B io Factsheet

www.curriculum-press.co.uk Number 168

Gamete Formation in Animals

The process of gamete formation is called gametogenesis. It occurs In exams, the process is sometimes shown as in Fig 1.
in all sexually reproducing organisms.
Gametes are haploid cells and so have only one set of chromosomes. Fig 1. Outline of the process of spermatogenesis
Because of this, at some stage in their production, meiosis (reduction
division) must occur. male germ cell(2n)

growth multiplication
many

Phase of
Exam Hint. Gamete production involves both meiosis and mitotic
mitosis. Meiosis ensures that they only have half the normal divisions
amount of genetic material i.e. they are haploid. Large
numbers of gametes (particularly male gametes) are needed spermatogonia(2n)
and mitosis is essential to produce these large numbers. accumulation of

Phase of
a bit of yolk and
In gametogenesis: cytoplasm
• meiosis reduces the chromosome number by half, to one set. primay spermatocyte(2n)
meiosis I
• meiosis introduces genetic variation so that all gametes are
maturation

slightly genetically different from each other.

Phase of

secondary spermatocyte
• mitosis has the capability to produce large numbers of gametes.
• at fertilization the haploid male and haploid female gametes fuse meiosis II
so that the diploid state (two sets of chromosomes) is restored
in the zygote. spermatids(n)
• the production of sperm is called spermatogenesis; the
production of eggs is called oogenesis. The summary flow chart and Fig1 will answer most of the exam
questions about the actual process of sperm formation. The other
Gametogenesis in humans commonly – examined aspects are:
In men spermatogenesis occurs in the testes, from puberty until
death, although at much reduced rates after middle age. 1. What is the significance of meiosis and mitosis here?
In women oogenesis occurs partly in the ovaries and partly in the 2. Adaptations of sperm
ovarian funnel and oviduct, from puberty until the menopause, (the 3. Application questions that use gamete formation to test your
‘change’, which occurs around the age of fifty). ability to apply your knowledge to new situations.

The flow chart summarises the processes involved in the production Before considering these three, it is worth considering the above
of human sperm. summaries in a bit more detail.

1. Gonadotropic releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulates the secretion 2. ICSH stimulates the interstitial cells / cells of
of Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and Interstitial cell stimulating Leydig to produce testosterone
hormone (ICSH) from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland

3. Testosterone stimulates spermatogenesis

11. negative feedback

4. Sperm development involves:

10. inhibin suppresses FSH mitosis to produce spermatogonia
which grow to form primary spermatocytes;
meiosis I produces secondary spermatocyte
9. testosterone inhibits ICSH meiosis II produces spermatids in the seminiferous tubules;

8. increase in testosterone inhibits GnRH 5. FSH and testosterone stimulates the Sertoli cells

7. release spermatozoa into the lumen 6. which stimulate sperm maturation

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• The male germ cells are the outermost layer of cells in the • Also found in the seminiferous tubule walls, stretching from the
seminiferous tubule wall and show stages of mitosis as they basement membrane at the outside to the inner lumen, are the
form spermatogonia. Some spermatogonia remain as male germ Sertoli cells. The heads of spermatids become embedded in
cells, so that these do not become depleted. Most continue to recesses in the cell membranes of the Sertoli cells from which
divide mitotically to produce more spermatogonia which make they apparently gain nutrients and where they mature into
up the outer half of the tubule wall. These quickly develop into spermatozoa. This final maturation of sperm is under the control
primary spermatocytes. of the male sex hormone, testosterone, (which is secreted by the
• The spermatocytes are found in the inner half of the tubule wall cells of Leydig in the testis) and by FSH. When the spermatozoa
and show stages of meiosis, eventually forming haploid are fully matured they are released and are stored in the lumens
spermatids. of the seminiferous tubules and epididymis.
Remember: ICSH in the male is the same substance as LH in
the female.

Fig 2. Histology of testis tissue, showing stages in spermatogenesis.

