatible.
Several other concerns need to be raised in our overall understanding of the
spectrum of learning disorders in young adults. The first of these involves how
these young adults or their parents can afford to access the extensive battery that
we have advocated with respect to the diagnosis of ADHD in particular. Insur-
ance companies routinely deny the need for an evaluation process that includes
psychological or educational testing even though we know that the comorbidity
for learning disabilities in the population of individuals with ADHD is 60% or
more and the comorbidity for other psychiatric disorders including major de-
pression, anxiety disorders, or Obsessive Compulsive Disorder has a prevalence
rate of between 15% and 20%. Organizations such as C.H.A.D.D. have been
working for some time with other mental health organizations to achieve parity,
but until researchers and clinicians across a variety of disciplines acknowledge
the need for such evaluations, the consumer will be forced to bear the expense of
the labor-intensive process. If the young adult is still within a secondary school
system, some of the psychoeducational components of the evaluation may be
accessed through the school district as covered by special education law or Sec-
tion 504 of the Rehabilitation Act. With adults facing major academic or voca-
tional failures and who have financial need, partial support for an evaluation to
182 CHAPTER 6
establish eligibility status might be available through the state vocational reha-
bilitation agency. And while paying for a comprehensive evaluation is costly,
that fact alone does not diminish its clinical validity or utility in much the same
way that an MRI is costly but critical to clinical care for certain conditions in
medical practice.
Second, there is a real necessity for work directed at the psychological se-
quelae of these various disorders of learning on adults. While follow-up studies
report a series of negative outcomes in terms of psychosocial functioning for
heterogeneous groups of individuals diagnosed with learning disabilities and/or
ADHD during childhood, the clinical utility of these studies is questionable, as
we have discussed previously throughout these chapters, because the target
population is never clearly defined and what constitutes positive or negative
outcomes is often narrowly defined. Gerber’s (1992) work on reframing and the
ethnographic research reported by him and his colleagues come closest to pro-
viding therapists and counselors with some understanding of the synergistic ef-
fect of the learning disabilities and their implications for adult functioning. The
effectiveness of interventions such as coaching and directive therapy have yet to
be addressed in any comparative studies, and yet they are in the mainline of ap-
proaches used with adults who have ADHD. This is not surprising, however, as
it has only been within the very recent past that behavior modification ap-
proaches have been compared with psychopharmacological therapies in any
systematic way in the case of children with ADHD, although their use was dis-
cussed extensively in the child ADHD literature as a substitute for medication.
Third, it is critical for persons with learning disorders that the incorporation
of assistive technology into the academic arena and work place be given the
highest priority by clinicians and researchers. It is our strong belief that assis-
tive technology has the potential to transform human cognitive potential in ways
that were previously unimaginable. We have seen just the tip of the iceberg as
voice recognition, for example, has many bugs still to be worked out. Thus, it is
imperative that practitioners and others with particular knowledge about neuro-
psychological functioning and learning have input into the development of assis-
tive technology devices to assure their efficacy for persons with learning dis-
abilities.
Finally, it is our contention that processes to foster cross-professional collabo-
ration are needed in terms of both research and clinical practice. This can cer-
tainly be accomplished by organizations sponsoring national meetings and
workshops and by organizations collaborating at the national level to influence
policies that affect their constituent members across diagnostic categories. The
recent efforts at collaboration between C.H.A.D.D. and the national organization
of Community Mental Health Centers is an example of efforts to reach out for
mutual benefit and with a stronger voice to federal agencies and policy makers,
as is C.H.A.D.D.’s effort to engage and utilize a multidisciplinary professional
advisory board. The various professional journals might also reach out in spe-
CONCLUDING THOUGHTS 183
cial issues to bring a multidisciplinary focus to a topic with researchers and

practitioners exchanging perspectives in a real effort to learn from each other vs.
advocating a singular point of view. The field of learning disabilities in general
has suffered to some degree from an adherence to narrowly prescribed theories,
supporting research studies that reflect that narrow focus, and at times a lack of
openness by some practitioners to a research and knowledge base outside of
their respective domains of expertise. This remains a danger always in fields of
study where passions run high. And in the words of Alexander Pope, “What
reason weaves, by passion is undone” (An Essay on Man II). Let this be a cau-
tion for all of us, clinician and researcher alike. We would like to believe that
this is some of what we have come to understand in producing this work.
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INDEX
A-ADDES: see Adult Attention Deficit Evalu- Adderal, 134

