Buku Manual Pelatihan - Res

Training Manual
for Applied Agroforestry Practices

2013 Edition
The Center for Agroforestry

University of Missouri
A Global Center for Agroforestry, Entrepreneurship and the Environment
Training Manual for Applied Agroforestry Practices – 2013 Edition
Produced by the University of Missouri

Center for Agroforestry
203 ABNR
Columbia, Mo 65211
www.centerforagroforestry.org
email: [email protected]
Funding for this work is via the United States Department of Agriculture North Central SARE with
Agreement Number H003044602 and NCR-SARE Project Number ENC12-129.
Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of
the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the view of the USDA.
The Center for Agroforestry

University of Missouri
A Global Center for Agroforestry, Entrepreneurship and the Environment
2 Training Manual for Applied Agroforestry Practices – 2013 Edition

Acknowledgements
This publication is the result of the collaborative efforts of several individuals and organizations.
The University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry acknowledges the USDA National Agroforestry Center and
the Mid-America Agroforestry Working Group, for contributions to the text of this manual.
Portions of this material are also credited to the “Forest Landowner’s Guide to Evaluating and Choosing
a Natural Resource-Based Enterprise,” published by the Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering
Service (NRAES) Cooperative Extension program, Ithaca, New York. NRAES is an interdisciplinary, issue-
oriented program sponsored by cooperative extension of fourteen member land grant universities and is
housed at Cornell University. For more information, visit www.nraes.org.
View this manual online at: www.centerforagroforestry.org

Printed: July 2013
Michael Gold, Mihaela Cernusca & Michelle Hall, Eds.
University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry 3

Training Manual for Applied Agroforestry
Practices: Table of Contents
User’s Guide to the Training Manual Appendices:
Chapter 1: Defining Agroforestry Section 1:

Mike Gold & Andy Mason • Economic Budgeting Guide
• Funding Incentives for Agroforestry
Chapter 2: Planning for Agroforestry • Tax Incentives for Agroforestry
Mike Gold & Mihaela Cernusca
Section 2:
Chapter 3: Alley Cropping Trees and Shrubs
Dusty Walter, Shibu Jose & Diomy Zamora
Section 3:
Chapter 4: Silvopasture Grasses and Forages
Dusty Walter
Section 4:
Chapter 5: Riparian & Upland Forest Buffers The Basics of Selling Timber
Dick Schultz, Tom Isenhart & Leigh Ann Long
Section 5:
Chapter 6: Windbreaks Planning for Agroforestry Workbook
Bruce Wight & Richard Straight
Section 6:
Chapter 7: Forest Farming Plant Resource Guide
John Munsell, Jeanine Davis &
Jim Chamberlain
Chapter 8: Agroforestry and Wildlife

Rebecca Christoffel
Chapter 9: Marketing Principles

Mihaela Cernusca, Mike Gold & Larry Godsey
Chapter 10: Economic Considerations for

Agroforestry
Larry Godsey

Chapter Authors’ Affiliations
Mike Gold, University of Missouri Bruce Wight, USDA National Resources

Conservation Service (Retired/Consultant)
Andy Mason, USDA National Agroforestry
Center Richard Straight, USDA National
Agroforestry Center
Mihaela Cernusca, University of Missouri
John Munsell, Virginia Tech
Dusty Walter, University of Missouri
Jeanine Davis, North Carolina State
Shibu Jose, University of Missouri University
Diomy Zamora, University of Minnesota Jim Chamberlain, USDA National
Dick Schultz, Iowa State University Agroforestry Center
Tom Isenhart, Iowa State University Rebecca Christoffel, Iowa State University
Leigh Ann Long, Iowa State University Larry Godsey, Missouri Valley College

User’s Guide to the Training Manual
F armers and other landowners drawing

sustenance from the land strive continually
to produce goods through methods that are
About this Manual
This training manual is designed to provide
easy-to-use information about agroforestry.
economical, conservation-minded and socially The intended audience includes forest and
acceptable. agricultural landowners, resource profession-
als and other educators; yet, anyone interested
in establishing or managing trees for mul-
tiple functions on the landscape can use the
agroforestry guidelines to assist in achieving
success.
This updated edition of the training manual

is not intended to function as the comprehen-
sive source of information on agroforestry.
Agroforestry is both an art and a science.
Therefore, do not use this training manual
as your only resource of information on
agroforestry practices. Rather, it is designed to
be used as a tool to assist in the decision-mak-
ing process. There are countless ways for trees
to meet conservation, economic and societal
goals, and we are learning more and more each
day about effective designs that better ensure
agroforestry will meet one or more specific
Agroforestry practices are unique and through goals.
their proper application each objective of
economy, conservation of resources and social How this Manual
acceptance can be met. Agroforestry practices
are designed to fit specific niches within the is Organized
farm to meet specific landowner objectives. This manual is divided into specific chapters
When properly designed, agroforestry practic- explaining agroforestry practices and manage-
es can achieve a balance between diverse, and ment. Chapter 2 is intended to assist you in
often seemingly opposed, objectives. implementing your knowledge of agroforestry
into your operation in a step-by-step process.
This manual will help explain each of the The appendices contain information about
agroforestry practices and their application. the economics and taxation involved with
Additionally, the manual is designed to assist in agroforestry, as well as crop sheets for select-
the decision process so that, when established ing the appropriate trees, shrubs, grasses, forbs
or managed, the agroforestry practice is most and crops for your agroforestry practice. You
effective at achieving the desired objectives. may pull out chapters and appendices and use
them independently as needed.

Let’s Begin
From specific land management practices
designed to conserve limited resources to the
marketing of specialty, non-commodity prod-
ucts, the ideas in this manual can improve the
likelihood of your success. We hope it is both a
useful tool and a source of inspiration for addi-
tional management practices that utilize trees
or shrubs on the farm for multiple benefits.
Land management practices that integrate

trees and shrubs with agriculture can provide
benefits to the farm and the surrounding land-
scape. We hope that the ideas and practices
put forth in this manual inspire and assist in
making decisions related to managing land re-
sources that involve trees and shrubs. It is our
desire to help farm managers and land owners
achieve long-term satisfaction from working
harmoniously with the soil, water, air, forests
and wildlife resources of this Earth.
Gene Garrett, left,

former director
of the Center for
Agroforestry, and
Michael Gold, right,
associate director,
speak about the
opportunities
agroforestry pro-
vides at the First
World Congress of
Agroforestry,
Orlando, Fla.

About the University of Missouri
Center for Agroforestry (UMCA)
Agroforestry practices help landowners di- UMCA Mission:
versify products, markets and farm income; To initiate, coordinate and enhance
improve soil and water quality; and reduce agroforestry activities to meet the environ-
erosion, non-point source pollution and mental, social and economic needs of land
flood damage. The integrated practices of management within the state of Missouri,
agroforestry enhance land and aquatic habitats North America and the temperate zone world-
for fish and wildlife and improve biodiversity wide.
while sustaining land resources for generations
to come. To accomplish our mission, UMCA:
• Conducts, coordinates and promotes inter-
UMCA is one of the world’s leading cen- active research on agroforestry practices
ters contributing to the science underlying to improve the productive and protective
agroforestry. Since 1998, UMCA, established in functions of agricultural and forest lands.
1998, has been supported by significant collab- • Conducts, coordinates and promotes
orative funding from the USDA-ARS. Interdis- interdisciplinary research on the social,
ciplinary research conducted by faculty, re- economic and market dimensions of
search specialists, graduate and undergraduate agroforestry.
students, provides sound science that uncovers
• Conducts an active outreach program that
new environmental and economic benefits
increases the awareness and adoption of
from agroforestry practices and solves produc-
agroforestry practices.
tion challenges.
• Conducts, coordinates and promotes inter-
Linked to the Center’s solid science and re- disciplinary research on the policy dimen-
search programs are several key partnerships sions of agroforestry.
with landowners, natural resource profession- • Provides opportunities for formal educa-
als, federal and state agencies and non-profit tion via a series of online courses. Both a
organizations. Through these critical partner- graduate certificate and/or master’s de-
ships, UMCA and its partners are producing an gree in agroforestry are available through
expanding list of positive outcomes for land- MizzouOnline at the University of Missouri.
owners, the natural environment and society as • Develops and carries out a collaborative
a whole. international agroforestry program in the
areas of instruction, research and out-
UMCA Philosophy: reach.
“A farm can be regarded as a food factory and
the criterion for its success is saleable products.
Or, it can be regarded as a place to live, and the
criterion for its success is harmonious balance
between plants, animals and people; between
the domestic and the wild; and between utility
and beauty.” – Aldo Leopold

Chapter 1: Defining Agroforestry
Agroforestry: Agroforestry Key Criteria
Definition and Practices Four key criteria characterize agroforestry
practices. Application of the 4 “I” criteria are
key to determine what is and what is not an
What is agroforestry?
agroforestry practice:
Agroforestry is new market opportunities. Sus-

tainable “climate-smart” agriculture. Land stew-
ardship. Habitat for wildlife. Improved air and Intentional
water quality. Diversified farm income. Increased Combinations of trees, crops, and/or livestock
wealth for rural communities. are intentionally designed, established, and/or
managed to work together and yield multiple
In simple terms, agroforestry is intensive land- products and benefits, rather than as individual
use management combining trees and/or elements which may occur together but are
shrubs with crops and/or livestock. managed separately. Agroforestry is neither
monoculture farming, nor is it a mixture of
Agroforestry practices are designed to fit monocultures.
specific niches within the farm to meet specific
landowner objectives. Intensive
Agroforestry practices are created and inten-
Agroforestry practices help landowners to sively managed to maintain their productive
diversify products, markets, and farm income; and protective functions, and often involve
improve soil and water quality; and reduce cultural operations such as cultivation, fertil-
erosion, non-point source pollution and dam- ization, irrigation, pruning and thinning.
age due to flooding. The integrated practices
of agroforestry enhance land and aquatic
habitats for fish and wildlife and improve bio- Integrated
diversity while sustaining land resources for Components are structurally and functionally
generations to come. In a changing climate, combined into a single, integrated manage-
agroforestry practices can be designed and ment unit tailored to meet the objectives of the
strategically located to provide greater resil- landowner. Integration may be horizontal or
iency in agricultural landscapes so landowners vertical, above- or below-ground, simultane-
can meet production objectives when faced
with extreme weather (e.g., drought, floods).
Tree-based practices sequester significant
amounts of carbon that can help meet future
potential greenhouse gas reduction goals.
Definition of Temperate Agroforestry (USA):

Intensive land-use management that optimizes
the benefits (physical, biological, ecological,
economic, social) from biophysical interactions
created when trees and/or shrubs are deliber-
ately combined with crops and/or livestock.
Working with UMCA staff and natural resources profes-
sionals helps landowners plan and implement agroforestry
practices.

ous or sequential. Integration of multiple crops 1. Riparian and Upland Forest Buffers
utilizes more of the productive capacity of the Riparian forest buffers are strips of perma-
land and helps to balance economic production nent vegetation, consisting of trees, shrubs,
with resource conservation. and grasses, planted or managed between
agricultural land (usually cropland or pas-
Interactive tureland) and water bodies (rivers, streams,
Agroforestry actively manipulates and utilizes creeks, lakes, wetlands) to reduce runoff and
the interactions among components to yield non-point source pollution. Forest buffers are
multiple harvestable products, while concur- usually planted in three distinct zones near an
rently providing numerous conservation and agricultural stream for stabilizing streambanks,
ecological benefits. improving aquatic and terrestrial habitats, and
providing harvestable products. Upland buffers
with cool- or warm-season grass alone or com-
bined with shrubs and/or trees are also used to
reduce nonpoint-source pollution and prevent
gully formation in agricultural watersheds.

2. Windbreaks
Windbreak practices (shelterbelts, timberbelts,
hedgerows, and living snowfences) are planted
and managed as part of a crop or livestock
operation to enhance crop production, protect
crops and livestock, manage snow distribution,
and/or control soil erosion.
Field windbreaks are used to protect a vari-

Specialty mushrooms can be grown on logs in a forest ety of wind-sensitive row crops, forage, tree,
farming practice for additional income, as explained
by Nicola MacPherson of Ozark Forest Mushrooms at and vine crops to control soil erosion, and to
this field day. provide other benefits such as improved insect
pollination of crops and enhanced wildlife
habitat.
The five recognized agroforestry
practices Livestock windbreaks help reduce animal
• Riparian and Upland Forest Buffers stress and mortality, improve feed and water
• Windbreaks consumption, enhance weight gain and calving
• Alley Cropping success rates, and control odor. Timberbelts
• Silvopasture are managed windbreaks designed to increase
• Forest Farming the value of the forestry component.
Forest Farming Silvopasture Alley Cropping Riparian Forest Buffers Windbreaks

Crops or forages grown in the alleys, and nuts
Definition and Practices
from walnut, pecan and chestnut trees, pro-
Is it agroforestry?
vide annual income from the land while the
Application of the 4 “I”’s
longer-term wood crop matures. Specialty
crops (herbs, fruits, vegetables, nursery stock,
The four key criteria revisited flowers, etc.) can be grown in alleys, utilizing
Application of the 4 “I” criteria are key to deter- the microclimate created by trees, to boost
mine what is and what is not an AF practice: economic production from each acre.
• Intentional
• Intensive 4. Silvopasture
• Integrated This practice combines trees with forage (pas-
• Interactive ture or hay) and livestock production.
Silvopasture can be established by adding trees

Characteristics of Agroforestry Practices to existing pasture, or by thinning an existing
forest stand and adding (or improving) a forage
Land-use practices deliberately integrated
component. Trees are managed for high-value
into the whole farm
timber or sawlogs, and at the same time they
provide shelter for livestock, reduce heat stress
Contain complex interactions among compo-
and improve food and water consumption.
nents suited to particular environments and
In the winter, the protection of trees reduces
human needs
cold stress — therefore, animals do not lose
as much energy keeping warm and are able to
Competition and its management is critical
gain more weight.
Has two or more outputs
Forage and livestock provide short-term
income at the same time a crop of high-value
The “cycle” of an agroforestry practice is always
sawlogs is being grown, providing a greater
more than one year
overall economic return from the land.
Even the simplest agroforestry practice is more
complex, ecologically (in terms of structure and 5. Forest Farming
function) and economically than monocropping In forest farming practices, high-value specialty
crops are cultivated under the protection of a
For the landowner, often judged successful or forest overstory that has been modified and
not by the bottom line “does it pay?” managed for sustained timber production and
to provide the appropriate microclimate condi-
tions.
3. Alley Cropping
Shade-tolerant specialty crops like ginseng,
This practice combines trees planted in single
shiitake mushrooms, and decorative ferns
or multiple rows with agricultural or horti-
grown in the understory are sold for medici-
cultural crops cultivated in the wide alleys
nal/botanical, decorative/handicraft, or food
between the tree rows. High-value hardwoods
products. Overstory trees are managed to pro-
such as oak, walnut, ash, and pecan are favored
duce timber and veneer logs.
species in alley cropping practices, and can po-
tentially provide high-value lumber or veneer
A key concern in developing agroforestry
logs in the long-term.
nomenclature for the U.S. is overlap and confu-
sion with mainstream land use management

disciplines, e.g., forestry, agriculture, and • Advancing agroforestry literacy through:
livestock production. There is a fundamental o Regional/state agroforestry
need to develop a definition and criteria that academies
would effectively distinguish practices that are o Agroforestry majors/certificates
agroforestry from those that are not. Applica- offered by universities
tion of the four criteria defining agroforestry (e.g., online Master’s Degree and
(intentional, intensive, integrative, and interac- Graduate Certificate in Agroforestry
tive) provide the key to determine what is and offered by the University of Missouri).
is not an agroforestry practice. o Certification of agroforestry
professionals (e.g., joint national
Perspectives on U.S. “certified agroforester” program
sponsored by professional forestry/
agroforestry and landowner natural resource/agricultural
adoption societies).
Although there is currently no national da-
tabase or inventory, landowner adoption Partnerships:
and application of agroforestry practices is • Bringing people together to increase
believed to be very low. A significant expan- awareness and understanding of
sion of agroforestry in the U.S. will require an agroforestry, landowner objectives, com-
increased focus on the four “P”s of adoption: munity, and watershed goals.
• Peer-to-peer learning • Multi-state/regional partnerships may
• Professionals be most effective. Examples include the
• Partnerships 1890 Agroforestry Consortium (1890 AFC),
• Programs Chesapeake Bay Agroforestry Team (CBAT),
and the Mid-American Agroforestry Work-
Specifically, it will require more: ing Group (MAAWG)
Peer-to-peer learning: • Lasting partnerships need a clear purpose
• Identifying respected landowners/pro- and tangible project(s) to keep members
ducers that have adopted and practice engaged. For example, The 1890 AFC brings
agroforestry. together the 20 1890 land-grant universi-
• Getting them connected with other pro- ties and USDA agency partners to advance
ducers who are not currently practicing agroforestry research, teaching and exten-
agroforestry. sion. CBAT is focusing on implementing the
actions in Section 4 - Agroforestry of the
• Knowledge of local customs/culture and
Chesapeake Bay Forest Restoration Strat-
employing methods/tools such as:
egy. The MAAWG sponsors networking and
Farmer meets farmer in the “back forty”
educational activities to advance regional
On-farm demonstration sites, workshops agroforestry interests. As a tangible proj-
Social media/networks ect, The MAAWG is helping to facilitate the
weeklong Agroforestry Academy.
Professionals: • Establishing agroforestry communities of
• An increased number of professionals with practices such as the Forest Farming com-
agroforestry expertise are essential to pro- munity that has been established by a team
vide the technical, educational, marketing led by Virginia Tech with USDA support.
assistance requested by landowners.

Programs:
• USDA and other state/local programs pro-
vide vital resources that make it possible
for professionals to provide the assistance
that supports planning and establishment
of agroforestry practices.
• USDA assistance that helps advance
agroforestry adoption and practice applica-
tion includes: the Natural Resource Con-
servation Service’s Environmental Quality
Incentives and Conservation Stewardship
programs; the National Institute of Food
and Agriculture’s Renewable Resources
Extension Act and McIntire-Stennis Coop-
erative Forestry Research programs; and
the U.S. Forest Service’s Forest Stewardship
and Research & Development programs.
• The 2012 Census of Agriculture (USDA
National Agricultural Statistics Service) in-
cludes the first-ever agroforestry practice
question. Simply asking the right question
might get a producer/landowner thinking
about adopting agroforestry!

Additional Resources
In Print:
• Garrett, H.E., (ed.) 2009. North American Agroforestry: An Integrated Science and Practice.
2nd. ed. Madison, WI. American Society of Agronomy, Inc..
• Gordon, A.M. and S.M. Newman. 1997. Temperate Agroforestry Systems. CAB International, 269
p.
• Jose, S., M.A. Gold and H.E. Garrett. 2012. The Future of Temperate Agroforestry in the United
States. In: Garrity, D.P. and P.K.R. Nair (eds). Agroforestry – The Way Forward. Advances in
Agroforestry Book Series, Springer Science.
• Josiah, Scott J. 2000. Discovering Profits in Unlikely Places: Agroforestry Opportunities for Added
Income. University of Minnesota Extension. WW-07407 2000.
• Schoeneberger, M.; Bentrup, G. 2012. Branching out: agroforestry as a climate change mitigation
and adaptation tool for agriculture. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. vol. 67 no. 5. 128A-
136A.
Online:
• Association For Temperate Agroforestry: http://www.aftaweb.org/
• Beetz, A. 2011. Agroforestry: An Overview. National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service,
National Center for Appropriate Technology (ATTRA) IP155. http://www.agmrc.org/media/cms/
agrofor_A18CE08578D41.pdf
• Brant, G. 2011. +H: The Human Considerations in the Adoption of Agroforestry. Agroforestry
Note 43. USDA National Agroforestry Center, Lincoln, NE. http://nac.unl.edu/documents/agro-
forestrynotes/an43g13.pdf
• Chesapeake Bay Forest Restoration Strategy, including Section 4 – Agroforestry: http://executi-
veorder.chesapeakebay.net/chesapeakeforestrestorationstrategy.pdf
• 1890 Agroforestry Consortium: http://www.csrees.usda.gov/nea/nre/in_focus/forests_
if_1890agro.html
• eXtension Forest Farming Community of Practice: http://www.extension.org/pages/62959/
forest-farming-community
• Green Lands/Blue Waters: http://www.leopold.iastate.edu/green-lands-blue-waters
• Center for Integrated Natural Resources and Agricultural Management: http://www.cinram.
umn.edu/
• Iowa State University Riparian Management Systems: http://www.buffer.forestry.iastate.edu/
• Mid-American Agroforestry Working Group: http://midamericanagroforestry.net/
• Midwest Cover Crops Council: http://www.mccc.msu.edu/
• The Center for Agroforestry, University of Missouri. http://www.centerforagroforestry.org/
• The Center for Subtropical Agroforestry, University of Florida. http://sfrc.ifas.ufl.edu/cstaf/
• USDA National Agroforestry Center: http://www.unl.edu/nac/
• U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2011. USDA Agroforestry Strategic Framework, FY 2011-2016.
Washington, DC. 35 p. http://www.usda.gov/documents/AFStratFrame_FINAL-lr_6-3-11.pdf.
• U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Secretary. 2013. USDA policy for agroforestry. De-
partmental Regulation 1073-002. http://www.ocio.usda.gov/document/departmental-regula-
tion-1073-002
• World Agroforestry Centre: http://www.worldagroforestry.org/

Notes

Chapter 2: Introduction to Planning for
Agroforestry
In this chapter step, will help line out the inputs needed over
time in order to keep the agroforestry practice
• Developing a Plan for a meaningful and productive component of the
Agroforestry farm system for years to come.
• Identifying Land Uses, Resources,
Goals and Market Opportunities
Steps to Developing an
Agroforestry Plan
Developing a plan may seem tedious at the be- Personal Assessment
ginning, but the long term benefits far outweigh
Step 1: Initial Objectives and Priorities
the difficulties of plan creation. By having a Step 2: Evaluate Personal Resources
plan, landowners can better envision how to Biophysical Site Assessment
successfully integrate an Agroforestry Practice Step 3: Identify Current Land Uses
to their farm. And, the planning process will Step 4: Map Area(s) for Agroforestry Development
also help develop a familiarity with the man- Step 5: Climate Assessment
agement that is required in order to reach the Step 6: Soil Assessment
goals, objectives, benefits and economics that Step 7: Physical Features (Terrain)
are desired. The best way to ensure success is Step 8: Timber and Non-Timber Forest Crop
by thoughtful and honest planning. Inventory
Agroforestry Development Ideas
Step 9: Agroforestry Ideas – Brainstorming
A Plan for Integrating Step 10: Listing ‘Best Bets’
Agroforestry on the Farm Evaluating the ‘Best Bets’ in the
Context of the Industry
Why plan? The development of a plan for
integrating agroforestry practices to the farm Step 11: SWOT Analysis
Step 12: Porter Five Forces Model
system is as important as the actual establish-
Step 13: Revising your ‘Best Bets’
ment of the practice itself. Planning -- and the
Marketing Strategy for ‘Best Bets’
development of a timeline -- will help maximize
Step 14: Select and Describe Target Market(s)
the chances for the success of the agroforestry Step 15: Adding Value to Products
practice. Planning will not only assist in under- Step 16: Getting Products to the Buyer
standing how the practice and its placement on Step 17: Setting the Price
the landscape can accomplish specific on farm Step 18: Promoting Your Products
goals, but will provide assistance in identifying Agroforestry Practice Design and Management
market opportunities for products that may be Step 19: Revisit Your Objectives and Priorities
grown in the practice. Remember: Diagnosis Step 20: Detailed ‘Best Bets’ Crop Information
precedes treatment. Step 21: Designing Your Agroforestry Practices
The Agroforestry Development Plan
The culmination of the planning process is the Step 22: A Five-Year Management Projection
development of a 5-year management and ac- Step 23: Yearly Activity Schedule
tivities schedule. This final, yet very important

Coupled with the Workbook (See Appendix Sec- In addition to identifying available resources,
tion 5: Planning for Agroforestry Workbook), site conditions and marketable plants, filling
these steps are designed to help guide you in the Workbook forms will help you explore
through the various stages of creating a plan for and articulate your values and attitudes. Every
your agroforestry development area(s), and will landowner will have different personal and pro-
assist you in gathering information on: duction goals for an agroforestry development,
and your plan for your land will be different
• Your objectives and priorities from someone across the country, State, or even
• Personal resources (e.g., labor, equipment, across the road. To accommodate these differ-
buildings, animals, plants) ences, this guide is not based on a single set of
• Climate, soil conditions and physical features goals. Instead, it has been developed to provide
• Current land use a set of tools that you can use to make informed
• Land available to practice agroforestry decisions in creating a profitable agroforestry
• A non-timber plant inventory (for woodland business.
only)
• Market conditions for potential products An agroforestry development plan is based on
the capability of your land, your personal goals,
Together with chapters three to 10 of this your business goals, and your land steward-
manual and the tree/shrub/grass/forage infor- ship objectives. These goals and objectives will
mation provided in the appendices, the steps be re-assessed and changed as you obtain new
provided in this workbook will allow you to information during the planning and initiation
identify what agroforestry products can grow on of an agroforestry development. Agroforestry
your land, which of these products you can sell practices are always changing, and understand-
profitably, and how to develop basic business ing and working with change will help you best
and marketing strategies. The final steps are a achieve your goals.
five-year development plan and yearly activity
schedule, outlining the work you plan to do to There are many sources of information and
establish your agroforestry development(s). The advice available to assist you with your
time you put into researching, preparing and fol- agroforestry development. Since agroforestry
lowing your plan is an investment in your future practices often involve various fields (e.g., for-
agroforestry success. estry, agronomy, animal husbandry, horticulture,
soil science, marketing) you may have to aug-
The steps presented in the following pages—de- ment your personal knowledge. Sources listed at
signed to guide you in creating an agroforestry the end of each chapter in the training manual
plan—are often inter-related, and information are designed to guide you.
gathered in one step will likely impact informa-
tion gathered in other steps. For this reason, the
creation of your plan will likely require you to How to Proceed
revisit (and expand) each step as you learn more You’ll find a pull-out Workbook in Appendix 5.
and develop new ideas. The Workbook forms can be photocopied as
needed. The information, tools and links you
Note: The succession of steps has been orga- need to complete the plan are found in chapters
nized to help you develop your plan logically. that follow (chapters 3 to 10).
You need not complete each step in the order
they are presented. You may prefer to gather It is recommended that you read through these
information in a way that best suits your circum- steps before you begin to write down informa-
stances. tion in the corresponding chapters of the Work-
book.

Note: Depending on the size of your property, Step 2: Evaluate Personal Resources
you may have one or more areas on which you In addition to your land base, your agroforestry
want to develop agroforestry practices. Planning development will require the input of other per-
will be easier if you prepare separate forms for sonal resources. An evaluation of the resources
each separate development area, especially if available to you will help determine which
potential agroforestry development areas have agroforestry options are best suited to your
different site conditions and current uses. operation. An evaluation should include:
Step 1: Initial Objectives and Management and labor availability – Periods

Priorities during which you are not busy (between or after
Landowners exploring multiple uses for their harvests) and the periods during which labor
property face many preliminary decisions. Not and management time will be committed to
least, if you have a number of different objec- other activities.
tives for an area, some may seem to be in con-
flict. The choices each landowner makes reflect Equipment and buildings – Buildings and equip-
a set of individual values and attitudes. Your ment, including machines and hand tools, that
personal and business goals become the criteria can be used for this development.
for assessing the different possibilities for your
land. Livestock – Your operation may already have
cattle, sheep or other animals.
Your land management objectives and priori-
ties will be specific to your circumstances and Plant material – Your own sources of seed, seed-
the area you want to develop for agroforestry. lings, cuttings and larger trees.
However, among other possibilities, you may
want to: Other materials – Resources such as sawdust or
• Develop a new source of income from unpro- shavings, manure and straw for mulch.
ductive land (diversification)
• Reduce costs of an existing farm or forest List these personal resources, as well as any-
operation thing else that you consider of importance, in
• Develop a source of long-term income the table provided in the Workbook.
• Develop a source of short-term income while
awaiting long-term income from timber Step 3: Identify Current Land Uses
• Reduce property taxes List the present uses of each area of your land
• Protect or improve environmental conditions and the products you harvest, and record them
• Increase grazing opportunities in your Workbook. These uses could include:
Turn to the Planning for Agroforestry Work- Residential

book: Appendix 5 and complete the table of Recreational
initial objectives and priorities. Remember that Farming (which crops)
these initial objectives may change as you learn Grazing (type of livestock)
more about your land and your agroforestry Timber production
business. After you finish this assessment, you Non-timber production
will be able to weigh your objectives against Environmental use
what you can actually produce on each area of
your land.

Step 4: Map Area(s) for Agroforestry walnut trees requires a different level of site as-
Development sessment than the planting of a shallow-rooted
annual crop. Even if you plan to begin small, with
An agroforestry development may include all of
a few tree seedlings on a fence line and a small
your land or only specific areas, such as exist-
planting of medicinal herbs, you should still as-
ing woodlands, open field, logged-over area or
sess the limitations and potential of your land.
riparian zone. In either case, identifying objec-
tives and making decisions will be much easier if
The information provided here, and the accom-
you break your land into separate development
panying form in the Workbook, provides a basic
areas with similar current uses and site condi-
site assessment. More detailed assessments
tions (such as soil, moisture and existing plants).
require added time, equipment and expertise.
Steps in the Workbook, including the sketch
They are only worth doing if it will help with a
map, should be completed for each separate
critical aspect of your agroforestry development.
development area. Pages of the Workbook can
For most developments, they are not necessary.
be copied for this purpose.
For each agroforestry development area, you Step 5: Climate Assessment

should: Climate on your site ultimately determines what
- Draw a sketch map of the area you are target- you can grow on your land. Combining this data
ing for agroforestry development. Using the leg- with the information provided in Appendices 2
end provided in the Workbook, indicate bound- and 3 will establish the range of possibilities for
ary lines, main geographic features, houses, your agroforestry practice.
other buildings and roads.
Hardiness Zone - The US Department of Agri-
- Identify and measure the area approximately,
culture Plant Hardiness Zone Map has mapped
marking these measurements on the sketch.
plant hardiness zones for the entire country. You
This will help determine planting requirements
can find the Plant Hardiness Zone Map for dif-
and potential crop production.
ferent regions of the USA at the USDA National
There is some overlap between Step 3 and Step
Arboretum website: http://www.usna.usda.
4, since you will indicate these uses on your
gov/Hardzone/ushzmap.html
sketch map. Step 3 gives an opportunity to pro-
vide information on land use in greater detail,
To locate a Plant Hardiness Zone Map specific to
and by thinking about land uses, you may decide
your State go to the following website and click
to modify your sketch map.
on your State: http://www.growit.com/bin/US-
DAZoneMaps.exe?MyState=MO
Why Assess Your Land?
Assess climate, soil and physical features on These zones rate the conditions affecting win-
each site on which you intend to develop an ter survival of plants. The primary factor is the
agroforestry practice. These assessments will minimum (coldest) winter temperature, with
allow you to determine: some consideration for the number of frost-free
• Which plants you can successfully grow on days, summer rainfall, maximum temperatures,
each site snow cover and wind.
• Limitations to planting and growing these
plants Most information sources, and suppliers of seeds
• The most effective management practices and plants, list the minimum hardiness zone for
particular plants. Plant breeding programs have
Assessments can be as detailed as you want, or resulted in cultivars or selections of many plants
as required by the project. The introduction of that differ in hardiness from their parent (check
long-term or special-needs crops such as black this carefully to prevent a costly error).