Low power view
wall of seminiferous tubule
cut in transverse section.

lumen (contains sperm)

sperm tails (show ‘paint-brush’

effect due to heads being
embedded in Sertoli cells)

process of spermatogenesis

cells of Leydig (secrete testosterone)

High power view through wall of seminiferous tubule spermatogenesis

spermatids attached to Sertoli cells
spermatocytes
(show stages of meiosis)
spermatogonia
(show stages of mitosis) cells of Leydig

interstitial
connective tissue
nucleus of Sertoli cell

Note, in the above drawing that the spermatocytes are joined by • They phagocytose degenerating/ageing spermatogenic cells
cytoplasmic bridges. Cytokinesis does not complete until mature and spermatozoa so that the testis does not become packed full
spermatozoa are released from the Sertoli cells. The reason for this of old spermatozoa, spermatids or spermatocytes (that do not
is related to the fact that sperm carry either an X or a Y sex complete spermatogenesis).
chromosome. The X-chromosome carries many essential genes
which are lacking on the smaller Y-chromosome. Some of the X- • All the Sertoli cells are joined together at their bases (near to the
chromosome genes may code for substances which regulate sperm basement membrane) so that they form a blood-testis barrier.
maturation, so without the cytoplasmic bridges the Y –sperm could Because the spermatozoa are all genetically variable and
not develop or survive. Thus no males could be produced. genetically different from the person producing them, they
Besides being involved in the maturation of sperm, the Sertoli cells produce surface antigens which are foreign to the body and
have other major functions. which could provoke an immune response. The Sertoli cell barrier
isolates the spermatozoa from the blood (T-lymphocytes) so
that an immune response cannot be triggered.
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Oogenesis
Typical Exam Questions - Learn all of these!
Fig. 4 Outline of the process of oogenesis.
1. Explain why meiosis is important in the life cycle of a sexually
reproducing organism (2).
female germ cell(2n)
It halves the number of chromosomes;

growth multiplication
many
The diploid number is restored at fertilisation;

Phase of
mitotic
It introduces genetic variation in the gametes; divisions
Such variation can help the organism survive via natural
selection; oogonia(2n)
accumulation of

Phase of
2. Explain how meiosis introduces genetic variation in the yolk and
gametes (2). cytoplasm
Crossing-over (at Prophase 1); primay oocyte(2n)
Independent/random assortment/orientation/segregation of meiosis I
(homologous) chromosomes in meiosis I;

maturation
Phase of
Independent/random assortment/orientation/segregation of 1st polar body secondary oocyte
chromatids in meiosis II; meiosis II
2nd polar body
ovum
3. Explain the advantage of variation introduced by meiosis to
the species (3)
Advantageous alleles may be added to the gene pool;
• The female germ cells arise from the endoderm lining the yolk
Some individuals will be better adapted;
sac of the fetus and migrate into the fetal ovaries.
They may be able to withstand environmental change;
They will survive where others, lacking the adaptation, will
Exam Hint: It was originally thought that germ cells formed
not; from the epithelium surrounding the ovary, which is why it is
They will reproduce; misnamed as the ‘germinal epithelium. This is a common error
Pass on gene/allele; made by students.