ation Scale ADHD: see Attention-deficit hyperactivity dis-
AAT: see Auditory Analysis Test order
Abstract reasoning ADHD with Comorbid Disorders (Pliszka,
high functioning autism and, 159–160, 165, Carlson, and Swanson), 114
174–175 ADI: see Autism Diagnostic Interview
nonverbal learning disability and, 86t Adolescent Psychopathology Scale (APS),
ABT-418, 137 127, 128
Academic accommodations Adoption studies, 116
for ADHD, 140–141 ADOS: see Autism Diagnostic Observation
for nonverbal learning disability, 100–102 Schedule
for reading and writing disorders, 29–39 ADSA: see Attention Deficit Scales for Adults
Academic skills, in autism, 166–167 Adult Attention Deficit Disorder Behavior Rat-
Acalculias, 44, 45–46, 50, 51; see also Dyscal- ing Scales, 125
culias Adult Attention Deficit Evaluation Scale (A-
acquired, 61 ADDES), 125
spatial, 45, 48 African Americans, 12, 13, 14
Accommodations; see also Academic accom- Agraphia, 16
modations; Workplace accommoda- for numbers, 45, 48, 51
tions Aid to Families with Dependent Children, 12
for ADHD, 140–141 Alcohol abuse, 109, 117, 118, 138, 159
assistive technologies as a means of, 63–64 Alexia
for mathematics disorders, 44, 47, 63–64 acquired, 16
for nonverbal learning disability, 93, 100–103 for numbers, 45, 48
for reading and writing disorders, 29–40 Allergies, 18, 118
Accuracy disabilities, 6 Alphabetic Phonics, 30
Acquired acalculia, 61 Alternative medicines for ADHD, 137
Acquired alexia, 16 American Printing House for the Blind, 34
Acquired disorders of written expression, 15 Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
Acquired mathematics disorders, 44, 45–46 (ADA), 8, 37, 38, 39, 100, 140
Action strategies, 99 Amino acids, 136
ADA: see Americans with Disabilities Act of Amnesic theory of autism, 152–153
1990 Anarithmetria, 45
ADD: see Attention deficit disorder; Auditory Hecaen’s, 46
Discrimination in Depth Anchored instruction, 32
231
232 Index
Antidepressant medications, 136, 137 Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (cont.)

Antihypertensive agents, 136 diagnosis of, 124–134
Antisocial ADHD, 111 in DSM-IV, 73, 106, 107, 108–110, 112, 113,
Antisocial disorders, 113 114, 124, 125, 146
Anxiety disorders earlier-onset, 115
ADHD and, 28, 109, 112, 113, 115, 135–136 etiology of, 116–119
mathematics disorders and, 53 Excessively Aroused (Subtype II), 110
nonverbal learning disability and, 73, 76 follow-up and outcome studies of, 146–147
Aphasia, 45, 166–167 genetic studies of, 116–118
Aphasia Screening Test, 22 historical foundations, 106–197
APS: see Adolescent Psychopathology Scale Impaired Behavioral Inhibition System (Sub-
Architectonic dysplasias, 18 type III), 110
Arithmetic disorders: see Mathematics disor- incidence of, 111–115
ders later-onset, 115
Arkenstone, 35 mathematics disorders and, 51, 53, 114, 115
Asian Americans, 14 neurological correlates of, 119–124
Asperger’s Syndrome, 70–71, 73, 74–75, 77, neuropsychological assessment of, 128–134
158, 181 Not Otherwise Specified, 107
Assistive technologies, 182 pharmacotherapeutic interventions for,
for ADHD, 145 134–139
for mathematics disorders, 44, 61–64 Predominantly Hyperactive/Impulsive Type,
for nonverbal learning disability, 101 107, 108, 114, 126, 146, 148
for reading and writing disorders, 34–37 Predominantly Inattentive Type, 107, 108,
Asthma, 18 110, 114, 115, 126, 127, 134, 146,
Atopic disorders, 118 148
Attention prenatal and perinatal factors in, 118–119
high functioning autism and, 152, 154–157, psychological interventions for, 139–144
166 subtypes, 110–111
neurological correlates of, 119–124 workplace accommodations for, 144–146
nonverbal learning disability and, 71, 85t, 87 Attention Deficit Scales for Adults (ADSA),
Attention deficit disorder (ADD), 4, 108, 180 125, 126
accommodations for, 140, 145 Auditory Analysis Test (AAT), 26
comorbidity in, 115 Auditory Discrimination in Depth (ADD), 30
diagnosis of, 125–126 Auditory processing deficits, 22
Excessively Aroused (Subtype II), 110 Autism, 73, 180; see also High functioning
genetic studies of, 116 autism
historical foundations, 106–107 Autism Diagnostic Interview (ADI), 151, 162
hyperactive/aggressive, 111 Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule
Limbic, 110 (ADOS), 151, 162
Overfocused, 110, 137 Autistic savants, 157–158, 167, 171
Temporal Lobe, 110 AVLT: see Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test
Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder Avoidance, 98
(ADHD), 10, 33, 38, 50, 105–148,
176, 180, 181, 182 Bartlett v. New York State Board of Law Exam-
accommodations for, 140–141 iners, 38
Antisocial, 111 Basal ganglia, 110, 120, 121
Cognitive Processing Deficit (Subtype I), 110 BDI-II: see Beck Depression Inventory-II
Combined Type, 107, 110, 114, 126, 134, 148 Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II), 127,
comorbidity in, 28, 109, 111, 113–115, 126 128
Deficient Reward Systems (Subtype IV), 110 Behavioral Inhibition Disorder (alternate name
definitions, 106–111 for ADHD), 107
Index 233
Benzedrine, 106 Collaborative Perinatal Project, 118

