Table of Contents

Executive Summary.........................................................................................................iii

Preface.............................................................................................................................v

Introduction: Russian Naval History: From the Kievan Rus’ to Today’s Russia....................xiii

Chapter One: Strategy – Fulfilling National Missions.........................................................1

The Evolution of Naval Strategy........................................................................................1
Soviet Navy Roles and Missions.......................................................................................2

Chapter Two: Russian Navy: Structure and Leadership......................................................7

Organization...................................................................................................................7
Admiral Viktor Chirkov....................................................................................................9
Future Leadership............................................................................................................11

Chapter Three: Procurement: Shift to Quality Over Quantity............................................15

Procurement.....................................................................................................................15
Quality.............................................................................................................................15
The Future Fleet...............................................................................................................17
Naval Aviation.................................................................................................................30

Chapter Four: Personnel – Movement Towards a Professional Force.................................39

Outlook...........................................................................................................................43

Additional resources:
Posters of the Russian Navy Major Forces by Fleet, Russian Navy New Construction, and the Russian Federation Navy (map) are located
inside the back cover.

i
Published by the
Office of Naval Intelligence
December 2015
Cleared for public release by Defense Office of Prepublication and Security Review (DOPSR Case 16-S-0274)

This report contains copyrighted material. Copying and disseminating the contents are prohibited without the permission of the copyright owners. When feasible,
copyright permission has been sought for those pictures where copyright was known, and attribution to those sources, when known, has been given.

ii
Executive Summary

This publication, The Russian Navy – A battled to maintain that access, directly
Historic Transition, is intended to provide supported Russia’s land forces in times of
the reader with a basic introduction to the imperial expansion and in the expulsion of
Russian Navy and an appreciation of current invaders, been part of the strategic nuclear
developments that will shape Russia’s navy deterrence triad, and demonstrated a global
and its operations in the 21st century. presence in the national interest. Political and
military strategy and the role and mission of
Because the U.S. Navy operates worldwide the Navy evolved as the Russian state grew,
and the Russian Navy is an advanced, globally faced challenges, was transformed into the
capable force, its history, capabilities, missions, Soviet Union by revolution, repelled invasion,
and role within the Russian state and armed and encountered disintegration.
forces should be clearly understood. The
new technologically advanced Russian Navy, “The Russian Navy is being equipped with the
increasingly armed with the KALIBR family of
weapons, will be able to more capably defend
newest; including precision long-range strike
the maritime approaches to the Russian weapons, and has big nuclear power. Naval
Federation and exert significant influence in forces today are capable of operating for a
adjacent seas. This multi-purpose force will be long time and with high combat readiness in
the forward-layered defense of Russia and its operationally important areas of the global
maritime exclusive economic zone and will be ocean.”
able to promote Russian diplomatic interests,
advance maritime science, combat piracy, and
- Admiral Viktor Chirkov
provide humanitarian assistance. Commander-in-Chief, Russian Navy

It will also provide a flexible platform for

Russia to demonstrate offensive capability, Throughout, the navy retained, with some
threaten neighbors, project power regionally, adjustment for the passing years and
and advance President Putin’s stated goal of events, many of the basic organizational,
returning Russia to clear great power status. procedural, and personnel practices that
were laid down by its founder, Peter I
Over its 320-year history, the Russian Navy (the Great), at the beginning of the 18th
has been instrumental in securing Russia’s century. As the years passed, Russia’s naval
maritime access to the world, periodically activity and the shipbuilding and weapons

iii
production capabilities required to advance interest, manned by a new generation of post-
it became ever more sophisticated and Soviet officers and enlisted personnel.
varied. In addition to production for its own
needs, foreign sales shifted from selling The research, technical development, and
masts, caulking pitch, and rope to a variety production enabling the achievement of
of highly capable ships, submarines, and these goals have and will continue to be
related weapons systems today sold to or co- accompanied by a robust program of naval
produced with a number of foreign states. arms sales to other countries. The quantity
and quality of the ships, submarines, and
As Russia asserts itself on the world stage, armaments sold will transform the current
it is giving priority of effort and funding to capabilities of recipient states and, in some
recapitalizing its navy, which is going through cases, potentially enable them to improve the
a major transition from the legacy Soviet Navy quality of indigenous arms production.
to a Russian Navy that should reflect the latest
achievements of Russian advances in science
and technology. “Thanks to the bravery of sailors, the talent
of shipbuilders, and the daring of explorers,
On the basis of currently available data it is pioneers, and naval leaders our nation has
projected that the Russian Navy will retain its
core missions. Although the national defense
held fast as a great maritime power. This
mission of the strategic and general purpose status is a huge responsibility for us as we
navy has remained, today’s fiscal realities face history, our ancestors who created
require that the decreased number of major Russia’s maritime glory, and, of course, future
naval platforms be multi-mission capable generations to whom we must pass a modern
and armed with the latest capabilities in and strong Navy.”
weapons; sensors; and command, control,
communications, computer, intelligence,
- Vladimir Putin, President
surveillance, and reconnaissance (C4ISR) Russian Federation Navy Day, 26 July 2015
systems. Russia has begun, and over the next
decade will make large strides in fielding a
21st century navy capable of a dependable
national defense, an impressive but limited
presence in more distant global areas of

NOTE: The contents of this publication reflect information gathered from a broad range of publicly available
source material that is considered to be effectively accurate and authoritative.

iv
Preface

After the disintegration of the Soviet Union in organizational disarray and financial neglect as
December 1991, Russia inherited the majority the Russian leadership focused on the priorities
of the former Soviet Navy, including its afloat of national transformation from the framework
assets, naval bases, and an extensive network of the totalitarian and socialist Soviet state into
of shore facilities. a fledgling democracy embracing a market
economy. During this “time of troubles,”
The immediate post-Soviet period was fraught most naval programs were either suspended
with major difficulties as the Soviet Navy first or halted altogether. Only efforts to improve
became the Commonwealth of Independent command and control systems and less-
States (CIS) Navy and finally transitioned expensive new design work continued to be
to the Russian Federation (Russian) Navy pursued.
(RFN). These early years were marked by

Admiral Kuznetzov at anchor Severomorsk

v
Russia inherited virtually all of a huge legacy were justified on the basis that it was better to
Soviet Navy, however—largely because Fleet concentrate limited funds and effort and save
Admiral of the Soviet Union Sergey Gorshkov, some of the best and most useful ships and
Commander-in-Chief of the Soviet Navy for submarines rather than attempt to save all and
almost 30 years, wanted to keep what he had thereby save nothing.
built—many of the Soviet Navy’s submarines,
surface ships, and auxiliaries had long outlived Since 2000, as Russia’s governmental order
their usefulness, but were retained to maintain and economy have stabilized, there has been
impressive numbers. The post-Soviet naval a focused and funded effort to revitalize
leadership faced daunting decisions to triage the Russian military—including the Navy.
this legacy. Once assessments were made Suspended construction programs are
and decisions taken, fully three-quarters to now moving toward completion and new
five-sixths of the Soviet-era inventory was construction programs are beginning to
written off. Even some submarines and surface provide the Navy with 21st-century submarine
ships that were both combat-capable and and surface platforms.
had service lives remaining were removed if
deemed no longer cost-effective to maintain Another issue, dividing the Black Sea portion
(about one-third had long expired service of the Soviet Navy with newly independent
lives; another third was composed of units Ukraine, was settled only in 1997. As part of
deemed no longer combat-effective under this process, Russia concluded a base lease
current warfare conditions). Difficult decisions agreement with Ukraine under which Russia
retained use of more than 100 naval facilities
on the Crimean Peninsula through 2017. The
lease agreement provided for the possibility of
bi-laterally agreed extensions, and in 2010, it
was mutually agreed to extend the agreement
for 25 years through 2042 with a possible
additional five years (through 2047) through
the Russian-Ukrainian naval base for gas
agreement, or Kharkiv Pact.

In March 2014, Russian military actions led

to its annexation of Crimea, an act which
abrogated the lease agreement. The United
States does not recognize Russia’s annexation
Russian Naval Infantryman participating in an of Crimea.
amphibious landing

vi
Ministry of Defense Armed conflict. An armed conflict can have
The Russian Federation Ministry of Defense an international character (involving two or
website addresses the missions of the Russian more states) or an internal character (with the
Armed Forces. These have evolved due to the conduct of armed combat within the borders
changing foreign political situation of recent of one state’s territory).
years and new domestic priorities to ensure
national security. These missions are structured An armed conflict can be the consequence
along four basic directions: of the growth of an armed incident, a border
• Deterrence of military and military- conflict, armed actions, and other armed
political threats to the security or interests collisions of limited scale, in which means of
of the Russian Federation armed combat are used to resolve the conflict.
• Ensuring the economic and political
interests of the Russian Federation Local war. A war between two or more states,
• Conducting operations by armed forces limited in political goals, in which military
in peacetime actions are conducted, as a rule, within
• Use of military force (wartime) the boundaries of the belligerent states and
dominantly touch only the interests of these
The peculiarity of the development of the states (territorial, economic, political, etc.).
world military-political situation makes it
possible for the execution of one mission A local war can be conducted by groups of
to grow into another, because the more troops deployed in the conflict region, with
problematic political situations—from Russia’s possible reinforcement by the deployment of
point of view of its security—have a complex supplementary forces from other axes and
and multi-dimensional character. with the conduct of a partial mobilization.
Under certain conditions, local wars can grow
One of the forms of resolving political, into a regional or large-scale war.
national-ethnic, regional, territorial, and other
conflicts is using armed warfare when the state Regional war. A war with the participation
(or states) participating in military actions does of two or more states (groups of states) or a
not transition to the particular condition called region with national or coalition armed forces,
war. As a rule, the parties pursue individual using both conventional and nuclear means
military-political goals in armed conflict. of attack on a territory defined by the bounds
of one region and its adjacent maritime
The Russian Armed Forces train for direct or oceanic waters, air, and outer space, in
participation in the following types of defined* the course of which the parties will pursue
military conflicts: important military-political goals.

*these are Russian definitions

vii
The full deployment of the armed forces,
economy, and the great intensity of all of the
forces of the participating states are necessary
for the conduct of regional war. In case states or
their allies having nuclear weapons participate,
a regional war is characterized by the threat of
transitioning to the use of nuclear weapons.

Large-scale war. A war between coalitions of

states or major states of the world community
that can be the result of the escalation of
armed conflict or a local or regional war by
the involvement of a significant number of Russian Naval Midshipmen in parade formation
states from various regions of the world. In a
large-scale war, parties pursue radical military-
political goals, and the mobilization of all In doing the above, the Russian Armed Forces
available material resources and spiritual forces must be able to:
of the participating states is required. • In peacetime and in emergency
situations, while preserving the potential
Russian Military Planning for strategic deterrence and fulfilling the
Contemporary Russian military planning is missions of maintaining combat readiness
based on a realistic understanding of the by permanent ready troops without
current resources and capabilities of the conducting supplementary mobilization
Russian Federation. It assumes that the Russian activity, successfully execute missions
Armed Forces, together with other troops, in two armed conflicts of any type, and
must be ready—together with the strategic also conduct peacekeeping operations
deterrent forces and the maneuver of the both independently and as part of a
permanent ready forces—to: multinational coalition.
• repulse an attack and to attack the • Were the military-political and military-
aggressor, strategic situation to become more acute,
• conduct active operations (defensive as ensure the strategic deployment of the
well as offensive) under any variant of Russian Armed Forces and deter an
the unleashing and conduct of war and escalation of the situation.
armed conflict with the enemy, massively • In wartime, use available forces to repulse
using current and future means of attack, an enemy aero-space attack, and after a
including all types of weapons of mass full-scale strategic deployment, execute
destruction. missions in two local wars simultaneously.

viii
The Armed Forces • Naval Infantry and Coastal Missile and
The Armed Forces structurally comprise three Artillery Troops
services: • Naval shore establishment (headquarters,
• Ground Forces communications, intelligence, maintenance
• Air and Air Defense Forces and repair, education and training, etc.)
• Navy
and three branches: The Navy’s peacetime missions are:
• Strategic Missile Troops (Strategic Rocket • Deter. Maintain strategic nuclear deterrent
Forces) forces—strategic nuclear-powered ballistic
• Aerospace Defense Troops (Space Troops) missile submarines (SSBNs)—in permanent
• Airborne Troops ready status, able to deliver a timely
retaliatory strike or deploy in times of
Navy growing tension to deter an attack against
The Navy is the Russian Armed Forces’ service Russia.
whose mission is the armed protection of • Defend. Maintain and deploy constant
Russia’s interests and the conduct of combat ready general-purpose naval forces to
operations in maritime and oceanic theaters protect and defend Russia’s national
of military operations. The Navy is capable interests both in adjacent seas as well as in
of delivering nuclear and conventional strikes more distant waters.
against an enemy’s land facilities, destroying • Demonstrate. Use the select deployment
enemy naval formations at sea and in base, of general-purpose forces as an
interdicting enemy maritime and oceanic sea “instrument of state” to support Russian
lines of communication while protecting its foreign policy.
own shipping, cooperating with ground forces
in continental theaters of military operations, In times of increased tension and war, the
making amphibious landings, repelling enemy Navy’s priority missions are:
landings, and fulfilling other missions. • Protect. Protect the sea-based strategic
deterrent force.
The Russian Navy is composed of • Interdict. Interdict or blunt an aero-space
interconnected components, spanning the attack against Russia from the maritime
gamut from combat forces to all elements of directions.
supporting infrastructure:
• Command staff Strategic Deterrence
• Submarine forces The Russian Navy contributes to Russia’s
• Surface forces strategic nuclear deterrent forces by
• Naval auxiliaries maintaining nuclear-powered ballistic
• Naval aviation missile-armed submarines (SSBNs) carrying