In some cases, the hardiness zone mapping is The classes are ranked from I (highest) to VIII
only an approximate guide for local conditions. (lowest), but the capability subclasses refer
Enter hardiness zone information in the table to soil groups within a class. Classes I - IV are
provided in the Workbook. Additional informa- considered capable of the sustained production
tion you may find, such as frost-free days and of common field crops. Crop species become
date of soil thaw, should also be included in the limiting as the land capability declines from
table. Class I to Class IV. Class V lands are only capable
of producing perennial forage crops or specially
Soil Information Sources adapted crops. Class VI lands are capable of
providing sustained pasture. Class VII land are
Information about various versions of a incapable of either arable culture or grazing.
soil survey can be obtained one of three
Capability Subclasses include: (e) runoff and
ways: erosion; (w) wetness; and (s) root zone or tillage
problems - shallow, droughty or stony.
• By checking the list of published surveys on
the soils web site of the USDA List the climatic, capability rating and limiting
• By contacting the appropriate state office of factors for your site, as well as any other in-
the NRCS formation you believe might be useful, in your
• By contacting the appropriate local office of Workbook.
the NRCS
Soils are an extremely important feature of
Note: Additional information about Mis- your land base because they are the material in
souri soils can be found at the Missouri which the plants of your agroforestry practice
Cooperative Soil Survey web site at will grow. Soil survey publications represent a
(http://soils.missouri.edu). snapshot in time. They contain information that
was current as of the indicated publication date.
The text, tables and soil maps may have been
Step 6: Soil Assessment updated since publication. The most up-to-date
Land Capability Classification - The Land information is available on the NRCS Web Soil
Capability Classification shows, in a general way, Survey (http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/
the suitability of soils for most kinds of agricul- app/) or the Soil Data Mart online at (http://
tural land use or field crops. The soils are soildatamart.nrcs.usda.gov/).
grouped according to their limitations for field
crops, the risk of damage if they are used for Read about the soils (formation of soils), look at
crops, and the way they respond to manage- a soils map, then examine your soils. One way
ment. There are two principle categories in this to gain an understanding of your soil is to dig
classification system, the Capability Class and several soil pits at least 18" deep, and examine
Capability Subclass. your soils for several important features. How-
ever, soils are landform dependent, and samples
The Land Capability Classification identifies the taken should represent different landforms and
potential of local areas for agricultural produc- positions on those landforms. It is recommend-
tion. County Soil Surveys contain the Land Ca- ed to dig one or two pits per acre, and more if
pability Classification for all soils in your county. the area/landform is not uniform. For more de-
The County Soil Surveys also provide useful tail on soil assessment, see Additional Resources
climate information. at the end of this chapter.

Important note: If you are planning to practice Note and record in your Workbook the approxi-
agroforestry on a woodland area, plan to do a mate percentage of rock fragments in the soil
plant inventory. Since this requires setting up (stoniness), and depth and type of any restrict-
survey plots in a grid system, you probably want ing layers. Show their extent on the sketch map.
to do your soil assessments at the same time as
your plant inventory. Soil Moisture
Soil moisture, which is key to the establishment
Soil Texture and Composition and growth of plants, is closely linked to soil tex-
Mineral soils are particles of rock or minerals ture. The spaces (pores) between soil particles
produced from rock by weathering and other hold water and air needed by plants for good
geological processes. Soil textures are grouped growth. Generally, coarser soils are well-drained
into the three particle sizes shown in the table and are often dry for longer periods, while soils
below. Sands and gravel are the largest particles, with finer textures hold more water and are
while clay and silt soils contain the smallest likely to remain moist longer. Other factors,
particles. The finer textured soils hold more such as ground water level or the presence of an
water and dry out more slowly. Organic soil impermeable layer that restricts drainage, also
layers or horizons are derived from decaying determine soil moisture.
vegetation, usually in a thin layer above mineral
soils. Where found in a sizable layer, they tend to As you dig your pit, is the soil dusty and dry?
retain both water and nutrients. Does water seep into the bottom of the hole?
Often, the time of year and recent weather will
In your Workbook list the soil type(s) found in influence soil moisture.
each of your agroforestry development areas,
and map the locations if there is more than one High Water Table, Standing Water or Flooding
type. Areas such as wetlands and parts of riparian
zones which remain fully saturated for extended
Soil Depth periods of time are of special concern. These ar-
Soil depth determines the rooting capability of eas are sensitive to access development and ma-
the plants you may wish to grow. In particular, chine use, and are important for wildlife habitat
forest soils can be quite shallow, requiring extra and other environmental values. You will need
care in management. You will notice distinct lay- to identify these areas of your land and plan to
ers as you dig down and you may come across use especially careful management. Access may
restricting layers such as: 1) stones and rock be limited for all or part of the year.
outcrops that can interfere with digging and cul-
tivation, and can reduce the nutrient and water- In your Workbook and on your sketch map,
holding capacity of the soil. Rock outcroppings it is important to note any: wetland features,
are areas with very little soil; and 2) hardpan, evidence of flooding, areas that experience
a hardened layer below the surface of the soil overland flows or standing water during spring
that can prevent penetration of water and roots. runoff, and areas with continual seepage or high
Additional soil features that may be problematic water table.
include: fragipans, claypans, abrupt textural
changes and general discontinuity. Deep-rooted Both very wet or dry conditions pose challenges
plants such as alfalfa or black walnut will be for planting and management. However, some
severely impacted by hardpan. Neighbors and plants are particularly adapted to one or the oth-
previous landowners may know if there is a er of these extremes (see Appendices 2 & 3 for
hardpan, but you may have to dig several holes a listing of suitable plants). Note the moisture
to determine the extent. conditions of various portions of your proposed
development area on both your sketch map and
in your Workbook.

Nutrients plants. Sloped or bench land that has good air
The availability of nutrients in the soil affects drainage is a better choice.
the quantity and quality of products produced.
You can undertake a soil test to determine the Enter your observations of the physical features
soil pH (acid/alkaline balance), specific nutrient mentioned above in your Workbook and on your
levels, and recommendations for various crops. sketch map.
Tissue analysis is also an effective way (pre-
ferred in forest soils) to determine nutritional Step 8: Timber and Non-Timber
status of existing trees and plants. Although
Forest Crop Inventory
there are soil sampling field kits, soil and tis-
If you want to practice agroforestry in woodland
sue samples are usually sent to a laboratory for
areas, this chapter will help you inventory the
analysis and interpretation. In your Workbook
variety of plants growing on your land—every-
note the status of soil nutrients that you have
thing from trees to herbs on the forest floor. The
determined and attach any lab reports.
inventory of trees described here is restricted to
their potential production of non-timber prod-
Step 7: Physical Features (Terrain) ucts (e.g., medicinals, florals) and their interac-
The physical features outlined in Step 7 are tions with other plants (e.g., shade, moisture,
closely related to – but also different from – the nutrients). A non-timber vegetation inventory
soil characteristics described in Step 6. For can be used to help create a list of ‘best bets’—
ease-of-use, physical features are described plants that can be successfully grown on your
separately from soil characteristics. However, land, and will also help you decide how to man-
the information you generate through each step age your woodland efficiently and productively
is entered into the same table in the Workbook. (i.e., managing competition for sun, water and
This allows you to easily see the relationships nutrients). There is literature available else-
between physical features and soil characteris- where on timber inventory methods (see Addi-
tics. There are several physical features that can tional Resources).
influence your capability to produce particular
crops on a site. If you own more than a few acres of land, you
should sample your land base, using inventory
Aspect refers to the direction toward which plots to obtain a ‘best approximation’ of the
the site slopes (if any). South and southwest- vegetation. Sampling is an excellent compro-
facing slopes are usually warmer and drier than mise between doing nothing (and having a very
those facing north, and naturally support dif- limited picture of your land) and trying to do the
ferent plant communities. Terrain relief refers impossible: counting every tree, shrub and herb
to whether the site is steep, flat, sloped, rolling, on your property.
gullied or broken (steep slopes between bench-
es). This will influence access and machine A. Preparing Your Inventory
capability, water management, cold air drainage, An inventory should give you a timely snapshot
and other microclimate factors. Frost pockets of your land; it should not take too long, nor
are one additional feature to consider. Cold should it be too difficult. Inventory plots are
air flows downhill and pools in low areas. The the sites where you record information about
resulting localized frosts can damage delicate vegetation and other features on your land. They
flowers and shoots that start to grow early in form a pre-determined portion (or percentage)
the spring. Even crop plants correctly chosen for of the larger area you’re interested in sampling.
your hardiness zone can be affected. Assess low Multiplying your plot data by the number of
areas on your land for potential frost pockets— plots that would fit in the larger area will give an
the absence of native berry plants can be a good estimate of what you would find if you actually
indicator. Avoid these areas for frost-sensitive measured everything. Size of inventory plots

depends on what you’re trying to survey and dices 2 and 3. It is also important to remember
the vegetation cover on the plot. In your forest that you should contact buyers before you
vegetation survey, you will actually take two harvest, so that you can harvest to the correct
separate surveys from the same plot center. This specifications.
is because you need to collect information about
two very different types of vegetation: Trees; Tree Inventory
shrubs and other smaller plants. The tree inventory described here is only in-
tended to determine the non-timber resources
Plot cruises can be used to estimate the number available (e.g., boughs, vines, bark, burls).
of plants in a forest by species, diameter, height,
form class and grade. All fixed plot cruises have Number of trees and species. Record the num-
statistical sampling error which is important ber of trees of each species found at the plot.
to know and understand before relying on the This will assist in determining what non-timber
data. A plot cruise simply consists of counting products can be obtained, and what plants can
and classifying all trees or plants species in a be grown under the canopy.
series of circular sample plots. Circular plots are
usually 1/10-acre in size (37.2 feet radius). The Tree age. This is optional, but can be useful to
plots are evenly spaced throughout the stand know. An increment borer is easy to use and will
to provide an equal sampling of all forest types not harm the trees. Record the age of one or two
across all topographic changes average trees per plot.
B. Doing Your Inventory Tree height. This is also optional, and only re-
Locating your plots in the field. Following a ally useful for a timber inventory. Details on cal-
compass line is a vital skill when conducting culating height can be found in the guide “Con-
your vegetation inventory. It is beyond the scope ducting a Simple Timber Inventory,” https://
of this training manual to review compass work uextension.tennessee.edu/publications/Docu-
in detail but there are a couple of points to re- ments/PB1780.pdf
member:
- The right compass for the job. Ideally, you Condition of trees. Helpful in determining
should have a ‘ranger’ type with a mirror in the whether marketable non-timber products can
lid, gunsight sighting, liquid dampened needle, be harvested. Also helpful in assessing the pos-
and an adjustment for setting declination. sible function as a windbreak.
- Staying on track. With a little practice, staying
on your traverse line is not difficult. Hold the Crown closure. The degree of canopy closure
compass level, line up the arrow in the mirror will determine the conditions for raising or en-
face, sight on the farthest object you can pick hancing shade-loving species in the understory
out through the gunsight (e.g., recognizable tree,
rock, stump), and walk toward it. When you Non-tree Inventory
reach that landmark, sight again and find a new Begin your inventory by identifying and listing
object to focus on. all the harvestable non-tree species found in the
plot on your plot sheet. Include plants that pro-
Obtain a good guidebook to the plants of your vide good browse if you intend to graze the area.
area. Remember that quality can have a big
impact on the prices you receive for non-timber For each species, record the following:
forest products. That means you will have to Total number of plants for each species.
make judgment calls when doing your inventory. Where possible/feasible, count the number of
Information on product specifications—includ- individual plants of each species found in the
ing acceptable quality—can be found in Appen- plot. This will be easier on an open forest floor

than it will be on dense sites. You may choose Once you know the approximate number of
to record sites like the latter simply as ‘dense plants of a given species per are you have a fairly
coverage.’ This is one of those instances where good idea of the plant resources you have on
judgment calls come in. Even an approximate your land. Record the information in the tables
number could be useful in developing a harvest- provided in the Workbook.
ing plan.
Step 9: Agroforestry Development
Estimate of the percentage cover for each
Ideas – Brainstorming
species. How much of the plot do you think the
After reading the chapters 3 through 10 in this
species covers? Provide an estimate to the clos-
training manual, you will probably come up with
est 10%.
some ideas for agroforestry developments on
your property. Once you have done this, it is time
Proportion of harvestable vs. non-harvest-
to engage in some brainstorming. In addition,
able individuals. The aim here is estimate
check out the appendices 2 (Trees and Shrubs
the amount of harvestable individuals for each
for Agroforestry) and 3 (Grasses and Forages for
species (none, 20%, 50%). Your decisions will
Agroforestry) to develop additional ideas.
be based on factors such as size, color, and insect
or other damage. If many of the plants are not
Brainstorming is the process of putting ideas
harvestable in their current condition, cultural
down on paper as they come into your head. List
practices such as fertilization and pruning may
them all and don’t try to self-censor the ideas.
be available that would improve product quan-
You can reduce this list to ‘best bets’ later. Input
tity and quality.
from family and friends, as well as ideas from
neighboring landowners, can help generate
C. Using Your Inventory
useful ideas. This is also a point at which expert
First, make sure all areas inventoried are
advice may expand the list of possibilities. For
marked on your map(s). Next, you need to take
additional assistance consult the Additional
the raw data from your inventory (plot sheets),
Resources that are listed at the end of every
compile it, and present it in a useful format. That
chapter.
means taking the information from your sample
plots and organizing the information so it repre-
For each development area, sort the list by prac-
sents your entire development area.
tice and record this information in your Work-
book. In general, more intensive agroforestry
Trees and/or Other Resources per acre
practices (e.g., forest farming) are suited for
Among your survey information, you have
smaller units of land, while the more extensive
recorded the number of each plant species that
practices (e.g., silvopasture) are suited to larger
appears in each inventory plot. Now you want to
units of land.
convert that number into the number of plants
per acre. This is done using the plots per acre
factor. The plot information is then extrapolated Step 10: Listing ‘Best Bets’
to one acre and then multiplied by the total The intent of this short but important step is
acres. For example, if you counted ten individual to create a list of potential crops that can be
witch hazel shrubs in your plot cruise grown on your land. This list of ‘best bets’ will
One plot on 1-acre: be based on the information you have gathered
Plot size 1/10-acre so far—including land and personal resources,
Plot radius (feet) 37.2 site conditions and current land use—combined
Average trillium plants /plot 8 with the plant information provided in Appendi-
Factor to 1-acre, multiply times 10 ces 2 and 3.
Total estimated witch hazel per acre = 80

Perhaps the easiest way to approach this list is etation inventory and brainstormed ideas of
by first determining what plants can grow under agroforestry practices, you can use that infor-
the climatic, soil and physical conditions that mation to identify Strengths and Weaknesses,
occur in each of your agroforestry development Opportunities and Threats or a SWOT analysis
areas. Plants you already cultivate on your land, for the crops you think may produce. This can
plants revealed by your non-timber inventory, be helpful in defining and clarifying the issues
and crop ideas you have developed while gather- you need to address in the rest of the planning
ing information, will all form part of this list. process.
You can add substantially to the list by looking As detailed in Chapter 9, Marketing Principles,
at Appendices 2 and 3 to see what other plants in identifying strengths and weaknesses, you
can be successfully grown on your site, and what will be focusing on factors that are internal to
products can be made from them. You want this your business. Opportunities and threats refer
list to be as extensive as possible, so you can to the external environment of your business.
consider the widest possible range of options. The plan you will develop will be shaped by
both internal and external factors; it will build
Your list can be refined by considering the on your strengths and minimizing the impacts
resources at your disposal (e.g., labor, buildings, of your weaknesses while in the same time be
equipment) at different times of the year. These responsive to the opportunities and threats your
factors will limit the crops and crop combina- environment offers.
tions you can grow. Finally, you can further
refine your list by revisiting the objectives you In the SWOT Analysis worksheet, summarize
have for your land, such as income diversifica- the internal strengths and weaknesses and the
tion, reduction of land taxes or environmental external opportunities and threats for your
protection. business as you identify them today. Consider all
aspects: natural, physical and human resources,
The list of ‘best bets’ you make in this part of marketing, operations, and finances.
your Workbook should include all the plants
that can grow on your land, and the products Step 12: Porter Five Forces Model
that can be derived. Make sure you include tim- The Five Forces Model (developed by Dr. Michael
ber products that can be made from trees you Porter of Harvard University) serves as a good
would plant as part of an agroforestry develop- framework for assessing different industries
ment. If you have done a timber inventory—in you would like to get in. The Five Forces Model
addition to the non-timber vegetation inventory identifies coordination and control aspects of
list those possible timber products as well. an industry and provides a guideline for under-
standing the resources and relationships needed
Along with Chapter 10 of the Training Manual, to be successful in a market. The model is pre-
the following steps will help you develop a sented in more detail in Chapter 9 – Marketing
marketing strategy, or marketing plan. Each step Principles. Using the information and examples
contains directions needed to complete corre- provided in Chapter 9, use the following ideas to
sponding sections in your Workbook. You should evaluate the chosen crops in the context of the
note that every part of every step might not ap- industry:
ply to your situation.
Identify Barriers to Entry
Identify suppliers/Bargaining power of
Step 11: SWOT Analysis suppliers
Having analyzed the current situation of your
Identifying Buyers/ Bargaining power of buyers
farm with respect to objectives and priorities,
Identify substitutes
personal resources, site assessment and veg-

Identify competitors and their competitive ad- Your first task in building a customer strategy is
vantages to identify your target market. Target markets
are most commonly characterized as either
Step 13: Revising Your ‘Best Bets’ individual households or businesses. Begin your
In Step 11 you identified the plants that can target market research by developing a cus-
grow on your land, and which you can produce tomer profile. Customer profiles can help you
with the resources you have available. determine if a market segment is large enough
to be profitable. Break your target market up
After a thorough analysis using the SWOT Analy- into segments based on differences in their
sis and Porter Five Forces Model, the list of ‘best geographic location, demographic characteris-
bets’ can be refined to include those plants and tics, social class, personality, buying behavior or
products you think have the best market poten- benefits sought.
tial. When selecting a list of marketable ‘best
bets,’ consider: Example:
Product: Elderberry jelly
• How difficult is to enter the market?
Customer segments:
• Is the required supply available? 1. Farmers markets customers
• Are there buyers nearby? Geographic: Local area
• What is the demand for the crop, relative to Demographic: Mostly female, mid-age, moderate
supply? to high household income
• How does harvesting and selling these crops Psychographic: Support for local agriculture,
fit in with the rest of your production system? health conscious
For example, will the crop(s) require big in- Needs/Preferences: Prefer locally produced
puts of labor during an already busy period? food, fresh food, convenience
• Is investment of resources (labor and capital) 2. Online customers
likely to provide an adequate return? Geographic: Nation-wide (USA)
• How does that return compare to other pos- Demographic: Younger, moderate to high house-
sible crop/product options? hold income, high level of education
• Where possible, use your vegetation inventory Psychographic: Price sensitive
information to list the approximate volumes Needs/Preferences: Like the comfort of shop-
of the crops you have for sale. For crops not ping from home
yet planted, you should estimate how much 3. Health food stores customers
you’ll be able to sell so you have an idea of Geographic: Regional area
how much to plant. Demographic: Older, higher household income,
high level of education
Psychographic: Health conscious, less price
Step 14: Select and Describe Target sensitive
Needs/Preferences: Prefer healthy, high quality
Market(s) products
Refer to Chapter 9 – Marketing Principles to
develop the following steps (14 to 18). In these
steps you will be creating a marketing strategy. Step 15: Adding Value to Products
As you think about the products your business
Your marketing strategy is about defining your will offer, try to describe them in terms of the
customer or target market and tailoring your value they will bring to your customers. List all
product, pricing, distribution and promotion value added opportunities and identify “pros”
strategies to satisfy that target market. (how it will benefit the needs of each customer
segment) and “cons” (e.g., costs, risks) for each

of them. Identify also unique characteristics that tising tools and media. Consider also the costs of
will differentiate your product from competi- each promotion method.
tors. Define each product to address specific
needs for each market segment. Step 19: Re-visit Your Objectives and
Priorities
Step 16: Getting Products to the The first step in developing your agroforestry
Buyer plan was to outline your initial objectives and
Now that you have a customer and product in priorities for your land-based business. Since
mind, your next task is to identify how to move then, you have gathered considerable amounts
or distribute products from your farm to the of information that will likely change at least
customer’s house or store shelves. Distribution some of those original goals. Record your
strategies typically describe Location - Where revised objectives and priorities in the space
will you sell your product?; Distribution – Which provided in the Workbook.
sales channels will your product follow?; and
Transportation – How will your product reach Step 20: Detailed ‘Best Bets’ Crop
the buyer?
Information
To develop the most functional and profitable
Step 17: Setting the Price agroforestry practices, you should know as
In general, pricing strategies are based on two much as possible about each plant you intend
factors: prevailing market prices and your costs. to grow. You will have gathered much of this
In the long run, your price has to cover your full information while filling out your Workbook,
costs—including production, marketing and using your land assessment, plant inventory
promotion—as well as a return for your time (where appropriate), market research, Appen-
and investment. Try to identify prevailing mar- dices 2 and 3, and possibly your own additional
ket prices for similar products if they exist; learn research.
about what customers are willing to pay and
what prices your competitors charge. Also iden- Important information includes the biological
tify and document all your production, market- requirements of each plant, the agroforestry
ing and promotion costs. Decide how you want practices they can be grown in, what other
to price your product for each market segment. plants (and animals) they are compatible with,
Do you want to undermine the competition by labor requirements for harvesting, potential
offering a lower price? Can you set a high price volumes, value-added opportunities, and useful
that reflects your quality image or market de- market information.
mand? Are you simply looking to cover costs? Do
you have power to set a price? How sensitive is The table provided in the Workbook may in-
demand to price changes? Take all these aspects clude categories of information you do not have.
into consideration and try to establish a realistic You can exclude these or take extra time to find
price or price range for each product. the information. There is also extra space for ad-
ditional information you consider important but
Step 18: Promoting Your Products not specifically listed here.
Promotion is very important to gain product rec-
ognition among customers. Promotional strate- Step 21: Designing Your
gies often are built around a “message.” The Agroforestry Practices
message that you deliver about your product
Now is the time to arrange your plants into
or business is just as important as the product
agroforestry practices that best meet the man-
itself. Equally important is how and when you
agement objectives you outlined in Step 19. The
deliver that message through the use of adver-

information on each plant crop, and the man- practices. The specific tasks and timelines you
agement information provided earlier in this prepare will form the basis for your yearly activ-
chapter, will allow you to design and manage ity schedule.
agroforestry practices that best meet your objec-
tives. Fill in a table in the Workbook for each Don’t worry too much about getting absolutely
agroforestry practice you intend to develop. everything right on the first pass. Your plans
will change over time and you can go back and
Note: Remember that price and marketability adjust your projections accordingly. For now,
are not the only criteria for selection of the you are mainly interested in conceptualizing the
plants you will include in your agroforestry overall operation on paper.
practices. Some plants may be chosen because
they provide valuable ecological functions to The five-year management projection has four
your agroforestry practice, such as trees for sections:
shade and windbreaks, or legumes for nitrogen • Area: size of the area to be managed.
fixation. • Practice: agroforestry practice and its as-
sociated products.
Building an Agroforestry • Year: year that you want the management
activity to take place.
Development Plan • Management Objective: specific objective
The purpose of building an agroforestry devel- you hope to accomplish.
opment plan is to create a schedule of the work
that needs to be done in the years ahead in order Use the template provided in the Workbook to
to fully develop your agroforestry area(s). Your create your own five-year management projec-
completed Agroforestry Development Workplan tion.
will include specific tasks, timelines, and labor
projections for each agroforestry practice on a Step 23: Yearly Activity Schedule
year-by-year basis. You will need a Development The yearly activity schedule describes specific
Plan for each agroforestry development area. tasks that need to be done, when and by whom.
The Development Workplan is the final step in This is the document you will use to plan your
your Workbook, and will form the practical basis work schedule on a month-by-month basis. A
for your agroforestry development. You will no good yearly activity schedule will allow you to
doubt change and adapt your work projections identify potential time and business conflicts,
in the years ahead, but a good Development Plan and ensure you avoid overlapping seasonal ac-
will form a clear starting point and help focus tivities that could create shortages of labor and
your management efforts. resources.
The Development Plan includes two distinct

A yearly activity schedule—one for each
parts:
agroforestry practice—has five sections:
• A five-year plan outlining specific tasks for
• Crop Plant: the plants that you have decided
each agroforestry practice
you can grow and market.
• A yearly activity plan, broken down into spe-
• Management Objectives: a record of objec-
cific tasks for each month.
tives, transferred from your five-year projec-
tion.
Step 22: A Five-Year Management • Task and Time of Year: a list of specific tasks
Projection that must be accomplished to achieve each
Your five-year management projection is a objective, including timelines associated
schedule of the work you plan to undertake in with each task.
the next five years to develop your agroforestry • Materials: estimates of seed, seedlings, fertil-

izer, fencing, animals, feed and other items A Guide to Developing a Business Plan for Farms
necessary for corresponding tasks. and Rural Businesses. The information in the
• Labor and Equipment: a record of labor and Workbook will provide a good basis for a busi-
equipment needs (if any) for each of the ness plan that includes a comprehensive cash
specific tasks. flow projection.
Like the five-year management projection, your

yearly activity schedule will likely change as you
learn more. Remember to leave yourself plenty
of time to complete all the work. As landowners
well know, most tasks take longer than expected.
The yearly activity schedule will also be helpful
in costing the materials, labor and equipment
that are necessary for the cash flow projection of
your business plan. For details on business plan-
ning, refer to Building a Sustainable Business:
Handbook for Agroforestry Planning and Design. University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry.
2013. www.centerforagroforestry.org
Conducting a Simple Timber Inventory, The University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture,

https://uextension.tennessee.edu/publications/Documents/PB1780.pdf
Building a Sustainable Business: A Guide to Developing a Business Plan for Farms and Rural Busi-
nesses. Minnesota Institute for Sustainable Agriculture. 2003.

Notes

Chapter 3: Alley Cropping
times called intercropping and multi-cropping.
In this chapter:
Currently most of the emphasis and research
• Defining Alley Cropping focuses on pecan, chestnut and eastern black
• General Benefits and Limitations walnut alley cropping applications. However,
• Alley Cropping Functions there are numerous other potential tree, shrub
• Design Considerations and crop combinations.
• Tree Arrangement
• Tree and Shrub Selection Role on the Farm
• Selection of Companion Crops Alley cropping provides the opportunity to
• Specialty and Biomass Crops grow wood or other tree products such as nuts
• Operation and Maintenance or fruit, while providing an annual income
• Economic Incentives for Alley Crop- through the production of companion crops.
ping
• Summary Benefits of Alley Cropping
• Success Stories • Diversify farm enterprise
• Additional Resources • Reduce erosion
• Improve water quality
• Protect crops
• Enhance wildlife
In this alley crop-
ping example, • Improve aesthetics
soybeans are
planted in the
alleyways be- Diversifying farm products and supplement-
tween nut trees ing income:
for short-term
income, nuts for
Alley cropping diversifies farm enterprises by
medium-term providing short-term cash flow from annual
income and in crops while also providing medium- to long-
the long-term a term products from the woody components.
possible timber Timber and non-timber products may con-
harvest.
tribute to income generation from the farm. In
addition to the potential for producing nuts,
berries, and fruits, well-managed timber can
provide a long-term investment.
Alley Cropping Reducing soil erosion from wind and water:

Alley cropping is broadly defined as the plant- Soils with a high erodibility index (>8 ) are
ing of two or more sets of single or multiple highly susceptible to damage and are difficult
rows of trees or shrubs at wide spacings, creat- to protect when used as crop land. The soil
ing alleys within which agricultural, horticul- erodibility index provides a numerical expres-
tural, or forage crops are cultivated. The trees sion of the potential for a soil to erode consid-
or shrubs may include valuable hardwood ering the physical and chemical properties of
species, such as nut trees, or trees desirable for the soil and the climatic conditions where it is
wood products. Shrubs can provide nuts, fruit located. The higher the index, the greater the
or other products. This approach is some- investment needed to maintain the sustain-

ability of the soil resource base if intensively agricultural landscape increases the habitat
cropped. diversity for wildlife, both through increased
amount of edge and/or as a result of the in-
Alley cropping protects fragile soils through creased diversity (vertical and horizontal) of
a network of roots produced by the trees and vegetation. Increased vertical complexity has
supplemental ground-cover resulting from been correlated with increased bird numbers.
fallen leaves and the companion crop. Rows of These areas can also serve as protective corri-
trees, shrubs, and/or grasses planted on the dors for wildlife movement and provide a food
contour of a slope will also serve to reduce soil source.
movement down the slope.
Limitations to Alley Cropping:
Reducing erosion on sloping cropland: Alley cropping, as with other forms of multi-
The interception of rainfall by the tree canopy cropping, requires more intensive technical
and increased infiltration due to tree and her- management skill and marketing knowledge.
baceous roots protects the soil; water quality The following limitations should be considered:
is improved due to interception of sediment • Requires a more intensive management
by herbaceous cover in tree rows and inter- system including specialized equipment for
ception, sequestration, and decomposition of the tree management and additional mana-
agricultural chemicals by tree and herbaceous gerial skills and training to manage multiple
root environment. Agricultural chemical (e.g., crops on a given site
nitrogen) leached beyond the root zone of • Removes land from annual crop production
the agronomic crops can be absorbed by the and may not provide a financial return from
deeper root systems of the tree, hence minimiz- the trees for several years
ing the leaching of chemical into the ground • Requires a marketing infrastructure for the
water resulting in improved water quality. tree products that may not be present in the
local area
Microclimate impacts: • Trees may be an obstacle to crop cultivation
Trees and shrubs improve crop production by if not carefully planned and designed
slowing wind speed and reducing wind ero- • Trees compete with companion crops for
sion, modifying the crop microclimate with sun, moisture and nutrients
similar effects to that of windbreaks (see • Companion crops may compete with trees
Chapter 6 on windbreaks). Alley cropping can for moisture and nutrients
reduce crop evapotranspiration by 15-30 per- • Herbicide drift from crops may damage trees
cent and increase water content in the tillage
layer by 5-15 percent. Deep tree roots trans-
port soil nutrients to leaves. Leaves contribute Alley Cropping Functions
organic matter to soil and release nutrients as There are numerous mechanisms in which al-
they decompose. ley cropping impacts the landscapes to which it
is applied, including water management, nutri-
Protecting crops: ent cycling, soil quality, microclimate modifica-
Alley cropping reduces damage from insect tion and pest management.
pests by reducing crop visibility, diluting pest • Alley cropping impacts water management
hosts due to plant diversity, interfering with by altering the hydrologic cycle through
pest movement, and creating habitat more increased water infiltration via disruption
favorable to beneficial insects. of overland flow by the tree/grass strip.
Water cycled through the system is more
Enhancing wildlife habitat and aesthetics: thoroughly filtered and any excess is gradu-
Linear plantings of trees and/or shrubs in an ally released.

