1. 3.

THREE ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENT

2.  Nature versus Nurture
3.  Continuity versus Discontinuity
4.  Stability versus Change
5. 4. Nature versus Nurture The degree to which human behavior is determined by
genetics/biology (nature) or learned through interacting with the environment
(nurture) http://www.slideshare.net/ruthhewitt125/nature-nurture-powerpoint-
6. 5. Nature  Behavior is caused by innate characteristics :The
physiological/biological characteristics we are born with.  Behavior is therefore
determined by biology.  Also a Determinist view- suggests all behavior is
determined by hereditary factors: Inherited characteristics, or genetic make-up we
are born with. http://www.slideshare.net/ruthhewitt125/nature-nurture-
powerpoint-
7. 6.  All possible behaviors are said to be present from conception.  Genes provide
the blueprint for all behaviors; some present from birth, others pre-programmed
to emerge with age.  Is a developmental approach: E.g. Piaget: children’s thought
processes change at predetermined age-related stages changes in age are related to
changes in behavior. http://www.slideshare.net/ruthhewitt125/nature-nurture-
powerpoint-
8. 7. Nurture  An individuals behavior is determined by the environment- the things
people teach them, the things they observe, and because of the different situations
they are in.  Also a determinist view- proposes all human behavior is the result of
interactions with the environment.
http://www.slideshare.net/ruthhewitt125/nature-nurture-powerpoint-
9. 8. Nurture  Behaviorist theories are nurture theories: - Behavior is shaped by
interactions with the environment.  Born an empty vessel- waiting to be filled up
by experiences gained from environmental interaction.  No limit to what they can
achieve: -Depends on quality of external influences and NOT genes.  The quality
of the environment is KEY -You can become anything provided the environment is
right. http://www.slideshare.net/ruthhewitt125/nature-nurture-powerpoint-
10. 9. Nature Nurture Interaction  Behavior is often a result of the interaction
between nature AND nurture.  An individuals characteristics may elicit
particular responses in other people e.g. Temprament: how active, responsive or
emotional an infant is influences in part determines their caregivers responses.
Gender: people tend to react differently to boys and girls due to expectations of
masculine and feminine characteristics.  Aggression: Displaying aggressive
behavior create particular responses from other people.
http://www.slideshare.net/ruthhewitt125/nature-nurture-powerpoint-
11. 10. SUPPORTING APPROACHES & PERSPECTIVE Supporting Nature
Supporting Nurture -Physiological - Social (e.g. Helping Behavior) - Individual
Differences - Behavioral - Developmental
http://www.slideshare.net/ruthhewitt125/nature-nurture-powerpoint-
12. 11. Continuity versus Discontinuity Continuity and discontinuity are two
competing theories in developmental psychology that attempt to explain how
people change through the course of their lives, where the continuity theory says
 that someone changes throughout their life along a smooth course while the
discontinuity theory instead contends that people change abruptly. These changes
can be described as a wide variety of someone's social and behavioral makeup, like
their emotions, traditions, beliefs, https://www.reference.com/education/continuity-
versus-discontinuity-developmental-psychology-
13. 12.  Furthermore, continuity and discontinuity disagree with one another in how
they assess the changes that someone undergoes throughout the course of their life.
The continuity theory examines the way someone changes in a quantitative and
continuous respect. Discontinuity theory, on the other hand, looks at these changes
through the lens of a qualitative analysis with an emphasis on the discontinuous
nature of how someone changes.  Developmental psychology encompasses a very
wide array of observations related to how people think, behave and interact with
their environment as well as other people. This field, at first, was focused on how
young children develop but, in recent years, it has expanded past the pediatric
setting to encompass studies of how people change throughout the course of their
entire lives, up until the point of their
death.https://www.reference.com/education/continuity-versus-discontinuity-
developmental-psychology-
14. 13. Is Child Development continuous or discontinuous? Not all psychologists,
however, agree that development is a continuous process. Some view development
as a discontinuous process. They believe development involves distinct and separate
stages with different kinds of behavior occurring in each stage.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_stage_theory
15. 14. What is the theory of development? Developmental stage theories are theories
that divide child development into distinct stages which are characterized by
qualitative differences in behaviour. There are a number of different views about
the way in which psychological and physical development proceed throughout the
life span. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_stage_theori
16. Stability versus Discontinuity  deals with the issue of whether or not
personality traits present during present during infancy endure throughout
the lifespan.
17. 16.  The stability-change debate describes the developmental psychology
discussion about whether personality traits that are present in an
individual at birth remain constant or change throughout the life span. 
For example, does a naturally extroverted and talkative baby remain that
way for their entire life? The stability vs. change debate is one of the
fundamental questions in developmental psychology along with nature vs.
nurture. Typically cross-sectional and longitudinal studies are used in
research concerning stability vs. change.
http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stability-
18. 17. Change Change Theorists- argue that personalities are modified by
interactions with family, experiences at school, and acculturation. 