ix
intercontinental range surface ships, and
ballistic missiles. aircraft out to about
These missiles can be 1,000nm from
launched while the Russia’s frontier,
SSBNs are surfaced with the intention
and moored at their of eliminating or
homeports, while blunting the effects
they are on patrol in of such long range
protected waters in land attack cruise
seas adjacent to Russia, missiles by attacking
or after surfacing SSBN Yuriy Dolgorukiy at sunset their launching
through the ice when platforms (surface
patrolling under the Arctic ice pack. ships, submarines, and aircraft). These forward-
deployed forces could be protected by their
Strategic “Bastions” own self-defense means as well as by fighter
SSBN patrol areas in adjacent seas, generally aircraft deployed on an aircraft carrier.
referred to as “bastions,” are protected against
enemy forces by a combination of fixed Intermediate/close-in defense. Were enemy
sensor installations, and anti-submarine forces naval forces to more closely approach Russian
composed of submarines, surface ships, and territory, they would encounter smaller surface
aircraft. combatants and diesel submarines armed with
anti-ship and anti-submarine cruise missiles
Layered Defense and torpedoes. The immediate approaches
The Navy is Russia’s only armed forces service would be defended by coastal defense anti-
capable of providing for an extended layered ship cruise missiles and mine fields. Direct
defense of Russian territory. This approach is assaults on coastal territory would encounter
predicated on engaging potential enemy forces Naval Infantry and Ground Forces.
as soon as their long-range weapons can
threaten and be brought to bear on Russian Legal Basis
territory. For the purposes of illustration, such Russian military and naval activity and
threat weapons could be long range land organization are defined by a series of
attack cruise missiles. fundamental documents at the national level.
They are:
Forward defense. In order to provide for • Russian Federation Constitution, 12
forward defense, the Russian Navy could December 1993
deploy anti-ship and anti-submarine missile- • Russian Federation law “On Security,” 15
armed nuclear-powered submarines, major December 2010

x
• Russian Federation law “On the State
Defense Order,” 29 December 2012
• Russian Federation law “On Defense,” 31
May 1996 (as amended)
o Section IV. Russian Federation Armed
Forces, other Troops, and military
formations and organizations
o Article 10. Russian Federation Armed
Forces and their purpose, Para 2. The
purpose of the Russian Federation
Armed Forces is to repulse aggression
directed against the Russian Federation,
the armed protection of the integrity
and inviolability of Russian Federation
territory, and the conduct of missions in
accordance with federal constitutional
laws and the Russian Federation’s
international treaties.
• Military Doctrine, Presidential decree of 5
February 2010, as updated December 2014
• Russian Federation Maritime Doctrine
through 2020, Presidential decree of 27 July
2001, updated through July 2015
• Regulation “On the Ministry of Defense,”
Presidential decree of 16 August 2004, as
amended through 27 June 2007
• Russian Federation National Security
Strategy through 2020, Presidential decree
of 12 May 2009 (superceded National
Security Concepts of 1997 and 2000)

xi
“Any ruler that has but ground troops
has one hand, but one that has also a
navy has both.”
- Peter the Great

xii
Introduction:

Russian Naval History

From the Kievan Rus’ to Today’s Russia . . .
Three Centuries Toward a Modern Navy
Today, the Russian Federation (Russia), though
smaller than at any time since Catherine the
Great in the 18th century—contemporane-
ous with Colonial America—is still the largest
country by area in the world. A little noted fact
is that its coastline is more than 2.5 times as
long as its land frontiers.

Although Russia has one centrally managed

Navy, due to Russia’s geography, it should
be viewed as functionally four and one half
Painting depicting Peter the Great as a naval leader
navies: the Northern Fleet, Baltic Fleet, Black
Sea Fleet, the Pacific Fleet, and the Caspian
Flotilla. In October 2016, the Russia Navy will to the Teutonic Knights and the Swedes. The
celebrate the 320th anniversary of its founding center of power shifted from Kiev to Moscow.
by Peter I (the Great) in 1696.
Only during the reigns of Ivan III (the Great)
Early Days and Ivan IV (the Terrible) in the 16th century
Russian seafaring goes back to Kievan Rus’ in did Russia begin seriously to roll back the
the 9th century when medieval commerce invaders and take steps to regain maritime
was active along the north-south riverine trade access to the south. By this time, Russia was
route “from the Varangians (Vikings) to the already engaged in international maritime
Greeks” connecting the Baltic and the Black trade with Europe through the port of
Seas. In the south, direct access to the Black Arkhangelsk on the White Sea. This port had
Sea carried trade to Constantinople (Istanbul). access to the Barents and Norwegian Seas and
From the 12th century on, coastal residents of beyond but was seasonally blocked by ice.
the north voyaged to Novaya Zemlya and to
what is today called Spitsbergen. The Mongol In the early years of the Romanov dynasty
invasions of the 12th century displaced Kievan in the mid-17th century, Russia reached the
Rus’ and unrestricted commercial access to Sea of Okhotsk and the Pacific, eventually
the Black Sea was lost. As the Rus’ battled the acquiring Alaska, establishing a colonial capital
Mongols, tenuous access to the Baltic was lost at Novo-arkhangelsk (“New Arkhangelsk”),

xiii
now Sitka, Alaska, and a coastal provisioning
outpost at Fort Ross just 65 miles north of San
Francisco, California.

The Imperial Navy Established

The foundation of today’s Russian access to
the western seas and the Russian Navy was
laid by Peter I (the Great) when he ordered the
establishment of a regular navy in 1696. In the
early 18th century, Russia gained permanent
access to the Baltic Sea by defeating Sweden,
then the preeminent Baltic Sea power, in
the Great Northern War. The Russian Baltic
Fleet was established in 1703. Peter the
Great also personally drew up the first Naval
Regulations, the form and design of the Navy’s
St. Andrew’s flag, ensign, signal flags, signal
code, and established the Admiralty Board.
Even the focal point of the urban design of
St. Petersburg, Russia’s imperial capital and
“window to the West,” was and remains the
Admiralty, the headquarters of the Russian
Navy, built on Peter’s order.
The Admiralty in St. Petersburg
In the late 18th century under Catherine II
(the Great), Russia finally gained a permanent
foothold on the Black Sea and access to the of Steam.” It also witnessed three more wars
Mediterranean through the Turkish Straits. The with Turkey to ensure the Black Sea Fleet
first Russian naval squadron to operate in the access to the Mediterranean. The first was in
Mediterranean was formed from the Baltic 1806–1812, when Russia dispatched a naval
Fleet and fought victoriously against the Turks, squadron to the Mediterranean composed
sinking the Ottoman fleet at Chesme in 1770. of Baltic Fleet ships under the command
In 1783, the city of Sevastopol was founded of F.F. Ushakov. The Crimean War came
and the Black Sea Fleet came into existence. in 1853–56 and saw both the world’s last
naval battle under sail at the Battle of Sinope
The 19th century saw the Russian Navy and then the first between steam-powered
transition from the “Age of Sail” to the “Age ships. In the end, Russia was out-gunned

xiv
and out-maneuvered by an allied force of The Soviet Navy
dominantly steam-driven ships. The third When the Bolsheviks finally established
war, in 1877–78, saw the first use of what control over all of Russia after the Russian
can be considered the forerunner of modern Civil War that followed the Revolution, the
torpedoes. There were also two wars with naval forces were tattered and scattered. A
Persia in 1803–1813 and 1826–1827 in significant portion of the remainder that had
which the Caspian Flotilla participated and survived Tsushima and World War I had
gained a secure foothold along the northern fled the country, carrying refugees to various
Caspian Sea. Western countries. A large part of the Imperial
Black Sea Fleet found is last anchorage in
The Russian naval advances and achievements Bizerte, Algeria.
in the 1800s were brought to an end at the
beginning of the 20th century by the Battle The institutions of the Navy carried on, led
of Tsushima Straits in the Russo-Japanese War by officers who considered themselves
of 1904–1905. The Russian Pacific Fleet was apolitical and wished to remain to serve their
unprepared for the developed might of the country. The new order accepted them, but
Japanese Navy. In an early engagement the with conditions. They were never fully trusted
cruiser Varyag perished in an uneven battle at and “political officers” were assigned to watch
Chemulpo (Incheon). To reinforce the Pacific over their actions and decisions, which had
Fleet, a late decision was made to send a to be countersigned by the political officers in
sizable portion of the Baltic Fleet, Russia’s order to be valid. The final chapter for many
largest, around Africa and through the Indian of them was written by bullets in blood when
Ocean to attempt to turn the tide of battle. By the purges (“repressions”) of the 1930s swept
the time the fleet neared Japan, it was weary away the loyal and experienced vestiges of
and worn from the 220-day transit. The the past. Under Joseph Dzhugashvili (Stalin),
Japanese Navy made short work of the pride the forced fulfillment of ambitious plans for
of the Russian Navy. massive industrialization was undertaken.
These plans included the recapitalization of
Plans were made to rebuild the Navy. In 1913, shipyards, including the large shipyards in
the lead unit of the NOVIK Class destroyers Leningrad (St. Petersburg) and Nikolayev, and
was delivered, capable of an impressive 37.7 the construction of an entirely new shipyard
knots. at Severodvinsk (originally called Sudostroy,
then Molotovsk) on the White Sea. Likewise,
The navy that was lost at Tsushima was barely designs were drawn up for new warships,
beginning to be replaced when the next blow both surface and submarines. Once again, the
fell—the Russian Revolution of 1917. construction of a new navy had begun.

xv
The Great Patriotic War The southern front saw the Germans
And, once again, catastrophe intervened. overwhelm Crimea. The forces of the Black
On 22 June 1941, Nazi Germany invaded Sea Fleet retreated to Novorossiysk and
the Soviet Union: Operation Barbarossa had from there assisted the counter-offensive that
begun. Though there had been indications of eventually repelled and ejected the invader. It
eastward German troop movements, the only was in these actions that then Rear Admiral
formation of the Soviet Armed Forces that was S.G. Gorshkov, in charge of the naval forces,
fully combat-ready that day was the Baltic came in close contact with N.S. Khrushchev
Fleet. Navy Commander-in-Chief Admiral and L.I. Brezhnev, both of whom were political
N.G. Kuznetsov had taken upon himself the officers in this sector of the war.
responsibility for issuing the readiness order
without waiting for the normal functioning of
the military bureaucracy. To illustrate the extent of the German
invasion of the Soviet Union and its
The German forces laid siege to Leningrad consequences in terms more familiar to
for 900 days and advanced to the outskirts of a U.S. audience, envision the following:
Moscow. Many Baltic Fleet ships managed Nazi Germany geographically abutting
to retreat to Leningrad where they continued the United States’ eastern seaboard with
to function as slightly mobile long-range no intervening land or water. In the early
artillery and anti-aircraft batteries. While morning of 22 June 1941, the invading forces
the German Navy dominantly succeeded in would have simultaneously advanced on a
front stretching from Boston, Massachusetts
“bottling up” the fleet in the Gulf of Finland
to Savannah, Georgia. The United States
using thousands of mines as “corks,” some
would be forced to move all of its east coast
Soviet diesel submarine crews managed to heavy industries to the Rocky Mountains.
thread the minefields and inflict considerable The farthest point of German penetration
damage on German shipping in the Baltic. would be Des Moines, Iowa, and the great
Many of the fleet’s sailors and officers and all tank Battle of Kursk would take place in
of the Naval Infantry joined the ranks of the Cincinnati, Ohio. Instead of the WWII U.S.
ground forces to stop the invader and pushed military death toll of some 400,000, there
him back. would be upward of at least 12 million (25+
million by others), counting both servicemen
German advances in the north effectively and civilians, with most of their blood shed
into their own soil. This traumatic event
contained counterattack operations by the
was seared into the consciousness of every
Northern Fleet operating out of the Kola Gulf
Soviet citizen and all would continue to
and the White Sea. And here also, submarine sacrifice much to ensure that war would
crews were able to slip out and inflict not come again.
damage.

xvi
Once Germany was defeated, the wartime When cruise missiles were added to surface
alliance between the U.S., U.K., and the ships in the 1950s, the age of long-range naval
Soviet Union evaporated and the chill of the artillery duels was a thing of the past. Of
Cold War soon set in. Interpreting the Soviet course, every advance in a capability to attack
advance into Eastern Europe and the retention called forth efforts to provide for an effective
of control there differently, both East and West defense. Extensive efforts were focused on
warily eyed each other. developing anti-submarine warfare (ASW)
capabilities by using submarines, surface ships,
The development and use of the atom bomb helicopters, long-range aviation, and fixed
cast the long shadow of its mushroom cloud sensor systems.
over all military calculations. The world did
not yet know all of the consequences and By the late 1960s, under the able and
after-effects of radiation exposure and many visionary leadership of Fleet Admiral of the
considered the development of nuclear Soviet Union S.G. Gorshkov and his close
arsenals to be yet another step in future personal connections with the leadership
warfighting. of the Communist Party and Government,
the USSR had built and was continuing to
On the naval side, the Soviet Union once construct an impressive navy. In response to
again developed programs to rebuild. the mention of the huge numbers of hastily
The acquisition of German technology, built platforms with a tone that questioned
documentation, and scientists allowed both their quality, a Soviet naval officer reportedly
the USSR and the West to advance their naval said, “Quantity has a quality of its own.” The
capabilities. The war had shown the utility of 1974 first edition of the U.S. Department of the
longer-range weapons: the German V-1 “flying Navy publication “Understanding Soviet Naval
bomb” cruise missiles and the V-2 ballistic Developments” noted the general-purpose
missiles became the starting points for the Soviet Navy as having 245 active nuclear-
development of whole families of ground- and powered and diesel-electric submarines and
sea-launched weapons. The launch of the USS 222 major surface warships. In addition, there
Nautilus ushered in the age of naval nuclear were 61 nuclear-powered and diesel-electric
power and true submarines—warships that ballistic missile submarines.
could dive and operate submerged, limited
only by the endurance of their human crew. By the 1970s, the leadership of both the U.S.
When cruise and ballistic missiles were and the USSR decided that the arms race
added to submarines, the capability to hold could not go on unchecked. Negotiations led
an adversary at risk or the ability to launch a to treaties limiting strategic nuclear arms, first
surprise attack was greatly increased. SALT and then START. Other negotiations
led to a bilateral agreement aimed at making

xvii
 the middle-aged M.S. Gorbachev succeeded
the quickly dying geriatric parade of Brezhnev,
Andropov, and Chernenko, a time of change
came to the USSR. For the first time since
the Revolution, things could be described
as they really were, rather than as the Party
ideology insisted they be. Growing global
communications capabilities broke down the
barriers of radio jamming and press censorship.
The massive but fragile Soviet edifice began
to show cracks, and on Christmas Day, 25
December 1991, it disintegrated.