• Nutrient cycling and soil quality are im- state that beneficial insects will be favored and
pacted as deeply rooted trees exploit lower the negative pests will be reduced, although
soil horizons and cycle the nutrients to there are examples of this.
the surface through litterfall. Additional
nitrogen is added to the nutrient pool if a Designs Unique to Each Landowner
nitrogen-fixing tree or shrub is used. Re-
Each alley cropping practice can be uniquely
duced soil erosion by wind and water help
designed to reflect landowner needs and site
maintain soil quality. Additional moisture
potential. However, there are physical interac-
is added to the site through interception of
tions between the rows of woody species and
rainfall by the tree canopy.
the companion crop that should be understood
• Microclimates are modified due to reduc- and reflected in plans for the alley cropping
tions in wind velocity which reduces air practice design.
temperatures and evapotranspiration of Physical growth traits of individual trees and
intercropped plants and soil. how these influence the crop, are based on three
• Pest management can be strengthened factors:
through the structural diversity in the A. Light Competition
landscape developed by the intentional as- B. Root Competition for Water and Nutrients
sociation of trees and crops. Alley cropping C. Allelopathy
creates habitat to build up biodiversity and
associated populations of natural enemies
A) Light Competition (above ground)
of insects, diseases, or weed pests and can
A tree species should be selected that best
interrupt pest cycles.
accommodates the sunlight requirements of
• Similar to the function of riparian forest a specific crop. Some tree species have small
buffers, alley cropping practices may help leaves and feathery foliage casting a light shade
intercept, fix and biodegrade sediments, and lend themselves well to alley cropping.
nutrients, pesticides, and other biological When considering a tree species for an alley
pollutants present on the site. cropping practice, small leaves and light shade
• Similar to the establishment of windbreaks, is preferable to heavy shade.
alley cropping may improve wildlife habitat
by providing food, cover, nesting sites, and In what ways can light competition be re-
travel lanes for a variety of wildlife species. duced?
• Incorporation of trees and shrubs add op- • Spacing
portunity for additional products which are When the distance between rows of trees/
derived from the tree/shrub component shrubs is increased, the years an alleyway may
(wood, nuts, fruit, foliage) as well as the be cropped with minimal competition from the
option to plant sensitive crops which can be trees is also increased.
grown due to the protection from the trees. • Row Orientation
An East-West orientation of tree rows will
Not all of these functions may exist with each maximize the sunlight received by an alley
application of alley cropping. The function is crop, provided the topography permits this
dependent upon the way the plant components arrangement. Trees may have to be planted on
are manipulated in the design process. There is the contour if erosion is a consideration. Trees
also a lack of understanding of all the different may be planted in other orientations if prevail-
interactions that can occur with the different ing winds have a negative influence on crop
combinations of tree/shrub/herbaceous (an- yields.
nual and perennial) plants. For a given design, • Maximizing available light
we do not have enough information to evaluate Trees with small fine leaves will allow more
all the different pest interactions to definitively

light through the canopy. These leaves decom- • Which trees have deep roots?
pose rapidly and allow nutrients to be recycled Tree species have different site requirements.
into the soil faster. As decomposed materials For instance, as a rule, wetland species tend to
contribute organic matter to the soil, the soil be shallow rooted. While a potential species
moisture-holding capacity is increased. In- list has been included in the appendices, it is
creased organic matter enhances soil microbe always useful to consult your local forester for
and earthworm activity. Taken together, this assistance in determining species suitable to
also improves soil tilth and health. your planting site.
• Understanding crown and foliage • What can be done if the trees are more shal-
characteristics - phenology low rooted?
Utilize trees that leaf-out late in the spring and/ Through the use of a Ripper, Coulter, or Chisel
or drop leaves early in the fall. If the agronomic Plow, roots can be severed (the addition of sub-
crop component matures in the early spring, surface knives may also be used to sever more
such as winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), roots outside the rip).
or heads out in the late fall, such as milo. A
tree species should be incorporated that best Trenching trials strongly suggest that even dur-
accommodates the light needs of that specific ing the early years of tree development, compe-
crop (e.g., a tree species that breaks dormancy tition for water and/or nutrients is the major
late for winter wheat or a species that drops its reason for reduced crop yields. By early (begin-
leaves early for milo - a good example of a tree ning with young trees) and repeated (annually
that satisfies both needs is black walnut). or biennially) ripping lateral roots, the number
• Timely Thinning and Pruning of tree roots can be significantly decreased in
Properly thinning trees within rows can main- the plow zone. The remaining roots will remain
tain semi-open crown conditions. Maintained active deeper in the soil profile.
through regular thinning, these openings can
help continue the vigorous growth of shade C) Allelopathy (Chemical Interactions)
intolerant companion crops. Pruning basal Traditionally, the term allelopathy denotes
branches before they reach 1” in diameter the negative biochemical influence exerted by
improves future wood quality and thins the one plant on the growth of nearby plants. For
depth of the canopy permitting more sunlight example, pine needles may produce acids that
to reach companion crops. inhibit growth of plants on the forest floor,
while roots of black walnut trees produce a
B) Root Competition (below ground) compound called juglone, which also inhibits
Competition for water and nutrients between the growth of other plants.
the tree and the intercropped species not only
affects the yields of the companion crop but A broader definition would also include posi-
also the growth of the trees. tive influences. For example, some plants (e.g.,
legumes, European black alder, black locust) fix
What ways can root competition be reduced? nitrogen that can benefit nearby plants.
• Understanding rooting zones
Vertical distribution of root systems varies Chemical interactions can be controlled by
among species. Deep-rooted species have choosing plant combinations that work to-
a reduced volume of roots near the surface gether. Juglone, for instance, does not affect all
(good for minimizing competition with adja- plants. Conversely, nitrogen-fixing plants are
cent crops). Erosion can be addressed through only useful to neighboring plants that require
ground cover establishment and management. extra nitrogen.

Tree arrangement
The tree and/or shrub row(s) are placed at
intervals across the crop field, depending on
the purpose, either on the contour or perhaps
even perpendicular to prevailing troublesome
winds. Several factors are used to determine
the interval between the row(s) of trees or
shrubs including slope length, field width, crop
light requirements and equipment width.
As mentioned earlier, landowner objectives

will determine the products to be harvested
from the alley cropping practice. These objec- Single vs. Mixed Species - The row(s) of trees
tives also determine the arrangement of trees/ can have either a single species in the row or
shrubs and crops and the set of management mixed species. A single species is the easiest to
practices needed to obtain those products. Al- plant but a mixed species planting with simi-
ley cropping practices are highly diverse and lar growth rates and site requirements may
range from simple to complex. Plantings can provide greater economic and environmental
consists of a single tree species or a number of diversity.
species. Similarly, single tree rows or multiple
rows may be used. Factors to consider when deciding how many
rows to establish and the arrangement of the
There are several key factors to consider when trees within the rows may be based on a num-
planning and establishing the practice on a ber of potential benefits including:
given site:
• Annual crop being produced and area re-
Layout: Tree Arrangement moved from production by tree/shrub rows
• Desired tree/shrub crops and management
• Single or mixed species
needed to enhance production (such as weed
• Number of tree rows - single vs. multiple
control and pruning)
• Alley width: Between row spacing
• Erosion concerns that multiple rows and
• Within row spacing
combinations of trees/shrubs/grasses can
better address
With a conservation perspective in mind, slope • Wildlife habitat created through multiple
length relates to the spacing needed to reduce rows of combined trees/shrubs/grasses
water erosion. The light requirement for the
crop or forage to be grown in the alleyway Single vs. Multiple Row Sets of Trees -The single
must be considered prior to tree establishment. row takes up the least amount of space but the
Finally, alley width must be set as multiples of trees will probably require pruning to enhance
the widest field equipment width. the quality of the future wood product. Multi-
ple rows, however, will result in self pruning of
the interior row(s). Conifers are a good choice
as the “trainer” trees in the outside rows since
hardwood species will tend to bend toward the
light in the alleyway thus reducing their wood
value except for chips. Nitrogen-fixing “nurse
trees” can also be used.

trees are open on at least two sides,
and therefore have less competi-
tion between trees within each
row, when compared to multiple
row configurations. Single tree
rows add diversity to a typical row
crop field. Researchers think the
greatest value to wildlife of woody-
herbaceous buffers are the benefits
created through breaking-up the
traditional mono-culture setting
associated with agriculture. Vegeta-
tion change and structural diversity
is an important tool in controlling
agricultural pests. Products com-
ing from the farm are diversified
through the addition of trees and
their products.
Advantages to double rows:

• Environment maintained
• Reduced competition
• Wildlife habitat
• Economics
When rows are offset, double rows
of trees maintain similar advantages
to that of single row plantings while
improving the potential to realize
Top: Triple row of trees using conifers to train high-value hardwoods. A environmental benefits, such as soil
single-row tree strip is also shown. Bottom: aerial view of single, double and water protection. Compared
and triple row configurations for alley cropping at the Horticulture and
Agroforestry Research Center, New Franklin, Mo.
to rectangular grid patterns of tree
planting, double rows allow maxi-
mum utilization of space for com-
Advantages to single rows:
panion crops.
• Environment maintained
• Less tree to tree competition Competition for light between trees can be
• Reduced competition between components reduced through offset row configurations.*
• Wildlife habitat enhanced Multiple rows of trees planted in offset con-
• Plant-insect relationships increased figurations maintain exposure of a majority of
• Economics improved each trees crown/canopy to sunlight. Double
rows provide the same benefits as a single row
Single rows create the proper environment for alley crop setting, but allow structure (vertical
nut trees to develop full crowns. Trees in single and horizontal vegetative layering and density
rows which are spaced further apart develop components) and diversity (variety of spe-
wider, more branched crowns. Conversely, if cies planted) to be increased. This creates an
high value tree form is important, then closely environment for greater utilization of the tree
spaced trees may encourage self pruning and row by increased numbers of wildlife species.
straight bole development. In single rows, Finally, products coming from the farm are fur-

ther diversified. It is also possible that thinned Economic benefits are similar to double row
trees can provide early economic gain (prior to configurations. As with double rows, addition-
final crop tree maturation). al trees per acre in multiple row configurations
may also qualify these plantings for cost-share
[*As mentioned, caution should be observed assistance and create opportunities for me-
since deciduous hardwood trees will exhibit a dium-term tree crops to be removed for cash
tendency to grow towards light. If an environ- flow (e.g., trees grown for landscaping).
ment of unequal lighting is created (more light
to one side of a trees’ crown), most hardwood
species will grow towards sunlight, and away
from competition. This can cause devaluing of
the tree for wood products due to sweep (stem
curvature). ]
Advantages to multiple rows:

• Benefit from competition between tree rows
• Wildlife habitat
• Plant-Insect relationships
• Economics
Certain trees will benefit from some light
competition. For high value wood, it is desir-
able to grow a single, straight stem. Trees and Crown competition between adjacent trees (A) as
/or shrubs planted on either side of a high compared to the increased growing space available to
value tree species, can be used to train the stem individual trees when planting in an offset configuration
of that tree. By using ‘trainer’ trees on either (B). Double or triple rows of long-needled hard pines
(e.g., cold tolerant loblolly or pitch x loblolly hybrids) can
side of the high value tree, natural pruning be grown either as (A) or (B). A byproduct of a double or
and straight stem growth can be encouraged. triple planting is the potential for pine straw production
Ultimately, this starts the process (may also within tree rows.
require pruning) of producing a straight, clear
(small or no knots) log of higher quality than
Tree and shrub arrangement
might be grown in an open setting. However,
To enhance the growth of trees in multiple-row
choosing the correct ‘trainer’ species is impor-
plantings, staggering the trees between adja-
tant because you do not want the outside trees
cent rows will permit maximum crown de-
to outgrow your center tree. If they do, they
velopment. Staggered spacing provides more
will provide too much shade.
room to grow.
Wildlife habitat potential increases greatly with
Alley Width: between tree row/set spacing: If
a wider row of trees. Increased numbers of
wood production is of primary importance,
animals will use this area for travel lanes and
closer row spacing is desirable. Wider row
the interior creates protective cover opportuni-
spacing is preferred when nut production is
ties for birds and small mammals.
desired.

Plant-insect benefits are the same for single
and double row configurations, though some
additional advantages may be realized by di-
versifying the species planted.

spacing. If erosion control is desired, a closer
spacing would give better results. If the tree
stock is of unknown origin and quality, a closer
spacing would also be desirable to give more
opportunities to select the best quality trees
during succeeding thinnings. Closer spacing
may also be required if minimum numbers of
trees per acre are required to meet government
cost share requirements. However, if expensive
grafted tree stock is used for nut production, a
wider spacing may be used to reduce cost.
For example, trees that are grown tightly

Equipment Travel Lanes: The use of trees
planted in rows can allow equipment passage
spaced will have a tendency to grow up, to-
in any number of directions. wards the light. This growth trait is highly
desirable when growing trees for quality
wood production. Additionally, as these tightly
The spacing should also be adjusted based spaced trees begin to shade one another, each
on multiples of the widest farm equipment to of their branches in the shade will begin to die
be used in the alley way. Spacing to accom- and eventually fall off. This is called self-prun-
modate equipment is particularly important ing, and is again desirable when trying to grow
in nut production when early crown develop- high quality wood in timber production.
ment is desirable. Plan alleys such that full, or
multiple, passes of the equipment are utilized.
For example, if using a 13-foot wide disk it
Tree and Shrub Selection:
may be desirable to have an alleyway 60 feet Desirable Characteristics
wide. This allows for 4 passes with the disk There are a number of desirable characteristics
(52 feet) and a buffer (to ensure damage is not for trees or shrubs that will be grown in an al-
done to the base of the tree) of 4 feet adjacent ley cropping system. It is not necessary (prob-
to each tree row (8 feet; 4 feet on either side ably not possible) that all the following charac-
of the cropped alley). teristics be exhibited by one tree species:
• Produces a commercially valuable product
The number of years that light-demanding or multiple products (i.e., timber, nuts) that
crops are to be grown in the alleyways is has an acceptable local market.
another consideration: • Relatively fast growing (medium growth
• 60 feet spacing will generally allow crop rate on high value trees is acceptable) or
production (e.g. corn, soybeans, cereals, highly valued for production or conservation
etc.) for 5-10 years benefits
• 80-120 foot spacing will allow production • Produces appropriate shade for the compan-
for up to 20 years or more ion crop
• As the shade increases over the life of the • Be adapted to a variety of sites and soils
trees, it may be necessary to change the • Deep-rooted with minimal roots at the soil
companion crop being grown in the alley- surface to minimize competition with crops
way (see plant material section). in the alleyway.
• Have foliage with minimal acid-generating
Within Tree Row Spacing: The primary objec-
potential if companion crops prefer a pH
tive for the trees, and the cost of the planting
neutral soil. Conifers acidify soil, combine
stock, will help determine the within-row
well with acid loving crops.

• Does not produce growth inhibitory chemi- Plant Materials:
cals (allelochemicals) that would prevent
Trees for Alley Cropping
some crops from growing near them (e.g.,
black walnut) Black walnut: Outstanding markets available
for wood. Opportunities exist for the sale of wild
• Have a growing season that complements nuts, cultivars provide a higher return. Produces
the companion crop light shade, has a short foliage period, and is deep
• Produces wildlife benefits rooted. The juglone allelochemical limits compan-
ion crop choices somewhat.
Selecting companion crops
Companion crops are planted in the alleys be- Pecan: Markets available for both wood and nuts.
tween the tree rows. The choice of companion Markets exist for nuts from native wild pecans and
crop will vary depending on the types of trees for cultivars. Nuts more valuable than the wood.
selected and the crop(s) desired by the grower. More shade produced than with walnut but no
allelochemicals.
There are three major groups of crops which
can be grown in an alley cropping practice: 1)
Row/cereal and forage crops; 2) Fruits and Oaks: The wood has a high value and the acorns
are good wildlife food. The oaks are relatively slow
other specialty crops; and 3) biomass produc-
growing and produce fairly dense shade.
ing crops.
Chestnuts: Chinese chestnut produce valuable
Initially, the growing environment in the alley
nuts at an early age, are blight resistant and adapt-
will be favorable to row crops requiring full sun ed to the climate of the eastern U.S. Prices are high
(corn, soybeans, wheat) or forages. Potential and markets are growing for domestic producers.
companion crops include row/cereal crops, for-
ages, fruits and other specialty crops, biomass Nut or fruit bearing shrubs: The hazelnut, paw-
producing crops. paw, blueberries, etc. could be used as stand-alone
hedgerows or in combination with other taller tree
As trees grow taller and develop larger crowns, species
they will exert greater influence on the growing
environment in the alley with increased shade,
water and nutrient competition and humidity While availability of sunlight is a primary factor
levels, along with decreased temperatures and that determines how well row crops or for-
decreased wind movement. ages perform in the alley, water and nutrient
competition is even more significant. The tree
canopy density will be partially determined by
the spacing of the trees within a row and the
width between tree rows. This spacing will also
influence below ground competition.
Tree/shrub selection for row crops – Corn,

soybeans, wheat, milo, barley, oats, potatoes,
pumpkins, lettuce, peas, etc. have demon-
strated success in alley cropping. Most of these
crops have high light demands. Using corn in
the first few years speeds tree growth by creat-
ing a greenhouse effect for the tree rows. In an
alleyway 60 feet wide, shade will limit their use
after 5-10 years depending on the tree species.

Selection of forage crops – In an alley cropping • Advantages and Disadvantages of Cool
practice, forage crops such as fescue, orchard Season Forages
grass, bluegrass, or alfalfa, are grown for hay Cool-season perennial species are most
production between rows of planted trees, but productive in the spring when tempera-
are not grazed. This distinguishes the alley tures are typically cool and moisture plenti-
cropping practice from a silvopasture practice. ful. They grow less or become dormant
during the hot summer months when mois-
Kentucky 31 tall fescue and orchardgrass toler- ture is often limiting, then increase growth
ate considerable shade and are very productive in the fall.
cool-season grasses. Other potential forages
that show shade tolerance include Kentucky Cool-season forages can be highly competi-
bluegrass, ryegrass, smooth brome, timothy tive with tree crops for moisture and nutri-
and white clover. Winter annuals such as ents, especially in the spring as trees break
cereal grains, crimson clover, and hairy vetch dormancy. As young trees are becoming es-
must be reseeded every year and only provide tablished, it is desirable that no vegetation
one cutting of hay, but do not compete with the grow within a 3-foot radius. To maximize
trees and provide good erosion control. the growth of older trees, vegetation should
be controlled in a diameter approximately
equal to the crown diameter size. However,
this may or may not result in the greatest
economic gain.
Warm-season forages
Warm-season perennial species grow most
during the summer months. Though warm-
season forages have a shorter growing season,
they are still very productive.
Eastern gamagrass, bermuda grass, Switch-

Bluegrass hay is harvested between rows of pecan
grass, Indiangrass, and big bluestem are
trees in this alley cropping example, Shepherd
Farm, Clifton Hill, Mo. examples of warm-season perennial grasses
identified for use in Missouri. Southern cli-
mates may use bahiagrass or bermudagrass.
Cool vs. warm-season forages
It is also necessary to consider whether a cool
or warm season crop and/or forage may be • Advantages and Disadvantages of Warm-
more appropriate for the site conditions and Season Forages
objectives. Studies conducted by the University The root systems associated with warm-
of Missouri have found that many cool-season season forages are typically deeper than
legumes and grasses produce greater biomass cool-season grasses. This makes them an
when grown under partial shade as compared excellent choice for controlling erosion and
to full sun. Some warm-season grasses showed protecting sub-surface water from leached
similar responses, but most were southern pesticides and nutrients. These forages will
temperate zone species. likely be less competitive in the early spring
when many trees are beginning their an-
nual growth. Warm season “clump” grasses
provide excellent habitat for quail in combi-
nation with woody shrubs.

Warm-season forages grow vigorously
Specialty crops that can be produced in full
in the hot summer months. Therefore, a
sun include:
consideration is that this may put them in
competition with trees and other woody • Horticultural plants, such as tomatoes,
vegetation at a time of the year when water pumpkins and blackberries
is quite possibly the most limited resource. • Forages, grains and oilseeds
On the other hand, if a tree species puts on • Tree crops, such as nuts
its growth in late spring, in certain instanc- • Seed production, such as wildflower or select
es a warm-season forage can make a good grasses
companion crop. • Christmas trees
• Shrubs and other landscaping plants
The point is that compatibility, even sea- • Trees for lumber and wood fiber products
sonal compatibility, must be considered
when selecting trees, shrubs, grasses, and
crops for an alley cropping practice. Biomass Crops
Both woody and herbaceous plants for biomass
Integrating Specialty Crops into an production could be an option for the alley-
Alley Cropping Practice
Most often associated with the forest farming
practice, specialty crops also have potential
for integration into alley cropping practices.
Landscaping plants, Christmas trees, small fruit
trees or shrubs and berries can be grown either
temporarily between the permanent in-row
crop trees or in the alleyways. As the alleyways
become more shaded, shade tolerant species
such as redbud, dogwood and spruce could
be grown for landscaping if there is a nearby
market. Plants which can be marketed for their
medicinal, ornamental, or food values (includ-
ing St. John’s Wort, wildflowers for seed, pump-
kins, etc.) also provide unique opportunities for
alley cropping. Species that are light demand-
ing can be established in the alleyways while
those requiring some shade can be planted
within the tree rows as shade develops.
Top: Lettuce intercropped until mid-June followed im-

mediately by a pumpkin intercrop until October. Vineland,
Ontario. Bottom: Grain is alley-cropped in a young pecan
orchard, Georgia, U.S.

ways. “Soft” hardwood species such as cotton-
wood, hybrid poplars, willow, sycamore and
silver maple could be grown for pulp, paper or
oriented strand board if markets are available.
Herbaceous biomass crops (e.g. switchgrass)
are another alternative.
Operation and Maintenance

Pest management: Periodic inspection of the
crops and trees is recommended to detect and
identify possible pests. Insects and diseases
can be significant factors in reducing the health
and vigor of both the tree crop and the inter-
crop. The corrective actions should minimize
the impacts on beneficial insects.
Alley cropping example: Paulownia and winter wheat in
Fertilization and nutrient management: A nor- China. Through careful pruning, the proper shade canopy
mal fertility program should be applied for the can be developed and light levels can be manipulated in an
alley cropping practice. Often, the alley cropping practice
intercrop in the alleyway. Generally, fertiliza-
will transition to more shade tolerant crops, or extensive
tion of the tree crop is not needed, but fertil- tree removal by thinning will be needed in order to main-
izing the intercrop may also benefit the trees. tain light levels.
Competition for nutrients can be minimized
by root pruning or by adding more nutrients. Periodic root “training” will improve crop yields:
Nutrients can be added in the form of chemi- Based on research into tree and crop interac-
cal fertilizer, animal manure or a wide range of tions it has been shown that even during the
other materials. This may also include the use early years of tree development, competition
of living mulches or green manures. for water and/or nutrients is the major reason
for reduced crop yields. By early (beginning
Canopy management (Pruning): If there is too with young trees) and repeated (annual, bien-
much shade under an existing stand of trees, nial) deep ripping of lateral roots, the number
the canopy can be pruned to allow more light of tree roots can be significantly decreased in
to reach the understory plants. You may be able the plow zone. Row crops will continue to pro-
to accomplish this by clear-stem pruning for duce commercial yields even as shade levels
improved timber production. This involves the increase.
removal of branches low on the stem of a tree
in order to raise the height at which the canopy Weed Control: Weed control for an alley crop-
begins. This allows more light to enter the ping includes both the rows of trees and the
understory from side angles while also creating intercrop. For the tree row(s), weeds need to be
adequate space for operating equipment. Re- minimized usually for the first three to five years
member, removing more than 40% of the trees in a band about three feet on each side of the
foliage will significantly reduce the growth of trees. Weed removal can be done in a number
the tree. It is best to always have 40-50% of a of different ways, from herbicides and cutting
tree’s height in crown or foliage. to cultivation. An additional consideration for
use in controlling weeds adjacent to trees may
include mulch, fabric barriers or living mulches.
Nothing will improve the growth of trees and
shrubs like the control of competing grasses.

Maintenance tasks specific to trees: Economic Incentives for
• Replanting: Replant all trees or shrubs that Alley Cropping
have failed for the first 3 years.
There are many agencies offering programs
• Branch Pruning: Pruning of the trees may that can be used to establish and maintain
be necessary to improve wood quality, the agroforestry practices on private land. One of
microenvironment for the companion crop, the most significant of these agencies is the
allow equipment access, or correct storm USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service
damage. (NRCS), which offers the Environmental Quality
• Root Pruning: Deep ripping of tree roots Incentive Program (EQIP) that may be utilized
(up to 24 inches deep) projecting into the toward agroforestry practices like alley crop-
companion crop area will reduce competi- ping.
tion. Unless down from the outset, do not rip
both sides of the trees the same year. Allow a The EQIP program is designated for environ-
2-year interval before ripping the other side. mental concerns associated with livestock
Deep ripping will need to be repeated on an production. Landowners engaged in livestock
annual or biennial interval. or agricultural production can apply for 1 to
• Thinning: The tree rows will normally need 10-year contracts through a competitive appli-
to be thinned to increase light in the alley- cation process based on environmental bene-
ways and speed production of high value fits. Eligible lands include cropland, rangeland,
crop trees. pasture, forestland, and other farm and ranch
lands. Conservation practices are designed
To achieve the objective of maximum tree with the help of USDA/NRCS and other agen-
growth rates throughout the timber rotation, cies to address the locally-identified priority
growers must be willing to periodically thin resource concerns. EQIP contracts provide
out trees. Failure to do so dramatically and cost-share payments up to 50 percent of the es-
adversely impacts future tree growth rates and tablishment cost for conservation practices and
rotation length. various incentive payments. For alley cropping

practices, EQIP will pay $50 per acre for first • Pest Management (595)
3 years on land planted in trees and the grass • Wildlife Upland Habitat Management
strip adjacent to trees. No more than 50% of (645)
the cropland can be enrolled. (Numbers in parentheses are NRCS Conserva-
tion Practice Codes.)
NRCS Standard 311 identifies the guidelines Note: Cost share reimbursement rates vary by
for establishing an alley cropping practice for state and by year.
EQIP. For more information, contact your local
USDA/NRCS office. Summary
Alley Cropping needs to be part of an overall
Additional USDA programs to establish and management system including crop rotation,
maintain an alley cropping practice are offered crop residue management, combinations of
through the Forest Service (FS) and the Sus- buffer practices, pest management and nutri-
tainable Agriculture Research and Education ent management. Alley Cropping can help di-
(SARE) program. See chart below for a listing of versify farm enterprises, protect soil, improve
incentives offered by these federal agencies or air and water quality, enhance fish and wildlife
consult the UMCA publication “Funding Incen- habitat, conserve biodiversity, and beautify the
tives for Agroforestry in Missouri.” landscape.
Funding incentive for Alley Cropping

through EQIP:
Success Story
$50 payment per acre for first 3 years on
Paul Smith
land in trees and grass strip adjacent to
20-acre alley cropping practice, Northwest Mis-
trees. No more than 50% of the cropland
souri, near Claremont
can be enrolled.
Cost Share Opportunities: Alley cropping is the

tree or shrub component of an overall conser-
vation management system for cropland or
hayland. To be an effective conservation man-
agement system, several other conservation
practices need to be considered for inclusion in
the system depending on the objectives to be
achieved.
• Conservation Crop Rotation (328)
• Crop Residue Management (329, 344)
• Contour Farming (330)
• Contour Buffer Strips (332)
Contour Orchard & Other Fruit Area (331)
“I guess I was a little hesitant at first to plant
• Filter Strip (393)
trees. I wondered at times what some of my
• Forage Harvest Management (511)
farmer friends and neighbors would think of
• Grassed Waterway (412)
covering good bottomland with trees. My wife
• Stripcropping, Contour (585)
reminded me that her father had spent his
• Terrace (600)
lifetime clearing this off and now we’re plant-
• Pasture and Hayland Planting (512)
ing it back in trees.
• Nutrient Management (590)

“In 1999 we seeded this field to orchard grass,
and alfalfa. The first cutting that year produced
about 3 tons per acre, and I feel that we ben-
efit from the alley cropping because we have
a short-term benefit of the crops between the
tree rows -- and eventually, my family or some-
one else will benefit from the tree crop.”
Success Story
Dan Shepherd Early spring, winter wheat in a young Chi-
nese chestnut orchard, Napton, Mo.
Shepherd Farms – Bluegrass hay and pecan alley
cropping practice, buffalo ranch and agritourism
business, Clifton Hill, Mo.
Winter wheat harvest in a young Chinese

chestnut orchard, Napton, Mo.
Dan Shepherd raises buffalo for processing into

lean, high-quality meats and jerky, in addition
to his pecan and bluegrass hay alley cropping
practice. Shepherd Farms is also a nationwide
leader in production, wholesale and retail dis-
tribution of Eastern Gamagrass seed.
“Alley cropping is ideal for achieving both our

production and conservation benefits,” said
Shepherd. “We earn an annual income off the
ground, while the trees are being established.
We also enjoy an abundance of wildlife in the
habitat created by alley cropping. While the
crops are growing we see deer, turkey and
quail utilizing this ground and the trees.”

National Agroforestry Center:

http://nac.unl.edu/alleycropping.htm
The Center for Agroforestry at the University of Missouri:

http://www.centerforagroforestry.org
Alley Cropping: http://www.centerforagroforestry.org/practices/ac.php
Alley Cropping video:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b8Kwb5yInPM
In Print:
Garrett, H.E. (editor) 2009. North American Agroforestry: An Integrated Science and Practice (2nd
Edition). American Society of Agronomy. pp. 133-162. (Chapter 7)
From the United Kingdom:

http://www.agroforestry.co.uk/silvoar.html
Manage Insects on Your Farm. http://www.sare.org/publications/insect.htm
For additional information on the characteristics of individual forage species:

Forages Vol. 1: An Introduction to Grassland Agriculture by Barnes, Miller, & Nelson, 1995, Iowa
State University Press
Southern Forages by Ball, Hoveland, & Lacefield, 1991, Potash and Phosphate Institute Pasture Man-
agement Guide for Northern Missouri by USDA NRCS, Ingalls, John J., 1998. From USDA SARE.

EXERCISE: REVIEW OF ALLEY CROPPING
1. What factors affect the width between your rows?
2. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages to alley cropping?
3. What are advantages and drawbacks of utilizing narrow vs. wide alleyways?
4. Identify two management practices that are critical to maintaining tree growth over
time.
5. Why is root pruning performed on tree/shrub species in alley cropping?
6. Removing what percent or more of the tree’s foliage can have a serious impact on the
growth of the tree?
7. How do you determine how far apart to plant trees in a tree line and how far apart to
plant the tree rows? Is there such a thing as a wrong distance, such as too far apart or too
close together?