Studies of children have often revealed impressive stability over time in
aspects of development such as the attachment to their parents or in
personality. However, there is evidence which suggests a contrary view,
 that change is both possible and indeed, is likely under appropriate
conditions. https://prezi.com/nuahqipogaau/stability-vs-
19. 18.  Freud was one of the first psychologist to emphasize the critical
nature of our early experiences for our later development. He believed that
how we resolve our sexual and aggressive urges is strongly tied to the
nature of our personality as adults. Psychoanalysts believe that
personality traits developed in the first 5 years predict adult personality.
https://prezi.com/nuahqipogaau/stability-vs-
20. 19. How the First Nine Months Shape the Rest of Your Life
21. 20.  What makes us the way we are? Why are some people predisposed
to be anxious, overweight or asthmatic? How is it that some of us are
prone to heart attacks, diabetes or high blood pressure?  There's a list of
conventional answers to these questions. We are the way we are because
it's in our genes. We turn out the way we do because of our childhood
experiences. Or our health and well-being stem from the lifestyle choices
we make as adults.  But there's another powerful source of influence you
may not have considered: your life as a fetus. The nutrition you received in
the womb; the pollutants, drugs and infections you were exposed to
during gestation; your mother's health and state of mind while she was
pregnant with you — all these factors shaped you as a
22. 21. This is the provocative contention of a field known as fetal origins,
whose pioneers assert that the nine months of gestation constitute the
most consequential period of our lives, permanently influencing the wiring
of the brain and the functioning of organs such as the heart, liver and
pancreas. In the literature on the subject, which has exploded over the
past 10 years, you can find references to the fetal origins of cancer,
cardiovascular disease, allergies, asthma, hypertension, diabetes, obesity,
mental illness. At the farthest edge of fetal-origins research, scientists are
exploring the possibility that intrauterine conditions influence not only our
physical health but also our intelligence, temperament, even our sanity. As
a journalist who covers science, I was intrigued when I first heard about
fetal origins. But two years ago, when I began to delve more deeply into
the field, I had a more personal motivation: I was newly pregnant. If it was
true that my actions over the next nine months would affect my offspring
for the rest of his life, I needed to know more.
23. 22. Of course, no woman who is pregnant today can escape hearing the
message that what she does affects her fetus. She hears it at doctor's
appointments, sees it in the pregnancy guidebooks: Do eat this, don't
drink that, be vigilant but never stressed. Expectant mothers could be
forgiven for feeling that pregnancy is just a nine-month slog, full of guilt
and devoid of pleasure, and this research threatened to add to the burden.
24. 23. But the scientists I met weren't full of dire warnings but of the
excitement of discovery — and the hope that their discoveries would make
a positive difference. Research on fetal origins is prompting a
revolutionary shift in thinking about where human qualities come from and
when they begin to develop. It's turning pregnancy into a scientific
 frontier: the National Institutes of Health embarked last year on a
multidecade study that will examine its subjects before they're born. And it
makes the womb a promising target for prevention, raising hopes of
conquering public-health scourges like obesity and heart disease through
interventions before birth.
Traditional
-Approach to development emphasizes extensive change from birth to adolescence,
little or no change in adulthood and decline in old age
-infancy is though to be a time of considerable change in the traditional approach
The traditional approach to the study of development emphasizes extensive change in childhood. But today, it
is no longer fashionable to study development within this narrow confine of framework without reference to the
theoretical approach that asserts that growth and development begins at conception and continues throughout
life. This perspective which is known as the life span perspective, is chronicled in this article. In doing so, it
takes a bird’s eye-view of some of the critical aspects of this approach and posits that the life-span model is
inter alia, multidirectional; development is life long, multidimensional, plastic, multidisciplinary and contextual.
Moreover, the paper holds that amongst other things, the life span approach helps us to gain an understanding
of our own history, as an infant, a child, an adolescent or a young adult – Finally, the paper draws the reader’s
attention to the fact that by adopting the life-span perspective, we gain insights into what our lives will be like as
we grow into middle age or old age, who we are, how we came to be this way and where our future will take us.
Traditional Approach:
The traditional approach to the study of development emphasizes extensive
change from birth to adolescence (especially during infancy), little or no change in adulthood, and
decline in old age.
Suzanne has a son. She has watched him grow from infancy through childhood and now in
adulthood. She has often said that he developed mostly in childhood as she hasn’t seen much
change in him after that. Her beliefs are most consistent with what approach?
Traditional approach. -
It was commonly believed that people mainly develop in childhood, stay pretty much the same
during adulthood, and then begin to “decline” in old age
. This describes which theory of development?
Traditional approach.
Life-Span Approach:
Emphasizes developmental change throughout adulthood as well as childhood.
Matt is a good student that has taken Dr. Yarab’s Lifespan psychology class. He recognizes that
although it is easiest to see that people develop a great deal physically in c
hildhood, he also recognizes that we develop in many ways all throughout life. He has learned that
the lifespan theory of development describes the way that development actually takes place.
LifeSpan Perspective:
The belief that development occurs throu
ghout life is central to the life-span perspective. The life-span perspective should be thought of as
lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual, and involves
growth, maintenance, and regulation. -
Development is Lifelong:
In the lifespan perspective, early adulthood is not the endpoint of development; rather, no age
period dominates development.