A wave of information and change swept away

the fossilized dogmas of the past. Both sides
realized that, absent the Communist ideology
that had preached an inevitable clash and
even a nuclear war between the U.S. and
the USSR, a mortal confrontation was not
inevitable and a nuclear war was unwinnable.
Greater transparency showed that neither
side wished to attack or invade the other. This
specifically led to the realization that there was
much to be done to rebuild and renew Russia
Fleet Admiral of the Soviet Union
after some 70 years of isolation. The Armed
S.G. Gorshkov
Forces could be downsized and refocused on
essential defensive missions and on providing
close encounters at sea more safe and less stability for internal development.
hazardous—the 1972 Agreement for the
Prevention of Incidents On and Over the New Russia and Its Navy
High Seas (INCSEA)—which continues to The historical transition from communism to
function today. capitalism, and the end of the Communist
Party at the end of the 20th century, turned
Disintegration of the USSR out to be extremely painful and bordering
With the passing of the WW-II generation on the chaotic. The Russian ship of state was
from the leadership of the Soviet Union, new sailing into stormy, unknown waters with an
thinking and new opportunities arose. When experienced captain (Boris Yeltsin) at the helm,

xviii
 develop new, more modern and capable
designs and systems.

The organization and fiscal stability achieved

since 2005 has permitted budgeting for
and financing of critically needed new
construction. The Russian Navy still retains
the essential missions of its Soviet predecessor,
all geared toward the defense of the territorial
integrity and sovereignty of the Russian state
and the protection and promotion of its
Russian Navy Honor Guard in Norfolk, VA interests. Today’s global realities may allow
it to accomplish these missions with fewer
but one unfamiliar with this class of ship and means and lesser cost, which would be
lacking accurate charts. Its crew was new, their advantageous, because navies are expensive
uniforms were tattered, and its threadbare and each generation of armaments takes more
pockets were almost empty. Everybody was than a decade to develop, design, and build.
thrown into a crash course of survival and on-
the-job-training as Russia turned yet another Today, the Russian Navy once again stands
momentous page of its history. at a point of transition and renewal, as it has
at various times in the preceding centuries of
Sailing into uncharted waters, the Navy could its history. The 21st century is beginning with
not avoid the shoals and shallows. With the different challenges and opportunities, and
now-acceptable ability to see and speak the Russia envisions its new 21st-century Navy
truth, it was obvious that much of Admiral to be built and manned to effectively face
Gorshkov’s once-impressive Navy was those challenges and fulfill its missions while
inoperative, obsolete, or in need of more carrying on the best traditions of its illustrious
attention than the results would merit. In the but often rocky and painful past.
course of some 10 years, from 1995–2005,
naval leadership made painful triage decisions.
The choices were stark: try to save most and
lose all, or try to maintain the most capable
and invest in the future. The latter was the
wise choice. As a result, the Russian Navy
today is about one-sixth to one-quarter the
size of the Soviet Navy in its heyday. The
fallow years of the 1990s were used to

xix
xx
Chapter One:

Strategy –
Fulfilling National Missions

The Evolution of Naval Strategy

Over three centuries, Russian naval strategy Russia’s early expansion to the north with
has transitioned from developing approaches maritime access to the White and Barents
and capabilities to acquire access for Seas and to the east with access to the Sea of
commerce to open seas in the west to Okhotsk and the North Pacific Ocean beyond
developing effective and credible anti-access was not met with opposition and did not
approaches and capabilities to deter or defend necessitate the development of any serious
against long-range aerospace capabilities to either offensive or defensive naval capability
attack Russia from the sea in the west, north, in those directions.
and east. However, even today, Russia’s
need for access to open seas remains a vital In the 19th century, Russia continued to work
concern in the Baltic and Black Seas. to secure access to open seas in the face of
the developing European naval capabilities
Russia’s early requirement for a regular Navy often arrayed against it. The only strategy
during the reign of Peter I (the Great) in the available was to develop better ships and
early 18th century was occasioned by the need weapons and to train and educate its naval
to break out of its riverine constraints and to leaders and ship’s crews to fight better.
secure access to the open sea. To do so, Russia Because the essence of Russian military power
needed a fleet that could both support the lay in its ground forces, it was the success of
actions of the army and effectively confront those forces that backed the diplomacy and
enemy ships at sea. The focus of Russian Navy naval actions that eventually secured access
actions at this time was to defeat Turkish forces to the open seas. That access from the Baltic
blocking access to the Black Sea via the Sea of Sea and the Black Sea is still more dependent
Azov and Swedish forces preventing access to on the combination of diplomacy and the
the Baltic through the Volkhov and Neva Rivers. existence of military power than on the
Russia’s approach was to build numerous massive demonstration of it.
relatively small but easily-maneuverable oared
sail-augmented galleys and watercraft mounting Due to Russia’s internal economic and
cannon. The use of such craft gave Russia political situation at the beginning of the
an asymmetrical advantage over the larger 20th century and into World War I, the
sail men-of-war of its adversaries, permitting Russian Navy had not received sufficient
Russian naval victories in both theaters. governmental support and was not in a

1
position to significantly contribute to the advance of the German Army in its surprise
operations of a weak Russian army in the attack on the USSR (Operation Barbarossa)
context of a ground war in Europe. In the Far supported by the German Navy effectively
East, the limited capabilities of the Pacific Fleet bottled up the Baltic Fleet once it withdrew
and the basing of a portion of it in China at to bases in and near Leningrad in the Gulf
the leasehold of Port Arthur did not permit of Finland. Even the fact that the Soviet
mounting an adequate defense against attack fleet was put on war readiness just before
by a more capable and numerically larger the start of the offensive was not enough to
Japanese Navy. The geographic reality of stall the German advance in the Baltic. The
Russia’s widely separated maritime frontage Soviet Northern Fleet, which was just being
did not in 1904 and still does not today developed in the 1930s, was also forced
support the strategic utility of sending ships into a defensive posture. The same fate befell
from one fleet to support another in their the Black Sea Fleet, which was significantly
defensive missions. diminished with the capture of Sevastopol.
Most naval personnel ended up fighting
Each fleet and the Caspian Flotilla must ashore alongside the army as the entire
be effectively self-sufficient to perform its nation fought to expel the invader.
missions in its region of responsibility in
conjunction with whatever other armed forces By the end of the war, resistance and exploits
branches are directly available. by a handful of submarine crews in the Baltic
and North and the construction of numerous
Soviet Navy Roles and Missions small craft in the Black Sea allowed the Soviet
The early Soviet Period saw the virtual Navy to support the Red Army in rolling back
disappearance of the Navy with most of its the invader. In the Pacific, the modest forces
ships either sunk or scuttled during World War of the Pacific Fleet entered the war close to
I or removed to foreign ports by departing the last moment in order to join in the spoils
contingents of forces opposing the Bolshevik of victory. This overall experience left an
Revolutions and Communist rule. Prior to indelible imprint on the Soviet political and
World War II, the Soviet Union worked military establishment, and for many years, the
steadily to rebuild its navy and the navy’s Navy’s role remained the support of the Army.
mission together with that of the Red Army In fact, Soviet military theoreticians asserted
was limited to protecting the gains of the that because of the nature of the Soviet Navy,
Revolution. there could not be a “naval strategy” as
distinct from “military strategy.”
World War II - the Great Patriotic War. The
onset of World War II found the Soviet Navy Post-war Soviet Navy. After the war, the Soviet
in a defensive posture at its bases. The rapid Union once again embarked on building a

2
navy; however, the pace was slow and the Strategic Deterrence. The development of
Navy’s mission remained ill-defined. the ballistic missile submarine changed the
strategic playing field. The adversary could
Post Cuban Missile Crisis. When the Soviet now be threatened with assured destruction
Union was embarrassed over the 1962 Cuban from invisible platforms lurking in the offshore
Missile Crisis, it provided Admiral Gorshkov, ocean depths. At first, Soviet submarine-
Commander-in-Chief of the Soviet Navy launched ballistic missiles were of relatively
for almost 30 years, with the opportunity short range, necessitating long transits to get
and justification to promote equipping the within target range. They also made noisy
Navy with capabilities significantly beyond Soviet submarines vulnerable to detection
those required for the direct support of and prosecution by fixed acoustic sensor
the Army. Gorshkov postulated that the systems, shore-based maritime patrol aircraft,
Navy, acting relatively alone, could achieve and attack submarines and surface ships. The
decisive strategic goals in Oceanic Theaters development of longer-range ballistic missiles
of Military Operations (Oceanic TMOs; in allowed the submarines that carried them to
Russian: Oceanic TVD). Pursuing his vision patrol closer to their home bases where they
and using his close wartime connections with could be protected by various general-purpose
the Soviet political leadership, he was able forces and even reach their targets from their
to push through robust weapons and sensor home piers or after surfacing through the
development as well as shipbuilding programs. Arctic icecap.

These programs gave the Soviet Navy a role Conventional Forces. Robust, general-purpose
in strategic defense by creating more capable forces were developed and built to support
nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines the layered defense of the homeland. Small
that could threaten the United States and combatants and minesweepers protected
its NATO allies with nuclear weapons. The adjacent home waters and were tasked to
construction of a large number of general- ensure that naval forces could not be bottled
purpose conventional and nuclear-powered up in their bases. Larger, more seaworthy
submarines together with numerous surface forces with greater endurance were deployed
combatants—all armed with cruise missiles— beyond adjacent seas to guard against
further threatened U.S. and Allied naval incursions into the outer approaches to
forces deployed in the Atlantic, Indian, and the Soviet Union. At the height of the Cold
Pacific Oceans, and the Mediterranean Sea. War, the Soviet Navy deployed submarine
The Soviet posture took on very offensive and surface forces globally to confront and
dimensions as the temperature of the Cold monitor U.S. and Allied naval forces in
War rose. order to preclude a surprise attack against
the USSR. This constant shadowing posture

3
Layered Defense. Having
acquired the means to
strike targets at long ranges
using ballistic missiles
launched from nuclear-
powered submarines, it
was now possible to
directly protect them
and the country against
attacks from the sea. To
accomplish this, the Navy
developed a layered
defense strategy. Today,
the outer limit of this
layered defense can be
generally defined as
about 1,000 nautical
miles (TOMAHAWK land
attack cruise missile range)
from the Russian frontier
or from Moscow. For 1000nm range rings – Perceived TLAM threat to Russian homeland
western Russia, this outer

was characterized as “the battle for the first only a military but also an ideological and
salvo.” Due to an objective regard for Western political component, each side embraced
capabilities, the Soviet sailors who manned a “zero sum” calculus whereby any win by
the forward-deployed submarines and ships one was automatically seen as a loss by the
were under no illusion that they would survive other. The USSR chose to support various
the initial stages of a war, but their mission was anti-colonial or anti-Western movements in
to preempt or blunt the expected attack, to the Middle East, Africa, Latin America, and
attempt to “kill the archer” and thereby lessen Southeast Asia. This East-West contest of
the number of incoming “arrows” aimed at wills played out in “proxy wars” where the
their homeland that would have to be dealt warring sides were openly or clandestinely
with by other defending forces. supported and equipped either by the
Soviet Union or the United States. In many
Local Conflicts and Proxy Wars. Because the cases, Soviet advisors accompanied the
confrontation between East and West had not equipment to provide training, and in some

4
 bound runs through the
Greenland-Iceland-United
Kingdom gap separating
the North Atlantic from
the Norwegian Sea. In
the Mediterranean, the
line runs roughly north-
south at the boot of Italy
defining the eastern and
western Mediterranean.
In the Pacific, there are
no easily identifiable
geographic bounds at the
1,000 nm range (distances
from three points provide
general orientation). The
disintegration of the USSR
did more to change Russia’s
strategic defense depth on
land (a loss of about 300
1000nm range rings – Perceived TLAM threat to Russian homeland (Pacific) miles) but had negligible
effect on seaward concerns.

cases, to actually operate weapons systems it has filed a claim to extended continental
in wartime conditions. This activity provided shelf rights in accordance with United Nations
opportunities to slough off excess or outdated Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
equipment, test new battlefield weapons mandated procedures. Russia is taking steps
or applications, and gain intelligence on the to enhance its ability to protect its exclusive
equipment and tactics of the opposing side. economic zone (EEZ), monitor and control the
use of the Northern Sea Route within that EEZ,
Today. Russia’s wartime naval strategy remains and improve its ability to affect search and
focused on nuclear deterrence and layered rescue (SAR) operations in the Russian Arctic.
defense as described above. Russia is paying
specific attention to peripheral defense,
particularly in the Arctic where it assesses the
effects of global climate change will potentially
increase foreign maritime presence and where

5
6
Chapter Two:

Russian Navy: Structure and Leadership

Organization
The Russian Navy is composed of acquisitions of strategic importance, i.e. the
interconnected components, spanning the SEVERODVINSK and the DOLGORUKIY
gamut from combat forces to all elements of submarine projects. This will include
supporting infrastructure: management of the Russian aircraft carrier
• Command staff project as well.
• Submarine forces
• Surface forces Historically, the CINC Navy exercises
• Naval auxiliaries command authority over and provides
• Naval aviation administrative direction to the Navy. In this
• Naval Infantry and Coastal Missile respect, this position somewhat combines
and Artillery Troops the historical functions of the U.S. Chief of
• Naval shore establishment Naval Operations and the Secretary of the
(headquarters, communications, Navy.
intelligence, maintenance and repair,
education and training, etc.) The Chief of Staff/First Deputy CINC is the
second in command and is responsible for
The headquarters of the Russian Navy was all operational issues and direct support. His
recently relocated from Moscow to its organization includes the Main Operational
historical home in the Admiralty building in Directorate and the Navy’s Main Command
St. Petersburg. The move is complete and the Post, as well as direct support elements such
new Navy Command Center is functioning. as communications and intelligence.
Operations are directed and administrative
orders and actions taken emanate from The Deputy CINC, the third person at the
St. Petersburg. The Commander-in-Chief top, oversees on a day-to-day basis all of the
(CINC) of the Russian Navy, Admiral Viktor administrative elements such as personnel,
Viktorovich Chirkov, officially runs the Navy education, shipbuilding and armaments,
from the new headquarters, but will always logistics, and engineering and billeting.
share time between the seat of government He has command authority over naval
in Moscow and St. Petersburg. Like his U.S. operations only when functioning as the
counterpart, Admiral Chirkov oversees and Acting CINC.
is ultimately responsible for all new weapons

7
The CINC Navy and the Main Navy Staff, combatants. Aboard first line ships and
responding to orders from the National submarines, the Commanding Officer has
Command Authority and in accordance both a Senior Assistant (Executive Officer)
with procedures and guidelines issued by and another Assistant.
the General Staff, and likely in coordination
with the appropriate new Joint Strategic Within the fleet order of battle, individual
Commands, issue commands and directives ships and submarines are classified as 1st,
to the Northern, Baltic, Black Sea, and 2nd, and 3rd rank. The rank of commanding
Pacific Fleets as well as the Caspian Flotilla. officers (Captains 1st – O-6, 2nd – O-5, and
3rd – O-4 Rank) nominally corresponds to
The command structures of the individual the rank of ship commanded.
fleets and the Caspian Flotilla parallel those • 1st Rank – SSBNs, SSGNs, newest SSNs,
of the headquarters organization. CV, CGNs, CGs.
• 2nd Rank – older SSNs, SSs, DDGs, DDs,
The practice of the commander having two FFGs, FFs, LSTs.
deputies extends down to all major fleet • 3rd Rank – PGs, PGGs, etc.