EXERCISE KEY
1. What factors affect the width between your rows? Landowner goals and objectives, desired
crops, uses for trees, and width of existing crop production equipment all impact between and
within row widths.
2. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages to alley cropping? Advantages:
Short-term cash flow, trees benefit from crop fertilization, sun crops compete with weeds,
reduce runoff, form of windbreaks, and provide increased economic diversity and long-term
payoff. Disadvantages- Tree rows are obstacles for cultivation, provide competition for sunlight,
moisture, and nutrients, and require more intensive management. Herbicide drift from crops
may damage trees. Sun crops will need to be exchanged for more shade tolerant crops over
time.
3. What are advantages and drawbacks of utilizing narrow vs. wide alleyways? Narrow al-
leys with more tree rows permit greater production of trees and shrubs per acre of land putting
an emphasis on the value of the woody crop. Narrower alleys will also become shaded within
just a few years forcing a shift from sun to shade loving crops. Wide alleys permit sun loving
crops to be grown for many years and are often more compatible with farm equipment
4. Identify two management practices that are critical to maintaining tree growth over
time. Ongoing weed control around the base of the trees, using herbicides, mulch, fabric bar-
riers or living mulches is absolutely essential for rapid tree growth and establishment. As the
trees age and grow, thinning out crowded trees within the row will enable the trees to maintain
maximum growth rates over the long haul.
5. Why is root pruning performed on tree/shrub species in alley cropping? Tree roots can be
pruned (severed) or “trained” to reduce competition for water and nutrients.
6. Removing what percent or more of the tree’s foliage can have a serious impact on the
growth of the tree? Removing over 40% of the crown of the tree will reduce its growth.
7. How do you determine how far apart to plant trees in a tree line and how far apart to
plant the tree rows? Is there such a thing as a wrong distance, such as too far apart or too
close together? (See question #1) Depending on the emphasis of nut or wood production,
and what kinds of crops are planned on, the width of the alleys must be adjusted to meet these
plans. Wood production is compatible with narrow rows and multiple rows; nut production
requires single rows and wide spacing between trees.
A “wrong” distance would be any planting configuration that does not meet the landowners
short-, medium- and long-term objectives resulting is lower production from desired crops
or reduced tree growth or poor tree form. Row-to-row distance also must match with existing
equipment.

Notes

Chapter 4: Silvopasture
In this chapter: 1. Establish trees into existing pasture.
• Defining a Silvopasture The right choice of tree crop (often matched
• General Benefits and to soils) allows you to carry on a profitable
Limitations livestock operation while creating a long-term
investment in timber and/or forest products.
• Components of a Silvopasture: Live-
Young trees allow plenty of light for forage
stock, Trees, Forages production. Additionally, as the tree compo-
• Summary nent develops, shade and wind protection
• Success Story will enhance livestock performance. Success
• Frequently Asked Questions and longevity of the practice hinges on two
• Additional Resources primary factors: control of the grass growth
• Exercise and Key around young trees (necessary for early tree
• UMCA Research development) and proper management of tree
densities (necessary for light management and
forage long-term production).
2. Establish forages in the woods.

By establishing select forages in an intensively
manipulated forest environment, the area can
then be jointly managed for grazing and timber
production. In most forests, the key to success-
ful silvopasturing will be forage production.
Levels of forage production will hinge on two
factors: having the light necessary for forage
growth and response, and proper rotational
grazing. Soil fertility should be adjusted to en-
hance forage development, and light adjusted
by reducing tree density and managing tree
spacing. It is important to recognize that long-
term timber value and silvopasture viability
Cattle graze among Missouri pecan trees in this well-
managed silvopasture practice. hinges on keeping trees appropriate for the site
and of high quality. Forages should be selected
that match grazing objectives and light avail-
ability.
Defining Silvopasture
Silvopastoral practices intentionally integrate General Benefits of
the management of trees, forages, and grazing
livestock for a production benefit. It is impor-
Silvopasture
tant to note that allowing livestock to graze • Diversify farm enterprise
in a natural woodland area without active • Improved growth of high quality trees
livestock/forage grazing management is NOT • Reduced stress and improved animal pro-
considered agroforestry. Silvopasture can be ductivity
created using two different approaches: • Improved nutrient cycling
• Enhanced wildlife habitat

Properly applied on a landscape, the landowners to manage livestock, as well as
silvopasture practice can enhance and diversify trees and forage plants. This three-way interac-
farm income opportunities, provide environ- tion means there are three factors to consider
mental benefits and create wildlife habitat. Cur- when designing your agroforestry practice:
rent research is focused on understanding the livestock, trees, and forages.
dynamics of the silvopastoral practice (i.e., in-
teractions between trees, forages and livestock). The five variables in a silvopastoral practice
The expected outcome is that silvopastoral that can be subjected to management are live-
practices will improve the productivity of the stock, livestock grazing practice, tree species,
grazing animal, the quality and diversity of for- tree density, and forage species. The majority of
age available to the grazing animal and wildlife, research conducted has evaluated silvopastoral
and effectively interpose timber stand improve- practices under conifers (mostly pine) with
ment across a wide array of forested land. only limited evaluation of hardwood-based
practices. Most hardwood research has been
General Limitations of conducted with either oak species or nut-
bearing species (e.g., black walnut, pecan). In
Silvopasture certain instances under deciduous tree stands,
• Producer should already be practicing forage production has been reported to be
some type of rotational grazing equal or even greater than in open exposure to
• Distance and access to water sunlight. Fescue and orchardgrass production
• Challenges establishing young trees has been shown to be greater under a 35-year-
• Challenges introducing forages to existing old walnut canopy than in open pastures.
woodlands
Managed grazing practices, similar to open pas-
• Maintaining proper light levels
tures, should be developed and implemented to
• Fencing issues
maximize forage production in a silvopastoral
practice. The increased forage production un-
Converting all of a pasture grazing system to
der a canopy would result in increased stocking
silvopastures is unlikely on a wide scale. Many
rate potential and greater productivity per unit
farm managers have a wide variety of exist-
of land.
ing resources. Choose pastures where tree
growth could be ideal and mix with compatible
forage(s). A. Livestock
Cattle and sheep are primarily used in silvo-
Management Intensive Grazing (MiG) helps to pastoral practices. Animal performance can
divide the farm into management units. Use be enhanced via use of silvopastoral practices.
the silvopastures strategically to compliment This occurs from reduction of heat stress and
the grazing system. Creating small, fenced pad- improved forage availability and nutritional
docks and rotating cattle builds in “recovery quality. However, there may be instances where
periods” for the forage and protects the soil browsing livestock, such as species of goats,
and the trees. Grazing recovery periods can can be used to eliminate undesirable understo-
only be achieved when well-designed livestock ry vegetation. In these instances, the livestock
water supplies and cross fences are used. receive forage benefits from the woodland, and
the woodland is enhanced when invasive or
Components of undesirable vegetation is eliminated. Selecting
appropriate livestock will help landowners to
Silvopasture achieve their objectives.
Silvopasture practices are different from other
types of agroforestry because they require

The greatest difference between silvopastoral • Consider using tank covers on permanent
and “open” management of cattle or sheep is tanks
the contrasting environmental conditions. In • Consider installing water within 600 feet
the open, such as a conventional pasture or travel distance
range, radiant heat can be much more intense
than in a shaded environment. Shade has been Animals acquire water through drinking and
shown to improve animal performance, with from the moisture in the forage they eat. As air
primary emphasis placed upon heat stress temperature increases water requirements also
amelioration. Research with cattle has shown increase. This becomes especially critical as air
that compared to unshaded or sparsely shaded temperatures exceed 77 degrees F. The need
pasture, uniformly distributed shade results in for available drinking water is compounded
maximum grazing time. because forages become drier at higher tem-
peratures. At 90 F, a 600 pound growing steer
Heat and cold stress can adversely affect cattle needs about 13 gallons of water per day. At 60
throughout much of the temperate zone in F, that need falls to eight gallons per day. One
North America. Protection from cold can be distinct advantage of a silvopasture system
important for livestock in northern climates. is that shade is distributed throughout the
Properly positioned trees and shrubs can pasture and greatly reduces high temperature
provide much needed protection for pastures, stress on livestock.
feedlots, and calving areas. Reducing wind
speed lowers animal stress, improves animal Water requirements vary for the kind, size, age,
health and increases feeding efficiency of live- and breed of livestock. For example, Bos taurus
stock. breeds of cattle (European types) generally
consume more water than Bos indicus breeds
It takes careful management to ensure live- (such as Brahman-influenced breeds). Dairy
stock do not damage young trees. Success will breeds need significantly more water than
depend on your understanding of livestock beef breeds. The rule-of-thumb used by some
behavior. livestock managers is one gallon of water per
day per 100 pounds of body weight per animal.
Grazing Considerations Water use also varies considerably depending
• Grazing - early stages: upon the animal’s health, air temperature, wa-
Protect trees from livestock in early stages of ter temperature, stage of lactation, and other
growth. Electric fencing works well. Once tree environmental factors.
limbs are out of reach of stock, there is less to
worry about. Water Distribution
• Grazing - later stages: Daily intake of water increases when travel dis-
Tree growth likely to reduce annual forage pro- tance is less than 600 feet. Water consumption
duction annually once a full canopy develops. may be 15 percent higher in small paddocks
Choosing a shade tolerant forage is important. with water in every field (less than 600 feet
More aggressive forages are less of a problem. of travel) than in similar systems with water
Fit silvopasture practices into the overall graz- available at a single source (where cattle may
ing “system”. travel between 600 and 2,000 feet to water).
When water is located close to the forage re-
Special Water Considerations for source, the herd’s “social structure” is modified
Silvopasture such that animals tend to water more frequent-
ly as individuals. This tends to keep the herd
• Consider using portable water tanks
dispersed throughout the paddock and results
• If installing permanent tanks, consider
in a greater portion of time spent grazing.
concrete tanks

Of course, it is not always possible to install Fencing
the “ideal” water system and many successful Proper pasture
grazers utilize water in pastures larger than rotation provides
32 acres with travel distances to water greater “recovery periods”
than 600 feet. Dedicated travel lanes have been for the grazed
successful to allow cattle to travel to central forage, minimizes
water locations. This approach, however, is soil compaction,
best suited to level terrain and locations with and protects trees
only slight erosion hazards. To compensate for in a silvopasture
less than ideal situations special care must be system. There are
taken to monitor grazing impacts on trees and several key com-
forages. Adjusting the stocking levels and graz- ponents in an ef-
ing rotation periods can help protect both the fective and easily
forage and the trees in a silvopasture practice managed fencing Fencing, placed approximately
with water distribution problems. system: 3 feet from tree seedlings, is
effective at reducing browsing
• An ener-
Water supply options for silvopasture include damage from livestock.
gized fence
wells, creeks, ponds, springs and even munici- is primarily a
pal or rural water systems. Ponds can provide a psychological barrier and can only be effec-
good reliable source of drinking water for live- tive if the fence carries enough current to
stock and wildlife, as well as providing other deliver a “deterrent” shock. Alternating cur-
benefits. Consider utilizing portable livestock rent (AC) powered units are generally the
tanks that can be removed during tree manage- best choice for energizing a fence if 220- or
ment or harvesting operations. 110-volt power is available. For remote ar-
eas, battery powered systems with solar re-
Browsing charge may be necessary. In a silvopasture
Poorly managed livestock can cause two types practice, the potential for malfunction
of damage to trees: browsing and trampling. increases with the risk of falling branches
Livestock preferences are predictable; they will or trees damaging the system.
choose grass before they browse conifer trees. • To assure effective operation, the energized
However, conifers are attractive to livestock fence should have a proper-sized energizer.
when they are flushing in spring, so that is a Generally one-joule output per mile of
good time to keep animals and trees apart. fence is sufficient. Be properly grounded
In hardwoods/deciduous trees, livestock with a minimum of three feet of ground
browse can be a problem at anytime. When rod per joule output. Be protected from
available, livestock will seek out nutritional lightning by installing a surge protector at
forage. The browsing of terminal shoots by do- the power source, a lightning choke at the
mestic or wild animals will result in deformity fence, and an additional ground rod every
and loss of tree growth. It is therefore desir- 3,000 feet of fence.
able to have physical protection around hard- • High tensile wire is recommended when
wood seedlings. Wire cages, or a single strand using energized fences for border areas and
of high tensile electric wire along both sides is also used for cross fencing. The number
of a seedling (usually 3 feet from seedlings), of strands depends upon the type of live-
or seedling row, have been shown effective at stock being grazed. Generally, a minimum
reducing browse damage. of four- to six- strands is recommended for
border fencing and one to three strands for
cross fencing cattle. Other types of livestock
often require special considerations such

as distance above the ground of the bot-
Levels of management for livestock
tom wire, and distance between wires for
• Optimal: Timing livestock access to the
smaller livestock like goats and sheep.
area to maximize positive interactions
• Polywire or polytape can be used for tem-
with the forages and minimize negative
porary or portable cross fencing to create
interactions with tree seedlings. Frequent
smaller paddocks for intensive grazing or
rotation to optimize forage health.
to allocate stockpiled pastures for winter
• Improved: Moving livestock when
grazing. This enhances the manager’s abil-
forage supply is starting to decline and
ity to provide optimum, forage recovery
seedling trees have minimal damage.
periods.
• Poor: “Dumping” livestock on an area
• Fencing, placed approximately 3-feet from and leaving for extended periods of time,
tree seedlings, is effective at reducing causing overgrazing of forages and dam-
browsing damage from livestock. age o trees obstacle planting in a row
creates a ‘fence’ that steers animals on
Trampling damage pasture pathways between and around
The damage livestock do by stepping on (or tree seedlings.
against) a seedling, as well as rubbing off the
bark, is the number one cause of tree seedling
death. Generally, trees are most susceptible
However, with the selection of appropriate tree
when less than 16 inches tall, and during the
species and changes in planting design, it is
period of rapid growth in early spring. Tram-
possible to grow more than 300 trees per acre
pling damage causes deformation and weaken-
while maintaining good forage for a longer pe-
ing of the stem, and may also provide an entry
riod. As an example, this can be accomplished
point for pests and disease.
by planting at a 8-foot intervals between trees
with 18 feet between rows.
You can also use obstacle planting to create
patterns that will help control livestock move-
Conventional planting is done on a grid pattern.
ment. When planting trees, it’s important to vi-
However, by using different configurations,
sualize where animals could be encouraged to
such as the planting scheme mentioned above,
walk. With that in mind, you can use a tractor
or by establishing tree clusters across a pad-
to position small logs or logging debris in rough
dock, the time between required thinnings may
lines to guide the livestock and keep them away
be increased and the area available for forage
from seedlings. Unlike a standard planting grid
growth may be maximized. Much wider spac-
pattern, obstacle planting in a row creates a
ing between tree rows is feasible and depends
‘fence’ that steers animals on pasture pathways
upon the landowner’s objectives. In all but the
between and around tree seedlings.
most widely spaced initial plantings, such as 40
feet by 40 feet, thinnings will at some point be
B. Trees necessary in order to maintain light levels suf-
Typically, reforestation is designed to produce ficient for forage production.
quality trees for wood production. Conse-
quently, initial planting densities do not often
coincide with producing good livestock forage.
Even where good forage is available, supply
decreases dramatically once the canopy closes
past 50 percent. If trees are planted at 12-foot
intervals, then, depending on site condition,
that may happen after only 5 to 10 years.

shrub row and between tree/shrub rows. Tree
arrangement, either during tree establish-
ment in pastures or as a result of thinning
trees within managed forested stands, can vary
greatly among trees in single, double or mul-
tiple rows; individual widely spaced trees; and/
or clustered or grouped trees.
Advantages of single and multiple row

plantings
Single Row
• Better crown space for nut production
Tree arrangement on the land • Maintenance is simplified (such as mow-
The proper design plan of any silvopasture ing)
practice should consider the spacing between • Diversified landscape is created
select trees and shrubs, both within a tree/ • Farm production is enhanced
Multiple Row
Desirable characteristics of an
• Enhanced erosion control
agroforestry tree species
• Better growth of trees for timber
• Marketable. This includes both the wood
itself and other products such as nuts or • Improved wildlife value
fruit, which would provide another source • Greater diversification of farm products
of income.
• Compatible with the companion crops
or forage you choose. Some trees pro-
duce growth-inhibiting chemicals which
may effect what you can grow.
• High quality.
• Fast growing or of such a high value
that a species of medium growth rate is
acceptable.
• Deep-rooted so the trees do not com-
pete with the crops or forage for mois-
ture.
• Have rapidly decomposing foliage.
• Be properly matched to the site. Site
An aerial view of the Horticulture and Agroforestry
tolerant, suited to either a wet or dry site. Research Center shows a silvopasture research area pat-
• The leaves should produce a light, tern. Double rows of tree plantings are shown on the left;
rather than a heavy shade. This will be triple rows are on the right. Multiple rows provide large
especially important as the trees mature volumes of wood without overly sacrificing forage produc-
tion.
and the canopy closes. The lighter the
shade that is produced, the longer you
can grow crops or forages.
Differences exist between the results that can
• Capable of producing the products you
be expected from each tree arrangement.
desire.
Landowner objectives will determine the best

arrangement of trees and the forages to be open crown conditions. While used as a tool
used, and it must be remembered that to manage the light available for forage pro-
silvopasture management is intensive and duction, thinning also serves to increase the
dynamic over time. resources (light, water, and nutrients) available
to the remaining higher value trees and there-
There are several key factors to keep in mind fore, should enhance their growth rate.
when establishing the practice on a given site
and determining the width of the alley between Another dual purpose management practice is
rows of trees. Key factors include equipment pruning. Proper pruning of the lower branches,
size, forage, changes through time and thinning to develop a high-value butt log, can increase
and pruning. log value and increase the space available for
operation of equipment. At the same time, this
Factor 1: Equipment Size also increases sunlight available to the forage.
A silvopasture design that plans for occasional
forage removal by mechanical means, must Finally, crown management through pruning
provide space between the trees so that equip- may be beneficial if the desired tree product
ment can move freely. The alley between tree is nuts. An open crown not only allows more
rows should be wide enough to allow clear light to reach interior branch tips (necessary
passage of the widest piece of equipment and for flowering and fruiting), but also will allow
should be organized so that full passes of the increased light to filter through to the forage.
equipment are utilized. Ultimately, the design
should recognize the branch and crown devel-
opment which will occur over time for a given
tree species and that may be associated with
products desired from those trees. For ex-
ample, when planting trees for nut production,
where large crowns are desirable, wider space
between tree rows should be planned.
Factor 2: Forage
Closer tree spacings may be designed for for-
ages which are more shade tolerant, keeping in
mind equipment requirements. However, most
forages need a minimum of 50 percent light,
so plan to manage tree densities to produce A single row of pine and fencing allows for man-
adequate light for forage growth. aged paddock grazing based on forage response to
grazing.
Factor 3: Changes through time

Increased shading occurs as trees mature. As
C. Forage
this happens, a change toward a more shade
As feed for livestock, forage is a vital compo-
tolerant forage will be necessary to maintain
nent of silvopasture practices. Choose forage(s)
suitable yields. These changes can also be
that will do well in the level of shade produced
offset by timely thinning of lower quality trees
by the tree cover and meet the nutritional
and through prunings that reduce branch den-
needs of the chosen livestock. Tree size, den-
sity in a tree’s crown.
sity, and pattern all influence understory forage
production. Typically, combined canopy cover-
Factor 4: Thinning and pruning
age must equal or exceed 35 percent before it
Timely thinning can be used to maintain semi-
significantly impacts forage production. How-

Special Considerations for tree spacing
Within a Row Between a Row
• Federal/State subsidy program requirements • Production vs. conservation objectives
• Production vs. conservation benefits • Wood production vs. other tree products
• Wood production vs. other tree products • Light requirement of forage
• Grafted vs. seedling planted stock Duration of grazing regime
• Markets for small-diameter material • Width of farm equipment
ever, many cool season grasses and legumes

perform well in 50 percent shade. Recognize
that shade produced by the canopy will in-
crease over time as the trees mature.
Establishing pastures in the forest

1. Prepare your site for seeding as soon as
possible after thinning (crop tree) or harvest-
ing (selection cutting or improvement harvest)
from the forest, so native vegetation doesn’t
have a chance to respond to canopy removal
and invade the site.
2. Seed immediately after site preparation Annual rye and timothy grass grow well in shaded envi-
(light fire or disking, and necessary soil amend- ronments, as shown here under 8-year-old walnut grown
ments like lime or fertilizer) to give domestic between rows of pine.
forage the jump on native competitors.
Forage growth and interaction
3. Lay out pastures and fencing for rotational
The forage component of a silvopastoral prac-
grazing.
tice can be either competitive or complimenta-
ry with your trees. Your management decisions
4. Install water supply to meet livestock re-
will influence which way the practice develops.
quirements.
As the select forage begins to develop and fill
an area, it may be beneficial for tree growth to
eliminate the forage that would otherwise grow
directly adjacent to the tree. It is desirable to
use a weed mat, herbicide or some other form
of control to eliminate grass growing within
two to three feet of seedlings for up to five
years. Tree growth will greatly benefit.
Cool season forages have their peak produc-

tion in the spring when temperatures are cool.
Later they are harvested or allowed to become
dormant during the summer. These forages
should be grazed no shorter than three inches
and should be six inches in height at the end of
the growing season.
Cool season plants tend to: considerations, do not forget to supply ad-
• Be competitive for spring soil moisture equate water for the livestock. As a rule, keep
• Be less competitive for water in the sum- livestock within 600 feet of water.
mer months when moisture may be limit-
ing to tree growth As a part of a farms grazing system, the
• Many perform reasonably well under par- silvopasture practice can be a nice addition. It
tial shade offers many opportunities to enhance livestock
productivity through both the modified cli-
Warm season grasses should be grazed no mate it provides and the improved forage it is
shorter than 8 inches during the growing capable of producing.
season and by the end of the growing season,
the last grazing rotation should leave the for- Advantages of a Silvopasture Practice:
age with a height of 10 inches. These grasses • Trees improve climate for grazing
achieve most of their growth in the summer • Complements ongoing pasture operations
months. • Shade enhances growth of some forages
• Livestock address short-term cash-flow
Warm season plants tend to: • Problems of forestry
• Be less competitive in the early spring • Improved nutrient cycling
when many trees are beginning their an- • Nitrogen-fixing forage crops also benefit
nual growth trees
• Be more competitive for water during the
summer months when trees are putting on
Disadvantages of a Silvopasture Practice:
the majority of their diameter growth
• Fencing cost may be increased
• Most warm-season grasses native to Mis-
souri do not perform well under partial • Management intensive grazing is required
shade • Equipment operation may be more difficult
Can forage be grown in the shade?

Research at the UMCA has shown that many Major factors influencing forage
cool-season grasses and legumes, when planted production
under 50 percent shade, will perform equally • Tree species
to or better than open grown plants. Better • Tree spacing
performance means overall growth will im- • Tree age
prove (better yields) and often means that • Forage shade tolerance
quality will improve, as well as digestibility. • Forage selection
Why? If you live where it’s dry...

Tree canopies modify the ground level climate. Forage can compete with trees for scarce
The combination of modified climate and moisture. Seed at lower rates and have live-
change in light levels, causes many grasses and stock available to graze before the forage
legumes to both, increase growth (due to modi- becomes competitive. By taking these precau-
fied climate and moisture), and have less lignin tions and matching tree and forage selections,
in their leaves (improved quality). your results should be:
• More palatable forage
Summary • More efficient grazing
Always use managed grazing principles with • More vegetation removal
the silvopasture practice. As a part of grazing

on grass that otherwise would require mow-
Success Story ing, return nutrients through manure, and
Jim Wilson prune the lower limbs of pecan trees. In return,
Pecan and walnut silvopasture practice near Ne- orchard shade encourages cattle to graze and
vada, Mo. gain weight in hot weather. There’s room for
improvement in that symbiotic relationship,
however, says Oklahoma State University (OSU)
extension horticulturist Dean McCraw, who is
using a SARE grant to refine the system. While
most pecan/beef cattle operations use com-
mercial fertilizer and follow a “typical” orchard
spray program, “research has shown that prof-
its and environmental impacts can be improved
by replacing the purchased nitrogen with
legume pastures and developing a customized
pest management system based on scouting
and weather monitoring,” he said. “We are look-
ing at how all these components interact on
real farms.”
“Ever since we’ve been in nut production we’ve
used cattle to control the height of the grass. Legume pastures planted in the orchards
We also benefit from the value of the beef that increased daily weight gain for the steers,
we sell in the fall, in addition to the nuts that improved soil health by reducing grazing com-
we harvest. paction, reduced nitrogen runoff and increased
habitat for beneficial insects. Over the three-
We chose cattle to run in here because we year project, native pecan trees in plots with
fertilize these trees with nitrogen and it causes legume pastures averaged nearly 700 pounds
the grass to grow. By grazing, it gives us extra of pecans per acre and over 250 pounds of
profit from the beef. And it also helps where we beef gain per acre without any added nitrogen
don’t have to mow as much.” fertilizer. The result: a savings of nearly $30 per
acre in fertilizer cost while essentially elimi-
“Another thing that we like about the trees is nating fertilizer runoff potential. The benefit
that it’s cooler on a hot summer day. It’s at least of legumes was most dramatic in flood-prone
ten degrees cooler down here, and the cattle plots, where legumes prove tough enough to
are just scattered out everywhere grazing.” withstand excessive water and out-compete
other vegetation.
While the orchard/beef combo proves useful

in eastern Oklahoma, with its 100,000 acres
2003 SARE Highlights of native pecan trees, another SARE project is
Good Bedfellows: Cattle, pecan trees in an helping ranchers find the system that best suits
environmentally sound mix, Haydon Farm, Oke- their own resources. Damona Doye, OSU exten-
mah, Okla. sion economist, used case studies of cow/calf
Oklahoma ranks second in the nation for native operations to identify management strengths
pecan production and third for its forage-based and weaknesses in animal science, forages,
beef industry, so it’s no surprise that cattle and financial management, and herd health. Dur-
pecans co-exist on about 50,000 acres. They ing the course of the multi-state project, more
make good companions. Cattle gain weight than 100 ranchers in three states identified

potential cost-saving measures of about $3,000
annually each. Doye shared case study find-
ings with other producers during information
exchange forums and offered training to vet-
erinarians and accountants so they can better
assist their farm clients to improve resource
management practices.
Hardwood silvopasture under white oak at the MU Wurdack

Research Center.

Frequently Asked Questions:
Does the silvopasture practice have any long-term effects on soil compaction?
Soil compaction is a valid concern, both from the standpoint of optimizing tree growth, and
from the potentially negative influence compaction can have on forage productivity. Any pas-
ture may have problems from soil compaction. And, while it may be more challenging to see
the effects of compaction on tree growth, it is visible in forage productivity. Therefore, one of
the best ways to gauge whether or not the soil is being overly compacted is by the stand of for-
age being produced. If a forage stand is thin and does not grow back following removal of the
livestock, then soil compaction may be a problem (this assumes that drought or lack of nutrients
is not the factor limiting production). Always strive to not overuse pasture. Sound management,
such as management intensive grazing, is the best method for limiting soil compaction, and
will be evidenced by good forage development. Another way to say this is that if the forage in
a silvopasture practice is maintaining growth and productivity, then compaction is not likely a
problem.
Will rows of trees planted to a pasture develop an open growth form?

There is the potential that trees established in pastures will develop a more open-grown form.
This form, wide crowns and increased branching, while not desirable if trees are grown for
timber, is more desirable for trees grown to produce a nut crop. However, in either case prun-
ing will likely be necessary to enhance productivity and often quality. Nut trees require prun-
ing in order to ensure that light reaches flowers and results in nut development. Timber trees
will likely require pruning for correction to their form and to enhance their quality. If trees are
grown for timber, another option may include planting shrubs/trees adjacent to the timber tree
in order to shade its trunk and encourage upright growth. Trainer trees will help reduce side
branch development and cause the tree to grow up towards better light.
Is the silvopasture practice sustainable?

Sustainability refers to the long-term potential of a practice to continue through multiple
harvests. And, yes the silvopasture practice “trees in the pasture” is sustainable. However, it
becomes sustainable through proper planning and management. Planning should include an
activities schedule that predicts when certain management will need to take place in the life of
the practice. For instance, as newly established trees develop and produce increasing levels of
shade, when will thinnings need to take place to maintain light levels adequate for forage pro-
duction? Is it possible to predict this time? I would say yes, at least within a range. You can do
this by looking at the forest site-index from the soil survey and judging the trees height develop-
ment over time, and of course this will also be dependent on the initial planting density. This
is just one example, but it illustrates the importance of planning and management (really the
thought process of looking out to the future) on creating a reasonably sustainable practice.
Is “pasture in the forest” a proven silvopasture practice?

No. Experimental trials are underway and show promise. However, long-term impacts of cattle
on existing trees in a forest stand, potential for cost-effective regeneration of trees and long-
term maintenance of forage under forest canopies are under investigation. Finally, landowner
willingness to use management-intensive grazing – essential for “pasture in the forest” – is
critical.

Forum/Blog
http://silvopasture.ning.com/
Course
http://www.silvopasture.org/
Video
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VJsKmBbtw7Q and http://centerforagroforestry.org/pubs/vid-
eomain.php
Silvopasture
Cornell Univ.: http://www2.dnr.cornell.edu/ext/info/pubs/MapleAgrofor/Silvopasturing3-3-2011.pdf
USDA NRCS: Information Sheet http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrc-
s144p2_010420.pdf
Garrett, H.E. (editor) 2009. North American Agroforestry: An Integrated Science and Practice (2nd
Edition). American Society of Agronomy. pp. 105-132. (Chapter 6)
Garrett, H.E., M.S. Kerley, K.P. Ladyman, W.D. Ladyman, L.D. Godsey, J.W. VanSambeek and D. K. Brau-
er. 2004. Hardwood silvopasture management in North America. Agroforestry Systems 61: 21-33.
USDA National Agroforestry Center: http://nac.unl.edu/silvopasture.htm
Fike, J. H., Buergler, A. L., Burger, J. A., and Kallenbach, R. L. 2004. Considerations for establishing and
managing silvopastures. Online. Forage and Grazinglands. doi:10.1094/FG-2004-1209-01-RV. http://
www.plantmanagementnetwork.org/pub/fg/review/2004/silvo/
University of Florida: http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/fr145 and http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/fr139
Mississippi State Univ.: http://msucares.com/crops/forages/newsletters/09/4.pdf
Grazing Systems
University of Missouri Extension (Grazing and Watering): http://muextension.missouri.edu/ex-
plorepdf/envqual/EQ0379.pdf http://muextension.missouri.edu/explorepdf/envqual/eq0380.pdf
National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service - ATTRA :
Managed Grazing around Riparian Areas: https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.
php?pub=116
https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/livestock/pasture.html
https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=245

EXERCISE: REVIEW OF THE SILVOPASTURE PRACTICE
What considerations need to be taken into account in order to develop a successful

silvopasture practice?
1. Identify the top three landowner objectives related to creating a silvopasture practice
i.
ii.
iii.
2. What are the three interactive components to consider in design of a successful

silvopasture practice?
i.
ii.
iii.
3. What cost-share or incentive programs are available to assist with the silvopasture prac-
tice (don’t forget to include assistance that might be available to establish managed grazing
systems or watering systems)?
i.
ii.
iii.
4. Do you have any major concerns related to integrating the silvopasture practice with the
current farm layout (such as access and movement of the livestock)?
5. Are there any conservation agencies or groups that could assist in designing integrated
habitat that works with your current farming practices?
i.
ii.
iii.