Binet intelligence scales, 167 College students; see also Postsecondary educa-
Biofeedback, 137 tional settings
Bipolar disorder, 108, 111, 113 ADHD in, 138–139, 147
BNT: see Boston Naming Test mathematics disorders in, 56–61
Bookwise, 35 nonverbal learning disability in, 90, 98, 101
Boston Naming Test (BNT), 23 reading disorders in, 14
Brain damage/trauma, 15, 44, 80, 90, 180; see Colorado State University, 142
also Minimal brain dysfunction Combined Type of ADHD, 107, 110, 114, 126,
Brain imaging: see Neuroimaging 134, 148
Brainworks, 144–145 Communication skills, 150, 157–159, 172–174
Broca’s area, 20 Community Mental Health Centers, 182
Brown Attention Deficit Disorder Scales, Comorbidity
125–126, 127 in ADHD, 28, 109, 111, 113–115, 126
Building Consistency Telecoaching Program, in reading and writing disorders, 28–29
144 Compensatory strategies; see also Assistive
Bupropion (Wellbutrin), 136, 137 technologies
Bypass strategies, 97 for high functioning autism, 171
for nonverbal learning disability, 97
CAARS: see Conners’ Adult ADHD Rating for reading and writing disorders, 37–39
Scales Comprehensive Test of Phonological Process-
California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT) ing (CTOPP), 27, 131
ADHD and, 129–130, 133 Compulsions, 115
high functioning autism and, 153, 162 Computerized tomography (CT), 19, 77, 118
nonverbal learning disability and, 85t, 87 Computers, 61–64, 66
CARS: see Childhood Autism Rating Scale Concept formation, 165, 174
Category Test, 86t, 87, 133–134 Conditional knowledge, 3
Caucasians, 14, 146–147 Conduct disorder, 28, 108, 111, 113, 118
Caudate, 20, 121 Connecticut Longitudinal Study, 9, 11, 12, 15
Caudate-frontal axis, 120 Conners’ Adult ADHD Rating Scales
Caudate nucleus, 120, 123 (CAARS), 125, 126
Cerebellar vermis, 121 Consortium on ADHD Documentation, 140
Cerebellum, 19, 121 Continuous performance tests (CPT), 128–129,
Cerebral cortex, 18 130
CFT: see Rey Complex Figure Drawing Controlled Word Association Test, 85t
C.H.A.D.D., 181, 182 Coordination problems, 79, 84, 156
Channel-specific perceptual training, 137 COPS (Capitalization, Overall appearance,
Child Behavior Checklist, 116 Punctuation, Spelling), 32, 33
Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS), 162 Corpus callosum, 120
Children’s Embedded Figures Test, 128 Counseling, 98–99
Chinese herbs, 137 CPT: see Continuous performance tests
Chromosome 6, 17–18 Critchley, M., 17
Chromosome 15, 17–18 Crossed eye/hand preference, 16–17, 65
Cingulate gyrus, 110, 123 CT: see Computerized tomography
Clinical eligibility model, 11 CTOPP: see Comprehensive Test of Phonologi-
Clomipramine, 137 cal Processing
Clonidine, 137 CVLT: see California Verbal Learning Test
Coaching, 141–144, 182 Cylert: see Pemoline
Cognitive Disorder Not Otherwise Specified, 72
DAT1 gene, 117
Cognitive function, in autism, 152–161
David Allen & Co., 143
Cognitive mapping, 31
Declarative knowledge, 3
Cognitive Processing Deficit (Subtype I) Deficient Reward Systems (Subtype IV)
ADHD, 110 ADHD, 110
234 Index
Deleading, 137 Dyscalculias (cont.)

