Subject: Apparel Merchandising

Unit 6: Garment costing and pricing methods

Quadrant 1 – E-Text

Learning Objectives

The learning objectives of this unit are to:

 Outline the elements of a basic cost sheet of a garment.

 Describe cost plus method of pricing the garments.
 Describe marginal cost pricing method.
 Describe backward and target pricing method.

6.1 Garment Costing

According to ICMA London, Cost Accounting is that part of Management Accounting which
establishes budgets and standard costs, and actual cost of operations, processes, departments or
products and the analysis of variances, profitability and social use of funds.

Cost Accounting is the classifying, recording and appropriate allocation of expenditure for the
determination of the costs of products or services and for the presentation of suitably arranged
data for purposes of control and guidance of management.

Apparel costing is used for a number of reasons, including for: Classification and sub-divisions
of Costs, Control of Materials, Labour and Overhead Costs, and for Business Policies. It helps
the management to take decisions. It helps to create an expansion strategy. Ensures Optimum
Profitability, and Helps the management to take suitable steps to meet seasonal variations in
volume and costs. etc.

Apparel costing is useful for Budgeting and for setting standards for Measuring Efficiencies. It
allows the best use of limited resources and is an instrument of Management Control. It helps in
Cost Audit, and Price Determination. It ascertains the cost per unit of different products
manufactured and provides a correct analysis of cost both by process and operations. It discloses
sources of wastages and acts as a guide to price fixation of products manufactured. It ascertains
the profitability of each product that is manufactured and exercises effective control of stocks of
raw materials at various stages. Implements cost control systems. It guides the management in
the formulation and implementation of incentive bonus plans and helps in preparation of budgets
and also helps in implementation of budgetary control.

6.2 Elements of Costs

There are three main elements of costs. They are: Materials, Labour and other expenses.
Materials can be either direct material or indirect material. Labour can be direct or indirect.
Other expenses can be direct or indirect.

All Indirect Expenses give rise to Overhead expenses.

This includes: Production or Works overheads, administration overhead, selling overhead,
distribution overhead, research and development overhead.

Direct Materials
Direct materials include: All raw materials, materials specifically purchased, parts or
components purchased or produced, and primary packing materials.

Direct Labour
Direct labour includes: Labour engaged on the actual production, labour engaged in aiding the
manufacture, and specially required for production. For example, Inspectors.

Overhead
Overhead is the aggregate cost of indirect materials, indirect materials.

Division of Costs

Here are some ways that costs can be divided.

1. Prime Cost = Direct Materials + Direct Labours + Direct Expenses.

2. Works or Factory Cost = Prime Cost + Works or Factory Overheads.
3. Cost of Production = Works Cost + Administration Overheads.
4. Total Cost / Cost of Sales = Cost of Production + Selling Overhead + Distribution
Overhead.

Cost Classifications
Costs can be classified: By nature or elements or analytics, by functions, as direct or indirect
cost, by variability, controllability, normality, time, according to planning and control and for
managerial costs.

By Nature, Elements or Analytics

Costs can be classified by Nature, Elements or Analytical classification: This includes Material,
labour and expenses.

By Functions

Cost can be classified by functions. Either by: Manufacturing and Production Cost, or by
Commercial Cost. This includes: (1) Administrative Cost. (2) Selling and Distribution Cost and
(3) Research and Development Cost.

As Direct or Indirect Cost

Costs can be classified as: Direct cost, and Indirect cost.

By Variability

Costs can be classified by variability, such as: Fixed or Period Cost, Variable or Product Cost
and Semi-variability Cost.

By Controllability

Costs can be classified by controllability. These are: Controllable costs and Uncontrollable costs.

By Normality

Costs can be classified by normality. These are: Normal costs and Abnormal costs.

By Time

Costs can be classified on the basis of time. These are: Historical costs and predetermined costs.

According to Planning and Control

Costs can be classified according to planning and control. This includes: Budgeted costs and
Standard costs.

For Managerial Costs

Costs can be classified for managerial purposes. This includes: Marginal costs, opportunity costs,
replacement costs, avoidable and unavoidable cost.