8
 Admiral Viktor Chirkov
Commander-in-Chief
Russian Navy

Admiral Chirkov, appointed Commander-in-Chief Continued executive support and reliable funding
of the Russian Navy in May 2012, is a lifelong are critical to the fulfillment of Russia’s national
surface officer with extensive experience in the plans for renewing and developing its naval might.
Pacific and Baltic Fleets. He replaced Admiral
Vysotskiy at a time when the chiefs of all three Because of the longstanding process by which
services—Ground Forces, Air Forces, and Navy— senior officers are groomed for high command
were apparently losing their direct command as well as the procedures and traditions of the
functions to the Main Operational Directorate Russian Armed Forces, no significant changes
of the General Staff. In the case of the Navy, this of focus or policy were expected in the change
occurred in November 2011. In the new Armed from Vysotskiy to Chirkov and none have been
Forces structure, the focus of the Main Navy Staff observed. Political policy is developed, set, and
is concentrated on man, train, and equip issues. promulgated by the Presidential executive. Military
However, imprecise press reports indicate that policy also flows from the Russian president and is
the specific command functions of the service developed and executed in conjunction with the
CINCs remain unresolved. This senior personnel Minister of Defense and the General Staff.
transition also came as the Navy’s Main Staff
moved from Moscow to its historic home at the In the course of his career, Chirkov gained at-sea
Admiralty building in St. Petersburg, located on operational experience as a junior officer in the
Palace Square across from the headquarters of Pacific Fleet (PACFLT). Continuing to serve in the
the recently established Joint Strategic Command Pacific, he rose to command of an UDALOY I
West/Western Military District housed in the destroyer, higher to group command, and then
building of the former Imperial General Staff. to combined force command in charge of all
Russian forces—submarine, surface-, air-, and
Chirkov came to the helm as the Navy embarked land-based on the Kamchatka Peninsula. With
on a very ambitious shipbuilding, infrastructure, his posting to the Baltic Fleet, he gained broader
and personnel development program to create insight and exposure to the European theater
a new, modern, 21st-century Russian Navy. and visited most of the Baltic countries while
Upon his appointment, Chirkov said, “The most also hosting many visitors to the Baltic Fleet at its
important thing for Russia is to build the fleet with main base in Baltiysk, Kaliningrad Oblast, and to
support of the president and like-minded persons. St. Petersburg. Prior to his appointment as CINC
My experience of commanding the fleet on the Russian Navy, there were rumors that he would
country’s western maritime frontier will allow me return to Vladivostok and be posted to command
to assess the full importance and responsibility the Pacific Fleet, but clearly higher command
of this appointment.” He gave his assurance that decided otherwise and appointed him to head the
within the framework of the underway reform, Russian Navy.
the Navy will continue to defend and ensure the
country’s security along all of its maritime frontiers. (Chronology next page)

9
 ADMIRAL VIKTOR CHIRKOV
CHRONOLOGY

08 Sep 1959 Born in Alma Ata, Kazakhstan SSR

1979–1982 Attended and graduated from S.O. Makarov Higher Naval School, Vladivostok,
USSR
Commissioned as Lieutenant (U.S. O-1 equivalent)
Commander of Mine-Torpedo Department, Patrol Ship, Pacific Fleet
Assistant to CO of PACFLT patrol ship
Executive officer, KOTLIN DD VOZBUZHDENNYY, Pacific Fleet

1986 Attended Advanced Special Officers’ Classes, Leningrad

(U.S. SWOS and PXO/PCO courses equivalent)

1987–1990 Commanding Officer, KRIVAK I FF STOROZHEVOY, Pacific Fleet

1990–1993 Commanding Officer, UDALOY I DD ADMIRAL SPIRIDONOV, PACFLT

1993–1998 Deputy Chief of Staff, ASW ship formation, Pacific Fleet

Deputy Commander, ASW ship formation, Pacific Fleet
Commander, 44th Brigade of ASW ships, Vladivostok, Pacific Fleet

1997 Graduated N.G. Kuznetsov Naval Academy, St. Petersburg (by correspondence)
(U.S. Naval War College equivalent)

1998–2000 Attended and graduated from General Staff Academy, Moscow

(requirement for senior flag positions at fleet and national level)

2000–Jun 2005 Chief of Staff/1st Deputy Commander, Northeast Group of Troops and Forces,
Pacific Fleet

Jun 2005–Feb 2007 Commander, Primorsk Combined Forces Flotilla, Vladivostok, Pacific Fleet

Feb 2007–Sep 2009 Chief of Staff / 1st Deputy Commander, Baltic Fleet

Sep 2009–May 2012 Commander, Baltic Fleet

6 May 2012–present Appointed Commander-in-Chief, Russian Federation Navy

Decorations:
Order “For Service to the Nation in the Armed Forces”, 3rd Degree
Order “For Military Achievement”
Order “For Naval Achievement”

10
 Future Leadership
The Russian military leadership structure is
the product of many decades of history and
tradition. Due to the enormity of the Russian
land, and for the most part, the difficulty
and expense of moving and finding suitable
housing, most of the Russian officer corps,
Navy as well as Ground Forces, have tended
to remain relatively geographically stationary.

Service schools are the predominant path

to service as an officer and a young man
aspiring to a naval career normally chooses
to attend one of five naval commissioning
schools, usually the one near his home. The
curricula of these schools reflect the political, Russian sailors on the bridge of USS Fort McHenry
ethical, and moral expectations Russia sets for (LSD 43)
future officers through a rigid set of training
requirements. The exception to a near home
choice would be choosing to attend the St. The only alternate path to service as an
Petersburg Naval Institute Peter the Great officer is through what are called “military
Corps (established in 1701), the premier school faculties” of a very limited number of civilian
of the naval service, with an eye on a future university level educational institutions. These
high leadership position. Once commissioned, are rough equivalents of the U.S. Reserve
he will be assigned to serve in a unit located Officer Training Corps (ROTC) units. There is
within the immediate or adjacent geographic no Officer Candidate School (OCS) path in the
region. Once settled in, he has the potential Russian military.
to progress in rank through Captain 1st Rank
(O-6 equivalent) within the same overall Only when an officer is identified as having
military unit, possibly on the same ship. the potential to rise to higher flag rank and
Promotions in rank through Captain 3rd Rank assume senior command is it likely that he
(O-4) are dominantly within the purview of the may be rotated to a different geographic area.
immediate commanding officer. Promotion to At this rank, some of the difficulties otherwise
higher ranks involves decisions by formation inherent in making permanent change of
and fleet commanders. Flag ranks are the station changes are overcome by seniority and
combined purview of the Navy Command deference to command position. Even so, large
and the Ministry of Defense. geographic shifts are still rare for the majority
of the Russian officer cadre.

11
Career Ladders Path to Command
The Russian Armed Forces, and specifically The classic path to command, both at sea and
the Navy, have fairly rigid careers ladders. The at the higher leadership levels of the Navy,
Russian military system does not train and is through the navigation specialty—with
educate “generalists”; the focus is on “masters weapons as a close second. Navigation and
of their craft.” Newly commissioned officers weapons specialists are always “where the
are screened and selected for command action is.” They constantly work in close
possibilities early. This selection is dominantly proximity to, in coordination with, and under
made by commanding officers at the Captain the direct command of their commanding
2nd Rank (O-5) and Captain 1st Rank (O-6) officers. Under such working conditions, they
level, since these same officers are responsible have the opportunity to closely observe the
for awarding the early promotions in rank. workings and practice of the art of command,
As noted previously, only once reaching and conversely, they are constantly under the
the Captain 2nd Rank level are promotion watchful eyes of their seniors.
considerations usually made by senior
organizational staff and senior commanders. A A typical path is to rise from commander of a
young, newly commissioned officer coming specific team to division and department head.
to his first ship or submarine places his career From there, the decision is made whether a
fate in the hands of his commanding officer. promising officer is deemed fit for command,
The military educational system focuses on at which point he would be considered for the
qualifying officers for their initial assignments position as assistant to the Executive Officer
in specific specialties. A fleet/unit assignment of that ship, or effectively, third in Command.
choice preference is given to those graduating This position is typically held for three to five
at the top of their class (gold medalist/red years, and then the transition to Executive
diploma). This qualification also plays a Officer is made; this position is held for four
significant role in the perception of selecting to five years. With a background of success,
commanding officers. he will then move on to be Commanding
Officer. Command may be aboard that vessel
Career paths are set early. Young officers with or transition to another ship to serve as the
specialties in navigation and weapons have Commander. It is not at all the exception that
the best chance for advancement to command this entire portion of a naval career can be
positions. Officers with specialties in engineer- spent on a single ship or submarine or those
ing, communications, and so on, dominantly of the same class. There are, of course, some
will only have career paths in those special- breaks for en route courses; however, there
ties and will not qualify for command. In this are no ship-shore rotations. The only times
regard, the Russian Navy functions similarly to of relatively prolonged “shore” periods is
many European navies. when the assigned ship or submarine is

12
down for maintenance or overhaul. In this are scrutinized at the Navy Main Staff and
way, the first twenty years of a naval career Defense Ministry levels, but those to fleet
becomes the “ship” rotation. Only when command positions also are reviewed at
an officer is assigned to a group staff does the presidential level. These are executive
a “shore” rotation truly begin. However, decisions; no legislative review or approval is
even as a member of a group staff, there required.
are still extended periods spent at sea
overseeing training, exercises, certifications, or According to standing legislation, the age
deployments. limit for service in the rank of admiral is 60.
This can be extended “at the pleasure of the
With all of this as prologue, the path to the President” in one-year increments.
very top of the naval leadership pyramid is
a combination of many early pre-selections. Current information regarding Russian Navy
Many early-made decisions preclude leadership is available on the pullout inside the
options to rise to the top. When reviewing back cover.
candidates for senior formation and fleet
command, only those officers who are the
top performing commanders at lower levels
are in the running. Again, the only path to
high command is for those firmly entrenched
in the “command” line.

Once an officer reaches one of the two senior

deputy positions at the formation or fleet
level, usually the Chief of Staff has been the
one who will succeed to the Commander’s
chair. There have been exceptions where the
Deputy Commander has gone on to be the
Commander, but those are rare.

When a senior vacancy is rumored or arises,

one should look at the pool of the immediately
subordinate commanders, first locally, and
then perhaps more widely afield. The wider
look obviously mostly applies to appointments
to the senior three positions at the overall navy
and fleet levels. All flag officer appointments

13
14
Chapter Three

Procurement:
Shift to Quality Over Quantity

Procurement the CLUB weapons family (export version

Naval procurement is a multi-stage of the domestic KALIBR family) have been
process. The navy assesses and develops sold and heavily advertised for sale for over
its requirements for platforms and their a decade. The BRAHMOS anti-ship missile,
characteristics in light of its assigned missions closely related to the S-N-26 STROBILE, was a
to support and fulfill the officially promulgated joint Russia-India development program. The
Russian Federation security and defense marketing showcases for these and other naval
policies and doctrine. These requirements arms merchandise have included the biennial
are developed in close coordination with the International Maritime Defense Show (IMDS)
Ministry of Defense and, when approved, are held in St. Petersburg and various other major
included in the multi-year State Armaments arms shows held both in Russia and around
Plan. The State Defense Order is the vehicle the world.
which puts specific requirements into
development and production. This entire We have multiple reflections in the intelligence
process involves close coordination between record of state-of-the-art weapons systems,
the Defense Ministry and major scientific and Russian technical assistance, and related
industrial organizations belonging to other arms traffic from Russia to many non-peer
ministries. foreign actors. This proliferation of high grade
weapons is one of the most troubling aspects
At the national level, defense related arms of Russian Federation adventurism worldwide.
production is managed both for domestic
use and for foreign sale. The proceeds from Quality
foreign arms are used both as a general source In the post-Soviet era, the Russian government
of federal revenue and to defray or subsidize has taken a more cost effective approach to
the cost of domestic weapons development military procurement in an attempt to find
and production. In the naval arena, Russia, and cut waste, fraud, and embezzlement
as the Soviet Union before it, offers a wide of procurement funds. Significant steps
variety of military products for sale. In recent have been taken to ensure that the defense
years Russia has sold KILO Class submarines procurement ruble results in a “ruble’s worth”
to Algeria and Vietnam, GEPARD Class of equipment. The management of the State
frigates to Vietnam, TALWAR II Class frigates Defense Order, the government’s military
and a modified KIEV Class aircraft carrier to purchase plan, is overseen by a Ministry of
India. High performanceUdaloy
missileIIsystems
DD and Kuznetsov
of CV at anchor
Defense Severomorsk
department.