• Around the third month of prenatal development, the germ cells

Structure of spermatozoan undergo many mitoses and form several thousand diploid
Fig. 3 Structure of a mature spermatozoan. oogonia. These immediately divide into larger diploid cells called
primary oocytes. These cells enter prophase of meiosis I but do
50 µm not complete meiosis 1 until after puberty. The primary oocytes
Head Middle Tail are situated in the primary follicles of the ovaries.
piece
• Primary follicles will not develop further until after puberty when
acrosome they are stimulated by FSH, in the pre-ovulatory phase of the
axial filament cytoplasmic
menstrual cycle. Several primary follicles will commence
sheath
development each month, with the primary oocytes growing
haploid larger due to the accumulation of much yolk (food store) and
nucleus cytoplasm. At this time meiosis I is completed, producing two
cells. One cell receives nearly all the cytoplasm and is called the
cytoplasm microtubules end piece
centriole secondary oocyte. The other cell, called the first polar body,
(9 + 2 arrangement) receives a small amount of cytoplasm and the discarded nucleus.
mitochondria The secondary oocyte then starts meiosis II but this stops at
metaphase II.
• the haploid nucleus carries genetic information from the father
to the offspring. • At ovulation the secondary oocyte, 1st polar body and some
• the acrosome contains a high concentration of hyaluronidase surrounding follicle cells are discharged from the ovary into the
enzyme which enables the sperm to penetrate the egg cell ovarian funnel/oviducts. At this time meiosis II is completed
membrane which contains hyaluronic acid polymer. with most of the cytoplasm and the haploid female nucleus going
• the mitochondria generate ATP to provide energy for the sperm into the ovum. A small amount of cytoplasm and the discarded
to swim. haploid nucleus go into the second polar body. Later, the polar
• the microtubules and axial filament regulate the tail movements bodies disintegrate. Developing follicles that have not reached
during swimming. ovulation degenerate.
Note: meiosis II only completes if a sperm penetrates the
Typical Exam Questions secondary oocyte. Thus when the ovum forms it already
1. What is the significance of: contains a haploid male nucleus as well as a haploid female
(i) the large numbers of mitochondria in sperm? nucleus. Fertilisation is when the male nucleus migrates to the
release energy/ATP for movement; female nucleus and fuses with it to form the diploid nucleus of
(ii) the small amounts of cytoplasm in sperm compared with an egg? the zygote.
It allows them to move quicker/ allows more per ejaculate;
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Fig. 5 Ovarian follicles.

Primary follicle Ovarian follicle just prior to ovulation

1st polar body
flattened epithelial cells
nucleus in
metaphase II of
nucleus in prophase I meiosis
of meiosis follicular cavity

follicular cells (secrete oestrogen) secondary oocyte

primary oocyte

Fig. 6. An ovum just prior to the completion of fertilisation

polar bodies surrounding cells shed from follicle

vitelline/egg cell membrane cytoplasm filled with yolk granules

gelatinous layer haploid male nucleus from sperm

haploid female nucleus sperm tail

haploid nuclei fuse to

produce a diploid nucleus
200 µm

Exam hint. It is worth making a list of the similarities and the feeding itself. In placental mammals the developing embryo initially
differences between spermatogenesis and oogenesis because absorbs nutritive secretions from the uterine glands and later is fed
examiners sometimes ask for these. via the placenta throughout pregnancy. Insect eggs are surrounded
by a shell. In most insects this is thick enough and tough enough to
Types of egg in the animal kingdom give some mechanical protection and to prevent drying out,
Eggs in the animal kingdom vary in the following respects: particularly if the egg must over-winter.
• in the amount of yolk (food) they contain, and Because the mammalian egg is retained inside the oviducts and
• in the amount of protection they have. uterus of the mother it is protected and so does not need protective
These relate to life cycles and special needs of particular groups of coverings.
animals.
Eggs are classified according to the quantity of yolk they contain.
Fig. 7. Structure of eggs.

The eggs of reptiles and birds contain large amounts of yolk. Much Cabbage white butterfly egg
yolk is needed because the developing embryo has to rely on it
hard, ribbed egg case,
throughout development, until it is hatched as an almost fully
gives mechanical protection 500 µm
developed young reptile or bird. The shell of reptile and bird eggs
and prevents dehydration
prevents the embryo from obtaining food from an external source.
Reptiles have large soft-shelled eggs the shell and membranes of Hen's egg
which reduce the risk of drying out during embryo development. In double shell membrane
birds the shell is hard (calcified), this gives mechanical protection yolk (lipid and
when the parent birds sit on the eggs to incubate them. The protein food store) germinal disc
membranes in the bird egg also help to reduce the risk of desiccation. (early embryo)
protective
1.Amphibian eggs contain a moderate amount of yolk. They have calcareous
enough yolk for the egg to develop into a free-living, aquatic tadpole shell chalaza (protein threads
larva which is capable of feeding itself until it metamorphoses into which support yolk)
double shell
an adult frog, toad, newt or salamander. membrane albumen (tends to hold
40 – 60 mm water)
2. Insects and placental mammals eggs only contain minute amounts separates to
of yolk. There only needs to be enough yolk to support embryonic form an air space. The shell, shell membrane and albumen are
development in the initial stages, after which nutrition can be permeable to oxygen which can diffuse in
obtained from other sources. In insects the egg hatches into an to the embryo.
independent larval form or nymph which is capable of eating and
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Practice Questions Answers