Cost is a measurement, in monetary terms, of the amount of resources used for some purpose.
According to the American Accounting Association - Cost is the foregoing, in monetary terms,
incurred or potentially to be incurred in the realisation of the objective of management which
may be manufacturing of a product or rendering of services.

Fixed or period costs are those costs which remain fixed in total amount, with increase or
decrease in the volume of output for a given point of time.
Fixed Cost per unit decreases as production increases, and increases as production declines.

Variable or product costs are those costs, which vary in total in direct proportion to the volume
of output. These costs per unit remain relatively constant with changes in production.
Semi-Variable costs are the costs which are partly fixed and partly variable. Marginal cost is the
total of variable costs that is prime cost plus variable overhead. Extra cost incurred to
manufacture one extra unit of production.

Average Cost = Total Cost / Number of Units Produced

6.3 Methods of Costing

Let us now look at the methods of costing. These are: Job costing, contract costing, batch
costing, process costing, unit costing, operating costing, operation costing, and multiple costing.

Job Costing:
Costs are collected and accumulated for each job, work order or project separately to analyse the
cost according to each job.

Contract Costing:
When the job is big and spread over long periods of time a separate account is kept for each
individual contract.

Batch Costing:
A Batch may represent a number of small orders passed through the factory in batch. Each batch
is treated as an unit of cost and separately costed. It is an extension of job costing.

Process Costing:
A separate account is opened for each process to which all expenditures incurred thereon are
charged so that cost per unit at each process can be ascertained.

Unit Costing:
Here the cost per unit of output and the cost of each item is ascertained. The manufacture is
continuous and units are identical.

Operating Costing:
It is used to ascertain the cost of services rendered. Example: Transport undertakings.

Operation Costing:
This takes into consideration the rejections in each operations for calculating input units and
cost. It refers to conversion cost from raw material to finished products.

Multiple Costing:
It represents the application of more than one method of costing in respect to the same product.

6.4 Techniques of Costing

These are: Uniform costing, Marginal costing, Standard costing, Historical costing, and Direct
costing.
Uniform Costing:
It is the use of same costing principles and / or practices by several undertakings for common
control or comparison of costs.

Marginal Costing:
It is the ascertainment of marginal cost by differentiating between fixed and variable cost. It is
used to ascertain the effect of changes in volume or type of output on profit.

Standard Costing:
A comparison is made of the actual cost with a pre-arranged standard and the cost. The cost of
any deviation (called variances) is analysed by causes.

Historical Costing:
It is ascertainment of costs after they have been incurred i.e. costs actually incurred on work
done in the past.

Direct Costing:
It is the practice of charging all direct costs, variable and some fixed costs relating to operations
leaving all other costs to be written off against profits in which they arise.

Cost Sheet / Statement of Cost

The particulars of the cost sheet includes, Direct materials, direct labour and direct expenses. The
Prime costs are the work overheads. The work cost is the administrative overheads. The cost of
production is the selling and distribution of overheads. The total cost as well as the cost per unit
for each of these should be calculated. There is no prescribed format for a cost sheet. It may vary
from industry to industry. Here is a specimen format of a cost sheet. Remember a cost sheet is a
statement, which shows the various components of total cost of a particular product. A cost sheet
is prepared on the basis of: Historical cost and Estimated cost.

Stock of Raw Material

The stock of raw material is calculated as:

Opening Stock of Raw Materials

Add: Purchase of raw material

Less: Closing Stock of Raw Material
= Raw Material Consumed

Stock of Work-in-Progress
Stock of work-in-progress is calculated as:

Prime Cost
Add: Opening Stock of WIP
Factory O/H Incurred
Less: Closing WIP
= Manufacturing Works cost

Stock of Finished Goods

Stock of finished goods is calculated as:

Cost of Production
Add: Opening Stock of Finished Goods
Less: Closing Stock of Finished Goods
= Cost of Goods sold.