EXERCISE: REVIEW OF THE SILVOPASTURE PRACTICE
6. What are the two primary ways that livestock can damage trees? And, is there a plan in
place to minimize damage should it occur?
i.
ii.
7. What are the four factors that go into planning alley widths for the silvopasture practice?
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
8. What other considerations are needed to reach the landowner objectives identified in
question #1?

EXERCISE KEY
1. Identify the top three landowner objectives related to creating a silvopasture practice Increase acre-
age available for grazing, Better production from paddocks, Reduced stress on livestock for increased
productivity
2. What are the three interactive components to consider in design of a successful silvopasture prac-
tice? Forage, Livestock, Trees
3. What cost-share or incentive programs are available to assist with the silvopasture practice (don’t
forget to include assistance that might be available to establish managed grazing systems or watering
systems)? EQIP, SWCD Watering, USDA Rotational Grazing/Fence and Watering Systems
4. Do you have any major concerns related to integrating the silvopasture practice with the current
farm layout (such as access and movement of the livestock)? Limiting access to streams and providing
alternative watering systems. Protection of young, newly established trees.
5. Are there any conservation agencies or groups that could assist in designing integrated habitat that
works with your current farming practices? USDA NRCS, MDC, MU Extension
6. What are the two primary ways that livestock can damage trees? And, is there a plan in place to
minimize damage should it occur? Trampling, Browsing, Use single strand of electric fence spaced 3 feet
from seedlings.
7. What are the four factors that go into planning alley widths for the silvopasture practice? Equipment
size, Forage, Changes through time, Thinning and Pruning
8. What other considerations are needed in order to reach the landowner objectives identified in ques-
tion # 1? Create a good activities schedule that outlines the process of implementing forest thinning, fenc-
ing, forage establishment, creating watering access, etc…

Notes

Chapter 5: Upland & Riparian Forest Buffers
In this Chapter: What is a Riparian Forest
• Defining Upland and Riparian Forest
Buffers Buffer?
Riparian forest buffers are designed combina-
• Planning and Design
tions of trees, shrubs, grasses, forbs and bio-
• Management and Maintenance engineered structures adjacent to, or within, a
• Marketing Value-Added Products stream channel designed to mitigate the impact
from Buffers of land use on the stream. The term riparian
• Financial Considerations applies to what is commonly called the flood-
• Success Stories plain, and designed buffers often occupy only a
• Additional Resources portion of that landscape. At the landscape lev-
• Exercises el, riparian forest buffers link land and aquatic
ecosystems, and perform vital ecosystem
services. By establishing, or managing, trees,
shrubs and grasses in the zone adjacent to
streams, water quality and aquatic ecosystem
health can be sustained or enhanced. However,
to be effective, buffer design and management
strategies must include plants that are adapted
to specific riparian environments (channel con-
dition, flood regime, soils, water table depths,
and upland topography), as well as provide
management guidelines landowners are willing
to follow to keep buffers healthy and effective.
What is an Upland Forest

Buffer?
Properly applied on a landscape, riparian and Upland forest buffers are areas of trees, shrubs,
upland forest buffers can enhance and diver- grasses and forbs planted on the contours of
sify farm income opportunities, improve the the upland areas of watersheds, within agri-
environment and create wildlife habitat. By de- cultural fields. They provide many of the same
veloping an understanding of the interactions benefits as riparian forest buffers, but differ in
between a riparian buffer (trees, shrubs and location and are often narrower in width. They
grasses), the stream, and the adjacent upland are not to be confused with the woody por-
area, its layout can effectively meet the goals tion of an alley cropping system (see Chapter
for which it has been established. A similar un- 3) or windbreaks (see Chapter 6) as they are
derstanding of the interactions of upland buf- primarily planted to reduce non-point source
fers with landscape position and annual crops pollution and erosion, and prevent gully forma-
is necessary to meet the design goals of these tion. However, depending on the site and land-
buffers. By understanding the requirements of owner objectives, upland forest buffers could
each of the components of the buffer, it can be provide some of the same benefits as these
managed to maintain effectiveness over time, other two agroforestry practices.
and also sustain its contributions to the farm as
an integrated agroforestry practice.

Advantages of a Riparian Forest Buffer • Provides shade which may reduce growth of
• Reduce sediment, organic material, nutrients crops adjacent to the buffer
and pesticides in surface runoff and reduce • Provides habitat for wildlife that may feed on
nutrients and other chemicals in shallow adjacent crops
groundwater flow
• Create wildlife habitat and provide wildlife
corridors Riparian Forest Buffer
• Create shade and lower water temperatures Zones and Benefits
to improve habitat for aquatic organisms A riparian forest buffer is typically composed of
• Provide a source of detritus and large woody three management zones, planted parallel to the
debris for aquatic and terrestrial organisms stream:
• Provide a harvestable crop of timber, fiber,
forage, fruit or other crops consistent with Zone 1 – A zone closest to the stream bank that
other intended purposes can include a mixture of fast growing native
• Stabilize eroding stream banks and reduce bottomland trees, shrubs, grasses and forbs
scour erosion in the floodplain that are designed to grow rapidly to stabilize
• Increase carbon storage in plant biomass stream banks. This vegetation should be able to
and soils tolerate periodic flooding and is not harvested
to provide natural interactions with the stream
Disadvantages of a Riparian Forest Buffer channel, including shading of the stream and
• Possible intensive management required, providing large woody debris to the channel
depending on design and harvestable prod- following natural mortality or loss resulting
ucts from undercut stream banks.
• Loss of crop ground or pasture
• Flooding may damage harvestable products Zone 2 – A much wider managed zone adja-
• Challenges with artificial subsurface drain- cent to Zone 1 consisting of trees, shrubs and
age (tile) grasses and forbs that can tolerate periodic
flooding and high water tables. Upland trees
Advantages of an Upland Forest Buffer and shrubs can be planted in riparian areas
• Stabilize crop field soils by providing a adjacent to deeply incised channels that have
frictional perennial plant surface that slows lowered water tables. Their primary water
surface runoff and traps sediment and as- quality purpose is nutrient uptake and storage
sociated nutrients and flood mitigation. Woody stems, especially
• Provides a zone of improved soil quality that of multi-stemmed shrubs, slow floodwater and
allows high infiltration rates of water into trap floating debris within the buffer keeping
the soil, allowing runoff to be filtered by the it out of the adjacent crop field or pasture. This
buffer before it reaches the shallow ground- zone can be managed for specific wildlife and
water additional income from nuts, berries, woody
• Provides a refuge for beneficial insects that florals, or biomass products.
may help control crop pests
• Provides wildlife habitat Zone 3 – An area adjacent to crop fields or pas-
• Slows wind that can increase evaporation tures that provides high infiltration, sediment
from drying crop plants trapping, nutrient uptake and can help disperse
concentrated runoff. Native grasses and forbs
Disadvantages of an Upland Forest Buffer are normally preferred for their multiple ben-
• Loss of crop ground or pasture efits and adaptability, but dense, stiff-stemmed
• May reduce available soil moisture for crops introduced grasses may also be effective. Grass
adjacent to the buffer and forb seeds can be harvested and sold for

other projects, or grasses may be harvested for
hay or use as biomass.
Planning and Design for
Upland and Riparian Forest
Buffers
Establishing a buffer for specific goals
Zone 1 When considering riparian or upland forest

buffer design and implementation, it is impor-
tant to understand landowner objectives and
concerns; major functions of the buffer; pres-
ent land-use of the proposed buffer site; soils
Zone 2 and relief; stratigraphy and water table loca-
tion; establishment methods to be used; short
and long-term management methods; govern-
Zone 3 ment programs; and market opportunities for
potential products of the buffers.
The three distinct zones of a riparian buffer require indi-
vidual management decisions to optimize their benefits. The challenge to designing and maintaining a
For example, in Zone 1, seek plants that help stabilize the buffer system is to achieve your desired goals
bank and provide long-term support for aquatic habitat.
while also retaining the buffer’s critical en-
For Zone 2, decorative woody florals, fruit-bearing shrubs
and fast-growing are an excellent choice for additional vironmental benefits. For example, riparian
income and to diversify wildlife habitat options. Zone 3 is buffers established for reducing stream bank
well suited for native grasses and forbs. erosion require designs which incorporate
plant materials both on and adjacent to the
Riparian Forest Buffers and eroding bank that have deep and fibrous roots
that better stabilize soil. Buffers created for fil-
Market Opportunities tering sediment and associated chemicals and
Infiltration of nutrients, trapping sediment in nutrients from agricultural runoff work best
surface runoff and debris from floodwaters, by slowing surface runoff, and improving soil
and stabilizing stream banks are the important quality that supports rapid infiltration, so wa-
water quality process functions of riparian for- ter can move through plant root zones before
est buffers, but they can also provide a land- it enters the adjacent water body. This can best
owner with value-added market opportunities be accomplished by establishing stiff stemmed
and enhanced wildlife habitat. grasses and forbs. Once in the soil, plant roots
and soil organisms capture, transform and
Edible berries and decorative woody florals, store non-point source pollutants that would
such as red osier dogwood and curly willow, otherwise end up in aquatic systems.
may be planted in Zone 2 of the riparian buffer.
These are valuable components of the floral Considering your desired outcomes for a buffer
and decorating industries. Nut- or fruit-bearing is an necessary first step in creating a func-
trees or fast-growing biomass trees planted in tional design. Landowners are strongly encour-
Zone 2 also contribute to income opportuni- aged to work with a natural resource profes-
ties from buffers. Wildlife habitat for game and sional to make a sketch of the buffer on an
non-game species is significantly enhanced aerial photo and identify major problem areas,
with the implementation of a diverse species such as severe bank erosion, grass waterways
riparian forest buffer, and lease hunting may be and gullies that exit into existing the peren-
another economic opportunity gained through nial riparian plant community, drainage tiles,
a riparian buffer system. etc. Trees, shrubs, grasses and forbs should

then be planted in their appropriate zones to
accommodate any unique problem areas. For Dick Schultz, professor, Department
example, trees, shrubs and deep-rooted native of Natural Resource Ecology and
grasses and forbs should not be planted di- Management, Iowa State University,
rectly above field drainage tile lines. Shallower- offers suggestions for preparing to
rooted, native or non-native grasses are more establish a buffer:
appropriate for these sites. It is important to
also be realistic about the time you have avail- “Before you select the kind of buffer to install
able for managing plants in buffer systems. In along your stream, think of what you would
the case of many large scale row crop and/or like the stream and riparian zone to look
livestock farms, the time required for buffer like, and what you would like the site to
maintenance and harvesting of plants may not accomplish. Once you have identified your
be available because these occur at the same objectives, walk the site with natural resource
time as intensive farming activities. In these professionals and explain your objectives
cases, selecting lower-maintenance plants, or and desires. They may use the Natural
hiring a natural resource management profes- Resources Conservation Service ‘Stream Visual
sional to oversee the maintenance aspects of Assessment Protocol’ or a similar tool to help
the buffer may be appropriate. you identify functional problems within the
riparian zone. Once the site problems and
A list of the different plant species, their plant- objectives have been identified, select the
ing location and spacing are a critical part of buffer type that addresses your specific site’s
the design sketch. The most effective riparian needs.
buffer, which can be as wide as 180 ft. (55 m)
has three zones of vegetation, each planted par- Keep in mind that riparian forest buffers
allel to the stream, as indicated in the section and grass filter strips may not solve all of
“Riparian Forest Buffer Zones and Benefits.” the identified problems along your stream
Upland buffers, as they are usually only 6-16 ft. corridor. They are primarily designed to
(2-5 m) wide, do not have specific zones. reduce surface runoff of sediment and
agricultural chemicals, bank erosion,
Many streams are deeply incised and are no subsurface movement of agricultural
longer in contact with their floodplain. Along chemicals in the shallow groundwater, and
these kinds of channels, upland as well as degradation of aquatic or upland habitat.
riparian tree and shrub species can be planted, They are not designed to stop bank erosion
depending on both functional and market ob- along deep channels with vertical banks
jectives of the landowner. or stabilize the channel bed. They have no
impact on groundwater moving directly
A totally functional riparian buffer often through drainage tile networks, and they
requires additional riparian management are not usually designed to accommodate
practices. Examples of these kinds of prac- livestock grazing. However, riparian buffers
tices include: 1) stream bank stabilizing bio- are but one tool among a number of riparian
engineering techniques, 2) small wetlands or management practices.”
bio-filters to intercept field drainage tiles, 3)
rewetted buffers where tile lines are intercept-
ed by lateral tiles that run parallel to the buffer
causing their flow to move through the riparian Key areas for consideration
soil profile to the stream, 4) stream channel Stream Channel – This involves an assess-
stabilizing boulder weirs, and 5) controlled ment of the shape and form of the stream
flash grazing practices. channel, the material found in the stream

bed and the shape and vegetative cover of nel. If the channel is incised, fast growing
the stream banks. Channel lengths that have bottomland trees (such as silver maple, willow,
been straightened create problems both up- cottonwood, green ash, and box elder) should
and downstream of the channelized section. occupy the first two rows adjacent to the chan-
Straightening the channel increases the slope nel to allow rapid stabilization of stream banks.
of the channel which increases the velocity and These two rows of trees should be allowed
erosive potential of water moving through the to mature and die without removal to pro-
channel. This can lead to increased downcut- vide continuous shade and organic matter for
ting of the channel both up- and downstream the aquatic ecosystem, unless they are along
of the channelized section. Once downcutting streams with tile or other drainage roles. If
has reached a resistant bed material and/or drainage tile outlets are present, these rows of
the strength of the bank soil reaches an un- trees should be allowed to reach maturity but
stable height, the banks will begin to collapse, should be harvested to reduce the chance of
widening the channel and encroaching on the contributing large woody debris to the channel
riparian zone. Channels can be stabilized with thereby restricting drainage.
practices such as boulder weirs and bioengi-
neering techniques. Where woody plant inputs to the channel are
not desired, shrubs or deep-rooted grasses
and forbs can be planted, although they do not
Zone 2 provide the same strength to vertical banks
Trees and Shrubs
because of their more rapid turnover. Where
Zone 3 banks have a slope of 3 to 1 or less steep, these
Switchgrass
grasses and forbs can provide very effective
stability.
The next two or three rows of trees or shrubs

(Zone 2) can consist of bottomland or upland
species along deeply incised channels where
the water table during the growing season is an
average of 4 or more feet below the surface.
Adjacent to the Stream (Zones 1 and 2) –
Plants growing on land in direct contact with Where flooding is frequent and flood waters
the upper edge of the stream bank can both carry significant debris, several rows of multi-
stabilize bank erosion and serve as a living stemmed shrubs should be planted at the outer
filter. This area also functions to slow flood edge of the woody zone (Zone 2) to trap the
waters, filter flood debris, and provide both debris and keep it from being deposited on the
upland and aquatic wildlife habitat. Selection grass/forb outer zone or the adjacent crop field
of the species to provide these functions will or pasture.
depend on their ability to withstand the fre-
quency, magnitude and length of the flooding Select species adapted to the soil conditions on
regime of the site and the depth to the water the site. Depending on landowner objectives,
table during the growing season. trees and shrubs that provide potential market-
able timber or specialty crops can be used. Use
In Zone 1, deep rooted plant species can serve a mix of tree and shrub species either by plant-
to provide bank stability along deeply incised ing a different kind in each row or by block
channels. Longer lived woody roots can pro- planting. A mixture prevents loss of benefits if
vide reinforcement of the bank soils and shade one species fails and provides a more diverse
and organic matter inputs to the stream chan- wildlife habitat.

Understanding the Buffer Zone: Function and Management
Comprised of two or three zones, these zones become areas where specific plants and management
are combined to create a forested riparian buffer that is highly effective at improving and maintaining
water quality and aquatic habitat.
ZONE FUNCTION MANAGEMENT

(Location, species choice)
Zone 1 • Shade the stream and moderate water • Unmanaged zone, trees allowed to
(Beginning near the edge of the stream) temperature mature & fall into stream contribut-
(fast growing trees/shrub species) • Provide bank stabilization ing important large woody debris
• Enhance aquatic habitat with organic • Large woody debris not allowed in
matter streams with tile drainage or other
• Final filter of material moving through specific drainage functions.
the buffer • Along above streams selective har-
• Reduce velocity of over-the-bank flood vest, with replacement from planting
waters or coppice resprouting
• Logging equipment excluded
• Grazing is excluded
Zone 2 • Provide maximum infiltration • Active management encouraged
(Beginning at the edge of Zone 1) • Uptake of Non-Point Source (NPS) nutri- • Marketable products encouraged
(fast and slower growing trees and shrub ents and chemicals from trees and shrubs were feasible
species) • Storage of NPS pollutants • Harvest should stimulate new
• Breakdown NPS pollutants growth
• Provide forest-grown products • Avoid soil compacting activities
• Enhanced wildlife habitat • Grazing excluded • Wildlife activi-
• Reduce velocity of over-the-bank flood ties such as bird watching or lease
waters hunting
• Trap debris moving in flood waters to
keep it out of crop fields
Zone 3 • Slow surface runoff converting concen- • Maintain vigorous vegetative
(Beginning at the edge of Zone 2) trated flow to sheet flow growth
(grass and forb species) • Slowed runoff drops most sediment/de- • Remove biomass – mow and bail so
bris at outside edge of zone as not to smother remaining plants.
• Remaining sediment is filtered from • Remove biomass – flash grazing
sheet flow possible with fencing of woody
• High infiltration of water delivering NPS zones
nutrients & chemicals to soil filter • Remove biomass – burn on 3-5 year
• Uptake of nutrients and chemicals cycle
• Work accumulated sediments away
from the buffer edge, back into the
field
On non-recreational or non-incised streams, Zones 1 and 2 are often combined, and management becomes more
closely aligned to that of Zone 2 alone. In each of the zones it is important to recognize the role that buffer health
plays in maintaining function. Healthy and actively growing vegetation provides the best capture and utilization of
problem NPS nutrients and chemicals prior to their entering waterways.
In areas with frequent flooding, trees and flood waters can be extensive and counter -pro-
shrubs should also be less densely planted ductive to the function of the buffer system.
so a ground cover of grasses and forbs can be It is therefore important to maintain a woody
established. Where the trees and/or shrubs plant spacing that allows enough sunlight to
completely shade the soil, surface erosion from reach the soil to support a grass/forb cover.

This spacing depends on species and is usually and can provide more fodder for livestock,
wider than that recommended for planting tim- but native grasses and forbs provide a more
ber trees but narrower than widths suggested diverse habitat for upland game birds, such as
for major nut growing plantations. pheasant and quail, and non-game species . As
with the other zones, make sure to select those
Outer Edge (Zone 3) – This zone provides the species that are adapted to the soil moisture
initial treatment of direct runoff from adjacent and flooding regime of the site. It is important
land uses. This runoff is usually in the form of that the grass zone be well managed to main-
concentrated flow associated with ephemeral tain vigorous growth of the grasses and forbs
gullies. Sheet flow or broad shallow flows are (see section on Management and Maintenance
rare in cultivated field settings. As a result the of Forest Buffers). For native grass/forb filters
intercepting plant community must present a burning or baling of the biomass on a 3-5 year
dense and stiff barrier that can slow the con- rotation is required. For introduced grass
centrated flow, causing it to spread and drop its strips mowing and baling or flash grazing can
sediment load before entering the grass/forb be used. If grazing is used, the woody zones
zone and then move into the zone where high (Zones 1 and 2) should be fenced.
infiltration rates will allow the water to enter
the soil filter. It is imperative that the woody plant zone also
have a grass/forb filter zone on the outside
Mixtures of grasses and forbs can be used ef- edge of the buffer. Most surface runoff from ad-
fectively if the zone is wide enough. Width will jacent crop fields is in the form of concentrated
depend on the length and slope of the adjacent flow. When that flow is intercepted by a woody
crop field. If the grass zone has been established zone that has minimal ground cover, gullies can
on previously cultivated riparian soil it will take easily form through the buffer. This is also true
at least 5-10 years to redevelop the maximum for grass waterways that are intercepted by
infiltration potential of the undisturbed soil. woody zones without a grass/forb filter. Gul-
Where Zone 3 intercepts a grass waterway, a lies that form in the riparian forest convey sedi-
wider, triangular-shaped area should be devel- ment to the stream and move up into the crop
oped to provide an apron for the water to spread field or the grass waterway. This is commonly
over before entering Zone 3. Native warm- and the case for “remnant” forest buffers that land-
cool-season grasses with associated forbs are owners often believe act as effective buffers. If
best suited for this zone, as they remain upright no grass filter is possible, then wider spacing
under the flow of water and have deeper root of the trees and shrubs to allow a dense grass-
systems than introduced cool-season grasses. covered soil is necessary.
These deep root systems, much of which are re-
placed annually, provide large amounts of organ- Additional Considerations
ic matter to the soil. Organic matter improves
Width: Widths of Zones 1, 2, and 3 can vary
soil quality by increasing amounts of large soil
depending on the physical characteristics of the
aggregates that create large macropores, which
site and the functional requirements needed
in turn favor high water infiltration rates and in-
to improve water quality and aquatic habitat.
creased microbial activity for non-point source
USDA Conservation Reserve Program (CRP)
pollution processing.
requirements will also dictate allowable widths
of each of the zone. If CRP is not used to es-
Introduced cool-season grasses can be used
tablish a forest buffer, then zone widths can be
but often require a zone that is twice as wide as
adjusted to meet management and functional
that made up of native grasses, and may have
objectives.
less of an impact on improving soil quality.
The introduced grasses are easier to establish

When determining the width of your buffer, it including that moving down a grass waterway.
is a good rule of thumb that “wider is better.” If If gullies exist from the edge of the field
surface runoff is the only problem, a grass/forb through the native plant community, a grass/
filter 30-50 feet wide may be sufficient depend- forb filter zone should be added or widened.
ing on the slope and width of the adjacent crop While buffers along the channel of an
field. Concentrated flow in the form of ephem- individual property can significantly reduce the
eral gullies or grass waterways may require sediment and nutrient load from the adjacent
a wider apron at the intersection of the two crop field, buffering only a small percentage of
features. If bank stability is an issue, especially the entire length of a channel may not result in
if the channel is deeply incised with vertical measurable improvements in water quality or
banks, a woody tree and/or shrub zone should aquatic habitat in the larger stream ecosystem.
be included. Buffer width may vary to address Ideally streams should be buffered starting
runoff hotspots as mentioned above or to ad- at their source and moving downstream. But
just to field widths, especially along meander- any buffer along any portion of the channel is a
ing channels. Widths of the various zones can positive contribution either directly in terms of
be adjusted depending on the “needs” of the improving water quality and aquatic habitat or
site. For example, if the crop field is relatively by providing a role model that often stimulates
flat and the channel is deeply incised with other landowners along the stream to follow
vertical banks, the grass filter width could be suit.
reduced; if the crop field had significant slope
and numerous areas of concentrated flow, the Impacts on wildlife habitat: Buffers can be
grass filter would remain at its designed width designed to meet water quality functions,
and the woody zones would be adjusted. provide market options for the landowner and
improve wildlife habitat. If upland birds like
pheasants and/or quail are desired, a wide
zone of native grass/forb filter with or without
woody zones can be developed. If a diversity
of non-game birds in addition to upland game
birds is desired combinations of diverse woody
and native grass/forb zones will provide the
largest diversity. Continuous buffers along a
channel will provide a connective corridor for
wildlife movement.
Figure 1. Riparian forest buffer widths by various sections.

Source: Schultz et al. 2009.
Length: A zone of perennial vegetation

should be included along the entire length
of any stream channel. If a zone of woody or
herbaceous species already exists, a survey
should be conducted to determine the fate
of any concentrated flow entering the zone

several mixtures that can be appropriate at
varying levels of cost. Specific mixtures are
also provided to meet specific CRP conserva-
tion practice standards.
Many forest nurseries carry one to two-year

old seedlings of most tree and shrub species
for planting in Zones 1 and 2 of the buffer. Use
high quality stock with good root systems.
Quality hardwood seedlings should have a
minimum of four to five large lateral roots.
Trees and shrubs should be planted in early
spring, soak seedling root systems in water for
Figure 2. Selecting the appropriate species for a riparian buf-
up to 12 hours before planting and make sure
fer will help ensure its success and longevity. (Source: Schultz the planting holes are completely closed so the
et al. 2009.) roots do not dry out.
Consider as wide a variety of species as pos-

Planting Tips and Species sible to develop diverse wildlife habitat and re-
duce potential diseases and insect infestations
Selection with associated loss of plants. If you plan to sell
The selection of appropriate tree, shrub, grass products from your buffer, identify markets
and forb species is essential for the success prior to purchasing seeds or plants. Non-na-
of the buffer. When possible, select species of tives may also have good market value, but take
plants adapted to the site conditions. Often this care to avoid establishing invasive exotics.
is best accomplished by using native plants.
Native plants - with proper management - will To determine the most suitable species for
spread through underground rhizomes, bulbs your design, ask the following:
or other vegetative means and are an excellent
1. What are the functional needs of the site?
choice for the zones of a riparian forest buffer.
2. What are my objectives?
Compared with the roots of most non-native 3. What are the problems?
cool-season grasses, warm-season grasses 4. Which species will do well on my site?
and forbs have deep, extensive root systems 5. Which species are available from local nurs-
that help improve soil quality and processing ery sources?
of non-point source pollutants. These na- 6. Will harvesting of products from these spe-
tive plants can withstand long periods of dry cies occur at the same time as other land man-
weather, and do not require watering unless agement activities (field cultivation, planting,
the buffer is established in an urban setting harvesting, etc.)
and is less than one year old. The main con-
siderations are: 1) selecting species that grow
on potentially moist sites; 2) choosing species
based on the severity of surface runoff from
adjacent crop fields or grazed lands; and 3)
making certain that seed of desired natives is
both available and affordable. Most nursery
information includes a description of sites
suited for different species. These seeds can
be expensive. Most native seed nurseries have

Species Combinations: Here are species Planting an Upland or Riparian
combination possibilities that could provide the Forest Buffer
important riparian buffer functions. Woody species planting is best done with
• Replace shrub rows with trees, or tree rows seedlings. Direct seeding can be done in some
with shrubs, to increase timber product or situations but the density of the ensuing stand
floral product options or provide more diverse of trees often is too dense to allow a complete
wildlife habitat. In either case, permanent herbaceous ground cover to develop. Prepar-
woody roots are maintained, but use a mixture ing a site for tree planting depends on the
of species. Numerous different combinations existing cover of the site. If the buffer is to be
of trees and shrubs and grasses and forbs can planted into an existing crop field, seed the
be used to more closely mimic the kind of area to a mixture of perennial ryegrass and
riparian habitat that might have been native timothy. Seedlings can be planted directly into
to an area. For example, where a shrub thicket this minimally competitive grass mixture. After
of willow and shrubs might have been typi- planting, spray a 4 foot wide strip centered
cal and the channel is not deeply incised, the over the trees with a grass killing herbicide.
trees can be completely removed from Zones Mow the grass strips between the tree rows
1 and 2 and a combined shrub zone created. for the first three to four years. Late season
• Plant the entire buffer area to warm-season mowing will reduce winter habitat for rodents
prairie grass. Some bank stabilization may that can girdle seedlings. Distance between
be needed (i.e., willow or red osier dogwood tree rows should be wide enough to support
planted in the stream bank) to provide long- the mowing equipment that is available and to
term stability. This system is best suited to allow grass cover to remain throughout the life
riparian areas that are still in contact with the of the buffer. If the woody species are going
channel where banks are not high and are to be planted into an existing grass or mixed
gently sloped. grass- and forb-covered riparian zone, four foot
• Where riparian grazing is desired and adja- wide strips should be sprayed with glyphosate
cent crop fields are more than several hundred prior to planting. Once seedlings are planted,
feet from the stream, plant a native grass/forb keep this strip grass- and forb-free for the first
mixture in a 15- to 20-ft. strip along the stream 3-4 years and mow the strips between the rows
and completely fence that area. Fencing keeps of trees. Spacing of trees should range from
livestock off the banks and can direct livestock 10-15 feet between rows and 8-10 feet within
to armored crossings and access to water for the rows.
drinking. Ideally these would be minimal with
watering sites provided away from the stream. Site preparation for planting Zone 3 grasses
• Use direct seeding and broadcast or ran- and forbs in a filter strip can take numerous
domly plant a mixture of tree and shrub seeds forms. If the site was previously in pasture,
or seedlings in both tree and shrub zones to burning down the existing pasture vegeta-
naturalize the planting and avoid rows. tion with glyphosate in the fall and again in
the spring, and then using a prairie seed drill
(Source: Iowa State University Extension, “Stew-
can result in a good stand of plants. If the site
ards of our Streams” series, www.extension.
was previously in row crops, light tilling of the
iastate.edu/)
surface to kill early weed species, followed by
surface packing with a cultipacker and then
Resource professionals at your local NRCS, using a seed drill will provide a good stand.
state department of conservation or natural Annual rye or oats can be mixed in with the na-
resources, or university extension office can tive grasses and forbs if rapid cover is desired,
assist you with species selection. especially in areas that are prone to flooding.
For woody plant establishment, site prepara-

tion should begin in the fall, followed by spring Management strategies need to look toward
planting. creating stronger plants, resulting in plants
that are more likely to survive environmental
Brad Riphagen is a Field Coordinator for stress, such as seasonal flood events. Natural
Trees Forever, a non-profit organization life spans of plants should also be considered.
founded in 1989 dedicated to planting Under proper management woody plants will
and caring for trees and forests. He offers grow vigorously until they have matured at
suggestions for planting trees, shrubs and which point their physiological processes will
grasses. reach a plateau and begin to decline. When
woody plants have reached this point they no
“When seeding grass and forbs, a firm longer add major stores of agricultural nutri-
seedbed is needed to ensure that the small ents and chemicals and should be harvested
seeds are in contact with the soil yet remain and replaced with young seedlings or coppice
close to the surface. You can drill directly stems from stumps or roots.
into soybean stubble and into sod that has
been killed with glyphosate. When planting Densities of woody plants in existing stream
trees and shrubs into a crop field, it is a side forests are often too great to support
good idea to drill grasses, like timothy or good perennial plant cover on the soil surface.
perennial rye, which won’t out compete the Therefore one of the most important manage-
trees and help to prevent erosion. ment tasks for maintaining buffer function is to
thin the forest to allow light to reach the forest
Order trees and shrubs early, up to four floor. If this is not done, gullies will form in the
months before scheduled planting time forest at points where concentrated flow, either
to assure receiving the desired species. from ephemeral gullies or from grass water-
For direct seeding of most trees or shrubs, ways entering the existing forest. These gullies
collect or purchase seed and plant in the fall. are sources of sediment in the stream and will
Direct seeding in the spring is possible if you ultimately work their way out of the forest buf-
can purchase seed from a dealer. Plant tree fer and into the adjacent crop field or pasture.
and shrub seedlings as early in the spring
as site conditions allow. Grasses and forbs Management and Maintenance of Planted
should also be planted in the spring.” Forest Buffers. Function is maintained when
the buffer zones are maximizing their poten-
tial for plant growth. For grasses and forbs,
Management and Maintenance of this may mean mowing or selectively applying
Upland and Riparian Forest flash or rotational grazing at appropriate times
Buffers of the year (such as dry and not wet periods).
Managing an Existing Streamside Forest for This can assist in minimizing the accumula-
a Riparian Buffer System. Buffer function tion of dead grass material and enhance overall
should be a primary consideration in man- grass and forb growth and vigor. However, it
agement. Therefore, management of existing is crucial that access to adjacent woody zones
buffers should focus on either maintaining or the stream or creek be limited. One method
or enhancing buffer function. Although plant of limiting access is to only have fenced access
materials may be alive and growing, they may available in small, planned areas (Figure 3).
not be growing vigorously and be in the best of Additionally, grass zones adjacent to crop fields
health. Plants with vigorous growth will have may occasionally need to have accumulated
enhanced uptake and use of nutrients. This soils pulled back into the field. This can be ac-
also equals greater storage of materials that complished by directionally discing such that
would otherwise travel into the water system. soil is moved away from the grass edge.

