Handbook Analogy2015 PDF

1st WORLD CONGRESS ON ANALOGY
Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Mexico

November 4-6, 2015
HANDBOOK
Edited by
Katarzyna Gan-Krzywoszyńska
Małgorzata Leśniewska
Przemysław Krzywoszyński
Piotr Leśniewski
HANDBOOK OF THE
FIRST WORLD CONGRESS ON ANALOGY
Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, Mexico

November 4-6, 2015
www.uni-log.org/analogy2015
Handbook of the First World Congress on Analogy
Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, Mexico

November 4-6, 2015
EDITED BY
Katarzyna Gan-Krzywoszyńska, Małgorzata Leśniewska,
Przemysław Krzywoszyński, Piotr Leśniewski
COPYRIGHT BY
Katarzyna Gan-Krzywoszyńska, Małgorzata Leśniewska,
©
Przemysław Krzywoszyński, Piotr Leśniewski, 2015
Publishing House KONTEKST, Poland, 2015
ISBN 978-83-65275-01-1
www.uni-log.org/analogy2015
Printed in Poland
POZNAŃ – POLAND
[email protected]
www.wkn.com.pl
Contents
1. Invitation to the First World Congress on Analogy .......................................... 5
2. Organizing Committee ..................................................................................... 9
3. Plenary Lectures ............................................................................................... 11

Mauricio Beuchot — Analysis of the Analogical Discourse ................................ 11
Jean-Yves Béziau — The Logical Hexagon of Analogy: Structuring the Relations
between Difference, Identity and Similarity ................................................ 12
Walter Redmond — Edith Stein and Thomas Aquinas on Analogy .................... 14
Jan Woleński — On Analogical Concepts (Transcendentalia) ............................ 18
4. Abstracts of Contributors ................................................................................. 19

Pavel Arazim — Analogous Surprises in the Development of Logic and Geometry 19
Daniel Barron — Travelling as Loving? A Critique of María Lugones ................... 21
Juan Manuel Campos Benítez — Analogy and Quantification ........................... 22
David Botting — The Cumulative Force of Analogies ......................................... 24
Jarrod Brown — True, Non-Trivial Analogies, the Metaphysics of Similarity,
and Culturally Embedded Ways of Knowing ................................................ 25
Estelle Carciofi — Differences among Similarities: On Two Insights of the
Mysteries of Love ........................................................................................ 27
José Martín Castro-Manzano — Diagrams and Analogy ................................... 31
Adolfo R. de Soto, Rudolf Seising and Enric Trillas — Analogy and Reasoning ... 33
Laurent Dubois — Analogies in Power Tests ...................................................... 35
David Ellerman — The Two Dual Fundamental Logics. The dualities/analogies
between (Boolean) subset logic and partition logic .................................... 37
Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, Mexico — November 4-6, 2015 3

Luis Estrada-González — An Analogical Argument at the Foundation of
Universal Logic ............................................................................................ 39
Katarzyna Gan-Krzywoszyńska and Piotr Leśniewski — Analogies between
People ......................................................................................................... 41
Katarzyna Gan-Krzywoszyńska, Małgorzata Leśniewska and Piotr Leśniewski
— On Analogies in Zoology ......................................................................... 43
José David García Cruz — Analogy in a Temporal Sense: The Analogical Time
Proportions ................................................................................................. 45
Ana Luisa García Gómez — «Seeing as»: Wittgenstein on Analogy and
Metaphor .................................................................................................... 46
Ricardo Gibu, Angel Xolocotzi — ¿Analogy or Katalogy? Methodological
Requirements for Knowing the Person ........................................................ 48
Carlos R. Gutiérrez Rueda — Truth, Verisimilitude, Refutation and Their
Relation with Analogy: Between the Theory of Argumentation of Ch.
Perelman and The Dialectics of Aristotle ..................................................... 49
Colin James III — Theorem Prover Meth8 Applies Four Valued Boolean logic
for Modal Interpretation ............................................................................. 50
Yaroslav Kokhan — Analogy from the Viewpoint of Logic ................................. 52
Przemysław Krzywoszyński, Jerzy W. Ochmański — Basic Analogies in Latin
American and European Direct Democracy ................................................. 54
Vladimir Lobovikov — A Structural-functional Analogy between the Classical
Physics and a Non-classical Logic of Vector-implication (A generalization
of the logic-law of contraposition) .............................................................. 55
Sumesh Mullasery Kettil — “Derivation” as the Core of Analogy ...................... 57
Ricardo Arturo Francisco Nicolás — Similarities and Differences within the
Square of Quaternality ................................................................................ 58
Paniel Reyes-Cárdenas, Mathematical Structuralism, Isomorphism and Ana
logical Thought ........................................................................................... 59
Robin Ann Rice — Analogy's Failure as a Methodology to Achieve Divine
Contemplation: Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz's “First Dream” ......................... 60
Arturo Romero Contreras — Analogy and Isomorphism: Philosophy, Mathe
matics and Space ........................................................................................ 62
Irina Vulcan — A Favorite Analogy: The Microcosm ......................................... 65
5. “Cosmic Fusion” Catherine Chantilly’s paintings Exhibition ........................... 66

Catherine Chantilly — The Self-Portrait ............................................................ 66
Katarzyna Gan-Krzywoszyńska & Piotr Leśniewski — Clarity, or the Art of
Reconciliation. On Catherine Chantilly's Painting ....................................... 67
Notes ...................................................................................................................... 69
4 Handbook of the First World Congress on Analogy

1. Invitation to the First World Congress on Analogy
We cry when we do not understand.

Józef Tischner1
We know so many things that we do not understand!

José Ortega y Gasset2
If two things are analogous, they are different but in some way similar. What
kind of similarity is it and what is its value? How can analogy be used to develop
knowledge and understanding? These are the sort of questions that will be addressed
in the First Congress of Analogy. Well, there is another issue. The following passage is
in (Hofstadter & Sander 2013):
Yes, analogies manipulate us, and yes, we are enchained by them. This
is a fact that we simply must recognize. Not only are we prisoners of the
known and the familiar, but we are serving a life term. But luckily for us, we
have the power to enlarge our prison over and over again, indeed without
any limits . Only the known can free us from the known. 3
So the question arises: are we really enslaved by analogies? Or maybe the situation
is completely different, and the processes of analogy-making should be considered
rather as ways of liberating human minds, and our culture in consequence? After all,
1
(Bonowicz 2010: 5)
2
(Ortega y Gasset 1963: 38)
3
(Hofstadter & Sander 2013: 315)

studies on analogy in science, art and philosophy could fall within the general science
of love (la ciencia general del amor) in the sense of José Ortega y Gasset.4
The congress wants to promote interdisciplinary investigations, discussions and
writings about analogy. It is of interest for all people dealing with analogy in one
way or another: philosophers, logicians, mathematicians, biologists, artists, computer
scientists, linguists, psychologists, etc.
There are many definitions and conceptions of analogy, but it is always considered
as a universal tool that enables us to discover, explore, compare, understand and
show similarities and differences. Formally speaking, analogy can be defined as a
relation between relations; it is connected with proportions and remains pervasive in
science, art and religion.
If we agree that inter-cultural, inter-ideological and inter-religious dialogue
is a crucial issue, the humanistic approach to analogy seems to be of the greatest
importance. Hence, we have to go back to (Hofstadter & Sander 2013) again:
Our natural inclination to relate to stories told by other people by
converting them into first-person experiences dredged out of our dormant
memories – this propensity to make analogies that link us with other
people, or, more generally, to interpret any new situation in terms of
another similar situation that comes to mind – is omnipresent, because
doing so fulfills a deep psychological need.5
But it should be emphasized that Edith Stein contrasts “inferences by analogy”

with procedures of so-called “analogizing”. She wrote in On the Problem of Empathy:
The interpretation of foreign living bodies as of my type helps make sense
out of the discussion of “analogizing” in comprehending another. Of
course, this analogizing has very little to do with “inferences by analogy”.6
Analogy avoids generalization but remains universal. It helps retain differences

while showing similarities and common characteristics which can be transformed
into the background of a real dialogue. In a dialogical situation above all we want
to know, explore, understand and compare before taking decisions, judging and
acting. Therefore, it is without any doubt a very fascinating topic and we will reflect
on it from the viewpoints of philosophy, logic, sciences, theory of literature, theory
4 (Ortega y Gasset 1914:28).

5 (Hofstadter & Sander 2013: 153)
6 Cf. (Stein 1989: 59). The original German text reads as follows: In der Auffassung der
fremden Leiber als demselben Typ wie der meine angehörig ergibt sich uns ein guter Sinn der Rede
vom „Analogisieren“, das im Erfassen eines andern vorliegt. Mit „Analogieschlüssen“ hat dies
Analogisieren freilich wenig zu tun. Cf. (Stein 1917: 66)

of culture and many more. All these interdisciplinary investigations, exchanges and
perspectives are very promising.
This event is being sponsored and organized by the Meritorious Autonomous
University of Puebla (BUAP), Adam Mickiewicz University (UAM Poznań, Poland)
and the Popular Autonomous University of the State of Puebla (UPAEP) in Mexico.
It is not a coincidence that the First World Congress on Analogy is being organized
as a Polish-Mexican collaboration, as both countries have made great contributions
to the theory of analogy. There is a Polish tradition in logico-philosophical studies
on analogy. Józef M. Bocheński (University of Fribourg), Mieczysław Albert Krąpiec
and his collaborators (John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin) and Włodzimierz
Ławniczak (Adam Mickiewicz University) elaborated original approaches to analogy
in logic, metaphysics and art history, respectively. In Mexico there are many very
interesting approaches based on analogy, and one of the greatest examples is
Mauricio Beuchot’s analogical hermeneutics. We are extremely happy and proud that
he is one of the Congress invited speakers, and interestingly enough, he has been is
inspired by the works of Józef M. Bocheński.
Although the primary focus is philosophical reflection on analogy, we are planning
to have an artistic event accompanying every edition of the Congress. During the First
World Congress on Analogy, we will have the opportunity to attend an exhibition of
Catherine Chantilly’s paintings. (for more information, see page XX).
The Congress will otherwise have a standard structure: plenary talks by invited
speakers, specialists on the subject from around the world, every day of the event,
and sections of contributed talks. We are planning the Second World Congress on
Analogy at Adam Mickiewicz University (Poznań, Poland) in 2017, and would like to
meet every two years at different academic centres around the world. We will have
a permanent website for the event with current information and contacts, so we
cordially invite any suggestions and comments concerning this or future editions of
the Congress. On the website, we will also publish information concerning publication
of the proceedings and other texts on analogy that can be of particular interest to
participants.
We wish you a very interesting and inspiring congress.
Let us all enjoy the First World Congress on Analogy!
Bibliography
Bonowicz, W. (2010). Kapelusz na wodzie. Gawędy o księdzu Tischnerze. Kraków: Znak.
Hofstadter, D., Sander, E. (2013). Surfaces and Essences. Analogy as The Fuel and Fire of
Thinking. New York: Basic Books.
Ortega y Gasset J. (1914), Meditaciones del Quijote, Madrid: Publicaciones de la Residencia de
Estudiantes.

Ortega y Gasset, J. (1963). Meditations on Quixote. Translated by E. Rugg and D. Marín. New
York: W. W. Norton.
Stein, E. (1917). Zur Problem der Einfühlung. Halle: Buchdruckerei des Waisenhauses.
Stein, E. (1989). On the Problem of Empathy. Translated by W. Stein. Washington: ICS
Publications.

2. Organizing Committee
Chair
Juan Manuel CAMPOS BENÍTEZ (Meritorious Autonomous University of Puebla)
Co-Chair
Katarzyna GAN-KRZYWOSZYŃSKA (Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Poland)
Przemysław KRZYWOSZYŃSKI (Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Poland)

Claudia TAME DOMÍNGUEZ (Meritorious Autonomous University of Puebla)
Małgorzata LEŚNIEWSKA (Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Poland)
Piotr LEŚNIEWSKI (Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Poland)
Ángel XOLOCOTZI YÁÑEZ (Meritorious Autonomous University of Puebla)
Sylwia PAWŁOWSKA (Photography, England)
Students of Meritorious Autonomous University of Puebla:

Zaida Yanely VARGAS VERGARA
Marlon Emmanuel SANTANA VELÁZQUEZ
Mariana ROMERO BELLO
Pablo VELEZ PONCE
Susana BRUNO OCHOA
Diego BALCÁZAR IBARRA
Pablo MELLADO LEDO
Karla GONZÁLEZ SANTOYO

Sponsors
Meritorious Autonomous University of Puebla, Mexico
Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Poland
Popular Autonomous University of the State of Puebla, Mexico

3. Plenary Lectures
Mauricio Beuchot
Analysis of the Analogical Discourse

National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico
[email protected]
This paper tries to establish the semantics of analogy, which is an intermediate

way of signifying between the univocal and the equivocal. Analogy does not share the
accuracy of the former nor the ambiguity of the later. It tries to share the seriousness
of the univocal and the openness of the equivocal, but neither accepting the excessive
opening of the equivocal nor the rigid closure of the univocal.
Some logicians have attempted to formalize analogy, building a logic of analogy
or an analogical logic, as I.M. Bochenski did, for instance, in his book The Logic of
Religion; there he applied it to religious knowledge.
Others have dealt with analogy within a less demanding formalism, as James F.
Ross did in Portraying Analogy. Some others have seen analogy as an isomorphism,
and have looked for its syntax, expressed in the formalism designed to capture it.
We look for a middle way. We are not looking for a formal semantics of analogy, but
one that from ordinary language is able to account for the richness of this mode of
signifying which at the same time is a way of knowing. The Schoolmen and mystics
used analogy for the knowledge of God, but it can also be used for knowing natural
things, where this concept of analogy shows its fruitfulness, and how useful it can be
for philosophy today.