Composition of Cost of Garment

In continuation of the other functions, a Production merchandiser is also required to do the

costing of the product. The costing is done by keeping in mind the cost of the various raw
materials, operating cost of the company, the competition and expected profit of the
organization. At the same time, it is necessary to keep in mind the buyers costing expectations.

The cost of a garment depends on these components: Fabric, trims, cut Make and Trim charges,
value added services: printing, embroidery, washing, appliqué, testing of the garment, quality,
transportation and logistics cost, profit of the manufacturing organization.

All these components of garment cost depend upon certain parameters which drastically affects
above cost parameters. These parameters play a vital role when the production merchandiser
does the costing of garment; as these parameters are very dynamic and keep fluctuating
frequently. The parameters that affect the garment cost mostly are; Unit of Measurement, MOQ,
Incoterm decided between raw material vendor and garment manufacturer, order quantity, etc.

Fabric
Fabric is generally the most significant factor in costing of garment. Fabric accounts for 60 to
70% of the total cost of basic-styled garments. In many cases, evaluating the quality and the
quantity of fabric consumed in the garment indicates better than any other factor, the cost of
producing it. The cost of fabric depends upon the type of fabric that is going to be utilised in the
garment.

The types of fabrics are: Woven / knitted fabric, power loom /automatic loom fabric, fibre / yarn
/ fabric dyed fabric, fibre content of fabric, such as cotton, wool, polyester, silk, blended fabric
etc., type of dyeing and finish used, gram per square meter / weight of fabric, type of yarn used,
such as ring spun, open ended, or carded / combed etc.

Parameters that Affect the Fabric Cost

They are: Unit of measurement (UOM), fabric Minimum order quantity (MOQ), order quantity,
Incoterm used.

The unit of Measurement (UOM) is a quantity used as a standard of measurement. The Unit of
Measurement for woven fabric is normally in meters or yard, while knitted fabric measured in
Kilograms or some time it is in yards also. The merchandiser should aware of unit of
measurements while finding out the cost of fabric. Sometimes a buyer specifies the UOM of
fabric.
Minimum Order Quantity

Fabric Minimum Order Quantity (MOQ) is nothing, but the smallest quantity of a product that a
fabric manufacturer can supply. The MOQ depends on the type of fabric and on capacity of
vendor. The MOQ plays an important role while ordering the fabric, as it directly affects the
cost of garment.

If the order of fabric is below the estimated MOQ, then the vendor charges more cost as
compared to regular charges. Merchandisers need to keep the MOQ in mind, while doing the
costing of small quantity orders.

The cost of fabric may vary with the order quantity. The more the order quantity, the cost of
fabric can be optimised till a certain level. But again, this depends on the type of fabric required,
and fabric manufacturer capacity along with negotiations between fabric buyer and supplier.

Incoterm Used
Incoterm used is a factor that makes a huge difference in fabric cost. While importing the fabric
from another country, a merchandiser needs to deal with the supplier for delivery of the fabric
on the basis of incoterms like EXW, FOB, CIF, DDP etc., based on which it will be decided, as
to who will bear the cost of transportation and risk.

No matter which incoterm is used, all the cost needs to be charged to buyer. If the fabric is
purchased by using EXW incoterm, then the merchandiser needs to add the transportation cost
along with the custom clearance charges and the price of fabric while calculating the garment
cost.

Calculating the Cost of Fabric

The cost of fabric can be calculated by the following way:

Yarn cost + fabric manufacturing cost (knitting or woven) + dyeing cost + finishing cost =
total fabric manufacturing cost

Dyeing cost indicates that if the fabric is yarn dyed or fibre dyed or piece dyed, the respective
cost will be added depending upon the fabric type. The Finishing cost includes heat setting cost,
normal finishing, compacting (knitted fabric) etc.,

Cost Calculation of Fabric in a Garment

Considering the knitted fabric and t-shirt as an end product, then fabric consumption can be
calculated as:

Fabric consumption in kg

= (Body length + Sleeve length + allowance) x (Chest + allowance) X 2 X GSM

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10000
Fabric Consumption for Woven Fabric
And for woven fabric and shirt as an end product, then the fabric consumption can be calculated
as:

Fabric consumption in metres

= (Full length + Sleeve length + allowance) x (Chest + allowance) X 2 X Fabric width

____________________________________________________________
39.37

These methods are used to calculate the fabric consumption roughly at sampling stage by
merchandiser. These formulas will give approximate calculation for pre costing stage of the
garment. Sometimes fabric consumption is also done by forming the miniature marker by CAD
department. These are the constraints of fabric consumption: Fabric cuttable width, repeat size,
pattern type to be informed to the CAD along with buyer tech-pack in order to calculate exact
width and consumption.