Department of Education, U.S., 140 operational, 46
Depression Dyslexia, 175, 179, 181; see also Reading dis-
ADHD and, 28, 109, 112, 113, 118, 130, 135 orders
nonverbal learning disability and, 73, 76, autism distinguished from, 151, 171
90–92 broadly vs. narrowly defined, 24
Desipramine, 136 developmental, 11, 25
Detroit Tests of Learning Aptitude, 158, 166 early work in, 16–17
Developmental dyscalculia, 46 educational definitions of, 3
Developmental dyslexia, 11, 25 etiology and neurobiological correlates,
Developmental mathematics disorders, 46–48 16–21
Dexedrine, 134 genetic research on, 17–18
Dexedrine Spansule, 134 neuroanatomical studies of, 18–19
Dextroamphetamine, 134, 135, 136 neuroimaging work, 19–21
Diagnosis neuropathological studies of, 18–19
of ADHD, 124–134 neuropsychological assessment of, 21
of high functioning autism, 150–151 neuropsychological assessment of language
of nonverbal learning disability, 72–75 deficits in, 23–27
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental prevalence of, 11
Disorders, 3rd Ed. (DSM-III), 106,
112, 152 Educational definitions, of learning disabilities,
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental 2–6
Disorders, 3rd Ed.-Revised (DSM-III- Educational Testing Service (ETS), 134
R), 106, 117 Education for All Handicapped Children Act of
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental 1975 (PL 94–142), 2, 11–12, 140
Disorders, 4th Ed. (DSM-IV) Electroencephalogram (EEG) studies, 118
ADHD and, 73, 106, 107, 108–110, 112, Eligibility for services, 7–11
113, 114, 124, 125, 146 Embedded Figures Test, 86t
autism and, 150, 151 Embedded Phonics, 30
IQ/achievement discrepancy and, 11 Employment, 89 ,91, 97; see also Vocational
mathematics disorders and, 43, 47, 67 entries; Workplace accommodations
nonverbal learning disability and, 72–73 Encephalitis, 106, 121
reading disorders and, 7–9 Encode factor, 156
writing disorders and, 7, 8, 15, 73 Entitlement to services, 7–11
Discriminatory testing, 38 Enzyme dopamine b-hydroxylase, 117
Disease model of learning disabilities, 77–78 Epilepsy, 115
Documentation Essential fatty acid supplementation, 137
of ADHD, 140 Etiology
of learning disabilities, 8–9 of ADHD, 116–119
Dopamine, 117, 121, 122, 123, 134 of dyslexia, 16–21
Double-deficit hypothesis, 25 of nonverbal learning disability, 76–77
Douglas, V., 106 Excessively Aroused (Subtype II)
Dragon Dictate®, 36 ADD/ADHD, 110
DRD2 gene, 117 Executive function, 152, 155, 176
DRD4 gene, 117 Experimental tasks, 25–26
Driving problems, 103 Explicit instruction, 32
Drug abuse, 109, 138; see also Substance abuse Extrapersonal space, 155
DSM: see Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders Federal Register, 7
Dyscalculias, 44; see also Acalculias Fetal alcohol syndrome, 77
developmental, 46
Few-foods diets, 137
Index 235
Finger tapping test, 86t, 87, 168 High functioning autism (cont.)
Fluoxetine, 137 ecological considerations, 175–177
fMRI: see Functional magnetic resonance imag- interventions for, 170–177
ing neuropsychological assessment of, 162–170
Focus-execute factor, 156 Hippocampus, 123, 152–153
Follow-up H-O-P-E (Help, Obligations, Plans, Encourage-
of ADHD, 146–147 ment), 143
of reading disorders, 40–42 HRNB: see Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychologi-
Food additives, 118 cal Battery
Foreign language requirement, 37-38 5-HT: see Serotonin
Four factor neuropsychological model of Humor, lack of appreciation for, 79, 173
autism, 155–157 Hyperactive/aggressive ADD, 111
Fragile-X syndrome, 150 Hyperactive Children: A Handbook for Diagno-
Freedom from distractibility factor, 51, 129 sis and Treatment (Barkley), 107
Frontal lobes, 120, 141 Hyperlexia, 158, 171
Functional magnetic resonance imaging
(fMRI), 19, 20, 21, 181 36
ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behav-
Gender ioral Disorders (ICD-10), 7–8
ADHD and, 111, 112-113 IDEA: see Individuals with Disabilities Educa-
reading disorders and, 13, 15, 20–21, 41 tion Act of 1990
Genetic studies Immune disorders, 18
of ADHD, 116–118 Impaired Behavioral Inhibition System (Sub-
of dyslexia, 17–18 type III) ADHD, 110
Georgia-Pacific, 39 Incidence
Gerstman syndrome, 51, 71 of ADHD, 111–115
Global deficits, 54, 55, 80, 81, 92 of learning disabilities, 11–12
Globus pallidus, 120, 121 of nonverbal learning disability, 75–76
Goldstein-Scheerer Color Sorting Test, 165 of reading disorders, 12–15
Goldstein-Scheerer Object Sorting Test, 159, of writing disorders, 15–16
165 Individual Educational Plan (IEP), 99
GORT-3: see Gray Oral Reading Test Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of
Gray Oral Reading Test (GORT-3), 132–133 1990 (IDEA), 2, 10, 140
Grip strength, 86t, 87 Inferior frontal gyrus, 20
Guanfacine (Tenex), 137 Information processing, 169
Guckenberger v. Boston University, 37 InspirationR, 36, 143
Institute for Behavior Genetics, 17
Halstead Category Test, 159, 165 Institute for Psychiatry, London, 17
Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery Institute for Research in Learning Disabilities,
(HRNB) 32
ADHD and, 128 Insurance, 181
high functioning autism and, 162, 168 International Dyslexia Association, 3
learning disabilties and, 22 Interventions
mathematics disorders and, 48, 50, 51 for ADHD (pharmacotherapy), 134–139
nonverbal learning disability and, 80, 81 for ADHD (psychological), 139–144
Halstead Tactual Performance Test, 49 for high functioning autism, 170–177
Hand calculators, 61–64, 66 for mathematics disorders, 53–61
Hanfman-Kasanin Concept Formation Test, 165 for nonverbal learning disability, 95–100
Head trauma: see Brain damage/trauma for reading and writing disorders, 29–40
Hecaen’s anarithmetria, 46 IQ; see also specific assessment tools
High functioning autism, 73, 149–178 ADHD and, 114, 126
cognitive function in, 152–161 autism and, 149, 163
diagnosis of, 150–151 nonverbal learning disability and, 82,93,94
236 Index
IQ/achievement discrepancy, 8 Linkage analysis, 17–18