flood damage). Remember, the goal is to have a
healthy and vigorously growing buffer, and one
without gaps that would allow water to chan-
nel through.
Maintenance begins at the time of buffer estab-

lishment and may include mulching, mowing,
and herbicide application for weed control
until trees and shrubs are large enough to
compete on their own. A native grass and forb
zone planting requires about 3 years to become
well established. During the first 2-3 years it
is important to mow the grass and forb zone as
high as possible to reduce annual weeds, but
without removing the young grasses and forbs.
You can increase the filtering capacity and po-

tential economic returns by trimming, cutting
Figure 3. Riparian management system with livestock access
restricted by fencing. Source: Schultz et al. 2009.
back, mowing, or harvesting the shrub, grass
and forb species. By keeping the plants in a
state of vigorous growth, they will actively filter
In the shrub zones, management may include more soluble nutrients from the water.
such practices as cutting the shrubs back and
control of invading grasses and weeds. In the Finally, inspect the buffer annually and after
timbered zone, thinning and selective harvest significant storm events to determine the need
may be used to keep the remaining trees and to remove excess sediment at the cropland
herbaceous ground cover in a state of health edge of the buffer that can prevent shallow
and vigorous growth. Also, your management runoff from flowing evenly through the buffer,
plan in the timbered zone should take into ac- or to repair concentrated flow cuts through the
count the need for regeneration and the estab- buffer.
lishment of new seedlings. This can either be
natural or artificial, such as when planting new Replanting and reseeding. Replanting and
seedlings. It is important to remember that as reseeding are important maintenance practices
trees age, slower growth rates and death are during the first few years following establish-
natural. One management tool then, is to har- ment of a riparian buffer and can be done in
vest mature trees prior to their death, degrada- the spring or fall. Replace significant losses of
tion, or breakdown, when they may otherwise tree and shrub seedlings during the first three
become debris in the waterway that inhibits years to ensure the desired plant density of
proper flow or release stored nutrients back to the mature buffer. If more than three or four
the ecosystem. consecutive seedlings have died they should
be replaced. Spot planting can be done quickly
Enhancement. From time to time, in spite of with just a bucket full of water, seedlings and a
any maintenance that may be completed, it may shovel. Protecting young trees and shrubs from
also be necessary to enhance or enrich the buf- deer, rabbits and beaver can be expensive, but
fer to maintain the desired functionality. This may be necessary in some cases.
may be as simple as planting additions (over-
seeding grass zones or planting trees or shrubs
in openings created by harvest or loss from

the warm-season native prairie plants are still
dormant. Always develop a prescribed burn
plan prior to burning. Assistance for develop-
ing a prescribed burn plan may be available
through your state department of natural
resources or conservation.
While different burning frequencies may be

used, an annual spring burn for the first three
Applying a chemical barrier helps seedlings get or four years is recommended. Following es-
off to a good start. tablishment of a good stand of desired grasses
and forbs, a burning cycle of once every three
Replanting in the native grass/forb zone may to four years can be used. The burning cycle is
be a bit more involved, depending on the usually defined by the accumulation of dead
density and quality of the grasses and forbs. plant material on the ground, weed species
If there is poor establishment, a herbicide like invasion and general vigor of the plant com-
glyphosate can be used, followed by redrilling. munity. Fall burns also can be used to stimu-
If there is some establishment, but not as dense late forb growth more than the grass growth.
as desired, the site can be directly reseeded. If However, they may be problematic if adjacent
the areas needing reseeding are large a prai- crops are not harvested, and will reduce winter
rie seed drill can be used, if they are small, habitat for wildlife.
hand-spreading the seed and raking it into the
ground is acceptable. Burning the native grass and forb component
of an upland or riparian buffer can be tricky
During the life of a forest buffer, trees will begin due to the close proximity of shrubs and trees.
to compete with each other as they do in a Such a burn requires numerous people, care-
natural forest, and without pruning and thin- ful planning, attention to fuel sources and
ning they will not maintain an optimal growth amounts, and attention to wind. Using a small,
rate. They will also provide such a dense shade slow backfire (a fire that burns into the wind)
that no living ground cover that completely helps to keep the fire more controlled while
covers the soil to reduce erosion from out-of- it is close to neighboring shrubs and trees. A
bank events will be able to exist. Depending fire break is often mowed or raked between
on spacing, fast-growing trees such as cotton- the shrubs and/or trees and the native prairie
woods and poplars will be competing with each component. The fire break can be wetted if the
other within 10 years of planting. After 8 to 9 fuel is dry.
years, every second or third tree may have to
be harvested to increase water availability and A good strategy is to burn when steady wind
growth space for remaining trees. (10-15 mph) is blowing away from the woody
zones. This way, a backfire can be started with
Prescribed burning. Fire is a good mainte- a drip torch along a firebreak and allowed to
nance tool for native grasses and forb plantings burn into the prairie grass filter. The fire moves
associated with upland and riparian forest slowly because it is burning into a prevailing
buffers. To reduce weed competition and wind. Once the backfire has burned a strip of
invigorate the grasses and forbs during the 10 - 15 feet in width, a head fire (burning with
year, prescribed burns are usually performed the wind) can be lit and allowed to burn rapidly
early in the spring. During this time, many of with the wind. If there is heavy corn stover
the competing introduced cool-season grasses, left along the crop edge, care must be taken to
weeds and woody plants begin growing while keep the fire out of the field. This can be done

by raking or wetting the stover or running a Stream bank bioengineering can:
disk along the edge of the grass/forb zone just • Be used to change the steep angle on
before the fire is lit. The crew, equipped with actively eroding banks to a more gradual
fire rakes, fire swatters, and backpack spray- slope on which plants may then become
ers, should patrol the burn to keep it contained. established,
Fires should be kept small and well controlled • Slow water movement and reduce erosion
(start small to test the wind, moisture condi- by adding frictional material to stream
tions, and train your crew). A water tank in banks,
a pickup truck fitted with a small pump and • Reduce undercutting,
garden hose can be very useful for wetting • Reduce stream sediment loads,
the fire break and corn stover. If you have not • Improve water quality,
performed a controlled burn before, you should • Improve aquatic habitat and wildlife habi-
ask for assistance from a local natural resource tat.
professional who has experience dealing with
controlled burns. Consideration should be The following bioengineering practices and
given to the influence of burning on nesting structures can be used singly, or in combina-
birds. tion, to create a more stable stream channel
and bank.
Ideally, you should burn in sections; burn only
one side of the creek or break the grass/forb
zone into three or four sections and burn one
each year. Fall burns eliminate winter cover
and late spring burns can destroy nests. How-
ever, fire helps to maintain native plant health.
Most native prairie plants will grow more
vigorously, produce more flowers and produce
more seed after a fire. The active growing
points of most prairie plants are below the soil
surface, and are therefore unaffected as the fire
rapidly passes over. After the fire, these plants
are stimulated by warmth of the blackened
ground and the nutrients that were released
from burned plant material. (End: Iowa State
University Extension contribution) Figure 4. A combination of live and dead materials
used in the stream bank bioengineering practice.
Other Riparian Practices that May Source: Schultz et al. 2009.
be Required
Specific Considerations for Stability: Rock rip-rap. Rocks anchored to the toe of the
Stream Bank Structures stream bank. This type of stabilization is useful
In some cases, erosion caused by runoff and/or in areas of severe undercutting. Size of the rock
sloughing of stream banks is too excessive to be is directly related to stream size, and the vol-
stabilized by a Forested Riparian Buffer alone. ume and velocity of water flow. Larger streams
Therefore, to quickly stop erosion, it may be with increased water volume and velocity will
necessary to use stream bank bioengineering. require larger rock. A mixture of rock sizes is
This is an expensive and intensive practice and often appropriate to provide a surface with
is only appropriate for specific trouble spots. minimal openings that allow water to move
through turbulently. In no case should large

chunks of concrete be used for this purpose as tion should begin with the larger stakes being
they often allow large gaps that water is forced placed at the base, along the water line, and the
through at higher velocities and turbulence smaller stakes planted into the upper stream
that can erode the soil behind the concrete bank.
slabs. In order to avoid undercutting of the an-
chored rock, the rip-rap should extend to stable Live fascines. Also known as wattles, these
material in the channel bottom. In some cases, are bundles of live, dormant branches (whips)
it may be necessary to reshape the stream bank primarily of willow species. The material used
prior to rock placement. is often the smaller diameter tops associated
with the stakes that were installed as described
Tree revetments. In smaller streams, (1-3 above. Individual whips should be at least 4
order) cut trees can be anchored along the toe feet in length. These branches are then over-
of the bank in place of rock rip-rap, with the lapped, with all butts and buds pointed in the
butt of the tree facing upstream . Eastern red same direction, to form bundles of up to 8 inch-
cedar is ideal for this purpose, as it can hold es diameter and 10 to 20 feet in length. As with
its leaves for more than a year following cut- live stakes, it is desirable to use species which
ting; however, bundles of branches from other will quickly root. Place the fascines in shallow
tree species can be used . The dense branches trenches, leaving the upper live buds exposed.
provide significant friction that slows water Soil should be tamped into place around the
and drops sediment, creating a stable toebank bundles and a dead stake used to anchor them
on which other plants can become established. in place. By placing fascines along the contour,
Logs and branches can also be hiding places for small branch dams are formed against soil
aquatic organisms. Planting willow cuttings movement. This will create a terraced effect on
and/or red osier seedlings above the cut trees stream banks. Bundles should be spaced from 3
or branch bundles can increase the stabilizing to 6 feet apart with narrower spacings used on
potential of this practice. steeper banks.
Geotextile fabrics. Fabrics of jute, coconut, or In-stream structures. Where channel incision
other fibers may be used in conjunction with is still actively occurring and stream banks are
any of the living structures. This fiber mat will unstable, or where there is a lack of in-stream
hold soil in place while the live plant material habitat, rock structures, such as boulder weirs
becomes established. The fabric can be held in can be constructed. These structures are con-
place with stakes and/or placed in the trench structed of properly sized rock and are no more
with fascines and covered with a shallow layer than 1.5 to 2 ft high at their center. They are
of soil. usually constructed with a slight V in the center
to direct flow down the center of the channel.
Live post and stakes. By using dormant plant They have an upstream rock apron with a 4:1
material, stream banks can be quickly stabi- slope and a down-stream apron with a 20:1
lized. Dormant material (cuttings) of a few slope. These aprons reduce the turbulence of
selected tree and shrub species (particularly the water, while allowing enough to improve
willows) will quickly develop root structures oxygenation of the water. These structures are
below ground and produce live shoots above. usually used in series, allowing the pool of the
Stakes of one-half inch diameter and larger downstream weir to back up to the apron of the
are driven into an eroding bank. The longer upstream weir. This placement reduces channel
the stake, the better stability that is provided bed erosion. Providing pools that are 1.5 to 2
because the more roots will sprout along the ft deep reduces the critical bank height at low
stem. Lengths may range from 2 to 3 feet for flow, thus reducing bank erosion. (See Figure 3,
stakes, and up to 10 feet for posts. Installa- page 8).

Field Tile Structures. Artificial subsurface tive warm-season grass strips with one or two
drainage (field tiles) passes directly through species is more effective than just one species
riparian forest buffers with no treatment of of introduced low-growing cool-season grass,
the water flowing in them. For any treatment but planting 5 or 6 species of native grass and
of contaminants in the tile water to occur, the 25 forbs provides much more habitat potential.
water in the tile must exit the tile and move Similarly, planting mixtures of trees and shrubs
through the living soil filter of the buffer. Two will provide more diverse structural habitat,
promising new techniques can achieve sig- but if a landowner is mainly concerned with
nificant treatment of tile flow: biofilters and upland bird habitat, trees provide perches for
saturated riparian buffers. predator raptors that may prey on the prairie
birds. In a recent study of bird use of riparian
Biofilters consist of passing the tile flow forest buffers over 40 species of birds were
through a large volume of woodchips that have found in a three-zone riparian buffer where
been buried in pits in the soil. The woodchips only 12 species were found in an area similar
provide a habitat for microorganisms that can to the pre-buffer condition of the site.
reduce nitrate and other contaminants. These
pits can be developed as part of the grass/
forb filter or can be placed directly upslope of
Zone 3. Pits are usually about 4 feet deep with
an average size of 15 ft by 100 ft. A soil layer
is placed over the buried chips and planted to
grass. Equipment can travel over the pits al-
though planting row crops directly over them is
not recommended. The woodchips will need to
be replaced periodically, perhaps every 10-20
years. Lease hunting is an opportunity for income from the
wildlife habitat created by your riparian buffer. (MDC photo)
Saturated buffers consist of intercepting a field Improved wildlife habitat, for species such as ducks and
tile before it flows below the riparian buffer quail, are another benefit of riparian buffers.
and splitting the flow into lateral tiles that run
parallel to the buffer. The water in these lateral
tiles then flows through the living soil filter of
the riparian buffer. In an early test of this sys-
tem at least 60% of the flow from the primary
tile was diverted into the laterals and water
moving through the buffer soil showed over
90% reduction of nitrate-nitrogen.
Considerations for Wildlife

One of the most notable benefits of using native
plant species in a buffer is the creation of effec-
tive wildlife habitat. Native grasses and forbs
provide different heights, densities, shapes of
stems and leaves, different flowering times, and
different flowers and fruits to attract differ-
ent species of wildlife. The key is to plant as
wide a mix of species as possible to achieve the
maximum wildlife benefit. Planting pure na-

Jim Wooley is the Field Operations Coordina- uses of plants and plant stems that could be
tor for Quail Forever, a non-profit organization harvested from an upland or riparian buffer
dedicated to the protection and enhancement with the proper species. It may also be helpful
of pheasant and other upland wildlife popula- to ask if local stores are interested in purchas-
tion through habitat improvement. ing locally and sustainably grown materials.
At that time, inquire how they would like to
“Quail Forever and Pheasants Forever are receive the material (condition and packaging).
interested in riparian buffers and other buffer
systems because of the habitat that these Willow and
types of practices provide for pheasants and dogwood
other wildlife, including non-game wildlife. branches are
Beyond that, establishing a buffer offers an bundled for
sale to retail
exceptionally good economic benefit for a and whole-
landowner. He’s taking ground that in a lot of sale florists,
cases is productive, but may have some prob- bringing
lems associated with it. In some cases, we’re as much as
looking at cash rentals and incentives that 50-75 cents
per branch
approach two hundred dollars per acre. That’s in some mar-
an excellent return on the ground, and the kets.
buffer is providing many benefits, not only to
the landowners, but to society in general.”
Markets for nut crops like black walnut (background) and

pecan (inset) include farmers’ markets and retail/specialty
grocers.
Improved wildlife habitat, such as ducks and quail, are Decorative woody florals and craft products.
another benefit of riparian buffers.
Decorative woody florals can be planted in
Zone 2 of a riparian forest buffer for additional
income. This category includes any woody
Market Opportunities with plant species that has a colorful or unusually
Upland and Riparian Forest shaped stem, bud, flower, fruit or leaf. Common
Buffers examples include pussy and curly willows and
Many products grown in the buffer have red- and yellow-stemmed dogwoods. These
monetary value in addition to their functional plants, and many others, are regularly used in
conservation benefits. A trip to a local florist or the floral industry to add height and breadth,
craft store will give you an idea of the diverse enhance line and form, and add a splash of

color. They retain their bright colors for a long harvests. Nut crops are readily sold at farm-
time, extending an arrangement’s usable life. ers’ markets, roadside stands or to retail and
Woody florals accent cut-floral arrangements wholesale grocers. The University of Missouri
and enhance consumer perceptions of size and Center for Agroforestry is conducting extensive
value, and can make a statement even when research to identify outstanding cultivars of
used alone in a vase design. They can be sold to chestnut, pecan and black walnut. Information-
retail or wholesale florists by the stem or the al guides and research updates are available at
bundle at competitive prices. www.centerforagroforestry.org/profit.
Learn more about decorative woody florals Timber trees. Planting trees in Zone 2 of your
through research conducted by the Univer- riparian buffer for a future timber harvest
sity of Nebraska Extension Forestry Program, requires a management plan and patience,
including a list of additional species of woody but can be very profitable over the long-term.
plants commonly used in the floral industry In Missouri, when the market is right, Silver
and retail and wholesale nursery stock sources Maple brings almost as much as oak species
online at http:// snrs.unl.edu/forestry/woody_ (price per board feet).
florals.htm.
Integrating riparian buffers into your current
land use practices can maintain the integrity of
stream channels, reduce the impact of upland
Market Opportunities sources of pollution, generate income and op-
timize performance for environmental protec-
Examples of ‘mar- Timeframe to reach tion and economic production. With thoughtful
ketable’ products market potential consideration to site characteristics, landowner
Floral and craft Beginning approximately 2
goals, species selection and environmental and
products years after establishment, wildlife benefits, riparian buffers provide an
and if done correctly (i.e. additional source of sustainable production
plants re-sprout), continu- with multiple conservation benefits.
ing for many years
Berries and nuts From 2 to 15 years, de-
pending on the crop
Financial Resources
There are many agencies offering programs
Biomass 3 to 20 year rotation, mar- that can be used to establish and maintain
ket dependent agroforestry practices on private land. One of
the most significant of these agencies is the
Timber trees In most cases, 40+ years USDA Farm Service Agency (FSA), through the
various elements of the Conservation Reserve
Program. Each of these programs is designed
Berries and nursery stock. Various species of to take environmentally sensitive and highly
edible berries, including elderberries, black- erodible land out of production by offering a
berries and raspberries, can be grown in the soil rental payment, a cost-share for the estab-
shrub zone of a riparian buffer for additional lishment of various conservation practices and
income. Markets for fresh berries can be found other financial incentives to landowners who
by contacting local farmers’ markets, grocers offer to set aside their land.
and specialty health food stores.
The Conservation Reserve Program Continu-
Harvesting nut crops. Planting nut-bearing ous Sign-up (CRPCS) program offers direct
species including pecan, hazelnut, and black benefits to landowners establishing a forested
walnut in Zone 2 can provide income from nut riparian buffer. CRPCS is a voluntary program

that focuses on funding conservation practices NRCS Standard 391 identifies the guidelines
(CP) protecting environmentally sensitive land, for establishing a riparian forest buffer for the
including wetlands and riparian areas. Land- CRPCS. For more information, contact your lo-
owners with eligible land who wish to enroll cal USDA/ FSA office.
that land in the CRPCS may signup at any time
during the year. Additional USDA programs to establish and
maintain riparian forest buffers are offered
Available funding through the Continuous Con- through the Natural Resources Conservation
servation Reserve Program (CCRP) can include: Service (NRCS); the Forest Service (FS); and the
• Annual soil rental rate payments that can be Sustainable Agriculture Research and Educa-
up to 120 percent of the average soil rental tion (SARE) program. The United States Fish
rate for the area. and Wildlife Service (USFWS) also offers assis-
• Annual maintenance payments of $5 to $10 tance; see chart below for a listing of incentives
per acre. offered by these federal agencies or consult
• Cost share payments up to 50 percent of the the UMCA publication “Funding Incentives for
establishment cost. Agroforestry in Missouri.”
Along with these three payments, CCRP also

Riparian Forest Buffer (CP22)
has two one-time incentive payments available  10- to 15-year contracts
for certain CP’s, including:  Conservation Reserve Program
• A signing incentive payment (SIP) equal to continuous sign-up
$10 per acre per number of contract years.  Eligible for the following CRP financial
incentives
• A practice incentive payment (PIP) equal to - 120 percent SRR
40 percent of the establishment costs. - 50 percent regular cost share
- SIP
Several CRPCS practices allow for tree plant- - PIP
- $7-$10 maintenance
ing, including:
 Width requirements - (1st and 2nd order
• CP16A Shelterbelts streams)
• CP22 Riparian buffers Grass zone: 25 feet maximum
• CP23 Wetland Restoration Minimum buffer width: 50 feet
Maximum buffer width: 180 feet
 Width requirements (3rd order streams)
Riparian buffers have become a priority for Grass zone: 25 feet maximum
most USDA agencies. Under the requirements Minimum buffer width: 100 feet
of the CRPCS’s riparian forest buffer practice Maximum buffer width: 180 feet
(CP22), landowners must establish at least a
two-zone buffer. The total width of the riparian Brief description of the CRPCS funding and design
characteristics that support the establishment of
forest buffer will vary depending on the size of riparian forest buffers.
the stream and landowner objectives. For first
and second order streams, the buffer must be
at least 50 feet wide and cannot exceed 180
feet. Buffers along third order streams must Summary
be at least 100 feet wide. Riparian forest buf- When incorporated on the farm landscape,
fers along the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers forested upland and riparian buffers can ef-
may be increased to 300 feet. Buffers may be fectively improve water quality and limit soil
extended beyond 180 feet or 300 feet for the loss. A buffer can be established and become
purpose of improving water quality benefits. productive in a relatively short time period.

One of the keys to the successful buffer is the “The buffer has also added to our wildlife habi-
choice of materials and plant species that are tat. This is the hunting paradise of Story County
suitable for the selected site. The next step is right here, especially for pheasant hunting.
to understand the dynamics of the watershed People have come from Alaska, Michigan, and
and stream with respect to adjacent land-use all over Iowa. The demand is very large.”
issues so that the buffer design will adequately
address the problem. Finally, be clear on the
management needed in order to maintain the
effective functioning of the buffer over time. Ron Risdal
Story County, Iowa
Working from these three points of reference
will best ensure the success of an upland or Ron Risdal has experienced similar success
riparian buffer for years to come. with the riparian buffer he installed back in
1990. Risdal rotates corn, soybeans, and alfalfa
on his farm.
Success Stories “There’s always something new. We can go

Lon Strum fishing, or we can go out here and kick up a
Story County, Iowa deer or pheasant or partridge.”
“I don’t think we’ve lost hardly any stream bank

Lon Strum rotates corn and soybeans on his since 1993, but before we were moving fences
1,000-acre operation in Story County, Iowa. almost every year. Yesterday morning when
Before installing a riparian buffer, his tractor it was flooding, it stopped at the buffer strip
would occasionally get stuck on the banks of instead of washing all over the bank. We don’t
Bear Creek. While he no longer produces corn have to haul rocks in the gullies like we used to
or soybeans from the buffered land, he no do years ago.”
longer loses his crops during wet years, doesn’t
have to worry about getting his tractor stuck,
and enjoys the benefits of a healthy stream
with a significant amount of habitat.
“When I was on the edges, I was constantly get-

ting stuck as I was working close to the creek. It
was just more hassle then what I wanted. Since
putting in the riparian buffer, I don’t notice any
difference in the yields, but now I just go in
straight rows.

In Print
Schultz, R.C., T.M. Isenhart, J.P Colletti, W.W. Simpkins, R.P. Udawatta, and P.L. Schultz. 2009. Riparian
and Upland Buffer Practices. Chapter 8 In: H.E. Garrett, (Ed.) North American Agroforestry: An inte-
grated Science and Practice, 2nd Ed. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI.
University Resources
The University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry -- www.centerforagroforestry.org
Iowa State University Extension (See publications list for “Stewards of our Streams” series on riparian
buffers.) www.extension.iastate.edu/
Healthy Land, Healthy Water: Riparian Management Systems (A resource web site from the
Iowa State Agroecology Issue Team of the Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture)
www.buffer.forestry.iastate.edu/
Science-based Trials of Rowcrops Integrated with Prairies (STRIPs) (Research involving upland native
grass buffers at Iowa State University) http://www.nrem.iastate.edu/research/STRIPs/
The University of Nebraska Forestry Extension (Resources about decorative woody florals and other
specialty forest products) http://ncdc.unl.edu/woodyfloral.shtml
State-Based Resources
Missouri Department of Natural Resources (Perform a search for “buffers” to see current bulletins and
information.) www.dnr.mo.gov /
Missouri Department of Conservation (Find the Resource Forester for your county through this online
listing.) mdc.mo.gov
Grow Native! (A native plant marketing and education program of the Missouri Prairie Foundation,
established to increase the demand, use of native plants in the Lower Midwest) www.grownative.org
Federal Resources
USDA Agricultural Research Service (ARS) (Search for “buffers” to find research projects and publica-
tions) www.ars.usda.gov
Natural Resources Conservation Service (Use subject search to view nationwide guides and publica-
tions on riparian buffers.) www.nrcs.usda.gov/
The USDA National Agroforestry Center -- www.unl.edu/nac/
Non-Profit Organizations
Trees Forever (An organization dedicated to natural resources stewardship and addressing the chal-
lenges facing communities and the environment, including water quality.)
www.treesforever.org/
Five Practices of Agroforestry DVD: Produced by the University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry
Includes the basics of establishing a riparian buffer practice.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8HDnyV1ViHw
“Stewards of our Streams: Maintenance of Riparian Buffers.” For more information visit www.exten-
sion.iastate.edu. http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM1626C.pdf

EXERCISE: REVIEW OF RIPARIAN FOREST BUFFERS
1. Why are warm season grasses viewed as an essential component of a well-designed ripar-
ian forest buffer?
2. Due to the effectiveness of warm season grasses at slowing the movement of water headed
towards streams and waterways, sediments accumulate at the up slope side of the buffer.
Is this a problem in the long run and can it be managed?
3. If I manage my grass/shrub/tree buffer for the first 3 to 5 years and it has become well es-
tablished, can it be left alone to take care of itself from that point?
4. As their name implies, warm season grasses do not begin active growth until late spring.
However, fertilizers and other soil amendments are applied early in the spring.
Also, while crops are being planted and getting established, the soil is relatively unprotected
from rainfall and prone to serious erosion. Given this situation, how effective are warm sea-
son grasses as buffers?
5. How wide should my buffer be?
6. What cost share programs are available to help offset the costs of RFB establishment?

EXERCISE KEY
1. Why are warm season grasses viewed as an essential component of a well-designed riparian
forest buffer? Warm season grasses are typically stiff-stemmed clump grasses. Once established,
warm season grasses roots penetrate deeply into the root zone. These two attributes contribute two
essential functions to the buffer. First, the stiff stems hold up against water movement and forces
water to slow down as it moves through the grasses. Second, coupled with the well-developed deep
root profile and well aerated soil, flowing water will have adequate residence time to percolate into
the soil. Sediments and phosphate fall out of solution, soluble nutrients enter the root zone, while
atrazine can be detoxified by plant roots and microorganisms.
2. Due to the effectiveness of warm season grasses at slowing the movement of water headed
towards streams and waterways, sediments accumulate at the up slope side of the buffer. Is
this a problem in the long run and can it be managed? Yes, this can become a problem if the
warm season grass buffer is not managed. Riparian forest buffers are living filters, and like all filters,
they need to be “cleaned” periodically to function properly. In the case of a RFB, cleaning refers to
periodic maintenance.
3. If I manage my grass/shrub/tree buffer for the first 3 to 5 years and it has become well es-
tablished, can it be left alone to take care of itself from that point? RFBs must be managed on a
continued basis to maximize their buffer function. To maintain active growth and out-compete fes-
cue and other invasive woody species, warm season grasses and forbs must be burned periodically.
Trees must be thinned periodically to maintain active growth rates and not stagnate. Similarly, many
shrubs selected for RFBs must be coppiced (cut back close to the ground) to maintain vigorous root
and shoot growth.
4. As their name implies, warm season grasses do not begin active growth until late spring.
However, fertilizers and other soil amendments are applied early in the spring. Also, while
crops are being planted and getting established, the soil is relatively unprotected from rain-
fall and prone to serious erosion. Given this situation, how effective are warm season grasses
as buffers? For a buffer to be truly effective, warm season grasses are an essential component. The
above stated problem is their biggest weakness. Therefore, warm season grasses need to be used
in combination with both cool season grasses and woody perennials for a RFB to be effective on a
year-round basis. Cool season grasses begin growth early in the spring, and even though they are
relatively shallow rooted and lack stiff stems (so that water will knock them down and flow right over
the top) they are active and a first line of defense against water, soil and nutrient movement early is
the growing season. Combined with shrubs and trees, some of which also become active early in the
growing season (e.g., willow species), RFBs are fully functional.

EXERCISE KEY, con’t
5. How wide should my buffer be? The general rule of thumb is that wider is better. However, that
is a very broad generalization. Buffer width depends on many factors including the purpose(s) for
the buffer, the associated cropping pattern and related conservation practices being employed
upslope, the specific soil and slope conditions, and whether or not government cost share programs
are involved which require certain minimum widths. Buffers may be designed for bank stability,
aquatic habitat protection and improvement, sediment control, removal of soluble nutrients from
adjacent crop fields, flood control or wildlife habitat. To stabilize streambanks and protect aquatic
habitat, effective buffers can vary from 30 to 90 feet wide. For sediment and flood control or to im-
prove wildlife habitat, buffers must be wider, ranging from 60 feet to well beyond 150 ft.
6. What cost share programs are available to help offset the costs of RFB establishment?
USDA FSA offers a variety of cost share programs including the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP),
Conservation Reserve Program Continuous Sign-up (CRPCS), and the Conservation Reserve En-
hancement Program (CREP). Each of these programs contains approved practices that support RFB
establishment. Further details on cost share programs are found in the UMCA Publication “Funding
Incentives for Agroforestry in Missouri” (changes to these programs may occur after passage of a
new Farm Bill).