15
 Russian Navy Strategic and General Purpose Forces marked by drastically cut
Order of Battle (OOB) 2015 military budgets. The result
North- Baltic Black Caspian Pacific
Totals was the further degradation of
ern Fleet Fleet Sea Fleet Flotilla Fleet
a fleet already badly in need
SSBN 7 5 12
of maintenance and repair.
SSGN/SSN 17 9 26
SS 6 2 4 8 18
Submarine totals 56
The charts (see foldouts)
CV 1 1
depicting the Russian Navy’s
CGN 2 2
current major combatant
CG 1 1 1 3 order of battle (OOB) clearly
DD 4 4 8 show that the average age
DDG 1 2 1 2 6 of most of the ships and
FFG 1 1 submarines is more than 20
FF 6 2 2 10 years. A nominal service
Major Surface totals 31 life for most Soviet ships
FFL 6 6 9 21 and submarines when built
PGG 6 11 9 4 15 45 was considered to be 25
PG 7 4 11 years. With diligent care and
LST 4 4 7 4 19 appropriate maintenance,
LCU 2 1 3 the service lives of the larger,
Minor Surface totals 99 more robustly built units
can be extended by five to
For naval platform purchases, the emphasis ten years—possibly fifteen. These fleet OOB
has been—with the sole exception of strategic charts depict such selected extended service
systems—on multipurpose platforms designed lives and also clearly illustrate the current age
with sufficient capability and margin for future of Russia’s Soviet legacy fleet.
modernization in order to maximize the use of
the basic hull and propulsion systems. Overall, these charts, a more accurate and
detailed version of which undoubtedly graces
Renewal Imperative a wall in the Russian Navy’s shipbuilding
In late 1991, when the Russian Navy inherited and repair directorate, clearly shows that the
its current order of battle of Soviet legacy ships Russian Navy faces the imperative of new
and submarines, these platforms had already construction in order to avoid disappearing
seen years of service. in the 2020 timeframe. An additional chart
depicts the staus of new construction
The waning years of the USSR and the programs.
formative decade of post-Soviet Russia were

16
 The Future Fleet
Russia’s national leadership has recognized future naval needs, and has approved and funded
a broad shipbuilding program that will result in a new 21st-century Russian Navy. The Navy’s
major combatants will dominantly comprise multipurpose submarines and surface ships capable
of conducting aerospace defense, anti-ship and anti-submarine warfare unlike their mostly single
mission Soviet predecessors. The following briefly describes both the major programs underway
and several that are expected to be pursued in the future. (See the chart, similar in format to that
showing the current major combatant order of battle, depicting the status of new construction.)

Submarines
“The nuclear submarine fleet is the priority in the
Navy shipbuilding program.”
- Admiral Viktor Chirkov,
Commander-in-Chief, Russian Navy
6 July 2015

Submarines are the capital ships of the Russian

Navy. This is dictated by Russia’s geography— DOLGORUKIY Class
constrained direct access to major ocean Basic Characteristics:
areas everywhere but in the Pacific makes
Type SSBN
surface ship operations vulnerable to potential
enemy action. The inherent covert nature (Russian) Borey
of submarines enhances their survivability Design # 995/995M
whether operating locally or when transiting Length 170 meters
into more open sea areas. Displacement (full) 24,000 tons
Propulsion Nuclear
Placing a priority on strategic deterrence
Speed 29 knots
and defense, Russia’s recapitalization of its
Crew 107
submarine forces began with its strategic
ballistic missile submarines. Construction of Main Armament 16x SS-N-32 BULAVA

general purpose nuclear and non-nuclear

submarines was second in importance. of Russia’s naval strategic nuclear forces for
most of the 21st century. (Note: SLBMs can be
DOLGORUKIY Class SSBN launched from a submarine moored at a pier,
(in series construction) i.e., not submerged.) The DOLGORUKIY Class
The Yuriy Dolgorukiy, first unit of the is equipped with the SS-N-32 Bulava SLBM, an
DOLGORUKIY nuclear-powered ballistic inter-continental, sea-based ballistic missile with
submarine (SSBN) Class, also known as the a reported range of 8,500 km. The missile test
Borey or Design 955, was designed by the program encountered many difficulties, delaying
Rubin Design Bureau in St. Petersburg and the submarine’s expected 2009 acceptance
laid down in late 1996, initially to complement into the Navy. The missile’s shortfalls were said
and eventually to replace the DELTA III Class to have been caused by technical malfunctions
SSBNs. The class, with each submarine and quality control issues in final assembly;
equipped with 16 launchers for launched however, testing continued and the flaws were
ballistic missiles (SLBM), will form the core investigated and eliminated.

17
The Yuriy Dolgorukiy was finally accepted into The specific missions of SEVERODVINSK
the Russian Fleet on 10 January 2013, sev- SSGN include anti-submarine warfare (ASW),
eral years later than originally expected. The anti-surface warfare (ASuW), as well as land
second unit, Aleksandr Nevskiy, was delivered attack missions. This submarine class will be
in late December 2013 and the third—Vladi- armed with a wide range of advanced cruise
mir Monomakh—is completing sea trials. Two missiles to destroy enemy ships and targets
more units, Knyaz Vladimir and Knyaz Oleg, ashore. The lead unit was launched on 15
are under construction in Severodvinsk, Russia. June 2010 and commissioned for trial service
It has been publicly announced that construc- on 17 January 2014, some ten years after
tion program is to deliver eight units by the construction began. Eight are planned to be
end of 2020. built through 2020.

SEVERODVINSK SSGN The construction of the lead submarine has

(in series construction) taken an extensive period of time, suggesting
The SEVERODVINSK SSGN, also known as there has been considerable scope for re-
the Yasen and Design 885, is a 4th generation design, technical upgrades, and the use of
submarine designed as a multi-purpose modern design techniques and the inclusion
nuclear attack submarine. The lead submarine, of up-to-date materials and systems.
Severodvinsk, designed by the Malakhit
Bureau in St. Petersburg, was laid down at Fifth Generation SSN/SSGN
Sevmash Shipyard on 21 December 1993. Nuclear General Purpose Submarine
(projected, not in construction)
In early 2006, then Russian Navy
Commander-in-Chief Admiral Vladimir
Masorin discussed the future composition
of the Russian submarine force. As part of
this force, he noted that a nuclear submarine
of an unknown type was currently under
development. Speaking later, Rear Admiral
Shlemov in charge of naval shipbuilding
expanded on this, highlighting that this new
type submarine would have a displacement
SEVERODVINSK Class of 5,000–6,000 tons. This new, smaller
Basic Characteristics: submarine’s main mission would be the
protection of the DOLGORUKIY Class SSBN,
Type SSGN allowing the multi-mission SEVERODVINSK
(Russian) Yasen to perform other navy missions. As of 2006,
Design # 885/885M both the Rubin Design Bureau and Malakhit
Length 120 meters Design Bureau were said to be interested in
Displacement (full) 11,800–13,800 tons undertaking the design of this submarine. The
Propulsion Nuclear
general designer of the Rubin Bureau has
reiterated the requirement of future Russian
Speed 31 knots
submarines to be smaller in displacement.
Crew ~80
However, there has been no further public
Main Armament 32x VLS KALIBR discussion of the design or announcement that

18
 KILO Class
PETERSBURG Class Basic Characteristics:
Basic Characteristics: Type SS
Type SS (Russian) Varshavyanka
(Russian) Lada Design # 636.3
Design # 677 Length 73.8 meters
Length ~67 meters Displacement (full) 3,950 tons
Displacement (full) ~1,800 tons Propulsion Diesel-electric
Propulsion Diesel-electric Speed 20 knots
Speed ~20 knots Crew 52
Crew ~35 Main Armament KALIBR from torpedo tubes

a final design has been approved. Based on in 2005. The future of hull three, laid down in
typical timelines for submarine development, a 2006, remains uncertain.
launch prior to 2020 is unlikely.
Advanced Non-Nuclear General Purpose
PETERSBURG Class SS Submarine
(limited series construction uncertain) (projected, not in construction)
The PETERSBURG SS, also known as Lada Work on a future non-nuclear submarine,
and Design 677, is a diesel-electric submarine design covername Kalina, has been
intended to be a technological advance on announced with work underway at the Rubin
the KILO Design 636, specifically with regard Design Bureau. It is expected to have an air-
to propulsion, sonar, and combat information independent propulsion plant (AIP). Laydown
support. The class is the product of the Rubin of the lead unit is projected soon after 2020.
Central Marine Equipment Design Bureau and
was built by the Admiralty Shipyard, both are Unlike the case with submarines, the Navy
in St. Petersburg. The lead hull Sankt Peterburg, approached the recapitalization of its surface
laid down in 1997 and commissioned in fleet starting with smaller sized units and
2010 for trial operation, is now located in the progressively building larger ones.
Northern Fleet. During initial trials problems
were encountered with the electric propulsion
system, the main sonar, and combat
information system. It has been reported that
these issues have been resolved and work has
restarted on hull two Kronshtadt, laid down

19
 Surface Combatants

MINOR COMBATANTS delivered to the Russian Navy 29 June and 4

Dec 2012, respectively.

The engineer of Astrakhan, Guard Capt 3rd-

Rank Sergey Parfeyev, stated the PG’s two
diesel engines drive a reversible water jet
steering unit for high maneuverability.

SVIYAZHSK PGG Guided Missile Patrol Ship

(in series construction)
The Buyan design was modified to the
ASTRAKHAN Class increased displacement Buyan-M Design
Basic Characteristics: 21631 to include an eight-cell vertical launch
Type PG system (VLS) capable of firing the KALIBR
(Russian) Buyan
family of missiles as well as the YAKHONT
anti-ship missile (see missile section). Grad
Design # 21630
Sviyazhsk in the Caspian is the lead unit of this
Length 62 meters
design with additional units in construction
Displacement (full) ~500 tons for both the Caspian Flotilla and the Black Sea
Propulsion Diesel Fleet. The export variant of these designs is
Speed 26 knots called Tornado.
Crew 30–35
Main Armament 1x 100mm gun

ASTRAKHAN Class PG
Patrol Combatant
The Astrakhan is the lead ship of the Buyan
or Project 21630 PG designed by Zelenodolsk
Project Design Bureau and built by the Almaz
SVIYAZHSK Class
Shipyard in St. Petersburg. The lead unit was
Basic Characteristics:
laid down 30 January 2004, was launched 10
September 2005, and was commissioned 13 Type PGG
September 2006. This class is dominantly be- (Russian) Buyan-M
ing deployed in the Caspian Sea. Design # 21631
Length 74 meters
The Astrakhan was first displayed during Displacement (full) ~950 tons
the annual Navy Day parade on the Neva
Propulsion Diesel
River in St. Petersburg before delivering it
Speed 25 knots
to the Russian Navy’s Caspian Flotilla on 1
September 2006. Two more units, Volgodonsk Crew 30–35

(originally Kaspiysk) and Makhachkala were Main Armament 8x VLS KALIBR

20
MAJOR COMBATANTS Far East at the Amur Shipyard in the city of
Komsomolsk on the Amur River.
BYKOV Class FFLG Guided Missile Corvette
(in series construction) The warship is designed for operations in
The Design 22160 BYKOV Class was adjacent maritime zones, fighting enemy
designed by the Severnoye (Northern) Design surface ships and submarines, as well as to
Bureau in St. Petersburg and is being built at provide naval gunfire support for amphibious
Zelenodolsk Shipyard. At about 1,500 tons landings. It is also a replacement for the
displacement and armed with KALIBR family GRISHA Class frigates (FFL). The ship has a
and Yakhont missiles, these corvettes will helicopter landing pad and hangar (for 1x Ka-
perform adjacent water patrol duties likely in 27) and is equipped with the latest electronic
the Black and Baltic Seas. Two units, Vasiliy equipment and communications systems.
Bykov and Dmitriy Rogachev, were laid down
in 2014, with the first to be commissioned as Steregushchiy, the lead hull, was laid down
early as 2016. in December 2001, launched in May 2006,
and began initial sea trials in November
STEREGUSHCHIY Class FF Frigate/FFG 2006; it required 15 months of trials and
Guided Missile Frigate equipment testing before commissioning in
(in series construction) late February 2008. As of August 2015, four
The Design 20380 STEREGUSHCHIY Class hulls (Steregushchiy, Soobrazitelnyy, Boykiy,
was designed by the Almaz Central Naval and Stoykiy) have been launched and
Design Bureau in St. Petersburg and is commissioned in St. Petersburg. Beginning
being built by the (Severnaya Verf) Northern with Boykiy, the design included a VLS cell
Shipyard in the same city. Construction for the REDUT/POLIMENT (SA-NX-28) air
of additional units is also underway in the defense missile system; this changed the type
designation from FF to FFG. At the Far East
Amur Shipyard, workers laid the keel for their
first STEREGUSHCHIY hull, the Sovershennyy,
in late June 2006 with an estimated delivery
date of 2011. It was finally launched in
May 2015. A second unit, Gromkiy, was
reported laid down on 17 February 2012.
The STEREGUSHCHIY design has an export
version, Design 20382 Tigr.
STEREGUSHCHIY Class
Modified STEREGUSHCHIY Class FFG
basic characteristics:
Guided Missile Frigate
Type FF (in series construction)
Design # 20380 The Design 20385 Gremyashchiy is a
Length 104.5 meters modification of the original 20380 design with
Displacement (full) 2,220 tons the installation of improved radar system and
a VLS cell capable of launching the KALIBR
Propulsion Diesel
family of missiles and the YAKHONT anti-ship
Speed ~27 knots
cruise missile. Due to problems arising from
Crew ~100 economic sanctions against Russia related to

21
 The GRIGOROVICH Class, Design 11356,
STEREGUSHCHIY (GREMYASHCHIY) Class
was designed by the Severnoye (Northern)
basic characteristics:
Design Bureau in St. Petersburg, and built by
Type FFG the Yantar Shipyard in Kaliningrad. It is the
Design # 20385 latest variation of the long-produced KRIVAK
Length 104.5 meters FFG and in some respects could be called a
Displacement (full) 2,200 tons KRIVAK V design. (KRIVAK I and II – Soviet
Propulsion Diesel
Navy; KRIVAK III – Soviet Border Guards;
KRIVAK IV – the TALWAR Class for India.)
Speed ~27 knots
The lead unit, Admiral Grigorovich, is in sea
Crew ~100
trials and the second unit, Admiral Essen, was
Main Armament 8x VLS KALIBR launched on 7 November 2014. It was to be
followed by four additional units: Admiral
Ukraine, the inability to acquire German diesel Makarov, Admiral Butakov, Admiral Istomin,
propulsion systems will likely limit this design and Admiral Kornilov. Admiral Makarov will
to two ships, Gremyashchiy and Provornyy. be completed but the last three have been
There have been reports of work on another cancelled because of Russia’s inability to
improved 20386 design. acquire marine gas turbines from Ukraine due
to imposed sanctions.
GRIGOROVICH Class FFGS
Guided Missile Frigate Due to delays in constructing the new design
(in series construction) GORSHKOV Class frigates and a critical need
to replace the aging inventory of the Black Sea
Fleet, the decision was made to order six units
of this proven design. An additional benefit
was the fact that the Yantar Shipyard already
had proven assembly experience with this
design, having built a series for India. All six
GRIGOROVICH units were expected to be in
the Black Sea by 2020.