controversy over, 9–11 LNNB: see Luria-Nebraska Battery
mathematics disorders and, 46 LSAC Guidelines for Documentation of Cogni-
nonverbal learning disability and, 70, 86 tive Disabilities, 9
LSAT: see Law School Admission Test
Job Accommodation Network (JAN), 145, 146 Luria-Nebraska Battery (LNNB), 49-50, 162
Judgment of Line Orientation, 23 MACI: see Millon Adolescent Clinical Inven-
tory
Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 19, 118,
158, 160, 167 120, 182
Kurzweil Reader, 34, 35 Magnocellular temporal processing deficits, 19
Kurzweil Voice®, 36 Magnocellular visual pathway, 21
Mania, 118
LAC: see Lindamood Auditory Conceptualiza- MAPI: see Millon Adolescent Personality In-
tion Test ventory
Landmark College, 35, 40 Maternal smoking, 118
Language skills Math anxiety, 50, 51, 53, 61
high functioning autism and, 157–159, Mathematics disorders, 4, 43–67, 180
166–167, 169, 172–174 acquired, 44, 45–46
neuropsychological assessment of dyslexic, ADHD and, 51, 53, 114, 115
23–27 assistive technologies for, 44, 61–64
nonverbal learning disability and, 85t, 87 case study of, 64–67
Laser acupuncture, 137 definitions, 45–48
Lateral Dominance Examination, 86t developmental, 46–48
Lateral geniculate nucleus, 18 high functioning autism and, 172
Law School Admission Test (LSAT), 9 interventions for, 53–61
LDA: see Learning Disabilities Association neuropsychological assessment of, 48–53
Learned creativity, 95 nonverbal learning disability and, 70, 80, 81,
Learning disabilities 83, 84, 91–92
ADHD and, 114–115, 130, 131 remediation for, 47, 54–56
autism distinguished from, 163 specific, 46
defining,2–11 subgroups, 54–56
documentation of, 8–9 Mathematics Learning Style I, 57–59
educational definitions, 2–6 Mathematics Learning Style II, 57, 59–61
incidence of, 11–12 Matthew effect, 9
neuropsychological assessment of, 21–22 MCMI-III, 127, 128
prevalence of, 11–12 Medical License Examination, 9
rehabilitation perspective definitions, 7–11 Medical schools, 100–101
subtyping of, 4–6 Medications and Attention Disorders and Re-
Learning Disabilities Association (LDA), 56 lated Medical Problems (Copeland
Learning Disability Not Otherwise Specified and Copps), 137
(LD-NOS), 72 Meditation, 137
Left brain hemisphere, 70, 71, 76, 168 Memory
Left-handedness, 65, 66–67 high functioning autism and, 152–154, 156,
Levels of Literacy, 13 157, 158, 159, 166, 169, 175
Life-management skills, 141 mathematics disorders and, 52
Limbic ADD, 110 mnemonic-based training, 56
Limbic system, 110 nonverbal learning disability and, 85t, 87
Lindamood Auditory Conceptualization Test rote, 79, 175
(LAC), 23 short-term, 6
Linear learning of mathematics, 52, 57 working, 152, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159
Index 237
Mental retardation, 115, 149–150, 162 Neurobiological correlates

Metacognitive approaches of ADHD, 119–124
to nonverbal learning disability, 96–97 of dyslexia, 16–21
to reading and writing disorders, 31–34 of nonverbal learning disability, 76–77
Metaphorical language, 167, 169, 172–173 Neurochemical models of ADHD, 121–124
Methylphenidate, 134, 136; see also Concerta; Neurofibromatosis, 115
Ritalin Neuroimaging
Mexican Americans, 14 ADHD in, 110
Microtest Q Software, 127 dyslexia in, 19–21
Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory (MACI), Neuronal ectopias, 18
127 Neuropathological studies, of dyslexia, 18–19
Millon Adolescent Personality Inventory Neurophysiological findings, in ADHD,
(MAPI), 127 119–121
Mind mapping, 143 Neuropsychological assessment, 21–29
Minimal brain dysfunction, 106, 114, 116, 118 of ADHD, 128–134
MMPI, 92, 162 of high functioning autism, 162–170
Mnemonic-based memory training, 56 of language deficits in dyslexia, 23–27
Molecular genetic studies, of ADHD, 117–118 of learning disabilities, 21–22
Monoamine (dopaminergic) hypothesis of of mathematics disorders, 48–53
ADHD, 121 of nonverbal learning disability, 77–89
Motor function, 86t, 87 of reading disorders, 22-23
MRI: see Magnetic resonance imaging selection of comprehensive, 27–29
MRS: see Phosphorous Magnetic Resonance Neurotransmitters, 123–124
Spectroscopy Nicotine patches, 137
Multipass, 32-33 NLD: see Nonverbal learning disability
Multiple sclerosis, 115 NLTS: see National Longitudinal Transition
Muteness, in autism, 149, 151, 166 Study of Special Education Students
Myelin, 120 NMDA receptor, 123
Nonverbal learning disability (NLD), 48, 52,
Nadolol, 136 69–104, 179, 181
NALS: see National Adult Literacy Survey accommodations for, 93, 100–103
National Adult Literacy Survey (NALS), 12–13 case study, 83–89
National Advisory Committee on Handicapped characteristics of, 69–77
Children, 2 classification of, 70–71
National Board of Medical Examiners, 9, 38, definition, 72
134 diagnosis, 72
National Center for Education Statistics, 12 differential diagnosis, 72–75
National Education Goals Panel, 13 etiology and neurobiological correlates,
National Joint Committee of Learning Disabili- 76–77
ties, 80 incidence of, 75–76
National Longitudinal Transition Study of Spe- interventions for, 95–100
cial Education Students (NLTS), 12, neuropsychological assessment of, 77–89
13–14 prevalence of, 75–76
National Postsecondary Student Aid Study psychological adjustment in, 89–93
(NPSAS), 14 remediation for, 96–97
Nefazodone, 137 subtypes, 70
Nelson-Denny Reading Test, 26, 35, 85t, Norepinephrine, 122–123, 134
132–133 Norpramin, 136
Neuroanatomical network theory of attention, Nortriptyline, 136
121 NPSAS: see National Postsecondary Student
Neuroanatomical studies Aid Study
of ADHD, 119–121
Obsessive behaviors, 110, 115
of dyslexia, 18–19
Obsessive-compulsive disorders, 73, 115, 181
238 Index
Occipital lobe, 20 Phosphorous Magnetic Resonance Spectros-