Jean-Yves Béziau
The Logical Hexagon of Analogy: Structuring the

Relations between Difference, Identity and Similarity
Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
University of San Diego, California, USA
[email protected]
In this lecture we try to understand what analogy is by relating it to other concepts

using the theory of opposition.
We first construct a square of opposition where identity and difference form a
contradictory opposition crossing another contradictory opposition encompassing
opposition itself: opposition vs. similarity. We then naturally consider that opposition
implies difference and identity implies similarity. We have therefore a square of
opposition where opposition is contrary to identity (two opposed things cannot
be identical, but two things can be neither opposed, nor identical) and difference
subcontrary to similarity (two things can both be different and similar, but they
cannot be neither different, nor similar).
We go on, using the idea of Robert Blanché, by extending this square into
a hexagon where analogy is defined as different but similar, in the same way that
optional is defined as allowed but not obligatory in the deontic hexagon.

Within this hexagon, analogy forms a blue contrary triangle of opposition together
with opposition and identity. This means in particular that two things cannot be
analogous and identical but can be neither analogous, nor identical, when they are
opposed.
Keywords: Analogy, Similarity, Difference, Identity, Square of Opposition

Walter Redmond
Edith Stein and Thomas Aquinas on Analogy

Austin, Texas, USA
[email protected]
ἐν ἑνὶ γάρ...
τὰ ὄντα πάντα καὶ προέχει,
Dionysius the Areopagite
Deus in se praehabet
omnes perfectiones creaturarum
Thomas Aquinas
...daß alles Endliche

--sowohl das, was es ist, als sein Sein--
in Gott vorgebildet sein muß
Edith Stein7
Edith Stein (1891-1942), a member of the early circle around Edmund Husserl,
worked out her own phenomenological view of the analogia entis in the context of
doctrines of St. Thomas Aquinas and the commentaries of the Neo-Thomist scholar
Joseph Gredt. Her study of analogy, contained in her major work, Endliches und
ewiges Sein (finite and eternal being), is an example of her dual purpose to “search
for the meaning of being” and to “fuse Medieval thought with the lively thought
of today”. I believe Stein’s original insights have a contribution to make to current
discussions of analogy (of which this Congress is a notable example).
Analogy received its classical statement in the Middle Ages from Aquinas and
John Duns Scotus, and was later “commented on” by Cajetan (Thomas de Vio) and
others in Renaissance Scholasticism and more recently by Neo-Scholastics like Gredt--
and Edith Stein herself. The basic question is how --or whether-- we may validly use
the same names of both God and creatures. The approach is then linguistic (about
words), but also noetic (about concepts) and ontological (about the analogy of being).
7 Dionysius, “for in one all beings are pre-had”, De divinis nominibus, c.5; Aquinas, “God pre-
has all the perfections of creatures in Himself”, Summa Theologiae 1:13:2; Stein, “everything finite
--both what it is and its being-- must be pre-patterned in God”, Endliches und ewiges Sein, 290.

The last century saw two of the most remarkable debates on analogy since the
time of the Renaissance. The first arose within German Christendom in the early
1930s shortly before Edith Stein lost her teaching position due to Nazi anti-Semitic
legislation and entered the Carmelite monastery in Cologne. The second developed
a half century later in the “theological turn” within French phenomenology. Both
arose when certain philosophers accused others of debasing God by enclosing Him
within a univocal notion of being.
The Analogia entis (1932) of Jesuit philosopher Erich Przywara, touched off the first
debate. Stein mentioned that in their association (1925-31) they mutually influenced
one another in their approach to analogy. Przywara’s theory --he took analogy to be
the basic paradigm of Catholic theology-- was angrily repudiated by Swiss Protestant
theologian Karl Barth, as “the invention of the Antichrist”, and Barth countered it with
his own “analogy of faith” (1932). The controversy spawned consideration of many
kinds of analogy and continues today.
The second controversy over analogy emerged later within postmodern
phenomenology. A book by French philosopher Jean-Luc Marion with the provocative
title Dieu sans l’être (God without being) caused an uproar in the early 1980s. For,
just as Barth had said Przywara’s analogy was invented by the Antichrist, Marion
called Aquinas an “idolater” for his doctrine of analogy which he, Marion, felt was
an example of the “onto-theo-logy” criticized by Martin Heidegger. Marion, however,
soon acquitted Thomas of the charge, pointing out that, for the saint, esse commune
(common being) does not include esse divinum (divine being). Thomas’s analogy, he
said, is “apophatic”; instead of “building a bridge” between creation and God, it “digs
a gulf” (goufre) between them. Stein pointed out that Gredt’s transcendental concept
of being as being (ens ut ens, ὂν ᾖ ὄν) is general enough to include both created and
uncreated be-ings, and she asks whether, or how, we are warranted in forming such
a concept. Like Marion, she sees analogy as an “infinite gulf” (Kluft) between created
and divine being.
Stein analyzes two kinds of analogy treated by Thomas: one involving a proportion
and the other often called “attribution”. She argued against Gredt’s interpretation of
the first kind (“the creature is to its being as God is to His”) but retained Thomas’s
general approach. She did, however, apply the notion of proportion to her theory of
“essentialities” (Wesenheit): “meanings” like the Plato’s εἴδη, οὐσίαι.
Thomas himself held that we may not say that God “is” or “is good” if these
words have different meanings (if they entail agnosticism) or if they have the same
meaning (if they entail pantheism). His “apophatic” approach recalls the view of
Dionysius the Areopagite (c. 500) that perfections “pre-exist” in God and are “pre-
had” by Him (προεἶναι / προέχεσθαι = praeexistere / praehaberi). It also forms part
of the “exemplarist” tradition of thinkers like Augustine and Bonaventure, founded
upon two asymmetric relations to God (1) “being patterned after” (μίμησις / μέθεξις;
imitatio / participatio) and (2) “being-made-to-be” (creari). The statement “God is

good” conveys that there is some creature having goodness such that God is the
unknowable source (principium) of its meaning and the reason (causa) why the
creature has it.
Analogy for her as for Thomas is an “agreement” (Übereinstimmung –
convenientia) of creature with God, a relation (Verhältnis, Beziehung – ordo, proportio,
relatio, habitudo) of image, likeness, copy (Abbild) to its “original”, archetype (Urbild),
but where the image is like, but much more unlike, its archetype (Aehnlichkeit /
Unaehnlichkeit = similitudo / dissimilitudo).
Stein’s view of analogy is also “apophatic”; she cautions that we have no insight
into a be-ing whose being is its essence. All we can say is that “everything finite --both
what it is and its being-- must be “pre-sketched-out” (vorzeichnen), “pre-patterned
(vorbilden) in God, since both derive from Him”-- a notion recalling Thomas’s “prae-
existere” and “praehaberi”.
[Interestingly, recent epistemic logic (the logic of knowledge and belief) offers
an insight into this paradox of why it sounds odd for me to say “God’s being is His
essence but I do not know this” (E∧~KE) is that saying this is epistemically (not
logically) inconsistent for me. And this means that it would be logically inconsistent
for me to say that I know (K) that God’s being is His essence but I do not know that it
is”-- K[E∧~KE] (generally then, ~K[p∧~Kp] is a truth of logic). Parallel statements hold
in doxastic logic, “I believe that...” (B)-- E∧~BE (~K[p∧~Bp] and ~B[p∧~Bp] are also
truths of logic). St. Thomas indeed claims that if I hold a proposition on faith, then the
proposition is true but I do not know that it is true.]
Analogy, the “infinite gulf” between finite and divine being, signals the “objective”
distinction between a being that is “something but not everything” and the being
that is “everything”. Stein’s distinction goes back to Dionysius, whose words Thomas
quotes in support of his own view that every perfection must pre-exist in the Pre-
existent who “is neither this nor that...; He is rather, as the cause of everything,
everything”.
Stein uses her theory of essentialities to interpret analogical relations such as
from image to archetype or from “only-something” to “everything”. Her theory
is linked to Plato’s οὐσίαι and to the Scholastic possibilia (“possibles”; possible
essences or natures), quidditates, which Stein renders as Washeiten, “whatnesses”.
Stein claims Thomas’s support here: essentialities are in the mind of God not as a
creature but as a “creatrix essentia”, which Stein translates as “creative essentiality”.
Such essentitial being, timeless meaning, grounds the being of things, grounds our
experience and understanding of them, gives meaning to our words. Essentitial being,
then, corresponds to ideatio in the traditional dual relation of creature to God’s mind
and to His will: ideatio and creatio, source (being-pre-patterned-after, being-pre-
sketched-out-in), and cause (being-made-to-be-actually).
Stein calls upon religious tradition to clarify her view of analogy. She collapses
statements like “God is His living” into a simple “sum”, I-am: the name of God,

“ɂehyeh” (‫)הֶיְהֶא‬. Essentitial being is Thomas’s ars divina: eternal being timelessly
shaping eternal forms within and, timefully, bringing these forms about in the world.
As a translation of “ἐν ἀρχῇ ἦν ὁ λόγος” she prefers Faust’s “im Anfang war der Sinn”
“in the beginning was the Meaning”.
To spell out what she means, she uses a word from an early Christian hymn,
“συνέστηκεν” (from συνιστάναι, constare), which she translates as having “coherence
and constancy”. “Coherence” (Zusammenhang) means that each thing stands in a
array of causal relations to all other things, determined by a “private” meaning all its
own. All beings are pre-patterned, “pre-sketched-out” (vorzeichnen) as a great work
of art, the ars divina of St. Thomas (or the ars aeterna of St. Bonaventure). Still, what
I understand of “the meaning of things” is but “a few forlorn notes of a symphony
played far away, borne to me on the wind”.
“Constancy” (Bestand) means that all things abide, live, in the Λόγος, not in their
own actual being but in their essentitial being. Their meaningfulness, “not come to
be”, is “at home” in the Λόγος. The essentialities, “at rest” in themselves, become,
through the Λόγος, “effective”, actual, “creative”-- source and cause. God “pre-thinks”
(vorausdenken) actual being, His mind spans all things possible, whether or not they
will have become actual. Such are the Scholastic possibilia, “possible essences”.
“The finite is in the eternal” means that all meaningfulness is encompassed by the
divine mind and that every be-ing has its archetypical and causal ground in the divine
essence. God then, is
nicht nur Herr des Seins, sondern auch des Sinnes,
“not only Lord of being but also Lord of meaning”.
Commenting on Heidegger’s work, Kant und das Problem der Metaphysik, Stein
asks whether, as he claims, we must renounce the “arrogance” of wishing to speak
of the “being-in-itself”. By recognizing our very “being-but-something”, she answers,
we break through to the “everything”; but “analogically”: as magis ignotum quam
notum. She quotes John of the Cross:
Qué bien sé yo la fonte Oh, I know Source,

que mana y corre, welling, running;
aunque es de noche. although by night.

Jan Woleński
On Analogical Concepts (Transcendentalia)

University of Information, Technology and Management, Rzeszów, Poland
[email protected]
The adjective “transcendental” has two different meanings. In Kant’s philosophy,

it means “transcending all possible experience”. It is a epistemological meaning. The
method of transcendental deduction was proposed by Kant to copy with problems of
quid jure in our concepts. Quite another sense of the adjective “transcendental” was
(and still is) associated with scholastic (neo-scholastic) philosophy. The schoolmen say
ens omnia genera transcendit. It means that the concept of being is transcategorial,
where “categorical” refers to categories in Aristotle’s understanding.
One theory of transcendentalia, developed in the most mature form by Thomas
Aquinas, distinguished several transcendental concepts, in particular, the mentioned
ens, further, verum (truth), bonum (goodness), res (thing), aliquid (something), unum
(unity) and, sometimes, pulchrum (beauty). The general principle is such:
(*) if t and t’ are transcendental concepts, they are co-extensional.
This rule can be illustrated by the following examples: a is a being if and only if a is
true; a is a being if and only if a is good; a is good if and only if a is true. On the other
hand, transcendentalia differ in their intensions.
There are some important consequences of this theory. In particular, since
they are the most general concepts, they cannot be defined by genus proximum et
differentiam specificam. In a special terminology, transcerndalia are predicated not
univocally, but analogically (this mode is different from ambiguity). Furthermore, if
t is a transcendental, not-t is not a transcendental. Other theory of transcendentaila
was developed by Duns Scotus. He distinguished transcendentalia equivalent with
ens (form instance, bonum and verum) and so-called disjunctive transcendentalia
(necessity, possibility).
The theory of transcendentalia leads to many interesting logical and ontological
problems which can be analyzed by tools derived from logic and set theory. Clearly,
ens is the most important transcendental concept. Is the collection of beings a set
or a proper class? Or perhaps a category in the mathematical sense? Other question
pertain to truth. Is it ontological or epistemological concept? How to interpret the
idea that the essence of truth consists in a correspondence of truth-bearers and the
reality? Ad far as the issue concern bonum, is it really co-extensional with ens and
verum. The paper tries to answer these questions.