Notes

Chapter 6: Windbreaks
In this chapter: Agricultural practices benefitting from prop-
• Defining a Windbreak erly applied windbreaks include:
• How Windbreaks Function • Crop production
• Windbreak Benefits to Soil, Crops • Soil conservation
and Livestock • Livestock and dairy cattle husbandry
• Windbreak Design • Livestock confinement facilities.
• Productive Windbreaks • Nut, fruit, and berry crops
• Site Preparation, Planting and Main-
tenance Crops that can be produced from actively
Appendix: managed windbreaks include:
• Non-Agroforestry Uses of Wind- • Nuts, fruits, berries
breaks: • Timber, fencepost, firewood
o Windbreaks for Homes • Christmas trees
o Windbreaks for Livestock Odor • Boughs, cones, wreaths
Reduction • Landscape plants
o Living Snow Fences • Shade-tolerant plants such as those
o Windbreaks for Wildlife grown in the forest farming practice
• Success Stories • Lease hunting opportunities when man-
• Economic Incentives aged for wildlife benefits
• Additional Resources
ing an understanding of the interactions
between the windbreak (trees, shrubs and
grasses) and the adjacent land area, its layout
can be most effective at meeting the goals for
which it is, or has been, established. By under-
standing the needs of each of the windbreak’s
component parts, the windbreak can be man-
aged to best maintain its effectiveness over
time, and also sustain its contributions to the
farm or ranch.
Windbreaks Defined
A windbreak is any barrier (natural or ar-
tificial) that reduces troublesome winds by
creating a wind shadow to the leeward (down-
This guide is intended to help you design and wind) side. Its major function is to reduce the
manage the interactive agroforestry practice of velocity of the wind. A windbreak must be 2.5
windbreaks. Properly applied on a landscape, a feet or higher to have a significant effect. The
windbreak can enhance and diversify farm kinds of materials that can be used for a wind-
income opportunities, improve the environ- break include trees, shrubs, tall perennial or
ment and create wildlife habitat. By develop- annual plants (e.g., switchgrass or sunflowers)

that will attain a sufficient height to create the speed for 2 to 5 times the height of the wind-
desired wind shadow. break (2H to 5H) on the upwind side and up to
30H on the downwind side of the barrier. The
The windbreak practice, also commonly re- area protected is a direct result of the height
ferred to as shelterbelt, uses intensive man- and density.
agement for growing trees, shrubs and/or
grasses adjacent to other agricultural practices, Windbreak Density. Density is the ratio of the
and consists of one or more rows of closely solid portion of the barrier to the total area of
spaced trees and/or shrubs planted at right the barrier. Wind flows through the open por-
angles to the prevailing winds. A windbreak tions of a windbreak, thus the more solid the
becomes important to the agricultural system windbreak, the less wind passes through. By
by enhancing production, or conservation, as adjusting windbreak density, different wind
it modifies air movement and wind speeds flow patterns and areas of protection are estab-
resulting in microclimatic changes. The terms lished.
windbreak and shelterbelt can be used inter-
changeably. Density level is manipulated by choice of plant
materials (e.g., deciduous vs. conifer); and
plant arrangement. By combining low growing
shrubs with medium and tall deciduous trees,
dense plant material is provided at three levels
(low, middle and upper) of the windbreak dur-
ing the growing season. However, during the
winter, the density would decrease due to the
loss of foliage. Consequently, a conifer compo-
nent would be desirable for year-round protec-
tion.
• Dense (60-80%) = Maximum wind reduc-
tion but short wind shadow
• Moderately Dense (40-60%) = Less wind
Seven Windbreak Structural Elements reduction but longer wind shadow
Determine Effectiveness • Under 40% = Effective for snow distribu-
• Height tion across a field
• Density
• Orientation
• Length
• Width
• Continuity/uniformity
• Cross-sectional shape
How Windbreaks Function

Windbreak Height. Height (referred to as ‘H’)
is the most important factor determining the The term windbreak porosity may also be used
downwind area of protection. The windbreak to characterize this structural element. The
‘H’ is the height of the tallest row of trees in the percentage of porosity is the amount of open
windbreak. The windbreak will reduce wind spaces in the windbreak when viewed perpen-

dicularly to the windbreak. In other words po- to decline. However, the 25-35% density level
rosity is the inverse of density, i.e., a 60 percent is very effective for even distribution of snow
dense windbreak would be 40 percent porous. across a field for moisture management. This
density level is not as good for stopping wind
erosion.
Windbreak Orientation. Windbreaks are

most effective when oriented at right angles to
prevailing or troublesome winds, (Fig. 2, be-
low). The best orientation for each windbreak
depends on the objectives for the windbreak.
A key point to remember is that although the
troublesome wind may occur primarily from
one direction, it rarely blows exclusively from
that direction. As the wind changes direction
and is no longer blowing directly against the
windbreak, the protected area decreases.
Fig. 1. Wind speed reduction to the lee of windbreaks with Fig. 2. Windbreak Design Options.
different densities.
Windbreak Length. Although the height of

The degree of density will impact the extent the windbreak determines the extent of the
of the area being protected and the magnitude protected area downwind, the length of a
of protection as shown in Figure 1. A solid windbreak determines the amount of total area
fence (100% density) provides maximum wind receiving protection. For maximum efficiency,
reduction, but the area of wind reduction is the uninterrupted length of a windbreak
shorter than with a dense tree windbreak. The should exceed the height by at least 10:1 (i.e., a
dense windbreak (60-80%) provides a greater windbreak 30 feet tall needs to be at least 300
area of protection, and the magnitude of wind feet long). The ratio reduces the influence of
reduction is as good as the solid structural end-turbulence on the total protected area.
fence or wall. For the moderately dense wind-
break (40-60%), the magnitude of wind reduc- Windbreak Width. The width primarily serves
tion is somewhat less but the wind shadow is as a means to manipulate the desired density
at its maximum. Once the density drops below of the windbreak. The number of rows, the
40%, the effectiveness of the windbreak begins distance between trees, and species composi-

tion are factors controlling windbreak density.
Advantages of Windbreaks
Increasing the number of rows or decreasing
• Enhance crop yield
the distance between trees increases density
and provides a more solid barrier to the wind. • Protect soil from wind erosion
A wider windbreak can also increase the value • Shelter livestock and crops
of the windbreak for wildlife and offers oppor- • Capture water runoff and nutrients
tunities to produce products. • Improve irrigation efficiency
• Filter and reduce dust
Windbreak Continuity. Continuity influences • Help control odors
efficiency. Gaps in a windbreak become funnels • Screen unsightly areas
that concentrate wind flow, creating areas on • Provide wildlife travel corridors and habi-
the downwind side of the gap in which wind tat
speeds often exceed open field wind velocities.
• Protect structures (homes, outbuildings,
Gaps will decrease the windbreak’s effective-
roads)
ness. Access lanes through a windbreak should
be avoided or minimized. • Reduce noise
• Improve aesthetics
Windbreak Cross-Sectional Shape. Some
windbreak guides call for a “hip-roof shape” to
assist in “lifting” the wind. However, the cross-
sectional shape of windbreaks with equal den- Disadvantages of Windbreaks
sities has minimal influence on wind velocities • Require more intensive management
within 10H of the leeward side of a barrier. Be- • Need specialized equipment for tree/
yond 10H, straight sides provide slightly more shrub management
protection than slanted sides because more • Remove land from annual crop produc-
wind passes through the trees and extends the tion
protected area farther to the leeward.
• Financial returns increase gradually as a
windbreak grows
Windbreak Benefits • May harbor harmful crop pests, e.g., in-
Windbreaks offer a variety of potential envi- sects & weeds
ronmental and financial benefits to a farm or
ranch enterprise through protection of crops
and livestock. The rural community also ben- Benefits for the Soil
efits from improved air quality through wind Windbreaks have been widely recognized as a
speed reductions and the physical capture of key tool to reduce wind erosion. When wind
airborne particulates including dust, smoke, speed is reduced, the wind erosion process
pesticide droplets and odors. Windbreaks also cannot start. Wind erosion can rob land of
provide aesthetic diversity by adding trees in precious topsoil containing nutrients and
an agricultural landscape and enhance wildlife organic matter. This loss can lead to reduced
habitats and corridors through the addition of productivity and the need to add more nutri-
tree, shrub and herbaceous cover. ents. Wind erosion potential is the greatest
when fields are very wide and the soil is bare
and smooth. Windbreaks combined with other
wind erosion control measures (e.g., reduced
tillage, herbaceous wind barriers) provide
conservation system that can tolerate wide
weather extremes.

Fig. 3. Windbreak Benefits for
Crops.
crops when protected

by a windbreak. This
yield increase generally
occurs from 1.5/2H to
10-12H on the leeward
side of the windbreak
(Fig. 3). The amount of
yield increase will vary
from year to year due
to different weather
conditions. There will also be some variation
due to soils and the types of trees used in the
Crop Windbreaks: Weighted Average Crop Yield windbreak (i.e., less competitive trees result in
Increase
greater gains). The yield advantage is normally
Corn 12% Soybeans 13% more than enough to offset the decrease in
Barley 25% Winter Wheat 23% yield immediately adjacent to the windbreak
Hay 20% Spring Wheat 8% and the land occupied by the windbreak. Some
landowners will plant a deep rooted crop such
as alfalfa adjacent to the windbreak in the area
Benefits for Crops impacted the most from competition and are
Windbreaks improve crop production and qual- able to gain good quality forage.
ity by modifying the microclimate and reducing
wind erosion. They protect crops from insect
pests by reduced crop visibility, dilution of pest
hosts due to plant diversity, interference with
pest movement, creation of environments less
favorable to pests and more favorable to ben-
eficial insects. They can be designed to manage
snow drifting to maximize use of the moisture
for crops. Windbreaks improve irrigation ef-
ficiency by reducing evaporation losses; and
improve water quality through interception of
sediment and interception, sequestration and
decomposition of agricultural chemicals in the
tree, shrub and herbaceous rhizosphere.
When field windbreaks are suggested to

This field windbreak is designed to provide year-round
landowners, they often have a mental image protection by incorporating cedar and pine outer rows with
of crop reduction and/or loss adjacent to the an interior row of deciduous shrubs.
windbreak and from the space occupied by
the windbreak. What is often not recognized
is the potential for increased crop quality and Benefits to Orchards and
quantity on the leeward (downwind) side of
the windbreak. Many years of field research
Vegetable Crops
have shown there is a yield advantage for many In addition to the traditional commodity crops,
windbreaks are also used to protect a variety

of horticultural crops including many fruit windbreak is dependent upon the purpose(s)
and vegetable crops. Some of the key benefits desired. To determine the purpose(s) requires
of protecting these types of crops include: understanding the desired objectives of the
improved crop quality from reduced bruis- landowner and the physical site characteristics.
ing, better pollination from insects due to less
wind, and early maturing of the crops resulting The first step in design is to interview the
in possible marketing advantages. Windbreaks landowner to ascertain his/her objectives or
around orchards are also being examined purposes for the windbreak. A probing ques-
for their use in preventing off-site drifting of tioning strategy can be effective such as:
pesticides. Many orchards and other farms
are being engulfed by housing developments. Crops
Windbreaks can help buffer potential land-use • Have you had any wind erosion from your
conflicts. fields? If so,
o When did it occur?
Benefits to Livestock o From which direction(s) does the wind
Windbreaks provide valuable protection to cause the most problem(s)?
livestock especially for young animals and in o Are you using other wind erosion
areas with cold northerly winds during winter control practices, e.g., reduced tillage?
and early spring. Reducing the wind impacts • Have you had any crop damage or loss from
lowers animal stress and improves general the wind or blowing soil?
health resulting better livestock production o When did it occur?
by increasing feed efficiency and weight gains,
o From which direction(s) does the wind
improving survival of newborns and increasing
cause the most problem(s)?
milk production. Windbreaks can also provide
living screens to separate incompatible uses o What crops are you growing that may
(i.e., livestock facilities from suburban resi- be wind sensitive?
dences). • Are you growing crops that need pollina-
tion?
Livestock
Windbreak Design • When do your livestock need the most wind
Designing windbreaks requires the planner to protection?
be able to manipulate the different structural • What livestock pastures, lots or structures
components of a windbreak in order to achieve need wind protection?
the desired effect. Climatic and physical effects • Do we need to be concerned with summer air
such as wind speed, apparent air temperature, movement in the livestock area?
snow deposition and evapotranspiration are • Which access roads need to be kept clear of
modified as a result of the structural character- snow?
istics of the windbreak.
• Is there a drainage issue associated with
rain or snowmelt runoff?
Ask Yourself: What needs to be protected?
• Crops/orchards
2) Site Evaluation
• Soil
The next step is to evaluate the site conditions
• Livestock and/or Livestock Buildings
that may affect windbreak design and applica-
tion. Use a conservation plan map or photo to
1) Determining the Windbreak Purpose
identify fields in need of protection, existing
As noted previously, a windbreak can have a
windbreaks, soil problems, utilities, direction of
variety of purposes ranging from crop protec-
prevailing erosive winds, property lines, roads
tion to snow management. The design of the
and access lanes. (Fig. 4, next page.)

• Identify protection needs for the wind-
break, such as fencing to keep out live-
stock.
• Observe any existing plant species which
may be alternate hosts for pathogens, e.g.,
cedar-apple rust.
• Inventory existing wildlife habitat and
wildlife species in the area so the wind-
break may complement.
3) Design Considerations for Different

Windbreaks
Windbreak Design Tips for Crop Fields

• For crop protection/production and/or
uniform snow distribution, windbreak-
to-windbreak intervals should be 15
to 20H. For crops highly susceptible to
damage from wind or small amounts of
wind-blown soil during some portion of
the growing season, a spacing interval of
6-10H provides a high degree of protec-
tion.
• For erosion control purposes, the Natural
Fig. 4. Area sketch for site evaluation. Resources Conservation Service uses a
rule-of thumb of “no erosion out to 10H
leeward” -- leading to a windbreak-to-
• Identify all areas needing protection based windbreak interval of 10H plus the dis-
on the troublesome wind direction(s). tance protected by the agronomic system
(i.e., standing crop, crop residues, cropping
• Inventory the soils. Begin a starter list of
pattern, ridging) being used.
species adapted to the soils.
• Different design densities and heights
• Observe the topography to determine any
result in different snow drift patterns. For
drainage concerns either into or away from
example, if the landowner wants to spread
the windbreak (especially snowmelt and
snow evenly across a field to improve soil
feedlot runoff)
moisture in a crop field, the windbreak
• Locate property lines, overhead and under
design density should range from 25 to 35
ground utilities (electric, telephone, gas,
percent. This would be roughly equivalent
and/ or sewer), and existing trees or
to a single row of deciduous trees without
shrubs which may be within or adjacent to
leaves at a wide spacing (15 to 20 feet). If
the proposed windbreak.
soil erosion is a potential problem during
• Identify any access roads or lanes that the time the windbreak is at this density
could cause breaks in the windbreak. level, additional conservation measures
• Locate the windbreak to avoid obstructing will be needed.
the winter sun, or oncoming traffic near
driveways.

• Plan for 40-60 % density for crop and General Design Considerations
soil protection. • Avoid creating gaps with access roads cut
• Plan for 25 - 35% density for snow through a windbreak. Wind flow increases
distribution. through gaps decreasing windbreak ef-
fectiveness. Where needed, design the
opening at an angle to prevailing winds.
Windbreak Design Tips for Livestock Lanes or roads through single-row barriers
• Greatest wind protection occurs from 2H to should be avoided; where necessary, locate
5H leeward of the tallest tree row. them 100 to 500 feet from the ends of the
windbreak.
• For wind and snow protection, the most
windward row needs to be 100 to 200 feet
from the windward edge of the primary
protection area.
• Allow room for snow deposition outside
of feeding area. Care must also be taken to
accommodate the drainage both from the
clean water runoff from the windbreak (i.e.
snowmelt) and drainage from the livestock
feeding area. Effluent from the feeding
area can harm and sometimes kill trees and
shrubs.
• Critical temperatures for beef cattle are
determined in part by the condition of
the coat. Below the critical temperature, • Locate new rows of trees 50 feet from ex-
livestock must expend more energy to keep isting trees.
warm. • Stay away from subsurface drain fields and
overhead utilities.
Livestock Critical Temperatures • Avoid locating windbreaks within 200 feet
Coat Description Critical Temperature of road intersections to prevent poor driver
Summer coat or wet 59oF visibility.
Fall coat 45oF
Winter coat 32oF
Heavy winter coat 18oF
Selecting Tree and Shrub Species
Adapted from D.R. Ames, Kansas State University All species of trees and shrubs do not grow at
the same rate nor do they grow to the same
mature height. Likewise, adapted species
vary in their growth on different soils within
a geographical area. The amount of available
soil moisture during the growing season and
soil aeration are two important factors affect-
ing tree and shrub growth. These factors are
largely determined by soil texture, soil depth
and climate.
Conservation tree and shrub suitability groups

have been developed as a guide for selecting
species best suited to different kinds of soils,
and climate, predicting height growth at 20

years, and measuring effectiveness. These For example, nut and fruit producing plants
guides should be available in the NRCS Field Of- could be incorporated into a windbreak design
fice Technical Guide. Information about differ- with the intent of harvesting the fruits/nuts as
ent plants can also be obtained from PLANTS a product. The harvesting would not impact
located on the internet at www.plants.usda.gov. the other benefits of the windbreak. Some
commonly harvested fruits include chokecher-
Windbreak Plant Materials ry, highbush cranberry, sand cherry, currants,
Select plants adapted to: Corneliacherry dogwood, jostaberry, Nanking
- Climate cherry, chokeberry, buffaloberry, pawpaw, per-
- Soils simmon, and many others. All are harvested
Select to meet objectives: for home consumption, but many are also gath-
- Foliage density characteristics ered for commercial use as fresh fruit, jams,
- Height potential jellies, syrups, juices, concentrates, confections
- Wildlife needs
and wines.
A second possible enterprise could be decora-

In addition to selecting plants adapted to the
tive woody florals. Any woody plant species
climate and soil, plants need to be selected that
that has a colorful or unusually shaped stem,
have the greatest potential for meeting land-
bud, flower, fruit or even leaf can become a
owner objectives. The primary objective is to
decorative floral product. Some plant examples
select plants that will provide the desired level
include stems from red and yellow-stemmed
of wind protection in a reasonable length of
dogwoods; and curly, pussy, flame and basket
time (within 10 years). This means selecting
willows. Even though the stems of these plants
species that will give the appropriate level of
will be harvested, most of them will re-sprout
density and optimum height for the site. For
from the roots restoring their value as part of
example, conifers need to be considered if opti-
the windbreak.
mum year-round wind protection is desired. If
wildlife is desired, select appropriate plants for
With any of these concepts, careful advanced
the desired animals or birds.
planning is needed. Some unique challenges
include understanding available markets, tim-
Productive Windbreaks ing of harvest, perishability of the product,
For most of the other agroforestry practices, available labor, wildlife pressure, year-to-year
e.g., Alley Cropping and Silvopasture, a market- production, etc. Once these issues have been
able product is typically produced from the resolved, thought is needed to decide how
woody component. Windbreaks have histori- to incorporate the plants into the windbreak
cally been a conservation practice providing design. If the plants that will be harvested are
benefits to the adjacent area by reducing wind primarily shrubs, the design can be fairly easy
impacts. The trees and shrubs in a windbreak since shrubs typically are included in the outer
have rarely been managed to sell a product. In or inner rows which will make access easier.
the older windbreaks planted in the 1930’s and Growing specialty forest products in wind-
1940’s plants were chosen that could provide breaks can provide supplemental income while
fruit for home consumption and trees were at the same time improve the environment.
cut for use as fence posts and rough lumber Another advantage is that the windbreak will
on the farm. The concept of producing usable receive more management care and could
products from windbreaks and other conserva- result in a longer lasting planting. Success will
tion practices has recently been revived and only occur if the grower is a skilled manager
promoted in Productive Conservation: Grow- and an effective marketer.
ing Specialty Forest Products in Agroforestry
Plantings.
Windbreak Site Preparation, In arid areas where trees are difficult to grow
Planting and Maintenance shrubs or tall native grasses may be used to
provide crop protection, to control wind ero
Site Preparation sion, and to capture snow for crop production.
Site preparation is an important first step to
ensure successful survival of the trees and
Maintenance
shrubs in the windbreak. The goal is to maxi-
mize the amount of moisture at the site and to The goal is to maintain the health and vigor of
minimize the potential for weed competition. individual trees and shrubs while maintain-
The type of site preparation used depends ing the overall structure of the windbreak as
on the soil and existing vegetation at the site. an effective wind barrier. With proper care, a
With sandy soils, care must be given to avoid windbreak will serve a long life of protection.
wind erosion problems. On sloping sites,
precautions must be taken to prevent water Windbreak maintenance
erosion. Site preparation can be accomplished • Weed/grass control for the first 3 to 5
either mechanically (e.g., tillage equipment in- years with a optional cover crop between
cluding chisel plow, disc, rototiller, or scalper), rows
chemically (pre and/or postemergent herbi- • Use supplemental water to ensure early
cides) or a combination of both. survival and development
• Replant to fill gaps
• Protect from animals and pests
Site preparation
• Use corrective thinning and pruning
• Maximize moisture
• Do not fertilize (cost prohibitive)
• Minimize competition
• Match the site
• Be timely
• Care for plants • Weed/grass control -Weeds need to be
• Plant at correct depth minimized usually for the first three to five
years in a band about three to four feet on
each side of the rows of trees or shrubs.
The area between the rows can be planted
Planting
to an annual cover crop (e.g., grain/forage
Tree planting methods include using either a
sorghum, oats, corn, millet, wheat, rye, or
tree planting machine or hand planting tools.
sunflowers) which can help control weeds,
For both methods, some key techniques need
provide wildlife cover, and protect young
to be followed:
tree seedlings from soil or wind abrasion.
• Do not plant on hot, windy days.
• Supplemental irrigation -Irrigation (e.g.,
• Prevent roots from drying out. hand, drip, sprinkler, furrow or flood) is
• Do not plant when the temperature is not a substitute for good site preparation
freezing or below. and weed/grass control. Irrigation should
• Plant seedlings in a vertical position with be used when soil moisture conditions are
root collar 1” below soil surface. extremely dry at planting time or during a
• Prepare a trench or hole deep and wide prolonged drought after planting.
enough to permit roots to spread out • Replanting -Replant all trees and shrubs
naturally; avoid “J rooting” - prune roots as that have failed in order to fill in the gaps
needed to prevent J roots. in the windbreak. Replant annually for at
• Pack soil firmly around roots to eliminate least three years after the initial planting
air pockets. and continue until a full stand of trees is
attained.

• Animal Protection -Establish appropriate Non-Agroforestry Uses of
fencing to prevent livestock and large mam-
mal damage. Controlling small mammals Windbreaks
can include repellents, traps, special fenc- 1) Windbreaks for Homes
ing, and seedling protectors (e.g. photode- Benefits
gradable plastic tubing or mesh netting).
Windbreaks reduce energy consumption by
Consult with local and state game/wildlife
reducing air infiltration into buildings resulting
specialists for control measures for your
in less heat loss and by reducing the amount of
area.
snow removal from roads and around build-
• Pest control -Periodic inspection of the ings.
crops and trees is recommended to de-
tect and identify possible pests. These Design Tips
inspections and in some cases the use of • For wind protection only, the tallest row
pheromone traps will help determine when needs to be 2-5H (H = planned height of the
corrective action is warranted. tallest row) from the primary area needing
• Pruning -Hail, wind or snow storms often protection.
cause breakage of limbs and sometimes • However, for wind and snow protection, the
the main trunk(s) of the trees and shrubs. most windward row needs to be 100 to 200
Remove broken limbs and tops. feet from the windward edge of the prima-
• Fertilization -Generally, fertilization of ry protection area. The distance between
windbreaks is not recommended. It is not the area needing protection and the wind-
practical, economical, or feasible, in most ward row varies with the amount of space
cases. The only situation where fertilization needed for snow storage.
may be justified would be a small, high val- • Once this critical distance is met, check to
ued windbreak planted on soils that have see if the area needing protection is still
obvious soil nutrient deficiencies. Apply in the 2-5H zone, i.e. a house. Areas and
fertilizer according to soil test results. objects more than 10H from the windbreak
will receive reduced wind protection.
Summary • To protect structures, the windbreak
should have a density ranging from 60 to
Windbreaks protect crops, soil, and livestock
80 percent during the period requiring
while also improving air and water quality,
maximum protection. To achieve the mini-
broadening biodiversity, and beautifying the
mum level of this density range, plant at
landscape. One of the keys to the successful
least three rows of trees and shrubs with at
windbreak is recognizing what the landowner
least one row being a conifer.
wants to accomplish through its application on
• Extend the windbreak a minimum of 100
the landscape. The next step is to then under-
feet past structures needing protection to
stand the properties of a successful windbreak.
accommodate wind turbulence at the end
And finally, choose species to plant in the wind-
of the windbreak and end-drifts of snow.
break that will enable it to work as expected.
• Locate access roads from 100 to 500 feet
With a little planning upfront, a windbreak
from the ends of the windbreak. If a lane
can provide a variety of benefits from improv-
must cut a windbreak, it should cut through
ing crop production to maintaining livestock
the windbreak at an angle to prevailing
health.
winds to prevent funneling of wind and
snow drifting.

Two designs for protecting a structure from Windbreak Design -
snow To Protect Homes and Outbuildings
• Traditional multi-row windbreak: A ba-
sic farmstead windbreak consists of three Windbreaks for protecting structures such as
to eight rows of both conifers and decidu- the farmstead, roads and other buildings:
ous trees and shrubs. Conifers or shrubs
should be located on the windward side Position the windbreak as close to perpendic-
with tall deciduous species in the center. ular to the most troublesome wind direction.
A row of shrubs on the interior or leeward “One-leg” windbreaks are sufficient if winds
side completes the design. come from one direction only, but a “two-leg”
• Modified twin-row, high density wind- or network of windbreak(s) provides greater
break: In areas with frequent heavy snows protection for variable wind directions.
consider adding a row or two of shrubs
50 feet to the windward side to trip snow Plan for 60-80 % density for maximum
before it reaches the main windbreak. An protection. Locate windward row 100 - 200
auxiliary planting of shrubs on the leeward feet from area needing protection. In areas
side of the windbreak can also add good with variable winds, multiple-leg windbreaks
emergency cover for wildlife. This can be provide greater protection to the field or
supplemented with a food plot between farmstead than single-leg windbreaks.
the main windbreak and the auxiliary
planting.
Community Windbreaks
Go to Windbreaks for Rural Living for more Planned community windbreaks can provide
information http://nac.unl.edu/documents/ extra protection for the entire development
more,publications/ec1767.pdf and be an economic gain for the developer and
homeowner from increased property values.
Windbreaks in the rural-urban interface can
also reduce potential conflicts, such as blow-
ing dust, privacy, odors or noise, between land
uses. High quality windbreaks between agricul-
ture and communities can prevent windblown
soil and snow. Sediment in the yard, dust in
homes and pesticide drift can be great aggrava-
tion to both rural and urban homeowners. For
more information see Working Trees for Com-
munities, http://nac.unl.edu/documents/work-
ingtrees/brochures/wtc.pdf
Windbreak designs for snow

2) Living Snow Fences • Refer to the above Windbreak Design for
Benefits Snow figure for more guidance about snow
Blowing and drifting snow jeopardizes public behavior adjacent to different windbreak
safety and emergency services, interrupts busi- designs.
nesses, increases road maintenance costs and • Go to Working Trees: Living Snow Fences,
causes wildlife mortality. Living snow fences are http://nac.unl.edu/documents/working-
more cost-effective than structural barriers, can trees/brochures/livingsnowfenceforweb.
meet many additional objectives, and provide a pdf, and Windbreaks for Snow Manage-
wide array of benefits beyond snow control. ment, http://nac.unl.edu/documents/
morepublications/ec1770.pdf, for more
Design Tips information.
• To achieve maximum snow accumulation, 3) Windbreaks for Livestock Odor
the windbreak density should range from Reduction
60 to 80 percent.
Benefits
• The most windward row should be a
Windbreaks (or vegetative environmental buf-
minimum of 100 feet from the area being
fers - VEBs) placed around livestock produc-
protected to prevent inappropriate snow-
tion facilities can help mitigate the movement
drifts. This distance will vary (100 to 300
of odors and dust generated by these opera-
feet) depending on the location and sever-
tions. Urban expansion has placed many more
ity of winters.
people into closer contact with agricultural
• A trip row of shrubs or dense conifer can
operations. Large scale livestock confinement
be located 50 to 100 feet windward of the
production has led to increased concentra-
main windbreak to create a snow trap.
tions of odor emissions travelling across
• For protecting roads, allow plenty of room
highly modified landscapes relatively devoid
for the leeward drift by locating the wind-
of natural barriers. Windbreaks alone will
ward row of the windbreak 200 to 300 feet
not prevent these odor problems but can help
from the center of the road.
reduce negative visual perceptions and the
detection of smell by neighbors and surround-
ing communities.
Design Tips
• Windbreaks should con-
sist of at least one to three
rows of conifer and decidu-
ous species.
• Two to three rows of
trees can provide an ideal 60
percent windbreak density
(or 40 percent porosity) for
odor control.
• Shrubs are generally
planted in the outside or
inside rows, followed by co-
nifers with deciduous hard-
woods towards the middle
Integrate windbreaks into an overall landscape design to achieve multiple objectives.

or along the downwind side where they can of cover can provide nesting, loafing, and
grow more efficiently. foraging cover for a number of species.
• Tree varieties and placement for the wind- • Winter Cover - Adding a shrub row 50 to
break should be managed to maximize odor 100 feet windward of the main windbreak
interception and dilution of air, and reduce as a snow trap results in greater wildlife
odor leaving the source. protection on the leeward side of the main
• Where site and facility conditions merit windbreak. Use species that will provide
and allow, place plantings (not necessarily good thermal protection in the winter such
windbreaks) around the entire perimeter as cedar and spruce.
of the odor source. • Food - Select species that may have high
• Even a site with a windbreak on one side food value for a variety of wildlife. Plant-
that is strategically placed and designed ing food plots or fruit-bearing shrubs on
can make a difference. the lee side of windbreaks provides food in
• For more information see Windbreaks: A an area protected from wind and possibly
“Fresh” Tool to Mitigate Odors from Live- warmed by the sun, points that are particu-
stock Production Facilities, http://nac. larly important in cold months.
unl.edu/documents/agroforestrynotes/ • For more information see Windbreaks and
an41w04.pdf Wildlife, http://nac.unl.edu/documents/
morepublications/ec1771.pdf
4) Windbreaks for Wildlife Benefits
Benefits
With careful design, windbreaks provide nest-
ing habitat for a wide variety of birds (up to 57
species) and other wildlife. Windbreaks can
also produce needed food as well as protec-
tive cover when the wildlife forage in adjacent
areas. Shelter from predation and escape cover
as well as emergency cover from severe weath-
er e.g., blizzards can be provided.
Design Tips
• Windbreaks can be given a more natural
look and still provide excellent wildlife
habitat and wind protection. Quail find excellent habitat in field windbreaks.
• Connecting Habitats - Where appropriate,
select the windbreak site that connects to a
larger habitat block such as a river corridor,
woodlot, wetland, woody draw, or similar
area.
• Herbaceous Cover - Consider planting or
leaving herbaceous vegetation such as a
mixture of grasses and legumes, standing
grain, or crop residues as a border (20 to
50 feet wide) along the edges of the wind-
break. If grasses or legumes are used, they
should be separated from the new tree
planting to avoid competition. This strip

known as Malden Plain. “We were having a lot
of trouble with blowing sand in the spring of
Success Stories the year; it was blowing and hurting our cotton
Paul Huenfeld, Nebraska Producer Using Wind- pretty bad--killing some of it.” Then, Natural
breaks with Organic Farming Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) Dis-
trict Conservationist Phil Gurley told Launius
about crosswind trap strips, and said he could
get switchgrass seed through the Missouri
Department of Conservation. Launius installed
some on an 80-acre field in 1989. Although
some cotton farmers have used wheat and rye
to slow the wind, switchgrass grows to 6 or
8 feet and Launius says it keeps the wind up
in the air. “In the spring, it’s windy when the
cotton plants are babies, and that’s the worst
time. If they get up to 6 or 8 inches tall they
can defend themselves; but when they’re short,
with just two leaves, wind and sand can just
cut them off. It’s like a baby that gets sick--they
“Organic farming and trees were just a natural don’t grow like they ought to until they get well
fit, like a hand and a glove, as far as I was con- again. That’s cotton, it’s like any plant.” When
cerned. We needed buffers around the farm. Launius retired he rented his land, and his ten-
We also really value the importance of habitat ant has kept up the wind strips.
for the insects and the predators, and we see
that along the trees where we can plant grass Launius added four rows of switchgrass in
and legumes is an excellent source of habitat strips with 24 rows of cotton. He figures he
for the different species of wildlife.” might have gone with 36 rows of cotton to 4
rows of switchgrass, “but I’d be afraid to tear
any of it up.” Besides, he’s doing better with
the 68 acres than he did with the original 80
acres. “Our yields have increased a half-bale
Claud Launius, Retired cotton producer, Malden per acre or more because the plants aren’t
Plain, Mo. getting hurt. They just sit there and grow; the
weather doesn’t bother them. We really like it.”
Launius is surprised that others aren’t plant-
ing switchgrass wind traps, but thinks they just
don’t want to give up those 4 rows of cotton
ground. He notes that there are other benefits
beyond protecting the cotton plants and boost-
ing production. “It’s doing really well for quail
and other animals, such as rabbits. By hiding
in the switchgrass, the quail run the hunters
crazy. The grass is really thick and it keeps get-
ting thicker and thicker.” To maintain it, every
other 4-row strip is burned every other year;
that makes the switchgrass “stool out” more,
Claud Launius is a retired cotton farmer in the and then it has millions of seeds on it –”and
sandy soil area of “the Bootheel” of Missouri that’s what quail and wildlife like.”