O.H.I.O. (only handle it once), 143 copy (MRS), 160
Oligoantigenic diets, 137 Pig Latin Test, 26
Omni, 35 Planum temporale, 18
Open Book, 35 Positron emission tomography (PET), 19,
Operational dyscalculia, 46 20–21, 77, 120
Oppositional defiant disorder, 113, 118 Postsecondary educational settings
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) systems, ADHD in, 139–141
35 reading and writing disorders in, 29–39
Optimind, 40 “Practical Strategies for Teaching Writing” :
Orthographic coding, 17, 20, 24–25 (workbook), 33
Orton, J. L., 23 Predominantly Hyperactive/Impulsive Type of
Orton, S. T., 16 ADHD, 107, 108, 114, 126, 146, 148
Orton Dyslexia Society, 3 Predominantly Inattentive Type of ADHD, 107,
Orton-Gillingham approach to reading remedia- 108, 110, 114, 115, 126, 127, 134,
tion, 30 146, 148
Outcome studies Prefrontal cortex, 110, 121, 122, 123
of ADHD, 146–148 Prenatal factors in ADHD, 118–119
of reading disorders, 40–42 President’s Committee on Employment of Peo-
Overfocused ADD, 110, 137 ple with Disabilities, 145
Prevalence
Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT), of learning disabilities, 11–12
130, 133 of nonverbal learning disability, 75–76
Parietal lobe, 70, 155 of reading disorders, 12–15
Parkinson’s Disease, 115, 121 of writing disorders, 15–16
Paroxetine, 137 Price et al. v. The National Board of Medical
PASAT: see Paced Auditory Serial Addition Examiners, 38
Test Problem solving
Peer tutoring, 32 high functioning autism and, 159–160,
Pegboard tasks, 86t, 169 174–175
Pemoline (Cylert), 134, 135 nonverbal learning disability and, 86t, 87–88
Perceptual-motor skills, 168 Procedural knowledge, 3
Perinatal factors in ADHD, 118–119 Promoting Postsecondary Education for Stu-
Personality measures, ADHD in, 127–128 dents with Learning Disabilities
Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Other- (Brinkerhoff et al.), 39
wise Specified, 150 Propranolol, 136
PET: see Positron emission tomography Prose Recall, 23
Pharmacotherapy for ADHD, 134–139 Prozac, 122
Phoneme awareness, 22, 23, 24 Psychomotor function, 86t
Phonics, 29–30 Psychostimulants, 134–135
Phonological processing, 5, 6, 9, 19 Psychotherapy, 98–99
ADHD and, 131 Public Law 94-142: see Education for All
genetic influences on, 17 Handicapped Children Act of 1975
high functioning autism and, 171 Public Law 100-407: see Technology-Related
neuroimaging studies of, 20 Assitance Act of 1988
neuropsychological assessment of, 24, Pulvinar nucleus, 122
25–26, 27, 131
nonverbal learning disability and, 81 Race, 12, 13, 14, 16, 146–147
remediation for, 29–31 RADS: see Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale
Phosphodiesters(PDE), 160
Phosphomonoesters (PME), 160 “Rain Man, The” (film), 167
Index 239
Rapid Alternating Stimulus Test (RAS), 23 Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure (ROCF), 49,
RAS: see Rapid Alternating Stimulus Test 129, 162, 168
Rate disabilities, 6 Rhythm Test, 85t, 87
Reading comprehension, 180 Right brain hemisphere, 45, 70, 77, 88, 122,
high functioning autism and, 167, 169, 181
171–172 Right-left confusion, 51, 103
nonverbal learning disability and, 83, 84, 88 Ritalin, 122, 134, 138–139
Reading disorders, 1–42, 71, 180; see also Dys- Ritalin SR, 134
lexia ROCF: see Rey-Osterreith Complex Figure
accommodations for, 29–40 Rote memory, 79, 175
ADHD and, 114–115 RSA: see Rehabilitation Services Administra-
defining, 2–11 tion
in DSM-IV, 7–9
educational definitions, 2–3 Saccadic eye movements, 157
etiology and neurobiological correlates, SAT: see Scholastic Aptitude Test
16–21 Savants: see Autistic savants
follow-up and outcome studies, 40–42 Scaffolding, 32, 36, 54
genetic research on, 17–18 Schizophrenia, 76
incidence of, 12–15 Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), 14
interventions for, 29–40 SCID: see Structured Interview for the DSM-
mathematics disorders and, 52 III-R
neuroanatomical studies of, 18–19 SCL-90-R, 127, 128, 147
neuroimaging work, 19–21 Seizures, 169
neuropathological studies of, 18–19 Selective cholinergic channel activators, 137
neuropsychological assessment of, 22–23 Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
neuropsychological assessment of comorbid- (SSRIs), 137
ity in, 28–29 Self-report inventories, 124–127
nonverbal learning disability and, 80, 81, 92 Self-report sample with learning disabilities
prevalence of, 12–15 (SRLD), 12–13
rehabilitation perspective definitions, 7–11 Serotonin (5-HT), 122, 123
subtypes, 4–6, 181 Sertraline, 137
Reading Memory Test, 166 Shift factor, 156, 157
Recipe for Reading, 30 Short-term memory, 6
Reciprocal teaching, 31, 32 SIM: see Strategies Intervention Model
Recordings for the Blind & Dyslexic Single photon emission tomography (SPECT),
(RFB&D), 34 19, 110, 120
Reframing, 39–40 Smith’s Symbol Digit Modalities Test
Refrigerator parents, 152 (SSDMT), 133
Regional blood flow studies, 120 Smoking, 118, 137
Rehabilitation Act of 1973, 8, 38, 100, 101, Social-emotional learning disability, 73–74
140, 181 Social skills, 70, 96, 103, 150, 173, 177
Rehabilitation perspective on learning disabili- Spatial abilities, 87–88, 168
ties, 7–11 Spatial acalculia, 45, 48
Rehabilitation Services Administration (RSA), Spatial cognitive deficits, 6
7, 8, 93 Spatial processing deficits, 22
Reitan Aphasia Screening Test, 49 Specific mathematics disorder, 46
Remediation SPECT: see Single photon emission tomography
for mathematics disorders, 47, 54–56 Speed of test performance, 156
for nonverbal learning disability, 96–97 Spelling, 3, 16, 30, 31, 114
for reading disorders, 29–31 Spelling Development, Disability, and Instruc-
Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (AVLT), 23 tion (Moats), 31
Rey Complex Figure Drawing (CFT), 23, 86t SQ3R method, 33
Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale SSDMT: see Smith’s Symbol Digit Modalities
(RADS), 127 Test
240 Index
SSRIs: see Selective serotonin reuptake inhibi- Tricyclic antidepressants, 136, 137
tors Tuberous sclerosis, 150
Strategies Intervention Model (SIM), 32 Twenty Questions procedure, 159, 165, 167
Strategy training, 31–34 Twin Family Reading Study, 17
Strengths, capitalization on, 95 Twin studies, 17, 116
Stroke, 44, 61
Stroop Color-Word Interference Test, 85t, 87, University of Connecticut, 28
128, 129, 130, 133 University of Kansas, 32, 180
Structured Interview for the DSM-III-R University of Massachusetts, 180
(SCID), 91, 92 University of Pittsburgh, 180
Stuttering, 117 Urban Institute, 12
Substance abuse, 28, 113, 138; see also Alco-
hol abuse; Drug abuse Venlafaxine, 137
Subtypes Verbal Fluency Test (FAS), 23
of ADHD, 110–111 Verbalization, 143
of mathematics disorders, 54–56 Verbal learning disabilities, 158
of nonverbal learning disability, 70 Visualization, 143
of reading disorders, 4–6, 181 Visual-perceptual skills, 70, 71
Subtype-to-treatment matching, 97
Visual processing abnormalities, 18–19, 21
Sugar, 118 Visual-spatial functioning, 5, 79, 81, 83, 86t;
Suicide, 91 88, 160
Superior colliculus, 122
Vitamin megadose, 137
Superior parietal cortex, 122 Vocational choice, 64
Supported employment, 103 Vocational function, 93–94
Support groups, 99–100 Vocational rehabilitation, 81–82, 89, 90, 92,
Sustain factor, 156 93, 100, 182
Von Economo’s encephalitis, 121
Tactual Performance Test, 86t, 88
TEACCH, 177 WAIS: see Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
Technology-Related Assitance Act of 1988 (PL WCST: see Wisconsin Card Sorting Test
100-407), 34
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), 22,
Temporal Lobe ADD, 110 162
Temporal lobes, 110 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-III (WAIS-
Tenex (guanfacine), 137 III), 130–131, 162
Test anxiety, 98–99 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised
Test of Language Competence (TOLC), 167
(WAIS-R)
Test of Mathematical Abilities-2 (TOMA-2), ADHD and, 128, 129, 130
131–132 high functioning autism and, 157, 162, 163,
Test of Written Language-3 (TOWL-3), 27, 132 164f, 167, 169
Thalamus, 121, 123 language deficits and, 26
Tic disorders, 115 mathematics disorders and, 48–49, 50
Token Test, 167 nonverbal learning disability and, 84t, 86,
TOLC: see Test of Language Competence 87, 94
TOMA-2: see Test of Mathematical Abilities-2
Wechsler Intelligence Scale For Children-III (W1SC-III), 157
Tourette’s Syndrome, 28, 115, 117
TOWL-3: see Test of Written Language-3 Wechsler Intelligence Scale For Children-Re-
Trail Making Test vised (WISC-R), 128
ADHD and, 128, 133 Wechsler intelligence scales
high functioningautism and, 159, 165, 166, 168 high functioning autism and, 162, 163, 167,
nonverbal learning disability and, 86t
168
reading disorders and, 23
mathematics disorders and, 46, 51
Index 241
Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS), 166 Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement-Re-