3. Abstracts of Contributors
Pavel Arazim
Analogous Surprises in the Development

of Logic and Geometry
Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
[email protected]
Kant offered an overall model of our cognitive faculties in which geometry and
logic were given quite a special place. And not only his view of geometry and logic are
analogous but also their subsequent development. A development which was very
surprising from the Kantian point of view.
Geometry, according to Kant, describes the essential structural features of our
intuition which make perception as a kind of cognition possible at all. Similarly logic
describes the essential features of our conceptual cognition. Both are thus given a
very prominent status, they in an important sense precede all the other disciplines.
Indeed, they form the very foundations of our knowledge. It thus appears to be as
good as impossible to somehow radically change them on the basis of needs of a
different discipline. As they are the sources of the very possibility of knowledge, it
can hardly happen that any other discipline could exercise any authority over them.
In addition to that, geometry and logic are concerned with two radically different
cognitive spheres, the sensory and the conceptual one and therefore they cannot
interfere.

Yet, as is well known, the time brought quite a surprising development of both
these disciplines. First the hyperbolic and elliptic geometries were developed as
unexpected alternatives to the Euclidian geometry. Later on, logic saw the Fregean
revolution and then the emergence of non-classical logics which has not stopped yet,
as new logics are constantly being developed.
It would be simple to say that Kant was simply proven wrong by the history. In
fact, despite the facts just mentioned, his views still seem to point to some of the
important characteristics of both these disciplines. I would like to attempt at showing
how can the pluralism in geometry and in logic be reconciled with Kant’s most
germane insights which do not deserve to be simply put aside.

Daniel Barron
Travelling as Loving? A Critique of María Lugones

York University, Canada
[email protected]
María Lugones’ “Playfulness, ‘world’-traveling, and loving perception” offers

a powerful model for resisting oppression by way of joining with others in genuine
solidarity that is not itself oppressive. However, I find her central concepts of ‘world’-
travelling and playfulness problematic. I provide both a critique of these concepts
and a modified version of Lugones’ model, arguing that her use of ‘world’-travelling
as a figurative interpretation of Marilyn Frye’s “loving perception” ultimately leads
to preconceptions of particular divisions, rather than an awareness of plurality.
Such entrenched divisions may serve to reinforce rather than mitigate the agonistic
playfulness that Lugones seeks to avoid. These consequences are not compatible
with our goals for resistance and liberation. My model dispenses with ‘world’-travel,
reformulates playfulness as “openness to self-construction” and increases focus on
loving perception. Openness to self-construction and loving perception partially
define and guide each other as practices, without the inherent limitations of the
‘world’-travelling metaphor. Together they allow for an increased awareness and
appreciation of the plurality of social constructions and possible social constructions;
an ability to explore this plurality is central to Lugones’ practice of resisting oppression.
I place greater emphasis on an awareness of plurality as the necessary driving force
behind a reflexive and collaborative means of resistance and liberation.
Keywords: Oppression Theory, Solidarity, Spatial Analogy, Otherness
Bibliography
Anzaldúa, Gloria, Borderlands/La Frontera (Aunt Lute: San Francisco, 1987).
Frye, Marilyn, The Politics of Reality (The Crossing Press: Trumansburg, NY, 1983).
Kaplan, Caren, “The politics of location as transnational feminist cultural practice”, Scattered
Hegemonies: Postmodernity and Transnational Feminist Practices, edited by Inderpaul Grewal
and Caren Kaplan (University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis, 1994), pp. 137-152.
Lugones, María, “On Borderlands/La Frontera: An interpretive essay”, Hypatia 7:4 (1992),
pp. 31-37.
Lugones, María, Pilgrimages/Peregrinajes; Theorizing Coalition Against Multiple Oppressions
(Rowman & Littlefield: Oxford, 2003).
Lugones, María, “Playfulness, ‘world’-travelling, and loving perception”, Hypatia 2:2 (1987),
pp. 3-19.
Ortega, Mariana, “Being lovingly, knowingly ignorant: White feminism and women of
color”, Hypatia 21:3 (2006), pp. 56-74.

Juan Manuel Campos Benítez
Analogy and Quantification

[email protected]
Analogy involves some relationships (similarity and difference) and degrees

between them. It seems they may be quantified, since we can say, about two things
A and B, that they completely resemblance each other, or that A and B display no
similarity. Moreover, we can say that they bear some similarity and they bear some
dissimilarity, i.e. some non-similarity. We thus have universal and particular sentences
which may be arranged into a hexagon of opposition. Analogy is to be placed at the
bottom, as a conjunction of particular affirmative and particular negative sentences
(just as contingency is the conjunction of sentences like Possibly P and Possibly not
P). The contradictory of the analogy corner is the negation of that conjunction, at the
top of the square; we thus obtain a hexagon of similarity to convey analogy.
All similarity or no similarity
All similarity No similarity
Some similarity Some dissimilarity
Some similarity and Some dissimilarity
So far we are talking about things, but analogy also refers to terms. Indeed, we say
that terms may be analogous, equivocal or univocal terms. The square of terms is this
Univocal Equivocal
Non-equivocal Non-univocal
Which can be extended into a hexagon, as we have seen. Analogy is out of the
square, at the bottom, and implies the “particular” corners. Universal corners imply
the contradictory of analogy, at the top of the square.
Notice that we have three term-negations in these squares (“dissimilarity”, “non-
equivocal” and “non-univocal”) and this could bring about some problems for we

could have two negative corners where there should be only one negative corner and
two affirmative corners where there should be only one affirmative corner. We might
explore other expressions, as Jean-Yves Béziau does, to “square” analogy; he uses
“difference”, “opposition” and “identity” as well.
Now, two things may be totally or partially similar to each other regarding some
property, which means we need another quantifier for this property. Let us take the
sentence “A and B are completely similar regarding to C”, and explain it in a very
informal way like, for instance: “Men and Women are completely similar to each other
regarding to their being a Human”. “Human being” here is a term applied to men
and women “by the same reason”, in the same way and constitutes a univocal term.
“Similar to each other” constitutes a symmetrical relationship. The sentence “A and
B are completely different” may be understood as “There is no similarity between
A and B”, in which case we need no further properties. For instance the word “well”
in this compounded sentence “Something is well and something is a well” is equivocal
since it shows no similarity, it refers to completely different things in each case.
In this paper we try to explore the possibilities of quantifying over expressions
related to analogy. We will use squares, hexagons and octagons of equivalence and
opposition. We also show certain ideas on univocal, equivocal and analogous terms
from New Spain Logicians, Tomas de Mercado (1525-1575) and Alonso de la Veracruz
(1504-1584).
Keywords: Analogy, Quantification, Univocal, Equivocal, Analogous
Bibliography
Jean-Yves Béziau, (2012),“The Power of the Hexagon”, in Logica Universalis, Vol. 6, No. 1-2,
1-43.
Tomás de Mercado (1571), Comentarii lucidisimi in textum Petri Hispani, Sevilla
Alonso de la Veracruz (1572), Recognitio summularum, Salamanca

David Botting
The Cumulative Force of Analogies

New University of Lisbon
[email protected]
Of what kind is an analogical inference: deductive, inductive, or some other?

In Botting (2012b) I put forward a way of construing analogical inferences as
confirmation relations from particular to particular that did not use a universal
generalization explicitly, although it remained in the background without needing to
be definitively formulated. I did not really prove that all analogical inferences were
like this, however, but settled for showing that the claim that analogical inferences
were sui generis with their own conception of ‘validity’ and methods of evaluation is
inadequately motivated.
In this paper I want to argue that my analysis is indeed the correct, general analysis
of analogical inferences, by arguing that there are features of these inferences that
are difficult to make sense of if these inferences and arguments are not fundamentally
inductive. One is that it seems to me that we make analogical inferences stronger
when we add more cases or more points of similarity between analogous cases into
the argument, and it is not just that by having more arguments for our claims we
make them dialectically more difficult to overturn; my intuition is that the inference
is actually stronger, that analogies have a cumulative force, that the more analogies
we can add makes the truth of what we are inferring more likely. This would not
be the case if each analogical inference was deductive, for then some version of
Theophrastus’ Rule would apply and we would, for example, take the strength of the
analogical inference as determined by the strength of the closest analogy we offer,
leaving the other analogies without an inferential role to play (though they may have
other roles to play).
This would show that analogical inferences are not deductive, but perhaps it does
not show specifically that they are inductive. To do this I want to show that sometimes
we use analogy in a non-inferential way to explain what we mean by the predicate that
we ascribe to the target. These explanations could be used as arguments concluding
with the analogon. This equivalence between the explanation and the argument
mirrors Hempel’s deductive-nomological account of explanation, in which the fact
that the event explained has occurred serves to confirm the universal generalization
featuring in the explanans. My conclusion is that ascription of the concept or property
in the source confirms the universal generalization and, given other conditions, also
confirms the logical consequences of that universal generalization; in particular,
ascription of the concept or property in the target. This explanatory function seems
to lead to an inductive analysis of the analogical inference.

Jarrod Brown
True, Non-Trivial Analogies, the Metaphysics of

Similarity, and Culturally Embedded Ways
of Knowing
University of Hawai'i at Manoa, USA
[email protected]
If some analogical arguments are true and contentful, what must be the case?
This paper argues that in order for analogical arguments (in the form of simple similes
such as “He is like a bulldozer,” simple similarity claims such as, “The rose is like the
carnation,” to more complex forms such as, “A fish is to a school like a tree is to a
forest,” or, “The Theban war on their neighbors, the Phocians, was evil; so, too, would
an Athenian War on the Thebans be evil”), a number of presuppositions are required.
These presuppositions are:
1. The existence of relations (similarity is a relation)

2. An ability to individuate relations (picking out “similar” from “smaller than”)
3. Some fact that entails the similarity relation obtains (the “truthmaker”)
4. Non-triviality (the statements are contentful and not vacuous)
5. That there are well-formed similarity claims
6. An ability to be aware of or attuned to the relation in order to recognize
whether it obtains or not
Any satisfactory account of similarity claims must also be able to give an account
of these six conditions. The implication is that when one invokes analogical reasoning,
one is assuming a metaphysical and epistemological system in which all six conditions
hold.
Reflecting on Satosi Wanatabe's work on the so called “Ugly Duckling Theorem,”
this paper argues given that analogical arguments operate outside a purely formal
space, and given predication we can make well-formed and informative analogical
claims. In his work with Boolean lattices, Wanatabe demonstrates that within this
formal space all objects will share an identical number of similarities with all other
objects. Hence, not only is everything similar to everything else, but it is as similar
to the same magnitude. We do not find that to be the case in our experience of the
world in which we do find a non-biased inferential basis of discrimination girding our
ability to make true and informative similarity claims. The implication is that similarity
is then not a formal property, but instead a instead a cognitive, cultural, linguistic or

metaphysical feature of our world. When these specifiable and non-formal aspects of
similarity are imported into our arguments, similarity claims cease to be necessarily
true and similarity ceases to be transitive. We also find, however, that we cannot refer
to formal structures to determine what similarities in fact actually hold.
It is the “aboutness” requirement, though, that creates the most practical
epistemological (and aesthetic) challenge for the use of analogy. Just as a test taker
must be able to identify the relevant relation that holds between fish and schools
and trees and forests (a relation of composition), so too the audience of rhetoric,
analogical arguments, and artful analogies must be able to identify the relevant
respect or relation. Pulling from the classical Indian debates on pramanas (sources of
knowledge) and rhetoric (alangkara) as well as Plato and Aristotle, the paper concludes
with an argument that reinforces the conclusions reached from a consideration of
the Ugly Duckling Theorem. That is, despite the universalizing metaphysical and
epistemological assumptions of making contentful, true analogical arguments, the
ability to make apt analogies and to recognize the relevant “aboutness” of analogies
is a skill that is culturally embedded in a wider weltanshauung. Several arguments are
provided based on linguistic classifiers, Malayu pantun verse, and “inside jokes.” Given
the primacy of similarity-based reasoning in all forms of knowing, the embeddedness
of analogies should give us reason for pause when we encounter universalizing
discourses. It also gives us a schema for thinking about analogies in use and ways of
knowing that, although universal, are also culturally situated.