-
Development is Multidimensional:
Development consists of biological, cognitive, and
socioemotional dimensions. Even w
ithin a dimension, such as intelligence, there are many
components, such as abstract intelligence, nonverbal intelligence, and social intelligence.
-
Development is Multidirectional:
Throughout life, some dimensions or components of a
dimension expand and others shrink. In language development, when one language (such as
English) is acquired early in development, the capacity for acquiring second and third languages
(such as French and Spanish) decreases later in development, especially after early childhood
. In socioemotional development, individuals begin to have more contact with opposite-sex peers
during adolescence. As they establish emotional or sexual relationships, their relationships with
friends might decrease. In cognitive development, older adultsmight become wiser by being able
to call on experience to guide their intellectual decision making. However, they perform more
poorly on tasks that require speed in processing information.
Professor X believes in the Lifespan theory of development. Theref
ore, she knows that human development is “multidimensional.” This means that she believes we
must look at biological, cognitive, and social development to truly see how we change over time. -
Development is Plastic:
A key developmental research agenda is the search for plasticity and its
constraints. Plasticity means the capacity for change. For example, can intellectual skills still be
improved through education for individuals in their seventies or eighties? Or might these
intellectual skills be fixed by the time people are in their thirties so that further improvement is
impossible? In one research study, the reasoning abilities of older adults were improved through
restraining. However, developmentalists debate how much plasticity people have at different
points in their development; possibly we possess less capacity for change when we become old. -
Development is Multidisciplinary:
Psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists, neuroscientists, and
medical researchers all study human development and share an interest in unlocking the
mysteries of development through the life span. Research questions that cut across disciplines
include:oWhat constraints on intelligence are set by the individual’s hereditary and health
status?oHow universal are cognitive and s
ocioemotional changes?
How do environmental contexts influence intellectual development?
Development is Contextual:
The individual continually responds to and acts on contexts, which
include a person’s biological makeup, physical environment, cognitive pro
cesses, historical contexts, social contexts, and cultural contexts. The contextual view regards
individuals as changing beings in a changing world. Life
span developmentalists argue that three important
sources of contextual influences are (1) normative age
graded influences; (2) normative history-
graded influences; and (3) non
normative life events. o
Normative age
graded influences:
Biological and environmental influences that are
similar for individuals in a particular age group
(e.g, able to get license
when turn 16).
These influences include biological processes such as puberty and menopause. They also
include sociocultural, environmental processes such as entry into formal education
(usually at about age 6 in most cultures) and retirement (which takes place in the fi
fties and sixties in most Western countries).
Katie has just turned 18 and is excited that she is
now considered an adult as she wants to get a nose-piercing and a tattoo without
having to ask her parents. Turning 18 is an example of a normative age-
graded
influence.
o
Normative history graded influences:
Common to people of a particular generation because of the historical circumstances they
experience. Examples include economic impacts (such as the Great Depression in the 1930s), war
(such as WWII in the 1
940s and the Vietnam War in the 1960s and 1970s), the changing role of women, the current
technology revolution, and political upheaval and change (such as the decrease in hard-
line communism in the 1990s and into the twenty
first century).
My dad’s parents lived
through the Great Depression and for all of their lives after that even though they had
plenty of money, saved most of what they made, did not trust banks, and learned how
to be happy in life with very little. Living through the Great Depression and the impact it
had on their lives is an example of a
history
-
graded influence. o
Nonnormative life events:
Unusual occurrences that have a major impact on the
individual’s life and usually are not applicable to many people. Such events might
include the death of a parent when a child is young, pregnancy in early adolescence, a
disaster (such as a fire that destroys a home), or an accident. Nonnormative life events
also can include positive events (such as winning the lottery or getting an unexpected
career
opportunity with special privileges).
Lisa has always been very active in her
church. She did a mission trip to a very poor country last year where she saw just how
poor much of the world really is. This experience had a great effect on her and it has
changed the way that she looks at the world. This would be called a non-
normative life event. -
Development involves Growth, Maintenance, and Regulation:
The mastery of life often involves
conflicts and competition among three goals of human development: growth
, maintenance, and
regulation. As individuals age into middle and late adulthood, the maintenance and regulation of
their capacities take center stage away from growth. Thus, for many individuals, the goal is not to
seek growth in intellectual capacities (
such as memory) or physical capacities (such as physical
strength), but to maintain those skills or minimize their deterioration.
Erikson’s Theory (Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory):
Erikson said we develop in psychosocial stages.
For Erikson, the primary motivation for human behavior was social and reflected a desire to
affiliate
with other people. Erikson emphasized developmental change throughout the human life span. In
Erikson’s th
eory, eight stages of development unfold as we go through the life span. Each stage
consists of a unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be
resolved. According to Erikson, this crisis is not a catastrophe but a turning
point of increased
vulnerability and enhanced potential. The more successfully and individual resolves the crises,
the
healthier development will be.
Kyle is studying the different theories of Lifespan development. He is
currently studying a theory which
talks about social influences on our personality development. He
is likely studying which approach to human development?