The marker efficiency considered 80-85% depending upon the fabric type i.e. solid dyed, stripe,
checks fabric. Efficiency can be changed depending upon the fabric parameters, matching
parameters of the buyer, type of style.

The buffer in the consumption should be added to the fabric by merchandiser, generally it is
0.03-0.08% of total fabric consumption. In case of trim fabric i.e. interlining the 10-20% more
buffers is kept while ordering the interlining, in order to maintain the inventory and to avoid the
shortage during the production and fabric wastage percentages, to be added also, while
calculating the fabric consumption. Considerable wastage depends on factory practices, type of
fabric and type of garment.

Trims

Trims include all materials other than fabric used in the garment. For example most garments
have accessories such as threads, buttons, zippers, labels, elastics and miscellaneous items.
Quality and quantity of trim and labour required to apply it on garment are directly related to
cost of garment. The different trims have different UOM; even same trim can have 2-3 different
UOMs that can be summarised as:

UOM of Trims Used in Garments

Trims UOM
Thread 1000 meter tube, 2000/5000 Meter Cone
Labels Unit
Zippers Unit
Buttons Gross (144 Units)
Polybag Unit , thickness is measured in mm. or gauge
Carton Unit
Hand tags Unit
Shanks Gross
Rivets Unit
Lace 50 Meter
Hanger Unit
Tapes / Velcro 50 Meter or Kg.
Elastics 50 Meter

Other factors that need to be considered while calculating the trims cost is MOQ, order quantity,
lead time and quality of raw material used to make the trims.

Thread
After fabric, thread is another component which needs to be considered for calculating the cost
of garments most. The consumption of thread is calculated by IE department. It is dependent
upon the type of seam and SPI. While ordering the thread the operation break down and number
of sewing M/c for that particular style should be taken in account.

Accordingly, number of cones of thread needs to order. In order to calculate thread consumption
special software’s are also available which gives the accurate thread consumption.

Sometimes, the thread can be computed as while preparing the sample. Initial weight of the
thread cone is measured and after preparation of sample again weight measured. The difference
of weight gives how much thread is consumed, and converting it into meters will give actual
thread consumption for that particular garment. While ordering thread it’s important to consider
the wastage, normally which is 10-15%.

Labels
Several labels are used in garment such as, main label, care label, and content label. The cost of
label depends upon make of label, that is, fibre content, printed, jacquard label, size of labels,
colours used in label, etc., A unit garment label cost may not play a significant role, but in case
of mass production it plays vital role. The other factors that are important while ordering the
labels are MOQ, and order quantity.

Zipper
Zippers also has several types like metallic zipper, nylon zipper etc. which plays the drastic role
in cost of zipper. Merchandiser should be aware of the parameters of zipper for accurate costing
and negotiation. MOQ is the parameter which affects the cost of zipper considerably; at certain
MOQ only zipper will get at desired price.

Buttons
Buttons can be made up of different types, nylon buttons, plastic buttons, acrylic based buttons,
wood, shell, or metal. Every type of button has its own MOQ decided by manufacturer of
button. Buttons are purchased on gross with the line specified.

1 gross = 1 packet =144 buttons= 12 dozens

Polybags
The cost of poly bag is highly dependent on thickness, dimension and raw material used. The
poly bag ordered in terms of number of pieces. The cost of poly bag is equally important as it
give significant difference when we consider the whole order quantity.

Cartons
Just like poly bags, the cost of cartons are highly dependent on material used and dimensions.
Depending upon these factors cost of cartons is decided, the UOM of cartons generally is
number of pieces while cost varies with MOQ.