Estelle Carciofi
Differences among Similarities: On Two Insights

of the Mysteries of Love
Institut de recherche et d'histoire des textes du CNRS, Paris, France
[email protected]
My proposal is for a work about life and love based on an analogy between two
texts. The first is a letter written by the French writer George Sand to her ex-lover,
another French writer, Alfred Musset. The second is a poem, “L’évadé (The Escapee)”,
written by the French poet Boris Vian.
Both texts present a way of life, but each is based on a special conception of
love. In these two texts, love is the most important value in the model of a good life.
However, behind the obvious common points between them, many differences are
hidden.
I begin my work with a definition of “analogy” and a short presentation of the texts
and their authors. Next, the similarities and differences between them are discussed.
Lastly, I explain how these differences enlighten us about the special message of each
text.
[…] L'amour est un temple que bâtit […] Love is a temple a lover builds to
celui qui aime à un objet plus ou moins whomsoever is worthy of his or her
digne de son culte, et ce qu'il y a de worship to some degree or another,
plus beau dans cela, ce n'est pas tant le and the beauty of it lies not so much
dieu que l'autel. Pourquoi craindrais-tu in the god but in the altar. Why would
de te risquer ? Que l'idole reste debout you shrink away from it? Whether the
longtemps ou qu'elle se brise bientôt, idol stands for a long while or is soon
tu n'en auras pas moins bâti un beau broken, you will have built a beautiful
temple. Ton âme l'aura habité, elle temple. Your soul will have inhabited
l'aura rempli d'un encens divin, et une this temple and filled it with divine
âme comme la tienne doit produire incense, and a soul like yours must
de grandes œuvres. Le dieu changera create great works. The god may
peut-être, le temple durera autant que change, but the temple will last as long
toi. Ce sera un lieu de refuge sublime as you live. It will be a sublime refuge
où tu iras retremper ton cœur à la where the eternal flame will ignite your
flamme éternelle, et ce cœur sera assez heart anew – a heart that will be as rich
riche, assez puissant pour renouveler and powerful as to find a new divinity
la divinité, si la divinité déserte son when its predecessor has been toppled
piédestal. Crois-tu qu'un amour ou from its pedestal. Do you think one or

deux suffisent pour épuiser et flétrir two loves are enough to exhaust and
une âme forte ? Je l'ai cru aussi pendant consume a strong soul? I also used to
longtemps, mais je sais à présent que think so, but now I know I was wrong.
c'est tout le contraire. C'est un feu qui Love is a fire that will grow and wear
tend toujours à monter et à s'épuiser. away. It may be that the more you
Peut-être que plus on a cherché en have searched in vain, the more likely
vain, plus on devient habile à trouver ; you are to find it; the more you have
plus on a été forcé de changer, plus had to change, the more apt you may
on devient propre à conserver. Qui be to keep it. Who knows! It may be
sait ! c'est peut-être l'œuvre terrible, the dreadful, beautiful and dauntless
magnifique et courageuse de toute work of a lifetime. […] It is a path in
une vie. […] C'est un sentier dans la the mountain – a difficult one, full of
montagne ; dangereux et pénible, mais pitfalls, that leads to sublime heights
qui mène à des hauteurs sublimes et and always towers over the flat and dull
qui domine toujours le monde plat et world where spiritless men languish.
monotone où végètent les hommes Vain weariness should not daunt a man
sans énergie. Tu n'es pas de ceux qu'une of your kind; nor should a fall wreck
fatigue vaine doit décourager ni qu'une you. You were not destined to wallow
chute peut briser. Tu n'es pas destiné à in the mire of reality. You are made
ramper sur la boue de la réalité. Tu es to create your own reality, in a more
fait pour créer ta réalité toi-même, dans elevated world, and to enjoy your own
un monde plus élevé, et pour trouver joys through the noblest exercise of
tes joies dans le plus noble exercice your soul’s faculties. Go full of hope,
des facultés de ton âme. Va, espère, and may your life be as beautiful as the
et que ta vie soit un poème aussi beau poems your intelligence has devised.
que ceux qu'a rêvés ton intelligence. Un One day you will reread this poem with
jour tu le reliras avec les saintes joies de the holy joys of pride. You may leave
l'orgueil. Tu verras peut-être derrière toi many a débris behind you, but you will
bien des débris. Mais tu seras debout et stand unsullied, amidst the betrayals,
sans tache, au milieu des trahisons, des meanness and turpitudes of others.
bassesses et des turpitudes d'autrui. He who shows his heart candidly and
Celui qui s'est toujours livré loyalement generously may have to suffer, but need
et généreusement peut avoir à souffrir, never blush with shame – and here,
mais à rougir jamais, et peut-être que perhaps, ultimately lies the reward.
la récompense est la tout entière. As Jesus told Magdalene, ‘You have
Jésus disait à Madeleine : « Il te sera loved so much that you shall be highly
beaucoup remis, parce que tu as rewarded.’ […]
beaucoup aimé. » […]
Lettre de George Sand à Alfred Musset George Sand, letter to Alfred de Musset
Venise, le 15 juin 1834 Venice, 15th June 1834

De Musset Alfred, Sand George, 2014: Ô mon George, ma belle maîtresse, Lettres, éd. présentée
et annotée par Martine Reid, Paris, Gallimard (Folio 5127), pp. 85-87.
English translation: Barbara Schmidt – Université de Lorraine (France)
Proofreading: Matthew Smith – Université de Lorraine (France)
Il a dévalé la colline He hurtled down the hill

Ses pieds faisaient rouler des pierres Rocks sent flying with every step
Là-haut, entre les quatre murs Up high from those four walls
La sirène chantait sans joie The siren sang without joy
Il respirait l'odeur des arbres He breathed in the scent of the trees

De tout son corps comme une forge With his body like a forge
La lumière l'accompagnait The light followed his form
Et lui faisait danser son ombre Making his shadow dance
Pourvu qu'ils me laissent le temps If they could just give me time

Il sautait à travers les herbes Bounding across the grass
Il a cueilli deux feuilles jaunes He picked up two yellow leaves
Gorgées de sève et de soleil Soaked with sap and sun
Les canons d'acier bleu crachaient The steel blue guns spitting
De courtes flammes de feu sec Rapid bursts of fire
Il est arrivé près de l'eau He reached the water’s edge
Il y a plongé son visage He plunged in his face

Il riait de joie, il a bu Laughing with joy he drank
Il s'est relevé pour sauter He raised himself to jump

Une abeille de cuivre chaud A bee of hot copper
L'a foudroyé sur l'autre rive Struck him down on the facing bank
Le sang et l'eau se sont mêlés Blood and water ran together
Il avait eu le temps de voir He'd had the time to fill his eyes
Le temps de boire à ce ruisseau Time to drink from the creek
Le temps de porter à sa bouche Time to bring to his lips
Deux feuilles gorgées de soleil Two sun-soaked leaves

Le temps de rire aux assassins Time to reach the other side
Le temps d'atteindre l'autre rive Time to laugh at his assassins
Le temps de courir vers la femme Time to run towards the one woman
Il avait eu le temps de vivre He'd had the time to live
«L’évadé», Boris Vian (1954) The Escapee, Boris Vian (1954)
Vian Boris, 2004: «L’évadé» in Textes et chansons, textes choisis, mis en forme et annotés
par Noël Arnaud, Paris, Christian Bourgois éditeur, pp. 133-134.
English translation: Aimée Orsini – independent translator, Nancy, France

José Martín Castro-Manzano
Diagrams and Analogy

[email protected]
In order to represent knowledge we use internal and external representations.

Internal representations convey mental images, for instance; while external
representations include physical objects on paper, blackboards, or computer screens.
In general, we can identify three external artifacts for knowledge representation:
texts (sentential representations), pictures (pictorial representations), and diagrams
(diagrammatic representations).
Diagrams are particularly interesting because they are between texts and pictures
in the field of artifacts for knowledge representation. They are (dis)similar from texts
and pictures with respect to features of representation and information: diagrams
are more or less arbitrary/homomorphic with respect to the facts they represent,
and more or less conventional/correspondent with respect to the information they
convey. These (dis)similarities suggest a mapping like the following, where texts and
pictures are extrema in the representation/information interval:
Artifact Text Diagram Picture

Representation More arbitrary More homomorphic
Information More convention More or less diagrammatic More correspondence
Analogy More equivocal More univocal
After taking into account some logical attributes of diagrammatic reasoning, and
with the previous mapping in mind, we suggest some logical attributes of analogical
reasoning: i) that analogical reasoning provides a heuristic; ii) that analogical
reasoning supports a variety of visual inferences; and iii) that it grants the possibility
of applying operational constraints by providing algorithmicity.
Finally, we give some examples of how the above attributes of diagrammatic
reasoning can be used to understand analogy in philosophy (hermeneutics), artificial
intelligence (machine learning), linguistics (pictographic Esperanto), electronics
(hardware design), software design (programming), mathematics (category theory),
logic (diagrammatic reasoning), problem-solving (mechanical reasoning), liberal arts
(music and labanotation), and board games (chess).

Bibliography
Allwein, G., Barwise, J., & Etchemendy, J., (1996), Logical Reasoning with Diagrams, OUP,
USA.
Beuchot, M., (2004) Hermenéutica, analogía y símbolo, Herder, México.
Blackwell, A., (1998), Metaphor in Diagrams, unpublished PhD Thesis, University of
Cambridge.
Ittelson, W.H. (1996), “Visual perception of markings”, Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,
3(2), 171-187.
Larkin, J.H. & Simon, H.A., (1987), “Why a diagram is (sometimes) worth ten thousand
words”, Cognitive Science, 11(1), 65-100.
Nakatsu, R., (2009), Diagrammatic Reasoning in AI, Wiley.
Shimojima, A., (1996), “Operational constraints in diagrammatic reasoning”, in Logical
Reasoning with Diagrams, Allwein, G., Barwise, J., & Etchemendy, J., (eds.), OUP, USA.
Shin, S., (1994), The Logical Status of Diagrams, Cambridge University Press.

Adolfo R. de Soto8, Rudolf Seising and Enric Trillas
Analogy and Reasoning

University of León, León, Spain
Friedrich Schiller University, Jena
European Centre for Soft Computing, Mieres (Asturias), Spain
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
In history of science we find various ways of reasoning from a source to a target:

among deduction, induction, and abduction there is also analogy, e.g.: If A is similar
to B and B has property C then A has property C. Aristotle said that “fish differs from
bird by analogy (for what is feather in the one is scale in the other).” (On the parts
of animals, 644) Since the ancient times and till this day various interpretations of
analogy appeared, as logical or probabilistic or psychological inference. In this paper
we will delineate the development of this way of ordinary reasoning.
Ordinary reasoning is seen as one of the manifestations of the natural brain
phenomenon of thinking. Namely, reasoning is seen as the natural way of conjecturing
and refuting, with conjectures classified in the three disjoint classes consisting in
consequences (giving raise to deduction), hypotheses (giving raising to abduction),
and speculations (giving raise to induction). At its turn, this last type of conjectures
is classified in deductive speculations and inductive, or creative, speculations. All this
is shown out of strong mathematical structures as they are, for instance, Boolean,
Orthomodular, or De Morgan, algebras; it is simply presented through a very simple
mathematical symbolism. Once representing, or defining, analogy by means of
inference preserving mappings, it will be shown that these mappings only can conduct
to either refutations, or consequences, or hypotheses, or deductive and creative
speculations, and depending on just the characteristic properties those mappings
can exhibit. In addition it will be proven that the conjunction of a speculation with
the premises is an hypothesis, and its disjunction is a consequence. To finish, some
comments on metaphors will be done. To summarize, this part conducts to point out
that analogy is not offering, in itself, a different type of reasoning than conjectures
and refutations, but a natural tool for conjecturing and refuting, that is, allowing
natural rational thinking or ordinary, not necessarily deductive, reasoning.
8 Author acknowledges the support of the Spanish Ministry for Economy and Innovation and
the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF/FEDER) under grant TIN2014-56633-C3-1-R.

Most ordinary reasoning predicates are graduate predicates, predicates in which
the degree of truth belongs to a continuous, not a discrete, scale. If you want to
build an acceptable model to reasoning with analogy it will be necessary to consider
such predicates. Basic Fuzzy Algebras (BFA) are a formal framework of reasoning that
considers graduate predicates as its basic elements. In this third part, it will be showed
as the classification of predicates in a BFA with respect to an initial framework of
knowledge: refutations, consequences, hypothesis, and speculations can be made in
this context of reasoning with graduate predicates. Modeling of reasoning by analogy
in this context will be studied and the results of Part 2 will be generalized.

Laurent Dubois
Analogies in Power Tests

University of Brussels, Belgium
[email protected]
What is a Power Test ?