Erikson’s psychosocial theory.
-
Trust versus mistrust [infancy (first year)]:
Erikson’s first psychosocial stage, which is experienced
in the first year of life. A sense of trust requires a feeling of physical comfort and a minimal
amount
of fear and apprehension about the future. Trust in infancy sets the stage for a lifelong
expectation
that the world will be a good and pleasant place t
o live.
According to Erikson, holding a small child
when they are in need of comfort would help develop a sense of
trust.
-
Autonomy versus shame and doubt [infancy (1 to 3 years)]:
Erikson’s second stage of
development, which occurs in late infancy and ear
ly toddlerhood (1 to 3 years). After gaining trust
in their caregivers, infants begin to discover that their behavior is their own. They will start to
assert their sense of independence, or autonomy. They realize their will. If infants are restrained
too m
uch or punished too harshly, they are likely to develop a sense of shame or doubt.
According
to Erikson, helping your child to learn to tie their shoes by themselves would help develop a
sense
of
autonomy.
-
Initiative versus guilt [early childhood (prescho
ol years, 3 to 5 years)]:
Erikson’s third stage of
development, occurs during the preschool years. As preschool children encounter a widening
social world, they are challenged more than when they were infants. Active, purposeful behavior
is
needed to cope
with these challenges. Children are asked to assume responsibility for their bodies,
their behavior, their toys, and their pets. Developing a sense of responsibility increases initiative.
Uncomfortable guilt feelings may arise, though, if the child is irre
sponsible and is made to feel too
anxious. However, Erikson believes that most guilt is quickly compensated for by a sense of
accomplishment.
According to Erikson, an overly nervous parent that will not let their child try new
things on their own would pro
bably develop a sense of
guilt
in the child.
-
Industry versus inferiority [middle and late childhood (elementary school years, 6 years to
puberty)]:
Erikson’s fourth stage of development, occurring approximately in the elementary
school years. Children’s i
nitiative brings them in contact with a wealth of new experiences. As they
move into middle and late childhood, they direct their energy toward mastering knowledge and
intellectual skills. At no other time is the child more enthusiastic about learning than
at the end of
early childhood’s period of expansive imagination. The danger in the elementary school years is
that the child can develop a sense of inferiority
–
feeling incompetent and unproductive. Erikson
believed that teachers have a special responsib
ility for children’s development of industry.
Teachers should “mildly but firmly coerce children into the adventure of finding out that one can
learn to accomplish things which one would never have thought of by oneself.”
According to
Erikson, a sibling te
lling their brother that they are good at football
–
and they really are
–
helps a
child develop a sense of
industry.
-
Identity versus identity confusion [adolescence (10 to 20 years)]:
Erikson’s fifth stage of
development, which individuals experience during the adolescent years. At this time, individuals
are faced with finding out who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life.
Adolescents are confronted with ma
ny new roles and adult statuses
–
vocational and romantic, for
example. Parents need to allow adolescents to explore many different roles and different paths
within a particular role. If the adolescent explores such roles in a healthy manner and arrives at
a
positive path to follow in life, then a positive identity will be achieved. If an identity is pushed on
the adolescent by parents, if the adolescent does not adequately explore many roles, and if a
positive future path is not defined, then identity conf
usion reigns.
Brian is in high school and has
always hung out with many different types of people. As he has gotten older though, he has
started to recognize who he has the most in common with and who his values match best with.
According to Erikson, Brian
seems to have developed a sense of
identity.
-
Intimacy versus isolation [early adulthood (20s, 30s)]:
Erikson’s sixth stage of development, which
individuals experience during the early adulthood years. At this time, individuals face the
developmental task of forming intimate relationships with others. Erikson describes intimacy as
finding oneself yet losing oneself in another. If the young adult forms healthy friendships and an
intimate relationship with another individual, intimacy will be achieved; if n
ot, isolation will result.
Sara casually dated a few people while she was in high school. Now that she is in her 20s, she
thinks she has found “the one” and is very happy and content with him. Sara seems to have
developed a sense of intimacy. –
Generativity versus stagnation [middle adulthood (40s, 50s)]:
Erikson’s seventh stage of development, which individuals experience during middle adulthood.
A chief concern is to assist the younger generation in developing and leading useful lives
this is what Erikson means by generativity. The feeling of having done nothing to help the next
generation is stagnation.
According to Erikson, which of the following may help a person in middle adulthood develop a
sense of “generativity?” (a) having a family/children; (b) h
aving a career that they found to be
worthwhile; (c) developing family traditions that are passed down; or
(d) all of these.
All of these would help a person in middle adulthood develop a sense of “generativity.”
Generativity is assisting the younger generation in developing and leading useful lives, helping
the next
generation. Having a family/children
adds to the younger generation, and as you raise them you are assisting them in developing and
leading useful lives. Having a career that you found to be worthwhile can help the younger
generation because you can pass on what you have learned.
Developing family traditions and passing them down helps the next generation by giving them
family traditions to pass on to their own children.