These are procured based on the number of plies, dimensions of the carton and GSM of the
paper used to make the carton. Generally, the number of plies used in carton box is 3, 7 and 9
ply. For example: 9 ply, 60 X 40 X40, 4 side calico, 1 side print and 180 GSM.

Hand Tags
Hand tags or price tags are used as packing material, the cost of hand tags are dependent upon
material used, printing on it and MOQ.

Shanks and Rivets

Generally, shanks and rivets are trims that are made up of metallic. The UOM of rivets and
shanks is gross and No. of pieces respectively. The cost of shanks and rivets is dependent upon
the MOQ and material used.

Hangers
Hangers are usually made up of hard plastics or sometimes wood. The cost of a hanger depends
on the material used, size, print and colour on it. Generally, transparent hangers are costlier than
coloured ones.

Tags and Velcro

Tapes are purchased based on the width and mobil on tapes are purchased in kg. Thus, increase
in width by 100% increases the cost by 80%. For satin tapes increase in width by 150%
increases the cost by 250%. Another factor that affects cost is MOQ.

Calculation of Trim Charges

Trims charges are generally calculated as for the different type of sourcing and mode of
transportation. If shipment is by air then the trim cost + 15-25% more cost is quoted to buyer,
depending on the freight charges. If shipment is by sea then trim cost + 10-15% more cost is
quoted to buyer depending upon freight charges. If there is domestic sourcing then there are
local taxes. Transportation charges is bound to add in the total trim cost. These additions are
done by the merchandiser, depending upon the business outlook.

Other charges included during the costing by merchandiser. Rejection and wastage charges is 2
to 5%, depending on the order quantity. Commission on foreign exchange is 2 to 3%.
Commission of buying house, (if applicable) is 1 to 1.5%. Internal transportation charges is 1 to
2 dollars per garment. Margin, decided by marketing department by looking at the business
scenario is 10 to 15%. Testing inspection charges is 1 to 2%.

CMT (Cost of Making) Cost

The cost of making done "in house" is based on the total cost per hour multiplied by the number
of hours it takes to make the style and divided by the number of units produced if the making is
done by a contractor; the contractor adds profit on to this amount.

Labour cost per minute = (Monthly salary of an operators / Total minutes available in the
month) at 100% efficiency.

CM cost = (SAM of the garment * Minute cost of the labour)/Line efficiency (%).

6.5 Value Added Services

Value added services is cost added to of special process like embroidery, printing, washing used
to impart the type of look buyers wants.
These are associated cost of garment manufacturing are wet processing chemicals, washing and
contracted operations. Wet processing chemicals include bleaches, detergents, softeners,
neutralizers, wetting agents and resins.

Complicated wet process finishes contribute a significant amount to the price of a product.
Merchandiser must know in detail about each of these operations, sourcing, contracting
requirement and time involved. Cost of these varies depending on different styles. For example,
Embroidery costing requires derivation of thread consumption, additional cost of hand
embroidery is involved etc. printing cost is dependent on no. of colours for printing, MOQ, and
type of print.

The example of garment cost is given by assuming the following dimensions for polo neck T-
shirt, no. of pieces = 4000, salary of the operator = 6000 Rs./month=120$/month no. of working
days = 26, line efficiency considered= 50%, sewing SAM= 15 min., Cutting SAM= 7 min.
1$=50INR

Chest = 60 cm, Length (HSP to waist) = 75 cm, Sleeve length = 25 cm.

Fabric used is 2/60s 100% cotton S/J fabric. GSM is 180

Calculating the Fabric Consumption

Fabric consumption in kg
= (Body length + Sleeve length + allowance) X (Chest + allowance) X 2 X GSM

___________________________________________________________

10000

= (75 + 25 + 2) X (60 +1) X2X 180/10000

= 0.224kg + 0.08(weight of cuff and collar)

Calculation of CMT Charges

CMT charges are calculated as: Total available capacity per month (in minute) = 26

working days X 8 hours per day X 60=12,480 minutes.