This is an IQ test more difficult than a classical IQ test but without time limit to find
the solution of the items and not supervised. The first Power test has been created in
the years 70 by an American called Ron Hoeflin. He created the Mega test, the "test
of the million" intended to serve as an admission test to a society for IQ Above 176
in deviation 16, in other words, a very selective High IQ Society. Remember that the
minimum score required to be admitted to the Mensa society, the 1st high IQ society,
historically and quantitatively, with hundred thousands of members across the world,
is 132 in deviation 16. The mean IQ in the general population is 100.
The most commonly used IQ tests for admission in Mensa are the Cattell and the
Raven. In all cases, the tests used should be official. The Mega test is not an official
test. It has been published in the popular magazine Omni.
The principle of the Power Tests has been relayed in Europe by the Dutch tests
designer Paul Cooijmans. He created the "Test for genius" and a multitude of other
tests. A default of most Power Tests, and of the IQ tests in general, is their cultural
bias.
The 9I6 test, put online in 2000, is one of the least biased Power Tests and has
become a reference test in the underground so called High IQ community. Another
popular Power test created by Laurent Dubois is the Concep-T test. It contains a lot of
analogies.
Analogies are often used in Power Tests as they subsume subtle mechanisms in
short sequences.
Here is the principle of an analogy:
1 : 2 :: 3 : ?
What number must logically replace the question mark?
The answer is 4. The complete analogy is :
1 : 2 :: 3 : 4
it must be read as this :
4 is to 3 as 2 is to 1 or 4 is the successor of 3 as 2 is the successor of 1 or even 4 is
the closer even number to 3 greater than 3 as 2 is the closer even number to 1 greater
than 1.
There are numerical, spatial, verbal analogies. Here is an example of a verbal
analogy :

Nowhere : Now :: Never : ?
This talk will present and solve some kinds of analogies called Logico-Divergent
items like the following one:
Whole : Whole : … :: Hole : :: Hole : ?
It will be the opportunity to illustrate the concept (and neologism) of Logico-
Divergence: standard process that leads to non-standard conclusion(s). A bridge
between logics, linguistics and philosophy.
Reference: http://remuemeninges.chez.com/scalef.htm

David Ellerman
The Two Dual Fundamental Logics

The dualities/analogies between (Boolean) subset logic and partition logic
University of California, USA
[email protected]
Two logics of subsets and of partitions:
• Boolean logic correctly specified as the logic of subsets, with "propositional

logic" as a special case (i.e., subsets 1and ∅ of the one-element set);
• The notion of a "subset" has the category-theoretic dual of a "quotient set" or
equivalently, an "equivalence relation" or a "partition."
• Hence there should be (and there is) a dual logic of partitions that is built on a
whole set of analogies between subsets and partitions.
• The basic analogy is between an element u of a subset S ⊆ U of the universe
set U, and a distinction (or "dit" for short) of a partition π = {B, B', ...} on the
universe set U which is an ordered pair (u, u') of elements u, u' ∈ U in different
blocks of the partition π.
Table of analogies between subset logic and partition logic

Logical Entropy analogous-dual to Logical Probability
• Boole developed logical probability theory as normalized counting measure

on subsets.
• Follow the analogy to get logical information theory as the normalized
counting measure on partitions.
Results of elements-distinctions analogy
• The elements-distinction analogy hence gives

– the logic of partitions dual to Boolean subset logic;
– logical information theory dual to logical probability theory.
• Publications in journals:
– Ellerman, David. 2010. “The Logic of Partitions: Introduction to the Dual of
the Logic of Subsets.” Review of Symbolic Logic 3 (2 June): 287-350.
– Ellerman, David. 2014. “An Introduction of Partition Logic.” Logic Journal
of the IGPL 22 (1): 94-125.
– Ellerman, David. 2009. “Counting Distinctions: On the Conceptual
Foundations of Shannon’s Information Theory.” Synthese 168 (1 (May)):
119-49.
– Ellerman, David. 2013. “An Introduction to Logical Entropy and Its Relation
to Shannon Entropy.” International Journal of Semantic Computing 7 (2):
121-45.

Luis Estrada-González
An Analogical Argument at the Foundation

of Universal Logic
National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico
[email protected]
Jean-Yves Béziau has put forward a number of arguments for the following claim
(cf. [2-5]):
Axiomatic Emptiness: A logical structure can be defined without appealing to any
axioms
which is one of the central features of his version of Universal Logic. In this talk
I will focus only on one of those arguments, which is analogical:
(P1) A logical structure is similar to an algebraic structure.
(P2) An algebraic structure can be defined without appealing to any axioms.
(C) Therefore, a logical structure can be defined without appealing to any axioms.
It can be, and has been, contested whether the similarity between logical
structures and algebraic structures is strong enough to warrant even claims less
controversial than Axiomatic Emptiness (cf. [1], [7], [8]), and this undermines the
overall plausibility (cf. [9]) of the argument.
Béziau himself seems to strengthen his argument by the following methodological
principle:
Jump into Abstraction: If a more abstract notion of the x’s allows a more general,
unified theory about the x’s, then that more abstract notion should be adopted.
Thus, a more abstract notion of logical structure, sufficiently similar to that of
algebraic structure, will allow a more general and unified theory of logics, that is,
Universal Logic, just like a more abstract notion of algebraic structure allowed a more
general and unified theory of algebras, that is, Universal Algebra. The problem is that
if this is the defense of Jump into Abstraction for the case of logic, it rests again on an
analogical argument which depends on a still unwarranted analogy between logical
structures and algebraic structures.
I will argue that Axiomatic Emptiness could be defended on better grounds, either
by a direct argument or through an argument from Jump into Abstraction to the
principle
Subject-Matter Emptiness: A logical structure is just a mathematical structure, not
a model, nor a codification of a kind of reasoning.
This could serve to justify better (P1), or at least to block all the usual misgivings
about it. But in the presence of either the direct argument for Axiomatic Emptiness
or Subject-Matter Emptiness, no analogical argument invoking algebra is needed to

arrive at Axiomatic Emptiness, at least at the justificatory level (it might well play
other roles).
As I see it, this proposal is a return to the roots of Béziau’s Universal Logic (as in
[2], [3]), rather than continuing his more recent version in which reasoning plays a
central role (see [5], [6]).
Keywords: Universal Logic, Algebraic Analogy, Analogical Argument, Axiomatic

Emptiness
Bibliography:
[1] Beall, JC and G. Restall (2006): Logical Pluralism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
[2] Béziau, J.-Y. (1994): “Universal logic”, in T. Childers and O. Majer (Eds.), Logica ’94 –
Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium. Prague: Czech Academy of Sciences, pp. 73-
93.
[3] Béziau, J.-Y. (2005): “From consequence operator to universal logic: A survey of general
abstract logics”, in J.-Y. Béziau (Ed.), Logica Universalis. Towards a General Theory of Logic.
Germany: Birkhäuser Verlag, pp. 3-17.
[4] Béziau, J.-Y. (2006): “13 questions about Universal Logic”, Bulletin of the Section of Logic,
35(2-3): 133-150.
[5] Béziau, J.-Y. (2010a): “What is a logic? – Towards axiomatic emptiness”, Logical
Investigations 16: 272-279.
[6] Béziau, J.-Y. (2010b): “Logic is not logic”, Abstracta 6(1): 73-102.
[7] Dummett, M. (1998): “Truth from the constructive standpoint”, Theoria 64(2-3): 122-
138.
[8] Quine, W. V. (1970): Philosophy of Logic. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
[9] Woods, J., A. Irvine and D. Walton (2004): Argument: Critical Thinking, Logic and the
Fallacies, second edition, Toronto: Prentice-Hall.

Katarzyna Gan-Krzywoszyńska and Piotr Leśniewski
Analogies between People

[email protected]
[email protected]
On September 13th, 2006 the Gallimard Publishing House published a novel by

Jonathan Littell The Kindly Ones (Les Bienveillantes). While visiting Auschwitz, Max
Aue notes: So, I came to think: Wasn’t the camp itself, with all the rigidity of its
organization, its absurd violence, its meticulous hierarchy, just a metaphor, a reductio
ad absurdum of everyday life? [The Kindly Ones, London 2009, Vintage Books, page
622].
We know, at least from Hans-Georg Gadamer (and Robin George Collingwood),
that the logic of humanities is the logic of question. Is Littell's question well founded
then? It appears that the answer to this question may be affirmative. It is even more
so, if we assume – following the thesis on a dialogue society formulated by Józef
Tischner, a Polish philosopher and the first chaplain of the Solidarity trade union –
that the truth about social life is revealed before every thinking citizen. Consequently,
an adequate theory of social structures and their dynamics should be developed.
Therefore, the issue of appropriate models of other persons – in other words, ‘the
propensity to make analogies that link us with other people’ [see D. Hofstadter,
E. Sander, Surfaces and Essences, Basic Books, New York 2013, page 153] – seems
to be one of the very greatest importance both from the theoretical and practical
standpoint. But it was Edith Stein who contrasts “inferences by analogy” with
procedures of the so-called “analogizing”. She wrote in On the Problem of Empathy:
The interpretation of foreign living bodies as of my type helps make sense out of the
discussion of “analogizing” in comprehending another. Of course, this analogizing
has very little to do with “inferences by analogy” [ICS Publications, Washington 1989,
page 59]. Hence our aim is to develop the very foundations for the procedures of
“analogizing”. Following Reyes Mate, the author of the Treatise on Injustice (2011),
it is assumed that the reconstruction of the historical perspective of the aggrieved
and the embittered marks the beginning of a long-term process, whose aim is first
compensation and then reconciliation. It is assumed that to love someone is to desire
that person’s good and to take effective steps to secure it. Consequently, to hate
someone is to desire that person’s detriment and to take effective steps to achieve
it. Finally, to be indifferent (to someone) means neither to love (that person) nor to
hate (that person). Let us suppose that these three binary relations hold between
two different persons. A rational individual maximizes his or her self-interested

preferences. Yet love consists in wanting goods for someone else. Therefore, the one
who loves is a nonrational person. Here the term counterrational is used. Thus also a
hater turns out to be a nonrational person – namely an irrational one.
The following hexagon of oppositions is developed (Fig. 1):
Fig. 1.
The model of a compassionate individual – a model referred to here as Homo compassibilis
– results in the following hexagon (Fig. 2):
Fig. 2.
The question posed by Littell in Les Bienveillantes – following the guidelines by Theodor Adorno, Giorgio
Agamben, Zygmunt Bauman, and Tadeusz Borowski – should be then considered as a measure of the
issue of cultural responsibility and/or responsibility in culture.

Katarzyna Gan-Krzywoszyńska, Małgorzata Leśniewska
and Piotr Leśniewski
On Analogies in Zoology
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
The development of zoology is largely the history of different types of reasoning

referring to analogies discovered in nature. It is impossible to imagine zoology
without the systematizing function and recognizing the structural similarities and
differences between observed animals. Biological classifications of living organisms
are the standard examples of systematization in natural sciences.
In zoology analogy has a number of complex cognitive functions. There are fields
of zoology in which preliminary assumptions can be proved only by means of analogy.
It can be achieved by a comparative analysis of certain relationships between
phenomena belonging to research areas under investigations and the relationships
between the phenomena in other, better known research areas. For example, one
can draw conclusions about biology of animals in ancient geological epochs on the
basis of the knowledge of modern animals or make inferences about the course of a
developmental process in a given group of animals on the basis of the development
of a single model species, which has been thoroughly described. Experimental data
on some processes or phenomena in animals are frequently used to draw conclusions
about their applications in humans. Therefore, it is through analogy that one can
draw conclusions about the potential effects of drugs, various chemicals, mutagens,
teratogenic agents etc. Most of innovative operations are first carried out in animals
before they are performed on humans.
What is more important, some fields of zoology – such as comparative anatomy
and morphology or taxonomy – heavily rely on analogical reasoning. Evolutionary and
phylogenetic studies also rely on the comparison of the characteristics of different
organisms in search for similarities which provide evidence for affinities between
organisms.
Although analogical reasoning is so essential in zoology, the term ‘analogy’
has been associated with the pre-Darwinian concept of similarity between traits
of organisms. Two hundreds year ago É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire made attempts to
find similarities in all animals, which he described using the concept of ‘analogy’
that corresponds to the modern concept of ‘homology’. In more recent studies the
concept of analogy is generally ignored.

The concepts of analogy and homology are presented – their history, definitions
and examples of their application and importance for the research and investigations
carried out in zoology today.