Wechsler Memory Scale-III (WMS-III), 133 vised, 132
Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised (WMS-R), Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognition and
162 Achievement, 132
Wellbutrin: see Bupropion Woodcock Language Proficiency Battery-Re-
White matter model, 76 vised, 131, 132
Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT) Woodcock Psychoeducational Battery, 23
learning disabilities and, 22 Woodcock Reading Mastery Test, 26, 167
mathematics disorders and, 46, 48, 49, 55–56 Woodcock Reading Mastery Test-Revised,
Wide Range Achievement Test-III (WRAT-III), 158–159
131 “Word-Blindness in School Children” (Orton),
Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised 16
(WRAT-R) Work Flow Coaching program, 143–144
ADHD and, 129, 130 Working memory, 152, 155, 156, 157, 158
language deficits in dyslexia and, 26 Workplace accommodations
mathematics disorders and, 4 for ADHD, 144–146
nonverbal learning disability and, 85t, 86 for nonverbal learning disability, 102–103
reading disorders and, 4 for reading and writing disorders, 39–40
Williams Syndrome, 77 WRAT: see Wide Range Achievement Test
Wilson Reading System, 30 Writing disorders, 1, 4, 180
WISC: see Wechsler Intelligence Scale For in DSM-IV, 7, 8, 15, 73
Children educational definitions of, 3
Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) incidence and prevalence of, 15–16
ADHD and, 128, 129, 133–134 interventions and accommodations for, 29–40
high functioning autism and, 155, 159, 161, neuropsychological assessment of comorbid-
162, 165, 169, 174 ity in, 28–29
WMS: see Wechsler Memory Scale
Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Test Xerox, 35
Battery, 85t, 94