Integrity versus despair [late adulthood (60s onward)]:
Erikson’s eighth and final stage, which
individuals experience in late adulthood. During this stage, a person reflects on the past and
either pieces together a positive review or concludes that life has not been spent well.
Through many different routes, the older person may have developed a positive outlook in most
or all of the previous stages of development. If so, the retrospective glances will reveal a picture
of life well spent, and the person will feel a sense of satisfaction
integrity will be achieved. If the older adult resolved many of the earlier stages negatively,
theretrospective glances likely will yield doubt or gloom the despair Erikson described. Paul is 85
years old. He is looking back over his life as
the most awesome psychology professor the world has ever seen. He looks back at winning the
250 million dollar powerball jackpot on Wednesday and is happy with all of the things he did
withthe money. Although he has one regret dumping his girlfriend at prom he is generally happy
with how his life turned out. According to Erikson, he seems to have developed a sense of
integrity.
Child Development:
Ideas about childhood have varied. Throughout history, philosophers have
speculated about the nature of
children and how they should be reared. In the West, three influential
philosophical views are based on the ideas of original sin, tabula rasa, and innate goodness.
-
Original Sin:
Children are born into the world corrupted, with an inclination toward evil.
The goal
of child rearing is to save children from sin.
-
Tabula rasa:
English philosopher John Locke proposed that at birth each child is a tabula rasa
–
“a
blank tablet.” Locke proposed that people acquire their characteristics through experience and
tha
t childhood experiences are important in determining adult characteristics. He advised parents
to spend time with their children and help them become contributing members of society.
-
Innate goodness:
Swiss
-
born French philosopher Jean
-
Jacques Rousseau stre
ssed that children are
inherently good. As a result, Rousseau said that they should be permitted to grow naturally with
little parental monitoring or constraint.
Conceptions of age:
-
Chronological age
(exact age)
:
The number of years that have elapsed sin
ce birth.
o
Paul will soon be 42 years old. This is an example of
chronological age.
-
Biological age (how old you are health wise):
A person’s age in terms of biological health.
Determining biological age involves knowing the functional capacities of a person’s vital organs.
A
person’s vital capacities may be better or worse than those of others of comparable age. The
younger the perso
n’s biological age, the longer the person is expected to live, regardless of
chronological age.
o
Mark is 28 years old and has not taken good care of himself. He is very overweight, does
not eat well, and drinks to excess which makes him much “older” with r
espect to his
health than other people his age. His being in poor health is an example of his
biological
age.
-
Psychological age (how old you are mentally):
An individual’s adaptive capacities compared with
those of other individuals of the same chronologi
cal age. Thus, older adults who continue to learn
are flexible, are motivated, control their emotions, and think clearly are engaging in more adaptive
behaviors than their chronological age
-
mates who do not continue to learn, are rigid, are
unmotivated, do
not control their emptions, and do not think clearly.
o
Cindy, who is 21 years old, was out at a bar with her friends. She met a guy who was
pretty nice and was also 21 years old. Although he showed a few signs of being just a
little bit immature, he still was relatively responsible and was not stuck in “high-
school mentality.” He appears to have much the same psychological age as she does. -
Social age (refers to social roles and expectations related to a person’s chronological age):
Refers to social roles and expectations related to a person’s chronological age. Consider the role
of
“mother” and the behaviors that accompany the role. In predicting an adult woman’s behavior, it
may be more important to know that she is the mother of a 3-year-old child than to know whether
she is 20 or 30 years old. We still have some expectations for when certain life events such as
getting married, having children, becoming a grandparent, and retiring should occur.
Martha is 77 years old and remembers being married at 19 years old as that is what was
expected of her. Donna is 27 years old, is not married, and has no plants to any time
soon. Her friends and family don’t appear concerned about this. This example demonstrates a
difference in social age expectations between the older and newer generations.
Nature versus Nurture:
Nature refers to an organism’s biological inheritance, nurture to its
environmental experiences. “Nature proponents” claim that the most important influence on
development is biological inheritance.
“Nurture proponents” claim that environmental experiences
are the most important.
According to the nature advocates, just as a sunflower grows in an orderly way unless defeated
by an unfriendly environment
so does the human grow in an orderly way.
The range of environments can be vast, but the nature approach argues that a genetic blueprint
produces commonalities in growth and development. We walk before we talk, speak one word
before two words, grow rapidly in infancy and less so in early childhood, e
xperience a rush of sexual
hormones in puberty, reach the peak of our physical strength in late adolescence and early
adulthood, and then physically declines. The nature proponents acknowledge that extreme
environments those that are psychologically barren or hostile –can depress development.
However, they believe that basic growth tendencies are genetically wired into humans. By
contrast, other psychologists emphasize the importance of nurture, or environmental
experiences, in development. Experiences run gamut from the individual’s biological environment
(nutrition, medical care, drugs, and physical accidents) to the social environment (family, peers,
schools, community, media, and culture).
With respect to the impact of “Nature and Nurture” on our overall development, which of the
following would be an example of nature’s influence?o
An increased likelihood of having cancer that has been passed on genetically.