Keywords: Analogy, Homology, Zoology, Natural Sciences

José David García Cruz
Analogy in a Temporal Sense:

The Analogical Time Proportions
[email protected]
In (Prade and Richard, 2009) a restricted study of analogy was developed through
the notion of analogical proportions, i.e. sequences of inferences of the form a is
to b as c is to d. They define three kinds of analogical proportions: analogy, reverse
analogy, and paralogy. In (Prade and Richard, 2013) and (Prade and Richard, 2014)
four kinds of analogy are defined: analogy, paralogy, reverse analogy and reverse
paralogy. In all of these works analogy are analyzed in a Boolean sense taking an
account of analogy in a logical terms.
Our hypothesis is that if we take the restricted notion of analogy in the sense
of the mentioned works, analogy could be seem as a modal operator. We proceed
as follows. First we define a modal propositional language with four basic modal
operators. In the second place we define a model based on a relational structure with
four types of relations defined as the four heterogeneous analogies. Our technique is
to interpret the analogical proportions as fourfold relations between temporal points.
In this sense, the formulas related by the analogical temporal operators are truth in
points that hold some analogical proportion.
One of the main results of this approach is that we could dualize the analogical
proportions and define a strong notions of analogy, paralogy, reverse analogy, and
reverse paralogy, respectively; that means that there could be not only four analogical
proportions but eight. Another result is given by the properties of the four analogical
proportions. We analyze it in terms of modal formulas and to conclude we present
the graphic interpretation of them based on the relations of temporal points.
Bibliography:
H. Prade, G. Richard. 2009. “Analogy, Paralogy and Reverse Analogy: Postulates and
Inferences”, in B. Mertsching, M. Hund, and Z. Aziz (Eds.): LNAI 5803. Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg. 306 - 314.
H. Prade, G. Richard, 2013. “From Analogical Proportion to Logical Proportions”, in Logica
Universalis 7, J.-Y. Beziau (Ed.). Springer Basel. 441_505.
H. Prade, G. Richard, 2014. “From Analogical Proportion to Logical Proportions: A Survey”,
in H. Prade and G. Richard (Eds.), Computational Approaches to Analogical 1 Reasoning: Current
Trends, Studies in Computational Intelligence 548. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. 217-240.

Ana Luisa García Gómez
«Seeing as»: Wittgenstein on Analogy and

Metaphor
[email protected]
In this paper, we discuss the relationship between analogy and metaphor in light
of Wittgenstein’s later philosophy. Wittgenstein bequeathed to us the methodological
concepts of “language-games”, “family resemblance” and “forms of life”. We will use
these concepts to explore the notions of analogy and metaphor and the relationship
between them. With help of Wittgenstein, we will clarify their meaning, as well as
the meaning of words and propositions that depend on their use in specific contexts.
We examine selected examples of the use of analogy and metaphor in poetry, a genre
where they are often found.
In Part II, Section XI of his Philosophical Investigations, Ludwig Wittgenstein
asserts that a proper grasp of the concept of perception can elucidate issues related to
understanding the meaning of words. The concept of “seeing as” plays an important
role in achieving this objective. “Seeing as” will help us establish the rules that govern
“language-games” and the meanings we give to the words which are used in them.
When the reader of a poem finds a metaphor, an analogy, or both, his perception is
altered; the meaning is not literal. “Seeing as” is the modification of meaning and
perception. It involves seeing something in a way other than expected: “seeing as”
involves the aspect of chance. That is, the experience of “seeing as” is an aspect of
perception. It is a new perception that allows for the interpretation, perception and
meaning of metaphor and analogy.
In “seeing continuously” there is no chance for perception. “Seeing continuously”
maintains the meaning of analogy and of metaphor as nonsense. “Seeing as” figurates
the word, the thing. It modifies our (personal) experience.
Finally, we conclude that the clarification of analogy and metaphor allows us
to appreciate the importance they have in poetic language and natural language.
Analogy and metaphor expand the semantic meaning of words, and modify our
perception, interpretation and experience of them.
Keywords: Analogy, Metaphor, “Seeing as”, Semantic Perception.

Bibliography
Black, M, (1962), Models and Metaphors, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY
Black, M. (1977), «More about metaphor»: Dialéctica 31.
Dascal, M. (1989), «On the roles of context and literal meaning in understanding», Cognitive
Science 13, pp. 163-186.
Fogelin, R. (1988), Figuratively Speaking, Yale University Press, New Haven.
Hausman, C. (1989), Metaphor and Art, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Hesse, M. (1966), Models and Analogies in Science, University of Notre Dame Press,
Quebec.
Krebs, V. (2010), Seeing Wittgenstein Anew, Cambridge Press, New York.
Lakoff, G. (1993), «How cognitive science changes philosophy», conference presented at
1993 Wittgenstein Symposium, Kirchberg am Wechsel, Austria.
Lakoff, G. y M. Turner (1989), More than Cool Reason: A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor,
University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Searle, J. (1979), «Metaphor», pp. 76-117.
Shibbles, W. A. (1971), Metaphor: An Annotated Bibliography and History, Whitewater,
Wisconsin.
Wittgenstein, L. (1974), Philosophical Investigations, Basil Blackwell, Oxford.
Wittgenstein, L. (1967), Zettel, Basil Blackwell, Oxford.
Wittgenstein, L. (1980), Remarks on the Philosophy of Psychology II, Basil Blackwell, Oxford.

Ricardo Gibu, Angel Xolocotzi
¿Analogy or Katalogy? Methodological

Requirements for Knowing the Person
[email protected]
[email protected]
From the distinction made by Theology between Nature and Person we can
understand human realization as starting from a dynamism with goes beyond potency
and act. This is about that potentiality to grow into being in virtue of an energeia
which comes from the divine reality that transforms the person raising up her to an
unprecedented state and disproportionate to her nature. The knowledge of this new
reality requires methodological criterion that allows the person, through a leap (as
Kierkegaard pointed out), be separated from a certain qualitative sphere to enter a
new one. This way, which we might call "katalogical", assumes that the truth of the
person is accessible in a movement which goes from top to bottom.
Despite the importance of the katalogical way to recognize the qualitative
difference and irreducibleness of different ontological orders, the one-sidedness of
this approach could prevent recognition of their possible relationships, marginalizing
them to the realm of the irrational and nonsense. To the extent that reality is a unit
and polar configured, it should be thought in such a way that its various areas be
integrated into the unit. Thus emerges as a methodological requirement to apply the
katalogical via alongside with the analogical way.
Bibliography
Massimo Serretti, (2008), L’uomo è persona. Roma.
Romano Guardini (1994), Unterscheidung des Christlichen. Gesammelte Studien. 1923-
1963, Bd. I, Mainz-Paderborn.

Carlos R. Gutiérrez Rueda
Truth, Verisimilitude, Refutation and Their Relation

with Analogy: Between the Theory of Argumentation
of Ch. Perelman and The Dialectics of Aristotle
Autonomous University of Tlaxcala, Mexico
[email protected]
The different theories of argumentation created along the twenty Century, have
as a fundament the idea of the human agreements can be resolved without arrived in
to the violence. In effect, Perelman (1989), Toulmin (2007) and Van Eemeren (2006)
pretend that their theorical-methodological proposals being a practical support for
the solution of the human conflicts. However, these models of argumentation are
not the first into the history that began from the same fundament. In fact, in the
born of the dialectic, and the rhetoric, and logic, in the fourth Century B.C., Plato and
Aristotle created one argumentative model with the same intention: the solution of
human conflicts. One common element in all this subjects is the analogy.
One of the processes who are present in any conception of the argumentation
is the refutation. The refutation is presented in all the theories of argumentation
because it consist in a rational attack to the arguments of somebody who proposes
to support his conclusion. And, the first in theorizing about this topic was Aristotle in
his Sophistic Elenchus. But Aristole does not began to think about the refutation from
nothing. He founded inspiration in the writings of his master, Plato. In this context,
we ask: are the theories of argumentation are complitly originals or they take up
theorical elements of Aristotle’s dialectics?
In this paper, we maintain that: the idea of refutation, in the news theories of
argumentation, is focused in new ways; and its conceptualization is original. Besides,
we try to set up a relation between refutation and analogy in Perelman theory.

Colin James III
Theorem Prover Meth8 Applies Four Valued Boolean

Logic for Modal Interpretation
Phi Logic, LLC, USA
A new modal theorem prover is named Mechanical theorem in 8-bits for Meth8.
A demonstration version is scaled down to process segments for two propositions
named (p, q) out of 13 (n, ... , z) and for two theorems named (A, B) out of 13 ( A, ... ,
M). It uses novel technology named sliding windows to parse input strings into logical
tokens for antecedent, conditional, and consequent. The tokens then index a lookup
table for the pre-loaded results.
Each literal of the 13 literals has 6 modified conditions. There are 4 conditionals,
which can be negated, as: & AND; + OR; > IMP; and = EQV. The combinations for an
expression of (antecedent * conditional * consequent) are: (13*6) * (4*2) * (13*6) or
46,208 atomic expressions. There are two literal segments and 10 models for 924,160
combinations of expressions. An expression requires 8 bits per row in each of 4 rows
of a proof table or 4-bytes per expression. Hence the expressions total 3,696,640
bytes or about 3.6 MB.
The lookup tables can be calculated, loaded, or in ROM. Computation speed is
limited in polynomial time by the complexity of the input expression submitted to the
parsing engine.
The direct application of Meth8 is for real time situation awareness. Current
devices use modal logic but some of their theorems and rules are provably false. To
correct this, the back end logical system implemented here in Meth8 is four valued
Boolean logic applied to modal interpretation as developed by Garry Goodwin (garry_
[email protected]) below.
The modal logic Ł4 is widely deemed implausible. These theorems show
problems. Béziau (2011) points out that defending (◊A & ◊B → ◊(A & B)) proved a
lifelong nightmare for Łukasiewicz. For example, consider: If possibly Wilkes Booth
killed Lincoln and possibly he never killed anyone, then it is possible Wilkes Booth
both killed Lincoln and never killed anyone. Font and Hájek (2002) find particularly
egregious (□A → (◊B → □B)), for example: Necessarily every coin has two sides implies
if possibly the next flip of the coin lands heads, then necessarily the coin lands heads.
Despite failings of Ł4 , its classical credentials are reason enough to persevere.
Our motivation is to find a subset of more plausible Ł4 theorems using additional
models. A theorem would be proved in all of our 10 models based on three options:
Option 1 for <Contradiction, False, True, Proof>; Option 2 for <False, Contingent,
Noncontingent, True>; and Option 3 for <Unevaluated, Improper, Proper, Evaluated>.
We believe the correct interpretation of many valued Boolean logic leads to

incompleteness. Thus some arguments which are never false also fail to be theorems.
A nuance of necessitation is that if A is any argument, then the following is not an
inference "where A is true implies □A".
Several K theorems are found false. Hence clearly normal modal logics are not a
subset of this variant. The variant seems to tolerate systems T and D. One S4 theorem
is found false: 42 (◊A & □B) → ◊(A & □B). Consider this. That possibly Obama was
born in Kenya and that necessarily Obama was not born in America, implies possibly
both: that Obama was born in Kenya; and that necessarily Obama was not born in
America.
© Copyright 2015 by Colin James III All rights reserved. ([email protected])

Yaroslav Kokhan
Analogy from the Viewpoint of Logic

Institute of Philosophy, Kyiv, Ukraine
[email protected]

Przemysław Krzywoszyński, Jerzy W. Ochmański
Basic Analogies in Latin American and European

Direct Democracy
Adam Mickiewicz University, Poland
[email protected]
[email protected]
The aim of the talk is to analyze some basic analogies between institutions of
direct democracy in Latin America and Europe. In accordance with contemporary
theories of democracy, elections constitute fundamental factor in the functioning of
the system, while referenda are regarded generally only as a complementary and
supporting element of representative government. However, the referendum, as the
most common institution of direct democracy, can express the people’s decisions,
opinions (means of consultation) and/or support, and also helps to distinguish and
characterize the main types of contemporary democratic systems.
In the first part of the talk, we will present several analogies between political
systems based on possible uses of referenda, as well as the problems connected
with voting in general. Alongside the problem of turnout and threshold within direct
democracy, we will place special emphasis on a formal analysis of questions and
answers concerning of referendum.
In the second part, we will briefly introduce the historical context of modern
democracy, especially the heritage of the French Revolution the independence
process in Latin America, and the mutual influences between the two. Subsequently,
we will analyse some examples of European and Latin American referenda, from late
the 1980s the present time, i.e.: in Poland (1987), France, Netherlands, Spain (2005),
Crimea, Scotland, Catalonia (2014), Argentina (1984), Chile (1988), Bolivia (2009) and
the Falklands (2013). Some analogies can be observed both in the applications and
results of these referenda, which were used to support new acts (e.g. constitution),
governments, independence movements or declarations of autonomy, protest against
the government or regime, and the rights of minorities; nonetheless, they also served
in some cases to underpin non-democratic systems.
Keywords: Direct Democracy, Referendum, Theory of Democracy, Representation