Labour Cost per Minute

Labour cost per minute = (Monthly salary of an operators/Total minutes available in the month)
at 100% efficiency
= 6000/12480 =0.480 Rs.

Sewing Cost

Sewing cost = (SAM of the garment X Minute cost of the labour)/Line efficiency (percent)

=15* 0.480/50
=0.288 dollars

Cutting Cost
Cutting cost = (SAM of cutting * Minute cost of the labour) / cutting efficiency (percent)
= 7*0.480/50
=0.134 dollars.

Trimming cost is considered as 0.06 dollars, as it depends upon how many operators are there
for trimming.

Production Cost of Garment (CMT)

Production cost of garment (CMT) = sewing cost + cutting cost + trimming cost
= 0.288+0.134+0.06
= 0.482 dollars.

FOB Cost of Garment

Fabric cost + 7% duty 1.97$

Trim cost + 7% duty 0.3$
Fabric and trims 0.06$
transportation charges
Testing + inspection charges 0.2$
Commission on foreign 0.08$
exchange
Buying house commission 0.16$
Rejection 5% 0.16$
Value addition services 0.2$
CMT 0.482$
Margin 0.5$
Total FOB cost of garment 4.11$
6.6 Pricing Policies of Garments

Of course, one objective of pricing is to make a profit, but this may not be a firm’s primary
objective. Other objectives include: survival, profit maximization, target return on investment,
market share goals and status quo pricing.

Survival
A firm may have to price its products to survive, either as an organization or as a factor in a
particular market. This usually means that the firm will cut its price to attract customers. Such a
goal can’t be pursued on a long-term basis. Consistent losses would cause the business to fail.

Profit Maximization
Many firms may state that their goal is to maximize profit, but this goal is impossible to define
(and thus impossible to achieve).

What, exactly, is the "maximum" profit?

Target Return on Investment

Target Return on Investment is the return on an investment (ROI) is the amount earned as a
result of that investment.

Market Share Goals

Market Share Goals is a firm’s market share is its proportion of total industry sales. Some firms
attempt, through pricing, to maintain or increase their share of the market.

Status Quo Pricing

In pricing their products, some firms are guided by a desire to avoid "making waves"—that is, to
maintain the status quo. This is especially true in industries where price stability is important. If a
firm can maintain its profit or market share simply by meeting the competition, charging about
the same price as competitors for similar products, then it will do so.

Selecting a Pricing Method

There are three pricing methods that can be employed by a firm:

1. Cost Oriented Pricing

2. Competition Based Pricing
3. Marketing Oriented Pricing

1. Cost Oriented Pricing

In cost oriented pricing, companies often use cost oriented pricing methods when setting prices.
Two methods are normally used for cost-oriented pricing: Full cost pricing and direct or
marginal cost pricing.

Full Cost Pricing

Here the firm determines the direct and fixed costs for each unit of product. The first problem
with Full-cost pricing is that it leads to an increase in price as sales fall.

Direct or Marginal Cost Pricing

Direct or marginal cost pricing involves the calculation of only those costs, which are likely to
increase as output increases. Indirect or fixed costs (plant, machinery etc) will remain unaffected
whether one unit or one thousand units are produced. Like full cost pricing, this method will
include a profit margin in the final price. Direct cost approach is useful when pricing services for
example, Competition based approach, Competitive bidding, Market oriented pricing.

2. Competition Based Pricing (Going-Rate Approach)

In going-rate pricing, the firm bases its price largely on competitors’ prices, with less attention
paid to its own costs or to demand. The firm might charge the same, more, or less than its major
competitors. Where the products offered by firms in a certain industry are very similar the public
often finds difficulty in perceiving which firm meets their needs best. In cases like this (for
example in financial services and delivery services) the firm may attempt to differentiate on
delivery or service quality in an attempt to justify a higher selling price.