This would be an example of nature’s influence, because nature refers to an organism’s biological
inheritance. In other words, what a child inherits from his/her parents. o
The parental experiences that we had as children.
This is an example of nurture’s influence, because nurture refers to environmental experiences.
The experiences a person has with his/her parents when they are children is an environmental
experience. This refers to an individual’s social environment. o
Being exposed to extremely cold temperatures as a child.
This is an example of nurture’s influence, because nurture refers to environmental experiences.
The temperatures we were exposed to as children refers to an individual’s biological
environment.o
A and C.
A is an example of nature’s influence, but C is an example of nurture’s
influence. -
You have been a good student in Lifespan Psychology.
So, if someone asks you about the“Nature vs. Nurture” debate, you would sayo
Nature provides our relative capacity for our abilities
Nature provide “capacities” (a
range to have).
o
Nurture determines where we fall on the continuum of abilities
Social environments
(family, peers, schools, community, media, and culture) along with biological
environment (nutrition, medical care, drugs, physical accidents) determine one’s
abilities.
o
They are both equally important in our development
Both nature an
d nurture are
important in development.
o
All of thes
Lifespan
-Emphasizes developmental change during adulthood as well as childhood
oWhat constraints on intelligence are set by the individual’s hereditary and health status?oHow universal are
cognitive and socioemotional changes?oHow do environmental contexts influence intellectual development?-
Development is Contextual: The individual continually responds to and acts on contexts, which include a
person’s biological makeup, physical environment, cognitive processes, historical contexts, social contexts,
and cultural contexts. The contextual view regards individuals as changing beings in a changing world. Life-
span developmentalists argue that three important sources of contextual influences are (1) normative age-
graded influences; (2) normative history-graded influences; and (3) non-normative life events. oNormative
age-graded influences:Biological and environmental influences that are similar for individuals in a particular
age group(e.g, able to get licensewhen turn 16).These influences include biological processes such as puberty
and menopause. They also include sociocultural, environmental processes such as entry into formal education
(usually at about age 6 in most cultures) and retirement (which takes place in the fifties and sixties in most
Western countries). Katie has just turned 18 and is excited that she is now considered an adult as she wants to
get a nose-piercing and a tattoo without having to ask her parents. Turning 18 is an example of a normative
age-gradedinfluence. oNormative history-graded influences:Common to people of a particular generation
because of the historical circumstances they experience. Examples include economic impacts (such as the
Great Depression in the 1930s), war (such as WWII in the 1940s and the Vietnam War in the 1960s and
1970s), the changing role of women, the current technology revolution, and political upheaval and change
(such as the decrease in hard-line communism in the 1990s and into the twenty-first century). My dad’s
parents lived through the Great Depression and for all of their lives after that even though they had plenty of
money, saved most of what they made, did not trust banks, and learned how to be happy in life with very
little. Living through the Great Depression and the impact it had on their lives is an example of a history-
graded influence. oNonnormative life events:Unusual occurrences that have a major impact on the
individual’s life and usually are not applicable to many people. Such events might include the death of a
parent when a child is young, pregnancy in early adolescence, a disaster (such as a fire that destroys a home),
or an accident. Nonnormative life events also can include positive events (such as winning the lottery or
getting an unexpected career opportunity with special privileges). Lisa has always been very active in her
church. She did a mission trip to a very poor country last year where she saw just how poor much of the
world really is. This experience had a great effect on her and it has changed the way that she looks at the
world. This would be called a non-normative life event. -Development involves Growth, Maintenance, and
Regulation: The mastery of life often involves conflicts and competition among three goals of human
development: growth, maintenance, and regulation. As individuals age into middle and late adulthood, the
maintenance and regulation of their capacities take center stage away from growth. Thus, for many
individuals, the goal is not to seek growth in intellectual capacities (such as memory) or physical capacities
(such as physical strength), but to maintain those skills or minimize their deterioration. Erikson’s Theory
(Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory): Erikson said we develop in psychosocial stages. For Erikson, the primary
motivation for human behavior was social and reflected a desire to affiliate

with other people. Erikson emphasized developmental change throughout the human life span. In Erikson’s
theory, eight stages of development unfold as we go through the life span. Each stage consists of a unique
developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved. According to Erikson, this
crisis is not a catastrophe but a turningpoint of increased vulnerability and enhanced potential. The more
successfully and individual resolves the crises, the healthier development will be. Kyle is studying the
different theories of Lifespan development. He is currently studying a theory which talks about social
influences on our personality development. He is likely studying which approach to human development?
Erikson’s psychosocial theory. -Trust versus mistrust [infancy (first year)]: Erikson’s first psychosocial stage,
which is experienced in the first year of life. A sense of trust requires a feeling of physical comfort and a
minimal amount of fear and apprehension about the future. Trust in infancy sets the stage for a lifelong
expectation that the world will be a good and pleasant place to live. According to Erikson, holding a small
child when they are in need of comfort would help develop a sense of trust. -Autonomy versus shame and
doubt [infancy (1 to 3 years)]: Erikson’s second stage of development, which occurs in late infancy and early
toddlerhood (1 to 3 years). After gaining trust in their caregivers, infants begin to discover that their behavior
is their own. They will start to assert their sense of independence, or autonomy. They realize their will. If
infants are restrained too much or punished too harshly, they are likely to develop a sense of shame or doubt.