GORSHKOV Class FFG

Guided Missile Frigate
(in series construction)
GRIGOROVICH Class
The GORSHKOV Class, Project 22350, also
basic characteristics:
known as the “Admiral Class”, was designed
Type FFG by the Severnoye (Northern) Design Bureau in
Design # 11356 St. Petersburg.
Length ~130 meters
Displacement (full) 4,500 tons The lead hull, Fleet Admiral of the Soviet
Union Gorshkov, was laid down in February
Propulsion Diesel-Gas Turbine
2006 at St. Petersburg’s Northern Shipyard.
Speed ~30 knots
Then Deputy Prime Minister Sergey Ivanov
Crew 190 stated that hull 1 would be launched in 2011.
Main Armament 8x VLS KALIBR Surprisingly, it was launched in late October

22
 New Generation Destroyer (DDG)
(projected, not in construction)
A design development program, covername
Lider [Leader] and possibly Design 23560, is
underway to replace the aging UDALOY and
SOVREMENNYY class inventories. Depending
on propulsion type, the design could be a
8,000 to 18,000 ton ship combining both
destroyer and cruiser characteristics with
robust air, surface, and submarine warfare, as
GORSHKOV Class well as anti-missile defense capabilities.
basic characteristics:
Type FFG
Russia reportedly intends to build six such
ships for both the Northern and Pacific fleets
Design # 22350
(12 total). The lead unit is not likely to be built
Length 130 meters
earlier than the mid-2020s.
Displacement (full) 4,500 tons
Propulsion Diesel-Gas Turbine Press reports have mentioned that the
Speed ~30 knots propulsion for this class, whether conventional
Main Armament 16x VLS KALIBR gas turbine or nuclear, is not yet determined.
The resolution may depend on decisions yet
2010. However, it has undergone a long post- to be made regarding a new aircraft carrier
launch fitting out period. FADMSU Gorshkov which, if built, is likely to be nuclear-powered.
may be commissioned in 2015, and assigned
to the Baltic Fleet.

The GORSHKOV Class is a multi-mission

missile frigate for air, surface, and submarine
warfare roles. It is intended for combat
operations in distant and close-in maritime
zones, as well as for participating in the
execution of missions in the oceanic zone.
The Russian Navy’s original plans called for New generation destroyer
20 GORSHKOV units (five units for each of basic characteristics:
its four fleets). However, pending cost over-
runs and issues with weaponry performance Type DDG/CG(N)

as well as issues with the acquisition of (Russian) Lider

marine gas turbines from Ukraine may Design # 23560
reduce the number of FFGs actually Length ~200 meters
produced or greatly extend the construction Displacement (full) 8,000–18,000 tons
schedule, or both. Russian re-tooling of Propulsion Gas Turbine/Nuclear
domestic production to provide the required
Speed ~30 knots
marine gas turbines may result in a two-year
Crew ~300
or longer delay.
Main Armament ~32–64x VLS KALIBR

23
New Generation CVN aerial vehicles (UAVs). Unlike the KUZNETSOV
Vice Admiral (retired) Anatoliy Shlemov, of CV that was built with 12 SS-N-19 anti-ship
the United Shipbuilding Corporation, spoke to cruise missiles, the new carrier will not carry
design progress as of 2009 on a future aircraft surface-to-surface cruise missiles. Its propulsion
carrier program. Russian designers are currently plant would be nuclear-powered, providing
working on the aircraft carrier’s requirements the ship with a full power speed around 29
and tactical-technical tasks. This preliminary knots. At least three nuclear-powered aircraft
design work is being conducted by the Neva carriers have been discussed; one for the
Planning and Design Bureau in conjunction Northern Fleet, one for the Pacific Fleet, and
with the Krylov State Scientific Center in St. a third hull—a replacement carrier—would be
Petersburg, which also designed the previous undergoing scheduled repairs. Former Navy
KIEV and KUZNETSOV Class carriers. A model CINC Vladimir Masorin stated in 2007 that six
of a new carrier, preliminary Design 23000 aircraft carriers would be necessary, three each
covername Shtorm (Storm), was displayed at in the Northern and Pacific Fleets: one active,
the International Maritime Defense Show in St. one in training, and one in maintenance.
Petersburg both in 2013 and 2015.
Construction of a new CV poses a challenge
Very preliminary published characteristics for Russia. The KIEV and KUZNETSOV Class
reveal that the new aircraft carrier will carry a carriers were built at Chernomorskoye Shipyard
new generation of jet fighters and unmanned in Nikolayev, Ukraine, now unavailable to the
Russians. Two shipyards in Russia that could
solicit such a contract are the Baltic Shipyard
in St. Petersburg and Sevmash Shipyard
in Severodvinsk. These two shipbuilding
enterprises reportedly have requested to be
retooled and reequipped. They also want
new technologies to be introduced in order
to increase their plant’s production efficiency.
However, there have been plans to close Baltic
Shipyard by the 2020s and ambitious shipyard
development plans for Sevmash have been
discussed. In addition to manufacturing issues,
the Russian Navy will have to solve issues of
New generation CVN
Basic Characteristics: basing, support, new frigate/destroyer escorts,
training, and billeting for thousands of carrier
Type CVN crew members.
(Russian) Shtorm
Design # 23000 Although recent statements by the naval
Length ~300 meters leadership continue to promote the
Displacement (full) ~100,000 tons construction of aircraft carriers, it is likely that
there will be extensive discussion and debate
Propulsion Nuclear
before final decisions are made. In light of the
Speed ~30 knots
extensive work required to enable Russia to
Crew 4,000–5,000 build an aircraft carrier, construction is not
Main Armament 80–90 aircraft likely to begin until about the mid-2020s.

24
 Amphibious ships

GREN Class LST engineer pontoons, which are normally used

Tank Landing Ship by the ground troops when they ford water
(in construction, series production uncertain) barriers. A pontoon bridge is formed from
The GREN Class, Design 11711, tank landing several pontoons extended from the bow,
ship was designed by the Neva Project Design along which heavy and light vehicles can be
Bureau in St. Petersburg. moved and disembarked onto the beach. The
LST will also be able to transport standard 20-
Ivan Gren, the lead hull, was laid down on foot sea containers carrying all kinds of cargo.
23 December 2004 at Kaliningrad’s Yantar There is a cargo crane with a capacity of 16
Shipyard. It was planned that the new LST tons for loading and unloading operations on
would be built in three and a half to four the ship.
years resulting in a launch possibly in 2008.
However, due to financial issues, the Ivan MISTRAL Class LHA
Gren was not launched until late May 2012, (Built, delivery to Russia cancelled)
and work continues. A second unit, Petr In 2011, the Russian president approved
Morgunov, was laid down on 11 June 2015. the negotiation of a contract with France to
purchase two MISTRAL Class amphibious
The amphibious lift capacity will be on the assault ships. Four total units had been planned;
order of 13x main battle tanks (or 40 BTR), and the initial two units were to be built in France.
up to 300x assault troops. Russia stated that a decision would be made on
whether to construct hulls 3 and 4 via external
Its main difference from the amphibious contract or indigenously in 2016, after the
ships used presently by the Navy is that it Russian Navy had operated hulls 1 and 2.
will disembark landing troops on a beach in
a new way. The new, contact-less unloading This contract has allowed Russia to benefit
method assumes the use of series-production from the French builder’s experience in

GREN Class
basic characteristics:
Type LST

Design # 11711

Length 120 meters

Displacement (full) 5,000 tons

Propulsion Diesel

Speed 18 knots

Crew 100

Main Armament 1x AK-176 76mm gun

25
modular surface ship construction concepts
that are critical for short build times (two
years for the MISTRAL vice up to six for
standard production at a Russian shipyard). A
fully integrated digital system to manage and
operate all ships’ systems was incorporated in
the MISTRAL design. The actual construction
of the first two ships was a joint effort with
the forward halves built in St. Nazaire, France,
and the stern halves, housing the well deck
and helicopter hangar, built at the Russian
Baltic Shipyard, St. Petersburg. Final assembly MISTRAL Class
and initial sea trials were conducted in basic characteristics:
France. The acquisition of MISTRALs and Type LHA
their basing in the Pacific Fleet would have
Length 199 meters
provided the Russian Navy with significant
Displacement (full) 21,300 tons
power projection options and also would
allow Russia to more effectively participate in Propulsion Diesel-electric

humanitarian assistance/disaster relief (HADR) Speed 18.5 knots

operations. Crew 177

The original French MISTRAL design was However, due to current events in Ukraine, the
modified for Russian use by incorporating a purchase contract has been cancelled with
stronger in-water hull to allow for possible use France in possession of the two ships and
in ice conditions and a higher hangar deck obligated to refund Russia’s investment in the
clearance to accommodate the size of the construction.
Ka-29 assault and the naval version of the Ka-
52 Alligator attack helicopters planned to be
deployed aboard. The ship was to be able to
carry up to 16 helicopters and the helicopters,
weapons, and military communications
capability would be of Russian origin. When
completed, these units would be able to
embark 450 Naval Infantry and varying load-
outs of armored personnel carriers and/or tanks.

The first ship, Vladivostok, was to be delivered

to Russia by the end of 2014 to complete
outfitting before being assigned to operational
forces. The second, Sevastopol, had initial
sea trials planned for 2015. Both units were
expected to be operational in late 2015 and
were to be based in Vladivostok as part of the
Pacific Fleet.

26
 Auxiliary Vessels

IVANOV Class AGI BELOUSOV Class ASR

Communications/Intelligence ship Submarine rescue ship
(in series construction) (in series construction)
The lead unit of the IVANOV Class AGI, The BELOUSOV Class, Design 21300,
Design 18280, Yuriy Ivanov, was laid down in submarine rescue ship (ASR) Igor Belousov was
December 2004 and launched in September designed by the Almaz Central Naval Design
2013 at the Northern Shipyard, St. Petersburg. Bureau, St. Petersburg and built at the city’s
It was designed by the Aysberg Central Design Admiralty Shipyard. It was designed to rescue
Bureau in the same city and will be the first submarine crews, provide assistance to surface
of four such intelligence/reconnaissance units, ships, feed compressed air and electric power
one for each fleet, to be built at this yard. All to submarines and surface ships, and detect
of these ships likely will be named for past and examine ships in distress in specified areas.
directors of Russian Naval Intelligence. This Major features of the new vessel include
design will augment and eventually replace a deep-sea rescue vehicle (DSRV) with a
the existing ocean-going BALZAM and submergence depth of up to 700 meters, a
VISHNYA Class units. The second unit, Ivan deep-water dive suit for operating at a depth of
Khurs, was laid down on 14 November 2013. about 500 meters, a decompression chamber
for 60 men, one-atmosphere rigid diving suits,
and two rescue boats. The upper deck of the
vessel accommodates a helicopter landing pad.

IVANOV Class BELOUSOV Class

basic characteristics: basic characteristics:
Type AGI Type ASR
Design # 18280 Design # 21300
Length 95 meters Length 105 meters
Displacement (full) ~4,000 tons Displacement (full) 5,310 tons
Propulsion Diesel Propulsion Diesel-electric
Speed 20 knots Speed ~15 knots
Crew ~120 Crew ~100

27
The lead unit, Igor Belousov, was laid down been commissioned. Former Navy CINC
on 24 December 2005. Planned delivery to Fleet Admiral Vladimir Masorin said that a
the Navy was to be in 2011. As of mid-2015 production order for four hulls (one for each
the lead unit is undergoing trials and has not fleet) would be requested.

Oceanographic Research Vessels

The Russian Navy signed a contract in February 2009 for two classes of oceanographic
ships. “These ships are designed for studying the seas and oceans and will pave the way
for the rebirth and revival of Russia’s powerful science and research fleet,” said Vice
Admiral Aleksey Burilichev, the head of the Defense Ministry’s Main Directorate for Deep-
sea Research. Both were designed by the Almaz Central Naval Design Bureau and will be
constructed at Yantar Shipyard, Kaliningrad.

SELIGER
Oceanographic Research Vessel
The SELIGER Class research vessel was
designed by the Almaz Design Bureau, St.
Petersburg and built by Yantar Shipyard in
Kaliningrad.

The lead unit, Seliger, was laid down in July

2009 and finally delivered to the Navy in the
Black Sea in August 2012, about one year later
than originally planned (June 2011).

Seliger is intended to conduct trials of

special technical devices, armaments, and SELIGER Class
military equipment; participate in search and basic characteristics:
rescue; and perform scientific research and Type AG
oceanographic work. Russia plans to use Design # 11982
the vessel to test and use both manned and Length 59.7 meters
unmanned deep-sea vehicles. It is reported Displacement (full) 1,100 tons
that the vessel will be used in closed seas, e.g.,
Propulsion Diesel-electric
Black Sea.
Speed ~12 knots

YANTAR class Crew 16+ ~20

Oceanographic Research Vessel
(built, series intended)
Design 22010 was also designed by the
Almaz Design Bureau, St. Petersburg. The

28
lead hull, Yantar, was laid down on 8 July 2010,
launched in December 2012, sea trials and
delivery to the Navy was planned for 2014.
Yantar concluded sea trials in early 2015, was
commissioned, and embarked on its maiden
voyage into the Atlantic in August 2015 to
further test all of its installed equipment.

YANTAR is an ocean-going vessel intended

for conducting research globally throughout
the water column and at the ocean floor. It
will carry two manned deep submergence YANTAR Class
vehicles capable of working at 6,000-meter basic characteristics:
depths. The desire for additional units has Type AG
been voiced but no further developments
(Russian) Kryuis
have been observed.
Design # 22010
Length 108 meters
Displacement (full) 5,230 tons
Propulsion Diesel-electric
Speed ~15 knots
Crew 50

29
 Naval Aviation

The Russian Navy’s aviation arm comprises shore-based and shipborne aircraft. The medium-
range IL-38 MAY and long-range Tu-142 BEAR F maritime patrol/anti-submarine warfare
(ASW) aircraft, Su-24 FENCER frontline bombers, and a variety of rotary- (helicopter) and
fixed-wing transport aircraft make up the shore-based naval aviation force. Shipborne
aircraft are the Ka-27 HELIX helicopters which have ASW and search and rescue (SAR)
variants. The unique Independent Shipborne Fighter Regiment, the nucleus of KUZNETSOV-
class aircraft carrier air wing, is composed of Su-33 FLANKER D and Su-25 UTG FROGFOOT
D. The regiment focuses on frontline aircraft as well as future aircraft development efforts.
Only new developments are addressed below.