Competitive Bidding
Many contracts are won or lost on the basis of competitive bidding. The most usual process is the
drawing up of detailed specifications for a product and putting the contract out for tender.
Potential suppliers quote a price, which is confidential to themselves and the buyer. In sealed-bid
pricing, that is, only known to client and not to the other parties tendering for the service), firms
bid for jobs, with the firms basing the price on what it thinks other firms will be bidding rather
than on its own costs or demand.
3. Market Oriented Pricing
The price of a product should be set in line with the marketing strategy. The danger is that price
is viewed in isolation (as would be the case with full cost pricing), with no reference to other
marketing decisions, such as positioning, strategic objectives, and promotion, distribution and
product benefits.

Pricing Strategies
These are some of the pricing strategies that are commonly adopted by companies. They are
Geographical pricing, price discounts and allowances, promotional pricing, discriminatory
pricing and product-mix pricing.

Geographical Pricing (Cash, Counter Trade, Barter)

Geographical pricing involves the’ company in deciding how to price its products to different
customers in different locations and countries.

Counter trade may account for 15 to 25% of world trade and takes several forms:

Barter is the direct exchange of goods with no money and third party involved.

In a Compensation deal, the seller receives some percentage of the payment in cash and the rest
in products.

In a Buyback arrangement, the seller sells a plant, equipment, or technology to another country
and agrees to accept as partial payment products manufactured with the supplied equipment.

In an Offset deal, the seller receives full payment in cash, but agrees to spend a substantial
amount of the money in that country within a stated time period.

Price Discounts and Allowances

The role of offering discounts can be a useful tactic in response to aggressive competition by a
competitor. However, discounting can be dangerous unless carefully controlled and conceived as
part of your overall marketing strategy. The main types of discounts common today are Cash and
settlement discounts, quality discounts and promotional discounts.

Cash and Settlement Discounts

Cash and settlement discounts are intended to bring payments in faster. This is paid during cash
payment and final settlement.

Quality Discounts
The trouble with quality discounts is that when formalized on a published price list, they become
an established part of your pricing structure and as a result their impact can be lost.

Promotional Discounts
Promotional discounts are the best kind of discounts, because they enable you to retain the power
to be flexible. There may be times, when you want to give an extra boost to sales - to shift an old
product before launching an updated one for example.
Promotional Pricing
Companies can use several pricing techniques to stimulate early purchase.
These techniques include: Loss-leader pricing, Special event pricing, Cash rebates, low-interest
financing, longer payment terms, warranties and service contracts, and psychological
discounting.

Loss-leader Pricing
Supermarkets and department stores often drop the price on well-known brands to stimulate
additional store traffic. This pays if the revenue on the additional sales compensates for the lower
margins on the loss-leader items.
Manufacturers of loss-leader brands typically, object because this practice can dilute the brand
image and bring complaints from retailers who charge the list price.

Special-Event Pricing
Another technique is special-event pricing. Sellers will establish special prices in certain seasons
to draw in more customers.

Cash Rebates
Auto companies and other consumer-goods companies offer cash rebates to encourage purchase
of the manufacturers’ products within a specified time period. Rebates can help clear inventories
without cutting the stated list price.

Low Interest Financing

In this technique, instead of cutting its price, a company can offer customers low-interest
financing. A typical example is where automakers have even announced no-interest financing to
attract Customers.

Longer Payment Terms

Sellers, especially mortgage banks and auto companies, stretch loans over longer periods, and
thus, lower the monthly payments. Consumers often worry less about the cost (such as the
interest rate) of a loan, and instead worry more about whether they can afford the monthly
payment.

Warranties and Service Contracts

Another popular technique is for companies to promote sales by adding a free or low-cost
warranty or service contract.

Psychological Discounting
Psychological discounting is a strategy that involves setting an artificially high price, and then
offering the product at substantial savings. Promotional-pricing strategies are often a zero-sum
game. If they work, competitors copy them and they lose their effectiveness. If they do not work,
then the money is wasted, which could have been put into other marketing tools.

Discriminatory Pricing
Companies often adjust their basic price to accommodate differences in customers, products,
locations, and so on. Price discrimination occurs when a company sells a product or service at
two or more prices that do not reflect a proportional difference in costs.