According to Erikson, helping your child to learn to tie their shoes by themselves would help develop a sense
of autonomy. -Initiative versus guilt [early childhood (preschool years, 3 to 5 years)]: Erikson’s third stage of
development, occurs during the preschool years. As preschool children encounter a widening social world,
they are challenged more than when they were infants. Active, purposeful behavior is needed to cope with
these challenges. Children are asked to assume responsibility for their bodies, their behavior, their toys, and
their pets. Developing a sense of responsibility increases initiative. Uncomfortable guilt feelings may arise,
though, if the child is irresponsible and is made to feel too anxious. However, Erikson believes that most guilt
is quickly compensated for by a sense of accomplishment. According to Erikson, an overly nervous parent
that will not let their child try new things on their own would probably develop a sense of guilt in the child. -
Industry versus inferiority [middle and late childhood (elementary school years, 6 years to
puberty)]:Erikson’s fourth stage of development, occurring approximately in the elementary school years.
Children’s initiative brings them in contact with a wealth of new experiences. As they move into middle and
late childhood, they direct their energy toward mastering knowledge and intellectual skills. At no other time
is the child more enthusiastic about learning thanat the end of early childhood’s period of expansive
imagination. The danger in the elementary school years is that the child can develop a sense of inferiority –
feeling incompetent and unproductive. Erikson believed that teachers have a special responsibility for
children’s development of industry. Teachers should “mildly but firmly coerce children into the adventure of
finding out that one can learn to accomplish things which one would never have thought of by oneself.”
According to Erikson, a sibling telling their brother that they are good at football –and they really are –helps
a child develop a sense of industry.-Identity versus identity confusion [adolescence (10 to 20 years)]: Erikson’s
fifth stage of development, which individuals experience during the adolescent years. At this time, individuals
are faced with finding out who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life. Adolescents
are confronted with many new roles and adult statuses –vocational and romantic, for example. Parents need
to allow adolescents to explore many different roles and different paths within a particular role. If the
adolescent explores such roles in a healthy manner and arrives ata positive path to follow in life, then a
positive identity will be achieved. If an identity is pushed on

the adolescent by parents, if the adolescent does not adequately explore many roles, and if a positive future
path is not defined, then identity confusion reigns. Brian is in high school and has always hung out with many
different types of people. As he has gotten older though, he has started to recognize who he has the most in
common with and who his values match best with. According to Erikson, Brianseems to have developed a
sense of identity. -Intimacy versus isolation [early adulthood (20s, 30s)]: Erikson’s sixth stage of development,
which individuals experience during the early adulthood years. At this time, individuals face the
developmental task of forming intimate relationships with others. Erikson describes intimacy as finding
oneself yet losing oneself in another. If the young adult forms healthy friendships and an intimate relationship
with another individual, intimacy will be achieved; if not, isolation will result. Sara casually dated a few
people while she was in high school. Now that she is in her 20s, she thinks she has found “the one” and is very
happy and content with him. Sara seems to have developed a sense of intimacy. -Generativityversus
stagnation [middle adulthood (40s, 50s)]: Erikson’s seventh stage of development, which individuals
experience during middle adulthood. A chief concern is to assist the younger generation in developing and
leading useful lives –this is what Erikson means by generativity. The feeling of having done nothing to help
the next generation is stagnation. According to Erikson, which of the following may help a person in middle
adulthood develop a sense of “generativity?” (a) having a family/children; (b) having a career that they found
to be worthwhile; (c) developing family traditions that are passed down; or (d) all of these.All of these would
help a person in middle adulthood develop a sense of “generativity.” Generativity is assisting the younger
generation in developing and leading useful lives, helping the next generation. Having a family/children adds
to the younger generation, and as you raise them you are assisting them in developing and leading useful
lives. Having a career that you found to be worthwhile can help the younger generation because you can pass
on what you have learned. Developing family traditions and passing them down helps the next generation by
giving them family traditions to pass on to their own children. -Integrity versus despair [late adulthood (60s
onward)]:Erikson’s eighth and final stage, which individuals experience in late adulthood. During this stage,
a person reflects on the past and either pieces together a positive review or concludes that life has not been
spent well.Through many different routes, the older person may have developed a positive outlook in most or
all of the previous stages of development. If so, the retrospective glances will reveal a picture of life well spent,
and the person will feel a sense of satisfaction –integrity will be achieved. If the older adult resolved many of
the earlier stages negatively, the retrospective glances likely will yield doubt or gloom –the despair Erikson
described. Paul is 85 years old. He is looking back over his life as the most awesome psychology professor the
world has ever seen. He looks back at winning the 250 million dollar powerball jackpot on Wednesday and is
happy with all of the things he did with the money. Although he has one regret –dumping his girlfriend at
prom –he is generally happy with how his life turned out. According to Erikson, he seems to have developed a
sense of integrity. Child Development: Ideas about childhood have varied. Throughout history, philosophers
have speculated about the nature of children and how they should be reared. In the West, three influential