ASW Aircraft

IL-38 MAY Maritime Patrol Aircraft

(upgrade modification program)
The Ilyushin IL-38 MAY is a four-engine
turboprop, shore-based, maritime patrol
aircraft in operation since 1968. Its nominal
operational range is said to be over 2,500
km (1,360 nm). The aircraft is capable of
supporting traditional search and rescue (SAR)
missions as well as being the Navy’s medium
range anti-submarine warfare (ASW) and
reconnaissance aircraft (analogous to the U.S.
P-3 ORION aircraft). systems installed. The plan to progressively
upgrade older variants through depot-level
The IL-38 has undergone numerous updates maintenance has a goal to modernize 20
over the decades. The latest development airframes by 2020. IL-38s are based in the
recently operational is the IL-38N (Novella) Navy’s Northern and Pacific Fleets.
variant, said to have upgraded ASW

Fighter Aircraft
PAK-FA Future Fifth-Generation Fighter “Perspektivnyy Aviatsionnyy Kompleks Fron-
(in developmental testing) tovoy Aviatsii,” or “Advanced Aircraft System
The first Russian fifth-generation fighter pro- for Frontline Aviation.” Sukhoy has publicly
gram, called the PAK-FA, is a single-seat, used the designator “T-50,” while at least one
medium-heavyweight, multi-role fighter air- Indian publication has called it “PMF.” This
craft designed primarily by the Russian com- developmental weapons system has a number
pany Sukhoy. The term “PAK-FA,” as used by of informal names as its air force and naval
Russian and Indian officials, is an acronym for designators have not been announced.

30
In terms of concept, the PAK-FA is supposed MiG-29K
to conform to all the basic attributes of the The operational life span of the Su-33 fighter,
fifth-generation fighter. [Concepts integral to currently operating aboard Admiral Kuznetsov¸
the definition of 5th Generation capability is coming to an end in 2015 and the Russian
are platforms capable of sharing information Navy has chosen the MiG-29K as a replacement
to increase the availability of the Common because of lower costs. The MiG-29K was
Operating Picture (COP).] These include low originally ordered by the Indian Navy for the
radar cross-section and infrared signature, INS Vikramaditya and the job of developing
a high level of integration of the onboard and fielding the aircraft was financed by the
equipment, weapons disposed in internal Indian government. Billed as a 4++ generation
compartments, a supersonic cruising speed fighter, the aircraft features advanced air-to-air
without the use of afterburners, and super- and air-to-ground radar capability along with
maneuverability. digital touch displays and HOTAS in the cockpit.
The avionics used by the MiG-29K allow for the
PAK-FA flight tests began in January 2010. incorporation of advanced PGM munitions.
Russia has four PAK-FA test aircraft in its
inventory, with two more to be added in 2015. The aircraft is substantially strengthened to
Series production of the T-50 aircraft could survive the carrier environment. It also features
start as early as 2015 scheduled for Russian Air a four-channel fly-by-wire system, allowing
Force’s acceptance in 2016. for precise control when coming aboard the
aircraft carrier. Additionally, the operators will
It can be logically considered that the further enjoy the added feature of folding wings to aid
development of the PAK-FA program could in the movement of the aircraft in the carrier
include the future fighter for a new aircraft environment. The Russian Navy expects to
carrier that could become operational by the acquire 24 fighters at a total cost of 1 billion
early 2030s, if Russia decides to build it. dollars.

31
 Helicopters

The Russian MISTRAL was

to deploy with at most 16
helicopters, and Russia
wanted to deploy with
an “8 + 8” format (eight
attack helicopter plus eight
transport/search and rescue
(SAR) helicopters). The eight
attack helicopters would be
newly built Kamov Ka-52K
with the remainder of the
helicopters being Ka-29
Helix B and Ka-27PS Helix
D, for transport and SAR.

Ka-52 Alligator
The Ka-52 HOKUM B, nicknamed “Alligator,” Aircraft Plant of up to 32 Ka-52K helicopters is
is a two-seat, coaxial rotor, day-and-night- set to begin in 2015.
capable attack helicopter. The Ka-52 was
designed primarily as an air-to-ground attack Ka-29
helicopter with side-by-side seating. Weapons The Russian Navy has used some variant of
load includes unguided rockets, antitank the HELIX platform for the past 40 years. The
guided missiles (ATGMs), and machine guns. aircraft is inherently stable because of the
The Ka-52K, nicknamed “Katran,” was initially double counter-rotating rotor blades, which
reported as the Ka-52MD (Morskogo Desanta/ makes it ideal for application in the maritime
assault) and will be a Ka-52 modified for environment.
maritime operations. The modifications likely
include folding rotor blades and weapons Designated as the Ka-29TB (Transportno
pylons. Internal modifications include Boyevoy/Combat transport), it features a crew
upgrades to the wiring and the electrical of three who sit side-by-side. The center seat
instruments, which will need to be more is the weapons operator, responsible for firing
resistant to an aggressive damp and salty the weapons on the hard points and the
environment. The helicopter will also be cannon on the starboard side of the aircraft.
equipped with rescue rafts/vests, airframe The aircraft has nighttime assault capability
floats, and a new crew escape system. Lastly, as well. The complement of aircraft aboard
the under-frame supports will be strengthened the MISTRAL class amphibious vessels was to
because under rolling/pitching conditions feature up to 16 Kamov products, up to eight
a helicopter may strike the helicopter deck of which would be the Ka-29TB.
harder than when landing on the ground. The
future delivery from the Arseneyev’s Progress

32
 Weapons

Ballistic Missiles development of new ASCM systems should not

Russia maintains discredit the threat of “legacy” ASCMs.
a substantial
force of nuclear- SS-N-22 SUNBURN (MOSKIT)
powered The first variant of the ramjet-powered 3M-80
ballistic missile MOSKIT (SS-N-22 SUNBURN) was accepted
submarines into service in 1984 and still presents a
(SSBNs) with stressing threat. The 3M-80 utilizes speeds of
intercontinental- Mach 2.0+, terminal maneuvers, and good
range missiles; SS-N-32 Bulava launch stand-off range to maximize the probability
the country is of kill. Key variants include the 3M-80E
developing new and improved SLBM weapon (range 120 km) and the high-altitude cruise
systems to replace its current inventory of 3M-80MVE (range 240 km), both of which
Cold War-era systems. Upgrades to the SS-N- have been exported to China. All variants are
23, named SINEVA and LINER, are replacing capable of being launched in salvos of up
the original SS-N-23 on DELTA IV Class to eight missiles, with as little as 40 seconds
SSBNs. The SS-N-32 BULAVA SLBM is the between the first and last missile. These salvo
new solid-propellant SLBM deployed on the launches are intended to overwhelm ships’
new DOLGORUKIY Class SSBNs. Russian defenses, increasing the probability that at
SLBMs are capable of launch from surfaced least one of the weapons will reach its target.
and submerged SSBNs and from a variety
of launch locations, including while moored
at their home pier or on patrol and after
surfacing through polar ice cover.

Anti-ship Cruise Missiles

The Russian Navy continues to increase its SS-N-22 SUNBURN
maritime strike capability through anti-ship
cruise missile (ASCM) and sea-launched land-
attack cruise missile (LACM) research and SS-N-25 SWITCHBLADE (URAN)
development programs. Missile designs are On the other end of the speed spectrum
focused on increasing missile speed, range and is Russia’s entry into the small, lightweight,
employment flexibility in addition to improving lower-cost ASCM market, the 3M-24E* URAN.
the ability to penetrate ship defensive systems. Utilizing a turbo-jet engine, the URAN can
ASCMs are deployed on multiple launch be launched in salvos targeted against a
platforms—surface combatants, submarines, single ship or a group of ships up to 130 km
aircraft, and coastal defense sites—that provide away. Due to the 3M-24E’s small size and light
the Russian Navy and Russia’s export customers weight, it can be installed on a wide variety of
with multiple maritime strike options. The platforms including ships and aircraft, giving

*The “E” denotes the export version. Russian domestic variants assessed to be more capable.

33
considerable range and firepower to a smaller
vessel. In addition to being used by Russia,
where it is designated the 3M-24, the export KALIBR
version (3M-24E) has been purchased by
Algeria, India, and Vietnam. Russia plans to deploy KALIBR capability
on all new design construction nuclear and
SS-N-26 STROBILE (YAKHONT/ONIKS) non-nuclear submarines, corvettes, frigates,
and larger surface ships. KALIBR provides
even modest platforms, such as corvettes,
with significant offensive capability and,
with the use of the land attack missile, all
platforms have a significant ability to hold
SS-N-26 STROBILE distant fixed ground targets at risk using
conventional warheads. The proliferation
of this capability within the new Russian
The recently-fielded 3M-55E* YAKHONT Navy is profoundly changing its ability
(SS-N-26 STROBILE), also known as ONIKS to deter, threaten or destroy adversary
(ONYX), succeeds previous SS-N-7, -9, -12, targets. It can be logically assumed that
and -19 anti-ship cruise missiles. This 300 KALIBR capability will be retrofitted
km-range (export variant) missile flies Mach on those larger Soviet legacy ships and
2.5, is equipped with an advanced radar submarines that undergo major overhauls
and/or modernization1.
seeker, and conducts evasive maneuvers to
increase its survivability. Unlike the MOSKIT
missiles, which are launched from inclined 1
High ranking Russian defense industry official,
12 December 2011
launchers, the YAKHONT can be launched
vertically. Vertical launch decreases reaction
time against targets in any direction, while
also reducing a ship’s radar signature by • an anti-ship cruise missile (ASCM), the SS-
eliminating protrusive launch canisters above N-27 SIZZLER, and
deck. The YAKHONT can also be salvo • an anti-submarine missile, the 91R.
fired, and is currently launched from ships,
coastal defense launch vehicles, and the Although all are capable of being launched
SEVERODVINSK SSGN. Russia has exported vertically using a vertical launch system (VLS),
the YAKHONT as part of the Bastion coastal they are also launched from an inclined
defense missile system. orientation, from ground launchers, or from
submarine torpedo tubes. The ASCM and
KALIBR WEAPONS FAMILY LACM incorporate salvo capability and
KALIBR is the more capable Russian waypoint navigation. These technologies allow
domestic version of the export KLUB family of multiple weapons to be launched against
weapons, one of Russia’s most comprehensive either a single or group of ships, and approach
export offerings. Heavily marketed for 10 from different directions, significantly
years, the KLUB system was designed for complicating the target’s defensive task.
ship, submarine, air, and coastal-launched Information on the export versions is used
applications. The KALIBR family includes: below in lieu of unavailable details on the
• a land attack cruise missile (LACM), the domestic variants.
SS-N-30

34
SS-N-30 (3M-14) Land Attack Cruise Missile
The 3M-14E* LACM is visually similar to
the 3M-54E1. Equipped with a 450 kg
conventional warhead, waypoint navigation,
and a 300-km range, the 3M-14E delivers a
high range of land-attack options for ships,
submarines, aircraft, and ground launchers. It
is generally accepted that Russian domestic
variants of export systems have improved
operational characteristics over their export SS-N-30
counterparts. In this regard the reported
operational range for the KALIBR family Admiral Vitko said that new units joining the
3M14 SS-N-30 LACM is 300 to 1,5001/2,5002 fleet will have weapons with a range in excess
kilometers (160 to 930/1,550 mi). Responding of 1,500 km (930 mi). (Map depicts nominal
to a question from President Putin in 1,000-mi range rings from possible launch
September 2014, Black Sea Fleet commander points in Russia’s adjacent seas.)

T
KALIBR LAND ATTACK CRUISE MISSILE RANGES

A F
R
D 201 5
10/
1000nm range rings – Nominal KALIBR LACM ranges from fleet areas

Russian President V. Putin in Novorossiysk on 23 September 2014

1

Andrey Kokoshin, former Russian Federation Deputy Minister of Defense and Secretary of the Russian Security Council, 24 March 2011
2

35
 more flexible missiles with longer-range and
improved electronic and kinematic defense
penetration features. Russian ASCM research
is expected to focus on achieving hypersonic
speeds and improving seeker capabilities,
including the possible use of advanced radar
seekers that allow improved countermeasure
discrimination. The ongoing development of
ASCMs with improved design features such
as supersonic speed, evasive maneuvers,
SS-N-27 SIZZLER and advanced terminal seekers will present
continuing challenges to U.S. and allied naval
forces.
SS-N-27 SIZZLER (3M-54) Anti-ship Cruise
Missile Torpedoes
For anti-ship applications, the KLUB family Russia maintains the world’s largest and most
offers the choice of either the 3M-54E* or the diversified inventory of torpedoes. It continues
3M-54E1. The 3M-54E is a three-stage missile to develop, produce, and export both Anti-
with a booster, subsonic cruise stage, and Submarine Warfare (ASW) and Anti-Surface
supersonic terminal/kill stage. With a 220 km Warfare (ASUW) torpedoes; the most recently-
(119 nm) range, supersonic kill vehicle, and developed heavyweight torpedoes are dual-
terminal maneuvers, the 3M-54E represents purpose, utilizing wake-homing in the ASUW
a unique anti-ship weapon. The 3M-54E1 is role and active/passive acoustic homing in
a subsonic anti-ship cruise missile. Although the ASW role. Russian torpedoes and torpedo
it cruises at a similar speed as the 3M-24E, countermeasures are often proliferated to other
the 3M-54E1 features a larger warhead and a countries as part of the sale or lease of Russian
much longer range: 300 km versus the smaller submarines.
3M-24E’s range of 150 km.
Russia has historically been a leader in
91R Anti-submarine Missile developing and implementing new technology
The final parts of the KLUB system, available for torpedoes. It was the first country to field
only for submarines and ships, are the 91RE1 wake-homing torpedoes, a super-cavitating
(submarine) and 91RTE2 (ship-launched) anti- torpedo, and a super heavyweight 65-cm
submarine missiles. The submarine-launched torpedo. One of Russia’s newest torpedoes
91RE1 has a range of up to 50 km, and the is the multi-purpose depth homing torpedo
ship-launched 91RTE2 has a range of 40 (UGST), which entered service in 2002. The
km. These weapons have a longer range UGST has a monopropellant-fueled axial
and quicker weapon delivery time than a piston engine with pump jet propulsor. It is
conventional torpedo. When fired in a salvo, capable of acoustic, wire-guided, and wake-
up to four weapons can be deployed against a homing modes and is designed to be fired
single target. from both submarines and surface ships. It is
advertised as being able to reach speeds of
It is expected that Russia will continue to up to 50 knots and having detection ranges of
develop its ASCM capabilities, pursuing faster, up to 2.5 km for submarines and 1.2 km for

36
surface ships. Technology from this weapon is
believed to have proliferated to China.