1. The drawing shows a section through part of a human testis. 1. (a) (i) spermatogenesis; 1
process X (ii) to produce spermatozoa/sperm;
which are haploid (to compensate for doubling in fertilization);
hormone and all genetically different (to provide variation); 3
secreting
cells (b) (i) A = cells of Leydig/interstitial cells; B = spermatogonia/
D
primary spermatocytes;
A C = secondary spermatocytes; D = spermatids; 4
(ii) A = 100% because it is a male diploid cell so has genotype
B C XY;
B = 100% because it is a male diploid cell/produced by
(a) (i) Name process X. 1 mitosis so has genotype XY;
D = 50% because it is produced by meiosis so is haploid,
(ii) Describe the overall functions of process X. 3 either X or Y-sperm; 3
(c) the sperm would have to come into contact with (T-
(b) (i) Name cells A, B, C and D. lymphocytes to be recognized as foreign;
4 these are in the blood and other tissues of the body which the
(ii) What percentage of each of cells A, B and D would you sperm cannot come into contact with;
expect to contain a Y- chromosome? Explain your answer because the Sertoli cells/linings of other sperm ducts provide
for each cell. 3 a barrier which is impenetrable to sperm; 3
2. (a) eggs contain more food/yolk than sperm (which makes eggs
(c) Sperm may contain surface antigens which could provoke larger);
an immune response in the person producing them. Suggest sperm only need enough food/yolk to provide energy for
why this does not happen. 3 swimming (once in the oviduct) to locate the egg and fertilise it;
Total 14 eggs need enough food/yolk to support embryonic
development until another method of nutrition becomes
2. (a) Eggs are always larger than sperm. Explain why. 3 available; 3
(b) eggs of placental mammals only need a small quantity of yolk,
(b) Compare the eggs of placental mammals with the eggs of to support the embryo for a few days/eggs are microscopic;
birds, in relation to their reproductive methods. 6 embryo then obtains nutrition from uterine secretions of mother;
Total 9 embryo/fetus later fed via placenta until birth;
bird eggs need a lot of yolk and so are very large;
3. (a) (i) In spermatogenesis division of the cytoplasm does not bird embryo is isolated in the egg, so yolk has to support the
complete until the spermatocytes develop into mature complete development until hatching;
sperm. Suggest why this is so. 3 mammalian embryo is inside uterus so it is protected/no chance
of drying out;
(ii) How does cytoplasmic division in the phase of bird egg has hard shell to protect it against knocks/albumin to
maturation of oogenesis differ from cytoplasmic division prevent it from drying out; max 6
in the phase of maturation of spermatogenesis? 3
3. (a) (i) once meiosis has occurred the cells will contain either an X
or a Y-chromosome;
(b) Why is important for gametogenesis to include both mitotic
the Y-chromosome carries few genes but the X-
and meiotic processes? 3
chromosome carries many genes;
Total 9
the cytoplasmic bridges between spermatocytes/
spermatids enable chemicals synthesized by X-
chromosome genes to pass to the Y-cells;
without these chemicals the Y-sperm would not complete
development and there would be no males born; max 3
(ii) in spermatogenesis, cytoplasmic division is delayed until
mature sperm form but in oogenesis, cytoplasmic division
occurs immediately after nuclear division;
in spermatogenesis, cytoplasmic division is equal but in
oogenesis, a small amount of cytoplasm goes into the polar
bodies but most cytoplasm remains with the secondary
oocyte/ovum;
this enables the ovum to receive all the yolk; 3
Acknowledgements:
This Factsheet was researched and written by Martin Griffin. (b) mitosis allows many gametes to be formed (throughout life);
Curriculum Press, Bank House, 105 King Street, Wellington, Shropshire, TF1 1NU. meiosis allows all gametes to be genetically different from each
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the ‘raw material’ enabling evolution/natural selection; 3
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