philosophical views are based on the ideas of original sin, tabula rasa, and innate goodness. -Original
Sin:Children are born into the world corrupted, with an inclination toward evil.The goal of child rearing is to
save children from sin. -Tabula rasa:English philosopher John Locke proposed that at birth each child is a
tabula rasa –“a blank tablet.” Locke proposed that people acquire their characteristics through experience
and

that childhood experiences are important in determining adult characteristics. He advised parents to spend
time with their children and help them become contributing members of society.-Innate goodness:Swiss-born
French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau stressed that children are inherently good. As a result, Rousseau
said that they should be permitted to grow naturally with little parental monitoring or
constraint.Conceptions of age:-Chronological age(exact age): The number of years that have elapsed since
birth. oPaul will soon be 42 years old. This is an example of chronological age. -Biological age (how old you
are health wise): A person’s age in terms of biological health. Determining biological age involves knowing
the functional capacities of a person’s vital organs. A person’s vital capacities may be better or worse than
those of others of comparable age. The younger the person’s biological age, the longer the person is expected
to live, regardless of chronological age. oMark is 28 years old and has not taken good care of himself. He is
very overweight, does not eat well, and drinks to excess which makes him much “older” with respect to his
health than other people his age. His being in poor health is an example of his biological age. -Psychological
age (how old you are mentally): An individual’s adaptive capacities compared with those of other individuals
of the same chronological age. Thus, older adults who continue to learn are flexible, are motivated, control
their emotions, and think clearly are engaging in more adaptive behaviors than their chronological age-mates
who do not continue to learn, are rigid, are unmotivated, donot control their emptions, and do not think
clearly. oCindy, who is 21 years old, was out at a bar with her friends. She met a guy who was pretty nice and
was also 21 years old. Although he showed a few signs of being just a little bit immature, he stillwas relatively
responsible and was not stuck in “high-school mentality.” He appears to have much the same psychological
age as she does. -Social age (refers to social roles and expectations related to a person’s chronological age):
Refers to social roles and expectations related to a person’s chronological age. Consider the role of “mother”
and the behaviors that accompany the role. In predicting an adult woman’s behavior, it may be more
important to know that she is the mother of a 3-year-old child than to know whether she is 20 or 30 years old.
We still have some expectations for when certain life events –such as getting married, having children,
becoming a grandparent, and retiring –should occur. oMartha is 77 years old and remembers being married
at 19 years old as that is what was expected of her. Donna is 27 years old, is not married, and has no plants to
any time soon. Her friends and family don’t appear concerned about this. This example demonstrates a
difference in social age expectations between the older and newer generations. Nature versus Nurture: Nature
refers to an organism’s biological inheritance, nurture to its environmental experiences. “Nature proponents”
claim that the most important influence on development is biological inheritance.“Nurture proponents” claim
that environmental experiences are the most important. According to the nature advocates, just as a
sunflower grows in an orderly way –unless defeated by an unfriendly environment –so does the human grow
in an orderly way. Therange of environments can be vast, but the nature approach argues that a genetic
blueprint produces commonalities in growth and development. We walk before we talk, speak one word
before two words, grow rapidly in infancy and less so in early childhood, experience a rush of sexual
hormones in puberty, reach the peak of our physical strength in late adolescence and early

adulthood, and then physically declines. The nature proponents acknowledge that extreme environments –
those that are psychologically barren or hostile –can depress development. However, they believe that basic
growth tendencies are genetically wired into humans. By contrast, other psychologists emphasize the
importance of nurture, or environmental experiences, in development. Experiences run gamut from the
individual’s biological environment (nutrition, medical care, drugs, and physical accidents) to the social
environment (family, peers, schools, community, media, and culture). -With respect to the impact of “Nature
and Nurture” on our overall development, which of the following would be an example of nature’s
influence?oAn increased likelihood of having cancer that has been passed on genetically.This would be an
example of nature’s influence, because nature refers to an organism’s biological inheritance. In other words,
what a child inherits from his/her parents. oThe parental experiences that we had as children.This is an
example of nurture’s influence, because nurture refers to environmental experiences. The experiences a
person has with his/her parents when they are children is an environmental experience. This refers to an
individual’s social environment. oBeing exposed to extremely cold temperatures as a child.This is an example
of nurture’s influence, because nurture refers to environmental experiences. The temperatures we were
exposed to as children refers to an individual’s biological environment. oA and C.A is an example of nature’s
influence, but C is an example of nurture’s influence. -You have been a good student in Lifespan Psychology.
So, if someone asks you about the “Nature vs. Nurture” debate, you would sayoNature provides our relative
capacity for our abilitiesNature provide “capacities” (a range to have). oNurture determines where we fall on
the continuum of abilitiesSocial environments (family, peers, schools, community, media, and culture) along
with biological environment (nutrition, medical care, drugs, physical accidents) determine one’s abilities.
oThey are both equally important in our developmentBoth nature and nurture are important in
development. oAll of thes