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PRACTITIONER’S GUIDE TO EVALUATING CHANGE WITH INTELLECTUAL

PRACTITIONER’S GUIDE TO EVALUATING CHANGE WITH

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY IN NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT,

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descriptive in nature as research involving adults has only recently begun to

We wish to extend our special thanks to Gladyce Coval, Executive Assistant to

Reading and Writing Disorders 1

Nonverbal Learning Disability 69

High Functioning Autism 149

Concluding Thoughts 179

In order to address the disorders of reading and writing as they manifest

DEFINING LEARNING DISORDERS

According to Lyon (1996), while only recognized as a federally designated

classification system is that identification, diagnosis, intervention, and

Dyslexia is one of several distinct learning disabilities. It is a specific

Subtyping as an identification approach

Definitions from a Rehabilitation Perspective: Eligibility vs. Entitlement

A specific learning disability is a disorder in one or more of the central

Adherence to DSM-IV Criteria

diagnosis, evaluation of impact, and recommendations. Together they establish

IQ/Achievement Discrepancy Controversy

Although federal law in the U.S. defines learning disabilities in terms of an

In line with these arguments, as early as 1992, Shaywitz, Escobar, Shaywitz,

% applied the term to their eligibility criteria. Sixty-seven percent of the

INCIDENCE AND PREVALENCE

Learning Disabilities in General

Developmental dyslexia (specific reading disability) has prevalence rates

Results from National Adult Literacy Survey

National Longitudinal Transition Study of Special Education Students

Again, no differentiation was made regarding the type of learning disabilities

National Postsecondary Student Aid Study

Connecticut Longitudinal Study

Disorder of Written Expression

Few epidemiological studies of disorders of written expression are available in

ETIOLOGY AND NEUROBIOLOGICAL CORRELATES

lateralization for language as a potential factor in reading disability (Orton,

and multifactorial inheritance. (Finucci et al., 1976; Lewitter, DeFries, and

Neuroanatomical and neuropathological Studies

According to Bigler, Lajiness-Oneill, and Howes (1998), the first CT

According to these investigators, results from both sets of studies, PET

CONTRIBUTIONS OF NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

Neuropsychological Assessment in Learning Disabilities