Vladimir Lobovikov
A Structural-functional Analogy between the Classical

Physics and a Non-classical Logic of Vector-implication
(A generalization of the logic-law of contraposition)
Ural Federal University, Yekaterinburg, Russia
[email protected]
In “New Paralipomena” Arthur Schopenhauer [2000] summoned to find a

fundamental analogy between logic and pure knowledge of nature a priori. That
summoning had been ignored and forgotten. In this paper I would like to take the
remark of Schopenhauer seriously and not as a metaphor but literally.
Let us try to generate verisimilar conclusions from the hypothesis that the analogy
between logic and a priori knowledge of nature does exist. If so then if the movement
in history of physics from taking into an account only scalar values to taking into
an account also vector ones is essential then it is verisimilar that the movement in
history of logic from taking into an account only scalar logic operations to taking
into an account also vector ones is essential as well. If this is accepted then one can
come to the verisimilar conclusion that it is possible to neutralize the paradoxes of
material implication by means of introducing such a vector-implication of which the
material implication is a scalar aspect (necessary but not sufficient one). However
if the notion of implication is significantly transformed then at least some of the
notions essentially connected with it are to be transformed respectively. For example,
it is relevant to add the vector aspect to the binary operation “correction” which is
mathematically dual to the material implication. Both binary operations (implication
and correction) are subjected to the logic-law of contraposition. However if the vector
complementing them is accepted the definition of the notion “law of contraposition
of binary operation” has to be adequately transformed (generalized) to be able to
cope with not only purely scalar cases but also with the vector ones.
In this paper I submit a generalized definition of the notion “law of contraposition
of binary operation”. This generalized definition of contraposition-law works
with vector operations as well as with the scalar ones. Applying the generalized-
contraposition-law-definition to the two-valued algebraic system of metaphysics as
formal axiology [Lobovikov, 2007] I have discovered that in this algebraic system there
is such a vector law of metaphysics of nature which is a formal-axiological analogue
of the well-known third law of Newton’s mechanics [1994]. The Newton’s law has
the vector aspect, and the formal-axiological analogue of it in the two-valued algebra
of metaphysics has the vector aspect too. There is a wonderful structural-functional

analogy between the formal-axiological analogue of the Newton’s third law in algebra
of metaphysics and the vector form of logic-law of contraposition of the “correction”
considered as a vector binary-operation in algebra of logic.
Bibliography
Lobovikov, Vladimir (2007). Mathematical Ethics, Metaphysics, and the Natural Law
(Algebra of Metaphysics as Algebra of Formal Axiology). Yekaterinburg: Institute of Philosophy
and Law of the Ural Branch of the Academy of Sciences, 408 p.
Newton, Isaac, Sir (1994). “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.” In: Mortimer
J. Adler (Ed.). Great Books of the Western World. V. 32: Newton. Huygens. Auckland; London;
Madrid; Manila; Paris; Rome; Seoul; Sydney; Tokyo; Toronto: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. P.
1-372.
Schopenhauer, Arthur (2000). Parerga and Paralipomena. Vol. 2: Short Philosophical
Essays. Translated and edited by E. F. J. Payne. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 720 p.

Sumesh Mullasery Kettil
“Derivation” as the Core of Analogy

University of Delhi, India
[email protected]
In one of the most mellifluous passages of a philosophical treatise, Descartes

waxes words on an analogy, the analogy of wax, to bring home a point on the
nature of the human mind. Against the received metaphysical or epistemological
interpretations of this poetical gem, this paper advances an interpretation, focusing
on non-referential aspects of concepts. It, then, attempts to chalk out, building on this
specific case, a general account of analogy, in terms of a computational process that
is, a non-referential, and stimulus-independent high-level process called derivation.
It starts by addressing the claim that analogy is the core of cognition, but in contrast
to a Hofstadterian claim argues that analogy is central to understanding cognition
because it shares some of the core cognitive computational principles with other
central systems. A main proposal of the paper is that a core of cognition involves
high-level computational process, which results in analogy. Arguments in this favor
are placed in a broader framework, which claims, though not argued for here, that
human cognitive system has at least three computational cores, one of them dealing
with high-level process of the kind assumed in analogy. Since all instances of human
thinking including everyday thinking, artistic insights, and scientific discoveries spring
from the same computational mechanism, examples from everyday language use
(linguistics), arts (paintings) and science (visual neuroscience) are used to bolster up
the arguments. The structure of the paper is as follows. Section 1, takes up a familiar
notion of analogy (a reconstruction of Descartes’s wax argument) and evaluates
the claim that it is the core of cognition (an analysis of Hofstadter’s hypothesis). An
alternative characterization is offered in Section 2, which argues that a non-referential,
stimulus-free computational process is at play in certain forms of higher cognition
and instances of analogy make it vividly clear. This process of derivation is contrasted,
in Section 3, with a low-level process, namely indication, and a middle level process,
namely representation. Section 4 brings out the importance of derivation in the
logical geography of induction, deduction, abduction and analogy. The final section
defends the arguments against certain objections to account of analogy offered here,
and briefly touches upon the issue of analogy in non-human animals to argue in the
negative, and lays out some possible lines of enquiry ahead.
Keywords: Indication, Representation, Derivation, Heuristics, Isomorphism,

Recursion, Merge, Animal Cognition, and Reasoning.

Ricardo Arturo Francisco Nicolás
Similarities and Differences within

the Square of Quaternality
[email protected]
Three squares are presented, though not of main interest, in the paper “The
Theory of Quaternality”. They are the propositional square, the quantificational
square and the square for modalities. Interestingly enough, they are sketched in
order to illustrate the structure of a deeper square called square of quaternality “of
which the classical squares of opposition are special cases”. All of them satisfy the
contradual, dual and negational rules. However, in spite of that the propositional
square do not present immediate problems, applied to the square of predicates the
rules are broken in virtue of the conjunction presented in the down edges. That is,
the original formula that has an operation of entailment do not have their dual in
the square. That can be proven since a tableaux for the sentential calculus by the
transpose rule.
Having said that, I will argue that this particular difference can give rise to a
comparison between those squares and for that they only can be said analogical
in some aspects. Moreover, adding a explicit quantifier and applying the rules of
quaternals, we can get an unusual square (disparatae) found in Buridan that do not
have the classical relations except the contradiction. The same is hold in the square
for modalities with a further operator though it preserves the rules of quaternals.
Bibliography
Gottschalk, W. H. “The Theory of Quaternality”. The Journal of Symbolic Logic 18:(3), 193-
196, 1953.
Campos J. M. “El octágono medieval de Oposición para oraciones con predicados
cuantificados”. Tópicos. 44, 177-205, 2013.

Paniel Reyes-Cárdenas
Mathematical Structuralism, Isomorphism and

Analogical thought
[email protected]
The concept of isomorphism is very general, and constantly appears in mathematical

thought. The world itself speaks about structures that have some relation of equality
and form. The concept of isomorphism is pretty relevant in mathematical practice,
but I believe that the concept comes to a unique prominence when it comes down
to the Philosophy of Mathematics: the Structuralist stance in mathematics aims to
show that what underlies the cohesion and applicability of the same structures all
across the branches of mathematics is due not to a miracle, but to the principle that
structures pervade mathematics “all the way down”. However, when philosophers
and mathematicians try to understand the morphism so presented complications
arise: are there structures that are prior to others? What kind of structures there are?
How structures relate to each other?
Analogical thought coming from philosophy presents us with important conceptual
tools to help us clarifying structuralist commitments. The purpose of this paper is to
show that the traditional concept of “analogy” (with roots in medieval philosophy)
is good enough to account to different kinds of structures and “morphisms” in
mathematics, and in such a way be an effective map that preserves sets, relations
and properties among elements and structures.
The proposal, thusly, presents the concept of analogy as a second order inter
pretation of relations between structures, and structures of structures (that can be,
oddly, consider further structures). Consequently, the concept of analogy appears
promising in the task of describe what actually happens when a structure seems to be
iterated or similar to structures of other branches of mathematics, giving us a further
philosophical and metaphysical explanation other than: “that’s simply the way it is…”
The structuralist can use, therefore, the concept of analogy to describe the universe
of structures that needs to be ordered and understood and, finally, interpreted.
Keywords: Analogy, Mathematical Structuralism, Isomorphism, Morphism, Mathe

matical Structure.

Robin Ann Rice
Analogy's Failure as a Methodology to Achieve

Divine Contemplation: Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz's
“First Dream”
[email protected]
Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz (1648-1695) was one of the most gifted New Spain
intellectual and literary giants, although she lived the greater part of her life as a
cloistered nun in Mexico City. She was self-taught but her literary works show that
her writings were influenced by profound and scholarly readings that followed
three philosophical lines of thought. The “official” New Spain intellectual trend was
Thomistic Scholasticism which is clearly seen in First Dream with a marked tendency
towards Aristotelianism. Humanistic Renaissance thought was represented in an
eclectic mix of Hermetic Philosophy and certain Neo-Platonic Hellenistic doctrines.
Because of her close friendships with other Colonial Mexican intellectuals such as
Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora, she also had knowledge of Cartesian Rationalism. First
Dream is Sor Juana’s most personal work which many call a philosophical, spiritual,
verse autobiography.
The Melancholy caused by absence or of thwarted efforts to reach the Divine
is a constant theme in Early Modern Art and Literature. For example, Panofsky’s
study of Dürer’s Melancholia 1, reveals the woeful striving of winged Melancholia
to glimpse and take in Saturn’s rays which are both the cause of sickness and the
cure for the genius’s “divine frenzy”. In First Dream, the poetic subject struggles to
overcome her intellectual and human limitations so as to gaze into the eyes of the
Supreme. In the first section of the 975 verse silva, the subject’s inner eye is detained
at the edge of the concave sub-lunar world and must devise a way to intellectually
pierce that ontological membrane so as to reach the convex spiritual sphere where
the unintelligible divine territory begins.
The first part of the poem is developed through a series of analogies between
the macrocosm and the microcosm. The attempt to override the material word and
use Aristotelian universals as a means to fathom the unfathomable is also another
example Sor Juana’s use of a methodology based on analogies. The endeavor to gaze
into the face of the First Cause cannot be achieved through analogies and the poem
ends with the failure of human analogic cognition.

Bibliography
Beuchot, M., Estudios de historia y de filosofía en el México Colonial, México: UNAM, 1991.
Beuchot, M., Sor Juana, una filosofía barroca, México: UAEM, 1999.
Beuchot, M., Tratado de hermenéutica analógica, México: UNAM, 1997.
Soriano, A., El Primero sueño de Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz. Bases tomistas, México: UNAM,
2000.

Arturo Romero Contreras
Analogy and Isomorphism: Philosophy, Mathematics

and Space
[email protected]
In this presentation I aim to show that the classic concept of “analogy” can be
interpreted in topological terms. The vagueness of how “alike” two objects are, can
be tackled by a consideration of their topological and group properties. That is, two
objects can be put in a relationship of mapping, and the likeness would depend on
which properties are preserved through the morphism, including their local and/
global character.
The concept of analogy, as it is well known, plays a key role in Aristotle and
scholastic philosophy. In the former, being is structured by relationships of genus and
species in a vertical tree-like structure. Analogy, however, allows a sort of horizontal
linking of beings. Originally, analogy meant so much as proportion, like in the case A is
to B as C is to D. Or, in its abbreviated form, as in the so-called golden-ratio: A is to B as
B is to AB. But there is in Plato and later in Aristotle´s Rhetoric and Prior Analytics an
“extension” from a pure quantitative to a qualitative use of analogy. Aristotle speaks
of two types of analogy: paradeigma and homoiotes, both capable of being used in
deductive arguments.
But we should not interpret analogy in a pure linguistic way. In Aristotle, categories
are necessarily both linguistic and ontological. In medieval thought it is clear that
some words are univocal and some are equivocal. But there is a third term, again,
between pure difference and identity: analogy. As in Aristotle, analogy allows to link
beings in a semi-proper manner. There will be different orders of analogy, types and
uses. But beside the more or less reasonable similarities, analogy resembles many
types what we could call a metaphor. Now metaphor lacks of scientific rigor. Not
because science cannot resort to analogies between realms, but because metaphors
cannot be evaluated. There are no objective degrees of likeness or at least criteria to
evaluate how adequate or inadequate a metaphor is.
It is in the Renaissance philosophy however, where analogy gains a radically
new significance, as it is linked to mathematical structures. Indeed, there was surely
an indiscriminate use of vague similarities between the farthest regions of being,
especially between the macro- and the micro-world, between cosmos and man,
where nature would show correspondences in all scales and places. But at the same
time, such resemblances were more and more expressed in terms of mathematics.
It was not only proportion or metaphor, but a more general term which emerged

progressively, namely, “form”. Analogy was not to be settled upon vague and
questionable resemblances—of qualitative nature—nor in pure quantitative terms—
as in the case of proportion.
Drawing our attention to renaissance painting, one can notice that at first glance,
perspective is nothing but an instrument to produce the effect of depth in a painting,
it is basically a trompe lóeil. But mathematically there is something different
happening. We are projecting, or mapping, our experience-world to a non-Euclidian
space, namely that of projective geometry. We should no speak of representation,
but of projection. Now, what is the relationship between our lived world—a mixture
between Euclidian and non-Euclidian world—and the picture? Can we speak of
analogy? Indeed, but in this very special sense of mapping. What is a mapping here?
It is a transformation of one figure into another—by rotation, stretching, or putting
into perspective—or of one space into another—via immersion or submersion.
We are knocking the doors of topology; for topology establishes—in a pure
qualitative manner—if two spaces are the same, i.e., if they are isomorphic (more
exactly homeomorphic), when one can be deformed continuously into the other. But
one can also produce many “mappings” of one space into another without conserving
all the properties. For example, when we project (stereographic projection) a sphere
(S2) onto the plane. In this case we assign every point of the sphere to a point on
the plane. We know that this procedure produces double points—if we project from
the north pole, both it and the south pole will be mapped with a single point—and a
line to infinity—the tangent line to the north pole, which is parallel to the plane and
for this reason does not appear on it. Now, we can establish not only if and which
properties of the topological space are preserved in one mapping, but we can also
determine if homeomorphisms are local or global.
We have spoken of topology but also about group theory. In both cases we can
interpret the classic concept of “analogy” anew departing from the concept of map.
The “quality” of an analogy could be evaluated by analyzing which structural properties
are preserved in a mapping. We should remember that a mapping is nothing but a
function that sends elements of one set (domain) to another set (codomain). Assumed
the key concept of “map”, analogies are nothing but transformations between spaces,
where not all properties are conserved.
One could advance the thesis that “univocity” means the possibility of a smooth
map-preserving transformation. One could add that univocity does not mean a single
figure anymore, but a group of possible transformations. “Plurivocity” would mean
the break of the function, a non-smooth transformation, like a singularity (double
points, function bifurcations, etc.). Analogy would be the in-between, i.e., partial
homeomorphisms and mappings that do not preserve all structural information of
one space when mapped into another.