In first-degree price discrimination, the seller charges a separate price to each customer
depending on the intensity of his or her demand.

In second-degree price discrimination, the seller charges less to buyers who buy a larger volume.

In third-degree price discrimination, the seller charges different amounts to different classes of
buyers, as in the following cases: Customer-Segment pricing, Product-from pricing, Image
pricing, Channel pricing, Location pricing and Time pricing.

Customer-Segment Pricing
In customer-segment pricing, different customer groups are charged different prices for the same
product or service. For example, museums often charge a lower admission fee to students and
senior citizens.

Product-Form Pricing
In product-form pricing, different versions of the product ‘are priced differently but not
proportionately to their respective costs.

Image Pricing
Some companies price the same product two different levels based on image differences at. A
perfume manufacturer can put the perfume in one bottle, give it a name and image, and price it at
Rs.50. It can put the same perfume in another bottle with a different name and image and price it
at Rs.200.

Channel Pricing
A typical example of channel pricing is Coca-Cola, which carries a different price depending on
whether it is purchased in a fine restaurant, a fast-food restaurant, or a vending machine.

Location Pricing
In location pricing the same product is priced differently at different locations even though the
cost of offering at each location is the same. A theater varies its seat prices according to audience
preferences for different locations.

Time Pricing
In time pricing, prices are varied by season, day, or hour. Public utilities vary energy rates to
commercial users by time of day and weekend versus weekday. For price discrimination to work,
certain conditions must exist.

I. First, the market must be segment able and the segments must show different intensities
of demand.
II. Second, members in the lower price segment must not be able to resell the product to the
higher-price segment.
III. Third, competitors must not be able to undersell the firm in the higher-price segment.
IV. Fourth, the cost of segmenting and policing the market must not exceed the extra revenue
derived from price discrimination.
V. Fifth, the practice must not breed customer resentment and ill will.
VI. Sixth, the particular form of price discrimination must not be illegal.

6.7 Product-Mix Pricing

Price-setting logic must be modified when; the product is part of a product mix. In this case, the
firm searches for a set of prices that maximizes profits on the total mix.
Pricing is difficult because the various products have demand and cost interrelationships and are
subject to different degrees of competition. We can distinguish six situations involving product-
mix pricing. They are: product-line pricing, optional-feature pricing, captive-product pricing,
two-part pricing, by-product pricing, and product-bundling pricing.

6.8 Product Line Pricing

Companies normally develop product lines rather than single products and introduce price steps.
In many lines of trade, sellers use well-established price points for the products in their line. The
seller’s task is to establish perceived-quality differences that justify the price differences.

Optional-Feature Pricing
Optional-feature pricing is offered by many companies. This is usually done by offering optional
products, features, and services along with their main product.

Captive-Product Pricing
Some products require the use of ancillary, or captive, products. For example, manufacturers of
razors and cameras often price them low and set high markups on razor blades and film,
respectively. Another example is, when a cellular service operator gives a cellular phone free, if
the person commits to buying two years of phone service.

Two-Part Pricing
Service firms often engage in two-part pricing, consisting of a fixed fee plus a variable usage fee.
The fixed fee should be low enough to induce purchase of the service. The profit can then be
made on the usage fees.

By-Product Pricing
The production of certain goods such as, meats, petroleum products, and other chemicals, often
results in by-products. If the by-products have value to a customer group, they should then be
priced on their value. Any income earned on by-products will make it easier for the company to
charge a lower price on its main product, if competition forces it to do so.

Product-Bundling Pricing
Sellers often bundle products and features. Pure bundling occurs when a firm only offers its
products as a bundle. In mixed bundling, the seller offers goods both individually and in bundles.
When offering a mixed bundle, the seller normally charges less for the bundle than if the items
were purchased separately. The savings on the price bundle must be substantial enough to induce
them to buy the bundle.
6.9 Conclusion
To summarize, in this unit, you have learnt about the elements of a basic cost sheet of a garment,
and the importance, methods of costing and classification of cost. You have also reviewed the
objectives of pricing, and the pricing methods adopted by the garment industry.