Mine Warfare Capabilities

Mines are one of the oldest and most effective
naval weapons. Mines are attractive for
many reasons, including low cost, minimal
training, and the ability to remain in place
for extended periods. Russia maintains the
world’s largest and most diversified inventory
of mines. Despite a number of years of likely acoustic, and combined minesweeping
reducing funding for mine warfare, Russia systems, as well as remotely operated vehicles
now appears to be revamping and increasing for mine-hunting and mine neutralization.
its capability with renewed interest. Russia’s
inventory now includes a variety of moored Surface-to-Air Missiles (SAMs)
contact, moored influence, bottom influence, Russia, which produces capable naval surface-
mobile, propelled-warhead, and very shallow to-air missiles (SAMs), has not only continued
water mines. Although many of the mines in to equip its own ships but has demonstrated
Russia’s inventory are likely vintage moored a willingness to sell its leading air defense
contact mines, its mine design has moved weapons on the export market. In recent years,
forward into the modern era. Newer mines the Russians have primarily exported two
include microprocessor-controlled stealthy naval SAM systems, the medium range SHTIL-1
mines designed to hinder mine countermeasure and the longer range RIF-M. The SHTIL-1 is
(MCM) efforts, and encapsulated-torpedo mines the primary air defense weapon onboard
designed to launch Russia’s most advanced anti- the three Russian-built Indian TALWAR Class
submarine warfare lightweight torpedo. Frigates, the four SOVREMENNYY (956 and
956E) Class destroyers sold to China, and the
Mine delivery is accomplished by aircraft/ two LUYANG I Class destroyers built in China.
helicopters, surface vessels, and submarines. The RIF-M was sold to China for use on the
The Russian Navy likely would employ mines two LUZHOU Class destroyers operated by
to deter an amphibious landing in defense the People’s Liberation Army Navy (PLA(N)). In
of their homeland and as part of a layered both cases, the introduction of these weapons
defense. represented a significant increase in the overall
naval air defense capability of both the Indian
As a global expert in mines, Russia maintains and Chinese navies.
and is renewing a complete MCM force
capable of countering mines in a variety The intent of the SHTIL-1 is to engage
of environments. Since World War II, maneuvering aircraft, helicopters, and anti-
improvements in the Russian MCM forces ship missiles out to a maximum range of 45
include a large number of minesweepers, km. The engagement of targets is possible out
the introduction of nonmagnetic hull to the radar horizon, provided that a sufficient
minesweepers, and the introduction of quantity of radar energy reflects back into the
fleet-size mine-hunters. In addition, Russia seeker. Optimizing the effectiveness of the
maintains a complete suite of MCM SHTIL-1 is possible by adjusting the missile’s
equipment, including mechanical, magnetic, control system and warhead for the type of

37
target it is engaging. The system is effective mirrors, lenses, and exotic laser materials like
to a minimum altitude of five meters and diodes and non-linear optical crystals.
maintains its effectiveness in the presence of
intensive jamming. Rail Guns
Electro-dynamic gun systems are being
The RIF-M is an advanced, long-range naval developed that use electrical energy for
SAM system intended to provide area air 2,000+ m/s muzzle velocity. The near- and
defense from aircraft, cruise missiles, and mid-term combustion-based technologies are
ballistic missiles out to a maximum range a transitional step to the creation of a railgun.
of 200 km (108 nm). The engagement of The major issue for Russia is maintaining
targets is possible at a minimum altitude of 10 rail life through material science, transition
meters through approximately 27,000 meters management, and rail geometry. Another
at speeds of up to 2,700 m/s. The system continuing issue remains pulse power. To
can engage as many as six targets with up increase and maintain pulse power, Russia’s
to twelve missiles and can operate in the new developments comprise of capacitor
presence of intensive jamming. inductors, rotating machines, and flux
compression generators. Non-traditional
Lasers designs of the system include reconnection
Russia’s directed energy weapons program launchers and linear accelerators.
utilizes radio frequencies in order to use
electromagnetic energy to damage or disrupt
electronics. The lasers use a high-intensity
light to disrupt sensors and thermally damage
structures. Low-energy devices are already
being completed for use in electro-optic
countermeasures. Russia’s long-term goal is
a high-energy weapon with anti-satellite and
cruise missile defense capability.

Russia maintains a mid-term high-energy

system of chemical and gas lasers and solid-
state lasers as medium-energy systems. The
development trends of radio-frequency
weapons are based on the observed effects
with little modeling or simulations. Different
waveforms are being utilized, including
ultra-wide band and complex waves. Their
capabilities are yet to be fully evaluated;
problems such as system life and targeting
are still key challenges. The other challenge
for Russia is weaponization. This involves
combining the beam into a solid state,
which is dependent on its quality as well as
atmospheric compensation. These systems
require a high quality of manufacturing using

38
Chapter Four

Personnel – Movement Towards a

Professional Force

Draft and Recruitment communications, finance service, medical

The Russian military is currently reorganizing corps, and as cultural directors.
its personnel structure to more accurately
reflect the needs of modern warfare. The Training and Education
goal of a professional, volunteer-based, Officer. The Russian Navy officer corps consists
highly skilled military is augmenting the almost exclusively of high school educated
traditional obligated service conscription males who successfully compete (academic,
system for all males between the ages of 18 physical, and psychological examinations) for
to 27. The military is also looking to develop admission to and graduate from regional or
a new curriculum for educational institutions specialty Naval Institutes and are commissioned
involved in training young men for military as Lieutenants (U.S. Ensign equivalent). There
service in order to combat a prevailing are military departments at some civilian
negative attitude toward the service. universities analogous to U.S. ROTC units but
their contribution to the career officer corps is
The Russian Navy consists of an officer corps, very small. There is a slow but emerging trend
non-commissioned officers (NCO), enlisted, to allow females admission to Naval Institutes.
and conscripted personnel. Conscripts are RFN midshipmen will attend a Naval Institute for
drafted twice a year during the spring or fall, five years. Those five years are counted toward
and serve a one-year commitment as of 2008. overall military service time for retirement. Naval
Local conscription centers decide who is sent Institutes (formerly called Higher Naval Schools)
to which service. The military will retain a are located in Kaliningrad, St. Petersburg, and
mix of enlisted and conscript soldiers, but will Vladivostok. These naval institutes include:
continue steps toward an all-volunteer force • F.F. Ushakov Baltic Naval Institute
to man all permanent ready combat units. In (Kaliningrad)
addition, reportedly the rank of warrant officer • St. Petersburg Naval Institute - Peter the
will be phased out and re-assigned to the Great Naval Corps
NCO corps. • Naval Polytechnic Institute (the recent
combination of the Naval Engineering
Women began to join the ranks of the Institute (St. Petersburg, Pushkin) and A.S.
Russian Navy in the mid-1980s and make Popov Naval Radioelectronics Institute (St.
up a small portion of the officer and enlisted Petersburg, Petrodvorets)
corps on a voluntary basis. The majority of • S.O. Makarov Pacific Naval Institute
female uniformed personnel serve in the (Vladivostok).

39
 Commissioned Officers of the Russian Navy1 Russian naval
aviators first graduate
from an Air Force
commissioning and
flight training school
and then transfer to
naval aviation where
they undergo more
specialized training
for specific aircraft
and over water
operations.

Naval Infantry
Warrant Officers and Enlisted Rates of the Russian Navy
1 officers attend
Combined Arms
commissioning
schools.

More specialized
officers, such as
those in the technical
communications
and civil engineering
fields, also graduate
from appropriate
A midshipman can specialize in specialty commissioning schools and not from
navigation, weapons systems, engineering, the above mentioned Naval Institutes.
communications, computer and information
systems, meteorology, hydrography, naval In the course of his career progression, an
architecture, or intelligence. The five officer may be sent to obtain specialized
years of study and included fleet practical qualifications or qualification upgrades at
experience are structured to prepare the the Advanced Special Officers Courses (St.
young officer specifically for the duties of his Petersburg). This institution also provides
first assignment in one of the four fleets or the specific courses for prospective Executive
Caspian Flotilla. Officers and Commanding Officers.

40
 Staff Academy (U.S. National Defense
University equivalent) for higher level officer
education. General Staff Academy credentials
are required for assignment to senior fleet
command, joint command, and Defense
Ministry positions.

In January 2009, a major reorganization of the

Navy’s educational system was announced.
Plans called for the creation, on the basis of
the Naval Academy, of a composite naval
education and research center to be located in
Kronshtadt on Kotlin Island at the sea entrance
At the mid-career point (O-4, O-5), officers to St. Petersburg. This center, using the Naval
can sit for examinations to attend the N.G. Academy as a core, would incorporate several
Kuznetsov Naval Academy. The modern smaller institutes across a broad spectrum of
Russian Naval Academy is similar to a naval disciplines and provide undergraduate,
combination of the U.S. Naval War College graduate, and postgraduate education. Adjunct
and the Naval Postgraduate School. The Naval to this core would be training facilities for
Academy traces its origins to the Naval Guards enlisted specialists and accommodation for
Academy established in 1715 in St. Petersburg the pre-naval institute preparatory Nakhimov
where students studied navigation, artillery, School and the Naval Cadet Corps for younger
fortifications and naval architecture. In 1960, boys. This ambitious plan for the creation
the Soviet Union combined the Voroshilov of a single large naval educational-training
Naval Academy and Krylov Shipbuilding and campus was apparently considered too costly.
Armaments Academy. And, in 1980 it became However, all of the above mentioned naval
the Admiral of the Fleet of the Soviet Union educational institutions were combined under
N.G. Kuznetsov Naval Academy, normally the umbrella organization named the Military-
referred to as the Kuznetsov Naval Academy Educational Center “N.G. Kuznetsov Naval
and sometimes even shortened to KNA. Academy” providing centralized management
Graduation from the Naval Academy is a of naval training and education.
prerequisite for further advancement to senior
ship and shore positions at the fleet and naval Professional Enlisted. Russian Navy enlisted
headquarters level. personnel are contracted for a certain term of
service and receive technical training in their
A select group of identified prospective specific subject matter area. The Russian Navy,
or serving flag officers attend the General as well as other services, is currently working

41
to create a fully functional non-commissioned Relative to the other services, the Russian Navy
officer corps. In principle, the Russian Navy began to seriously assess its organizational
has had enlisted personnel whose rate structure and manning early in the first decade
designation would be equivalent to U.S. of the 21st century. Significant adjustments had
Navy Chief Petty Officers; however, actual already been made prior to the announcement
equivalency is yet to be achieved. of the latest Defense Ministry reforms. As
a result, among the main services (Ground
Conscripts. Conscripted sailors are required Forces, Air Forces and Navy) the Navy has
to serve a minimum of one year of service been the least affected by ongoing changes.
and receive four to six weeks of basic training
prior to their first assignment. Although
unpopular in media reporting, the draft is
necessary to replace previously conscripted
sailors and retirees throughout the fleet. With
a renewed emphasis on force readiness, within
the navy conscripts normally are assigned
to either shore duty or to ships in extended
maintenance. Relatively few serve on
deployed ships.

Reform in Progress
The Russian military is in the process of
a significant draw-down in forces and a
further down-sizing restructuring. As Russia’s
perception of NATO as a threat has evolved,
irregular and asymmetric threats have arisen,
and market forces have emphasized cost-
effectiveness, the Russian leadership decided
that the country no longer needs the massive
force structure of the Soviet Union. The Soviet
legacy military came with large numbers
of officers at the O-5 and O-6 level. These
numbers were incompatible with the new
Armed Forces structure and the Defense
Ministry moved to trim this portion of the
officer corps and provide for early retirements
for personnel deemed no longer required.

42
Outlook

In the next 10–15 years, the Russian Navy The new submarine and ship classes will
will continue its historic transition to a new incorporate the latest advances in militarily
21st-century navy. A modest number of new significant areas such as: weapons; sensors;
class ships and submarines will enter the command, control and communication
Navy by the turn of the decade. Continuing capabilities; signature reduction; electronic
series construction and the start of several countermeasures; and automation and
more sophisticated and complex new classes habitability. More technologically advanced
are projected for the next decade. The new total ship systems requiring smaller crews
construction will be accompanied by the will be complemented with personnel better
maintenance and extension in service of the trained and educated to exploit the full
most capable Soviet legacy units. potential of their combat systems.

Newest Russian SSBN Class: Yuriy Dolgorukiy

43
 and maintenance, overcoming the impact of
current sanctions, and the recapitalization
of related infrastructure will not be easy to
sustain and will require constant effort.

Future Forces
The future 21st-century Russian Navy is
projected to be more capable on a unit-by-
unit basis than at present but not significantly
larger in overall order of battle numbers.
Barring unexpected changes in the global
Proposed Ka-52K naval attack variant political and economic environment, the
Navy’s missions are expected to remain the
The development of extended and interlinked same: to deter potential adversaries with
intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance strategic sea-based nuclear forces, to defend
systems within the “World Ocean” Federal the nation and its interests using the navy’s
Targeted Program initiated in 1997 was general purpose forces, and to use the Navy
intended to make Russian naval and other as an “instrument of state” to support Russia’s
military and civilian systems more integrated diplomatic efforts, initiatives, and national
and interoperable, and, if successful, was interests.
planned to support better informed and timely
direction of the Navy by commanders both
afloat and ashore.

The continued improvement of Russian Navy

uniformed personnel’s quality of life, increases
in pay and allowances, improved housing,
and public recognition of achievements will
reward their dedication and restore and
enhance the prestige of naval service.

Challenges
The achievement of these goals will not be
without challenges. Continued understanding
of the role and capabilities of the Navy by
Russia’s leaders, securing sufficient and reliable
long-range funding for ship construction

44