Bibliography
Aristotle, Ars Rhetorica, translated by W. D. Ross, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1959.
Aristotle, Prior Analytics, translated by Robin Smith, Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing
Company, 1989.
Luciano Boi, Dominique Flament and Jean-Michel Salanskis, 1830-1930: A century of
Geometry. Berlin and Heidelberg: Springer, 1992.
Luciano Boi, “La géometrie : clef du reel? Pensée de léspace et philosophie des
mathématiques” Philosophiques, vol 24, nr 2, 1997, pp 389-430.
Luciano Boi, Morphologie de línvisble. Transformations dóbjets, forms de léspace,
singularités phénoménales et pensé diagramatique (topologie, physique, biologie, sémiotique).
Limoges: Presses Universitaires de Limoges, 2011.
Samuel Y. Edgerton Jr., The Renaissance Rediscovery of Linear Perspective, Icon Editions,
2008.
Marc Lachièze-Rey, Léspace physique entre mathématiques et philosophie, Paris: EDP
Sciences, 2006.
René Taton, L'oeuvre mathématique de Desargues. Textes publiés et commentés, avec une
introduction biographique et historique, Paris: PUF, 1951.

Irina Vulcan
A Favorite Analogy: The Microcosm

Paris-Sorbonne University, France
[email protected]
As pre-scientifical cognitive tool, the analogy is very important during the Middle
Ages and the Renaissance. Although it underlies the metaphor in rhetorics, the
analogy as similitudo comes under dialectics, in its theorization of the Renaissance
(by Rudolf Agricola or Ramus). This « locus » of dialectical invention allows to build
up semantical nets with surprizing extension according to the historical moment. This
contribution proposes to study this major theme in its historical changes from the
Middle Ages to the Renaissance in the erudite literature, like the Roman de la Rose or
Placides et Timeo, first doxographical dialogue in vernacular language, then in various
dialogues of the XVIth century (for example, Pontus de Tyard for the Pléiade or Pierre
Viret for the Reformation, among others ; the last author using in his Dialogues of the
desorder (1545) the mirror of animals for the socratical quest of the self). At least,
it shows how this instrument for cognition and for discursive cornucopia binds man
with cosmos in various beautiful proportions.

5. “Cosmic Fusion” Catherine Chantilly’s Paintings Exhibition
Catherine Chantilly
The Self-Portrait
Catherine Chantilly is a French artist. She lives between Rio de Janeiro, Brazil and
Vichy, France, but she is presently in California for 2015 with her fiancé, a researcher
in logic. They travel around the world, with her making exhibitions during their
journeys in Brazil, Chile, Portugal, France, Poland, Canada, Turkey, and Mexico.
She graduated in fine Art from Ecole des Beaux-Arts de Bourges in France. She
also has a master of civilization and literature from the University of Nice. She has
organized multidisciplinary workshops on art and creation, in castles in Auvergne, with
artists, philosophers, choreographers, writers and musicians.
Catherine Chantilly's paintings are inspired by love. For her – colour – is light, and
light is love. She likes to discover new places and feel the atmosphere. Brazil was one

of the most inspiring country for her paintings: she returned to painting after a period
of doing installations and video performances. She also was an editor in an another
life, but coming back to painting is her connection to innocence linked to the heart
of childhood. And this happened in Brazil. She prefers painting in large formats to
feel the space of the colours. She also paints on walls: the walls of the city of Rio de
Janeiro, the walls of private houses and hotels, and on the walls of castles in France
in Auvergne, its original birthplace. For her, art is a spiritual path. She uses colour to
reach love, which is a vibration, and tries to capture the essence of love and bring it
to painting with colours and symbolic forms.
Katarzyna Gan-Krzywoszyńska & Piotr Leśniewski
Clarity, or the Art of Reconciliation.

On Catherine Chantilly's Painting
Adam Mickiewicz University, Poland
[email protected]
[email protected]
Alle religiöse Rituale auf Kinderspiele zurückzuführen sind.*
There is a very old account to the problem of beauty - according to Aquinas beauty
includes three conditions, namely (1) integrity (perfection) [Latin integritas sive
perfectio], (2) proportion (harmony) [proportio sive consonantia], and (3) brightness
(clarity) [claritas]. [See Summa Theologiae I, q. 39, a. 8.] It seems to us that the very
last word is a perfect, although only one of the possible keywords, crucial for the
interpretation and the understanding of Catherine Chantilly's painting. It should be
added that this article of Summa Theologica is a part of inquiries in relations between
three divine persons.
* The motto of our sketch, which states that all religious rituals are attributable to
children’s games is the reverse of Giorgio Agamben's view, expressed in an interview given by
him to René Aguigah and Jutta Person. It was published in the Literaturen journal on 28 October
2009 and titled Der Papst ist ein weltlicher Priester.

However, at this point let us consider some of the relations that occur just between
people. Let us imagine three situations – three models of encounters. The first type
of a situation is encountered when two people meet and each of them responds with
equal kindness to the kindness of the other. The reaction to hostility expressed by one
person is the other person's hostility. In the other two situations – encounter models
– this adequacy of reactions is absent. The first of the models involves enslavement. In
this case one of the individuals, the enslaved person [subjugated] [let this person be
called enslaved, subjugated], fails to pursue one's own goals – that person's decisions
are consistent with the other person's preferences. What is more, that person reacts
[responds] with kindness even to hostility expressed by the other person. It should
be noted that one can be enslaved of one's own will. In the third situation – call it
exasperation – one of the persons, the exasperated person, intends to cause harm [do
something wrong, evil] to the other person. In this case the first person reacts with
hostility even to kindness expressed by the other.
If one agrees that the adequacy between responses [reactions] to kindness
and hostility typical of the first situation is the most desired element of human
relationships, then the main question – and a practical problem – related to these
two encounter models is to find a way out of enslavement or exasperation. For the
enslaved or exasperated person this is also the first step to regain freedom.
It appears that an accurate (or may be just metaphorical) term that reflects the
essence of the first condition for regaining lost freedom is the very word clarity. First
you have to see, recognize your position. To see you need the light, which brings
you clarity. This clarity also makes reconciliation possible, as living in agreement
[harmonious life] is what constitutes our ultimate goal according to the famous work
titled Epitome of Stoic Ethics by Arius Didymus. By reconciliation we mean not only
an act of being reconciling or the state of being reconciling, but also the process
of making consistent or compatible. Such an act, or state, may occur between two
persons. It is worth noting that the reconciliation process can take place not only
between two different persons – we are talking also about reconciliation with oneself.
Catherine Chantilly follows the paths of reconciliation – her paintings are the
records of the discovered gates and passages, which she wishes to share and open for
us.
Stanisław Witkiewicz, in the last paragraph of his letter from Lovran to his son,
Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz, dated 21 January 1905, wrote, intera alia: “My dear!
Kisses – be healthy, clear, and good.” Clarity in Catherine Chantilly's paintings is
always, almost naturally, intertwined with goodness.
In the Introduction to Tales of the Hassidim Martin Buber wrote: The core of
hasidic teachings is the concept of a life of fervor, of exalted joy. Well, you will see –
Catherine Chantilly is a truly fervent human being.

Notes

Notes

Notes

Notes

Notes

Notes

Notes

Notes

Notes

Notes

Notes

Notes

Publishing House Kontekst
www.wkn.com.pl
ISBN 978-83-65275-01-1
Katarzyna Gan-Krzywoszyńska is Assistant
Professor at the Department of Logic
and Methodology of Science (Adam
Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Poland).
Her current research fields are post-
dialogical philosophy, methodology of the
humanities and Latin-American philosophy.
She is the author of one book and over
20 publications on the history of logic,
epistemology and philosophy of dialogue.
Małgorzata Leśniewska is Assistant

Professor at the Department of General
Zoology (Adam Mickiewicz University,
Poznań, Poland). Her main research work is
myriapodology. She is the author of three
books and over 50 publications on Chilopoda
communities, morphological anomalies and
their vital role in studies on evolutionary
developmental biology (evo-devo).
Przemysław Krzywoszyński is Assistant

Professor at the Faculty of Law and
Administration (Adam Mickiewicz University,
Poznań, Poland) and he is also currently
finishing his PhD thesis in musicology. He
is the author of 40 publications concerning
the theory of democracy and the history
of political ideas and 15 on musical analysis
and the historical context of French and
Italian 18th- and 19th-century operas.
Piotr Leśniewski is Assistant Professor at

the Department of Logic and Methodology
of Science (Adam Mickiewicz University,
Poznań, Poland). His main research work
is post-dialogical philosophy, erotetic logic
and its applications in the humanities.
He is the author of three books and
over 30 publications on the generalized
reducibility of questions, non-rationalities
and reconciliation theory.

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1st WORLD CONGRESS ON ANALOGY

Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Mexico

Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, Mexico

Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, Mexico

1. Invitation to the First World Congress on Analogy .......................................... 5

2. Organizing Committee ..................................................................................... 9

3. Plenary Lectures ............................................................................................... 11

4. Abstracts of Contributors ................................................................................. 19

Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, Mexico — November 4-6, 2015 3

5. “Cosmic Fusion” Catherine Chantilly’s paintings Exhibition ........................... 66

4 Handbook of the First World Congress on Analogy

We cry when we do not understand.

We know so many things that we do not understand!

Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, Mexico — November 4-6, 2015 5

But it should be emphasized that Edith Stein contrasts “inferences by analogy”

Analogy avoids generalization but remains universal. It helps retain differences

4 (Ortega y Gasset 1914:28).

6 Handbook of the First World Congress on Analogy

Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, Mexico — November 4-6, 2015 7

8 Handbook of the First World Congress on Analogy

Przemysław KRZYWOSZYŃSKI (Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Poland)

Students of Meritorious Autonomous University of Puebla:

Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, Mexico — November 4-6, 2015 9

10 Handbook of the First World Congress on Analogy

Analysis of the Analogical Discourse

This paper tries to establish the semantics of analogy, which is an intermediate

Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, Mexico — November 4-6, 2015 11

The Logical Hexagon of Analogy: Structuring the

In this lecture we try to understand what analogy is by relating it to other concepts

12 Handbook of the First World Congress on Analogy

Keywords: Analogy, Similarity, Difference, Identity, Square of Opposition

Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, Mexico — November 4-6, 2015 13

Edith Stein and Thomas Aquinas on Analogy

...daß alles Endliche

14 Handbook of the First World Congress on Analogy

Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, Mexico — November 4-6, 2015 15

16 Handbook of the First World Congress on Analogy

nicht nur Herr des Seins, sondern auch des Sinnes,

“not only Lord of being but also Lord of meaning”.

Qué bien sé yo la fonte Oh, I know Source,

Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, Mexico — November 4-6, 2015 17

On Analogical Concepts (Transcendentalia)

The adjective “transcendental” has two different meanings. In Kant’s philosophy,

18 Handbook of the First World Congress on Analogy

Analogous Surprises in the Development

Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, Mexico — November 4-6, 2015 19

20 Handbook of the First World Congress on Analogy

Travelling as Loving? A Critique of María Lugones

María Lugones’ “Playfulness, ‘world’-traveling, and loving perception” offers

Keywords: Oppression Theory, Solidarity, Spatial Analogy, Otherness

Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, Mexico — November 4-6, 2015 21

Analogy and Quantification

Analogy involves some relationships (similarity and difference) and degrees

All similarity or no similarity

All similarity No similarity

Some similarity Some dissimilarity

Some similarity and Some dissimilarity

22 Handbook of the First World Congress on Analogy

Keywords: Analogy, Quantification, Univocal, Equivocal, Analogous