Economic Incentives The USDA National Institute of Food and
Agriculture supports the Sustainable Agricul-
There are several agencies offering programs
ture Research and Education (SARE) program.
that can be used to establish and maintain
Of the three funding types available through
windbreak practices on private land. The
SARE, only one, the producer grant, is aimed
USDA Farm Service Agency (FSA) offers three
at the landowner. Landowners who submit ac-
programs that may be used for windbreaks
cepted proposals can receive up to $15,000 to
and shelterbelts: the Conservation Reserve
establish and maintain the sustainable practice
Program (CRP), the Continuous Conservation
that they propose.
Reserve Program (CCRP), and the Conservation
Reserve Enhancement Program (CREP). Each
See chart at right for a listing of incentives
of these programs is designed to take environ-
offered by these federal agencies or consult
mentally sensitive and highly erodible land out
the UMCA publication “Funding Incentives for
of production by offering a soil rental payment,
Agroforestry in Missouri.”
a cost-share for the establishment of various
conservation practices and other financial
incentives to landowners who offer to set aside
their land.
Of these three programs, the CCRP program of-

fers direct benefits to landowners establishing
a windbreak/shelterbelt. CCRP is a voluntary
program that focuses on funding conservation
practices (CP) protecting environmentally sen-
sitive land. Landowners with eligible land who
wish to enroll that land in the CCRP may sign-
up at any time during the year. NRCS Standard
380 identifies the guidelines for establishing a
windbreak for the CCRP. For more information,
contact your local USDA/FSA office.
The USDA/NRCS has four main programs that

offer funds for tree planting and agroforestry.
They are the Environmental Quality Incentives
Program (EQIP), the Wildlife Habitat Incentive
Program (WHIP), and the Conservation Stew-
ardship Program (CSP). In conjunction with the
funding programs noted, the USDA/NRCS also
provides technical assistance to landowners
who are interested in conservation planning
and application.

Federal Programs Key to Programs:
Agency and Available CS = Cost Share
Programs for Wind- (ranges from 50%
Offered breaks to 90%, based on
a predetermined
USDA/FSA expected cost struc-
Continuous CS,LE,IP,M ture)
Conservation PP = Practice pay-
Reserve Pro- ment derived for
gram (CCRP) each particular
practice.
USDA/NRCS LE = Land Easement
(Rental payments
Environmen- PP based on an aver-
tal Quality age rental rate per
Incentives land use type; ease-
Program ments are typically
(EQIP) 5, 10, 15, 30 years or
permanent)
Conservation CS,LE M = Annual main-
Stewardship tenance payments
Program (range from $5 - $10
(CSP) per acre)
IP = Additional
incentive payments
Wildlife PP
(payments could
Habitat Incen-
include sign-up
tive Program
bonuses, additional
(WHIP)
cost-share, and/or
USDA/NIFA increased land ease-
SARE Produc- G ment rates)
er Grants G = Grants

Windbreak Resources – USDA National Agroforestry Center
http://nac.unl.edu/windbreaks.htm This page has many windbreak references, but suggests starting with
the 11 publications listed under the Windbreak Series heading starting with How Windbreaks Work. The
Agroforestry Notes also provide some specialized information.
NRCS Windbreak Information

National Windbreak/Shelterbelt Establishment Practice Standard
NRCS State Windbreak/Shelterbelt Establishment Practice Standards and Specifications:
1. Electronic Field Office Technical Guide: http://efotg.sc.egov.usda.gov/efotg_locator.aspx
2. Locate your state on the map then your county
3. Choose Section 4 of FOTG, then Conservation Practice Folder and scroll to Windbreak
Illinois
Illinois Windbreak Manual – Illinois Department of Conservation, Extension and NRCS: http://web.extension.
illinois.edu/forestry/iwm_complete.pdf
Essential Elements for Windbreak Design – University of Illinois Extension: web.extension.illinois.edu/cfiv/
homeowners/081208.html
Iowa
Planning Farmstead Windbreaks - Iowa State Extension
www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM1716.pdf
Farmstead Windbreaks: Establishment, Care and Maintenance - Iowa State Extension
www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM1717.pdf
Minnesota
Field Windbreaks – Minnesota Department of Agriculture Conservation Funding Guide
www.mda.state.mn.us/protecting/conservation/practices/fieldwindbreak.aspx
Windbreaks and Living Snow Fences – University of Minnesota Extension: www.myminnesotawoods.umn.
edu/2009/01/windbreaks-and-living-snow-fences/
Selecting Trees and Shrubs in Windbreaks - University of Minnesota Extension:

www.extension.umn.edu/agroforestry/components/selecting-trees-and-shrubs-in-windbreaks.pdf
Missouri
Planning Tree Windbreaks in Missouri – University of Missouri Extension extension.missouri.edu/explorepdf/
agguides/forestry/g05900.pdf
Windbreaks: Agroforestry Practice – University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry: http://www.
centerforagroforestry.org/practices/wb.php
Using Windbreaks to Reduce Odors Associated with Livestock Production Facilities – USDA NRCS-MO – IS-
MO380: www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs144p2_010805.pdf
Nebraska
Windbreak Design – University of Nebraska Extension NEBGuide G1304: http://nfs.unl.edu/documents/wind-
breakdesign.pdf

Additional Resources, con’t
Wisconsin
Windbreaks: Trees as Technology for Protecting Wisconsin’s Topsoil – University of Wisconsin: www.cias.wisc.
edu/crops-and-livestock/windbreaks-trees-as-technology-for-protecting-wisconsins-topsoil/
Windbreaks That Work – Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources: dnr.wi.gov/topic/forestmanagement/
documents/pub/FR-070.pdf
Tree and Shrub Species for Windbreaks – USDA NRCS-Wisconsin: ftp://ftp-fc.sc.egov.usda.gov/WI/technotes/
forestry-tn4.pdf
In Print:
Brandle, J.R., L. Hodges, J. Tyndall, and R.A. Sudmeyer. 2009. IN: North American Agroforestry: An Integrated
Science and Practice (H.E. Garrett, Editor). 2nd Edition. Agronomy Society of America, Madison, WI. Pp. 75-105
Brandle, J.R., L. Hodges, and B. Wight. 2000. IN: North American Agroforestry: An Integrated Science and Prac-
tice (H.E. Garrett, W.J. Rietveld and R.F. Fisher, ed’s.). Agronomy Society of America, Madison, WI. pp. 79-118.
Brandle, J.R., D.L. Hintz and J.W. Sturrock. 1988. Windbreak Technology. IN: Agriculture, Ecosystems and Envi-
ronment, 22/23. Elsevier Science Publishers. Amsterdam, The Netherlands. 598 pp

EXERCISE: REVIEW OF WINDBREAKS
1. What are the advantages of windbreaks for:

• Cattle
• Soil
• Crops
2. How far from the windbreak will crops benefit with increased yields?
3. Compare and contrast the uses for single-row and multiple-row windbreaks.
4. When considering whether to use single or multiple row windbreaks, what factors
should be considered?
5. When deciding between deciduous and coniferous species, what factors will also be
used when writing out the management plan?
6. Putting in a windbreak will cause a farmer to take acres out of production. How can you
persuade a farmer that putting a windbreak in will be beneficial in the long run?
7. What financial assistance programs are being funded through state or federal programs
to help landowners with the cost of putting windbreaks up on their property?
8. A number of features must be analyzed prior to the placement of a windbreak. List four
of these features.
For further thought:

Like any other aspect of agroforestry, windbreaks can provide advantages and disadvan-
tages to the landowner. How do you work with the landowner to see past the disadvan-
tages and not focus on the negative?

EXERCISE KEY
1. What are the advantages of windbreaks for cattle, soil and crops?
Properly designed windbreaks have been shown to increase crop yield for a wide variety of
crops. Decreases in wind speed protect downwind crops, decreasing evapotranspiration and
increasing water use efficiency. Decreasing wind speed enhanced soil stability and is the primary
basis for the installation of windbreaks dating back to the Dust Bowl of the 1930’s. During the
winter, cattle use energy to keep warm, increasing their feed requirement. Windbreaks moder-
ate winter temperature extremes, reducing cold stress. Windbreaks also improve calving success
rates.
2. How far from the windbreak will crops benefit with increased yields?
The rule of thumb is that crop yields are improved out to 10-15H.
3. Compare and contrast the uses for single-row and multiple-row windbreaks.
Single-row deciduous windbreaks are designed to improve snow distribution across a crop field
to improve moisture for early season crop growth. They are also used surrounding orchards to
still the air and improve pollination and/or speed up crop maturation. They may also be used as
a visual screen along roads. Other windbreak applications depend on multiple-rows of decidu-
ous and coniferous trees and shrubs, combined and configured for specific purposes (i.e., crop
production, animal protection, snow fences).
4. When considering whether to use single or multiple row windbreaks, what factors
should be considered?
The purpose of the windbreak dictates the design.
5. When deciding between deciduous and coniferous species, what factors will also be
used when writing out the management plan?
Both conifers and deciduous trees bring different attributes to the function of the windbreak.
Deciduous trees are more porous to wind movement, and are less effective in slowing wind
speeds. Conversely, deciduous windbreaks reduce wind velocity further downwind. Conifers
provide much more wind blockage, critical to protect cattle from wind and snow and roads and
buildings from snow buildup.
6. Putting in a windbreak will cause a farmer to take acres out of production. How can you
persuade a farmer that putting a windbreak in will be beneficial in the long run?
A realistic assessment of the farmers’ goals and objectives, coupled with a similar assessment of
the entire farm and cropping system, will lead to the diagnosis that may include establishment
of windbreaks. Evidence of windblown soil erosion and associated crop damage, need for cattle
protection or protection of buildings and roads, may all lead to this diagnosis. Once the diagno-
sis includes windbreaks, the next step is to explore cost share programs that may help to offset
establishment costs. Visits to other landowners that have functioning windbreaks, will be very
effective in addressing farmer concerns.

EXERCISE KEY, con’t
7. What cost share programs are being funded through state or federal programs to help
landowners with the cost of putting windbreaks up on their property?
EQIP and CCRP both provide cost share for windbreak installation. (see “Funding Incentives for
Agroforestry in Missouri” for a thorough discussion of available cost share programs).
8. A number of features must be analyzed prior to the placement of a windbreak. List four
of these features.
Height, density, orientation, length, width, uniformity, cross sectional shape.

Notes

Chapter 7: Forest Farming
In this chapter: and structure and long-term health, quality,
and economic value. Forest farmers actively
• Forest Farming Defined
monitor and manage interactions between
• Non-Timber Forest Products trees and understory crops with long-term
• Types of Non-Timber Forest Prod- forest health and productivity in mind. Both
ucts timber and non-timber crops can be managed
• Forest Farming Methods on the same forested land, or non-timber crops
• Designing a Forest Farming Opera- can be grown in forests where timber harvest-
tion ing is not possible or desired. Forest farming
• Forest Management Considerations operations range from very small (< ½ acre) to
• Summary very large (> 50 acres).
• Success Stories
• Additional Resources Advantages
• Enhance forest health
• Improve forest composition
• Diversify income opportunities
• Profit from the rising popularity of forest
farmed products
• Range of operation sizes possible
Challenges
• Informal or immature markets
• Variable yield
• Limited information available on how to
produce crops
• Volatile markets for some products
• Some crops attractive to poachers
What are Non-Timber

Trees are planted with ginseng and other profitable medici-
nal plants in this illustration. Shiitake mushrooms grow on
Forest Products (NTFPs)?
logs nearby, demonstrating another product that can be Forest Farming is defined as the intentional
farmed in a forest. and intensive management of forested lands to
produce site-appropriate NTFPs. Forest farm-
ers may intentionally manage shade levels in
What is Forest Farming? a forest and among understory plants to favor
cultivation or enhanced growth of NTFPs with
Forest farming is the intentional and sustain- viable markets. NTFPs include a broad range
able cultivation of marketable non-timber of goods harvested from woodlands. Herbal
forest products (NTFPs) in woodlands with plants such as ginseng and goldenseal, spe-
suitable shade and site conditions. This cialty mushrooms like shiitake and reishi, and
agroforestry practice diversifies forest manage- wild foods such as fiddlehead ferns and miner’s
ment and enhances associated income oppor- lettuce that grow in a forest are termed NTFPs.
tunities. It also improves forest composition

Unlike other agroforestry practices such as about medicinal NTFPs often is informal, but
alley cropping or windbreaks, where trees are formal information regarding cultivation is
introduced into an agricultural system, forest increasing.
farming intentionally integrates agricultural
techniques into existing or newly established Edible NTFPs. There are a surprising num-
forests to farm NTFPs. While some forest farm- ber of forest-grown edible products. They
ers grow NTFPs for personal consumption, include fiddlehead ferns, mushrooms, nuts,
many cultivate and harvest with revenue op- honey, maple syrup, and the fruit, leaves and/
portunities in mind. or roots of many herbaceous plants. Demand
for these products is consistent and in some
The total monetary value of NTFPs is difficult cases increasing. Many types of nuts are farmed
to estimate due to the informal nature of many throughout Midwestern forests, including
markets. Nevertheless, several product- and black walnuts, pecans, hickory nuts and but-
region-specific estimates suggest that the value ternuts. Forest farmed food such as shiitake
of the industry is substantial. For example, in mushrooms and ramps have been highlighted
2011 consumer sales of herbs and botanicals in gourmet magazines and cooking shows. Wild
in the U.S. reached $5.28 billion. Raw materi- greens are particularly popular right now and
als to supply that industry were valued at $500 include watercress, miner’s lettuce, branch
million (Nutrition Business Journal, 2012). lettuce, dandelion, bean salad, and poke sal-
Ginseng exports were valued at $51.9 million in let. Wild populations of these plants are usu-
2007; $13.6 million for cultivated ginseng and ally abundant and only need to be tended not
$38.3 million for wild ginseng (Mitchell and planted. Numerous types of berry species are
Chang, 2009). McLain and Jones (2005) esti- cultivated and can be used in products ranging
mate that the aggregate annual value of NTFP from fresh fruit to jams, jellies, syrups, juices
harvests in North America likely runs in the and wines.
tens of billions of dollars.
Floral/Decorative NTFPs. Forest farmers
Types of NTFPs can cultivate various decorative plant spe-
Forest farmed NTFPs are generally divided cies to be used individually or in decorative
into 4 categories: arrangements. Galax is valued for its attrac-
• Medicinal tive and durable leaves. Holly is valued for its
• Edible evergreen leaves (in some species) and bright
red berries, and witch hazel, redbud, quince,
• Floral
mountain laurel, and rhododendron for their
• Decorative and Craft forced flowers. Pine cones, as well as other
seed capsules and pods are used in a variety of
Medicinal NTFPs. People have collected me- craft, potpourri, and seasonal products. These
dicinal plants in forests for as long as they have products have consistent markets, command
walked in them. Medicinal substances are used substantial prices, and are sold to floral shops
in nutraceutical, herbal health, cosmetic, and and large retailers or wholesalers. Many plants
other products and derived from a variety of are valued for landscaping and straw harvested
sources. This includes wood (e.g., aromatic oils in pine forests is used frequently as landscap-
from cedar), bark (e.g., smooth sumac, slippery ing mulch.
elm), buds (e.g., cottonwood), leaves (e.g., cat-
nip, ginseng, ginkgo), roots (e.g., black cohosh, Specialty Woods NTFPs. A number of spe-
goldenseal), fruit and flowers (e.g., Echinacea, cies produce specialty woods and materials for
partridgeberry, skullcap, St. John’s Wort), and use by local artisans in hand crafted products
pollen (e.g., ash, maples, pines). Knowledge and art. For example, “diamond willow”, which

Forest Farming Method Management Intensity
Woods Grown Woods grown, also known as forest gardening, is most intensive. In
addition to potential thinning of the forest overstory, it often involves
clearing undesirable vegetation in the understory and other practices
that are more closely related to agronomy (e.g., tillage, fertilization,
weeding, and control of disease, insects, and wildlife). Due to costs
associated with input levels, forest gardening can be costly and time
consuming but can render large NTFP yield.
Wild-Simulated Wild-simulated is the cultivation of NTFPs in natural growing environ-
ments. A natural growing environment can deliver products similar in
appearance and quality to plants naturally growing in the wild. Rather
than administer intensive agronomic practices, wild simulated for-
est farmers use minimally invasive techniques to expose the soil, and
plant seeds or plants. Fertilizers and pesticides are rarely used. Despite
potential decreases in total yields, wild simulated products often have
higher priced markets when compared to those that are more inten-
sively cultivated.
Managed Wild Population Managed wild populations involves working with plants or fungus
that already exist. The forest canopy may be modified to favor growth
of desirable NTFPs. Understory plants that are competing with the de-
sired species may be removed. Annual harvests might not be possible.
Inputs are very low and yields vary depending on the species and how
often it is harvested.
Wild-Harvest or Wild-harvesting is the harvesting of NTFPs growing naturally in the
Wild-Craft forest. It is not generally considered forest farming because active
management is not involved. There are no inputs and no risks. There
are sustainable wild-harvest methods that can be followed to ensure
future harvests.
Each forest farming method has advantages as well as potential drawbacks in terms of time and money, which also varies
by crop. For example, woods grown ginseng may result in a greater yield when compared to wild-simulated but per weight
value may be lower. Successful forest farmers have a good sense of available markets and NTFP prices and match method
and product to maximize revenue.
is actually a diseased willow with cankered forest floor and possible canopy management
stems, often are carved and polished by crafts- to create appropriate growing conditions.
men to create beautiful walking sticks and Small diameter hardwoods that are removed
other items. Smooth sumac, hickory, and aspen for timber stand improvement, for instance,
saplings are also converted to walking sticks may be used as logs for mushroom production.
and mass marketed. Burls are carved and In general, forest farming methods range from
turned into bowls. These value-added “art ob- minimal to intensive, which varies depend-
jects” often sell for up to $100 or more. ing on the products being produced but often
relates to tradeoffs between time and money.
Forest Farming Methods
Management requirements differ based on the There are three recognized methods of forest
NTFPs being farmed. For example, medicinal farming: woods grown (sometimes referred
herb production often involves cultivating the to as forest gardening), wild-simulated and

managed wild populations. Woods grown is ment practices. Initial operations usually focus
the most intensive and involves comprehensive on two or three crops, but can include more if
site preparation and follow-up management. markets and labor are not a limiting factor.
Start-up costs often are high, but the inputs
can significantly increase yield. Wild-simulated Forest farming depends in large part on site
is less intensive in terms of site preparation conditions that are present and those required
and may involve some canopy management by the desired NTFPs. It is necessary to match
and clearing of the forest floor, but once the and maintain appropriate sites to particular
plants or seeds are planted, little else is done NTFPs. For example, if you want to produce flo-
management wise. Compared to woods grown, ral greens that have a rich, dark green color, op-
wild simulated typically renders less volume, timum conditions may include less shade than
but because the inputs are less, the risks are what is required for ginseng cultivation. Over
reduced and the returns may be similar. In the time, changes occur in a mature or a developing
case of ginseng, the slower growth and more forest that may necessitate thinning, planting
wild appearance of the roots often command of additional trees, or providing artificial shade
price premiums, resulting in higher returns. to maintain useful site conditions. Also, each
Managing wild populations involves tending forest farming operation should contribute to
an existing population of a plant or fungi. It overall forest health and productivity.
may involve canopy management, removal of
competing understory plants, and thinning of In forest farming, shade levels can be ad-
plants to provide for better growing conditions. justed by one of two methods:
This method requires few inputs, comes with
If there is not enough shade for the under-
less risk, and usually does not provide high
story, additional planting of trees may be
returns, but may be very desirable for prod-
necessary. Shade structures made of wood
ucts that have unpredictable markets. Lastly,
lath, boughs, or polypropylene shade cloth
although not a farming method, a landowner
may be necessary to protect the plants until
might choose to simply wild-harvest (or wild-
trees mature and natural shade becomes
craft) marketable NTFPs from their forest. If
sufficient. If shade levels are too dense, thin-
sustainable wild-harvesting methods are used,
ning and/or pruning of trees may help create
products should be available for harvest in
increase the light levels.
future years.
Designing a Forest Farming

Operation
It is recommended to start small when estab-
lishing a forest farming operation. A successful
forest farmer stated that it takes multiple years
to master NTFP cultivation. The first few years
are typically filled with a mix of successes and
failures in terms of growing and marketing. The
next few years are a time to leverage lessons
learned to refine production, increase efficien-
cy, and build on developed markets.
Starting small allows a forest farmer to gain ex-

perience and suffer some setbacks without los- Ginseng grows well in this mix of alley cropping and forest
ing large amounts of money. Small areas can be farming. Walnut trees provide necessary shade.
used to test different crops, sites and manage-

Forest Management forestry organizations listed under Additional
Resources at the end of this chapter. Also see
Considerations appendix section four, “The Basics of Selling
A well-managed forest offers diverse financial
Timber.”
opportunities. Managing the understory for
NTFPs in addition to other activities such as
timber harvesting and habitat improvement Summary
can increase revenue and benefit forest health Forest farming is one of five temperate
and plant conservation. Success depends on agroforestry practices. Unlike practices that in-
realistic objectives in accordance with time, corporate trees into agricultural systems (e.g.,
labor, and site conditions and amendments. alley cropping and silvopasture), forest farming
Managing site-appropriate species with growth integrates cultivation into existing or newly
and value potential will help maximize revenue established forests. Benefits include providing
opportunities. While timber harvests are com- intermediate and periodic income from crops
mon sources of revenue for woodland owners, while timber matures or where timber harvest-
it is often several years between cuttings. For- ing is not possible or desirable. Forest farming
est farming of marketable NTFPs can provide practices help diversify forest management and
owners with intermediate income opportuni- provide important and useful products. Man-
ties while timber and other salable products agement should focus on site conditions and
mature. tradeoffs between time and money in terms of
method intensity. It also may be necessary to
Timber Stand Improvement (TSI) is an inter- manage shade levels by thinning, pruning, and/
mediate practice that removes trees to improve or adding trees.
species composition, stand structure, wildlife
values, regeneration, and forest health. Crop Before beginning an enterprise, forest farm-
tree management is one method for managers should:
ing woodlands according to site conditions.
1) Identify and investigate existing or develop-
In this technique, the best performing and
ing NTFP markets;
most marketable trees are identified and their
2) Select NTFPs of interest from the list of
growth favored by thinning other trees to
those with viable markets;
retain a suitable residual density. Both methods
can provide woody material for use in NTFP 3) Obtain site requirements, production, and
production. For example, logs from thinning processing information for selected NTFPs;
may be repurposed as mushroom substrate
or used for terracing in hillside forest farms.
Management of the forest overstory trees will

impact forest farming possibilities regardless
of the NTFP crop. In each case, the level of light
reaching the forest floor will be altered, the
implications of which should be considered by
forest farmers. To obtain additional details of
forest management options, print or request a
copy of the document “Forest Management for
Landowners” from the Missouri Department
of Conservation online at mdc.mo.gov/forest/
private/ forest_manag.pdf. (See additional
resources at the end of this chapter). To gather Forest farming of log grown shiitake mushrooms, Ozark
information on managing timber, contact Forest Mushrooms, Timber, Mo.

Examples of Forest Farming Products with Markets
Medicinal NTFPs: Ginseng, goldenseal, black cohosh, bloodroot, mayapple, wild ginger, Oregon-
grape, false unicorn (fairywand), ginkgo, skullcap, slippery elm, wild yam, Bethroot, Culver’s root
(black root), blue cohosh, boneset, lady’s slipper, passionflower, partridge berry, hawthorne, pink-
root, (indian pink), spikenard, stargrass (devil’s bit), stoneroot, Virginia snakeroot, yellow indigo, and
yellow root.
Floral/Decorative NTFPs: Grape vines for wreaths; burls for carving; , bark, pine needles, wood
splints, kudzu, various stems, and bark for baskets; , fall colored leaves and Spanish moss for decora-
tions; cuttings from conifers for wreaths, roping, and garlands; salal, pussywillows, ferns, beargrass,
and galax for floral greens for use in arrangements; and pine straw for landscaping mulch.
Edible NTFPs: Mushrooms including shiitake, oyster, reishi, morels, maitake, native truffles, and
lion’s mane; nuts including pecans, black walnuts; fruits and berries including gooseberries and
blackberries, crab apples, elderberries, paw paws, and blueberries; vegetables including fiddle
heads, ramps, bean salad (rosy twisted stalk), bear grass spiderwort, branch lettuce, burdock, dan-
delion, dock, miner’s lettuce, nettles, poke sallet, sweet salad (Solomon’s seal), upland cress (creasy
greens), and watercress; syrups including sugar maple and birch; and honey.
Woodland Wildflower NTFPs: Spring ephemerals to be sold as potted plants including celandine
poppy, wild geranium, bluebells, Jack-in-the Pulpit, mayapple, and trillium.
Specialty Woods NTFPs: Fine woods for making musical instruments and decorative bowls and
plates including curly maple, black walnut, Appalachian red spruce, and eastern red cedar.
Biomass Plants: Willow and poplar grown as short rotation crops; and waste products from timber
including sawdust, wood chips, bark, stumps, and branches.
Timber By-products: High quality sawlogs, low quality trees, firewood, and woody residues for
energy production.
4) Decide on a production method and opera- Markets for forest farmed products vary, but
tional investments; and often are direct to consumer and via local
5) Thoroughly investigate technical resources stores, cooperatives, or farmers markets. How-
and engage technical experts. ever, in some cases, larger-scale markets are
available. For example, shiitake, matsutake,
Sources of expertise on growing and producing morel, and chanterelle mushrooms, as well as
NTFPs can be obtained online from Coopera- truffles, may be sold in small volumes at farm-
tive Extension’s Forest Farming Community of ers’ markets or to gourmet restaurants, or in
Practice (http://www.extension.org/forest_ larger volumes to distributors for resale in re-
farming) and in County Extension offices, State gional markets. Markets for decorative prod-
Land Grant Universities, the Natural Resources ucts like grape vine wreaths often are in urban
Conservation Service, the USDA Forest Service, areas and may be very seasonal. Decorative
State Forestry and Conservation Agencies, and products may be sold through cooperatives
Internet sources (see Additional Resources or to local buyers. Non-local buyers may also
section). be reached through the Internet. However, by

Top: High a small staff, coordinate every step of the
value me- value-added process, from the inoculated
dicinal herb
markets have
logs to packaged, consumer-friendly, organic
been increas- mushroom products.
ing in recent
years.
Bottom:
Pineneedles
harvested UMCA Forest Farming Research:
into bales
and sold for
Specialty and Gourmet
landscaping Mushroom Production
mulch.
Log grown shiitake and other specialty gour-
met mushrooms have substantial markets.
From gourmet chefs to general household
consumers, the awareness and popularity of
these edible NTFPs has grown significantly
over the past 2 decades.
The University of Missouri Center for

Agroforestry (UMCA) leads one of the nation’s
most comprehensive research programs for
shiitake and other gourmet mushrooms in an
effort to help develop mushrooms as a profit-
marketing directly to consumers a grower is able agroforestry crop in the Midwest.
more likely to retain a greater share of profits
than when a middleman is involved. Results indicate that shiitake is a premium,
high-dollar mushroom that grows well in
A market analysis and business plan can help Missouri. Research is also being conducted to
a beginning forest farmer chart out required develop forest farming techniques for morel,
inputs and is an essential starting point. This truffle and other gourmet mushrooms. Nu-
training manual offers a thorough framework merous specialty mushroom workshops are
for analyzing specialty crop markets and hosted nationwide and often bring together
planning successful farming enterprises (see researchers, niche-product experts, and
Chapter 9). Carrying out comprehensive and landowners to advance specialty mushroom
careful planning during and after startup will production and markets.
help minimize problems and increase chances
for long term forest farming success.
Success Stories
Ozark Forest Mushrooms, Timber, Mo.
One of the Midwest’s most significant
demonstrations of a successful forest
farming practice is Ozark Forest Mushrooms
near Timber, MO. Dan Hellmuth and Nicola
MacPherson established the specialty
mushroom operation in 1990 on what was
then a timber operation, and together with

Louis and need to deliver them to the city on a
weekly basis.”
Nicola MacPherson, right, talks to field day participants

about year-round, sustainable shiitake mushroom
production, used to extend mushroom production through
the winter months.
A key to their success was developing an

agroforestry practice that works within
the natural setting of the land. Under the
guidelines of the Stewardship Incentive “It’s hard work that doesn’t stop,” MacPherson
Program, administered by the Missouri said, “but when I walk into a restaurant and
Department of Conservation (MDC), the couple see my mushrooms on the menu, or walk into
harvests a renewable supply of oak logs for a supermarket and see our products on the
mushroom production while simultaneously shelf, that gives me huge pleasure and makes
maintaining their forested acres in a healthy all the work worthwhile.”
ecological state. Consequently, what began
with only 100 oak logs in production has
grown to include 18,000 shiitake logs in
production. Only five acres of the couple’s
2,500 forested acres are utilized for the
mushroom business.
A greenhouse with a wood furnace for

burning spent/culled shiitake logs is used for
mushroom cultivation during the cold season
and sustainable usage of wood resources.
Ozark Forest Mushrooms gives particular

emphasis to targeted marketing of their
value-added boxed mixes and products. “The
biggest marketing challenge for a rural area is
that most of the mushrooms are a fairly high
value specialty food, and the largest market
is in some of the state’s bigger cities,” said
Hellmuth. “We are marketing products to St.

Internet Sources: Understory Crops

• eXtension Forest Farming Community - http://www.extension.org/forest_farming
• NC State University Cooperative Extension: (numerous publications) http://ncherb.org
• Non-Timber Forests Products - http://www.sfp.forprod.vt.edu/
• National Agroforestry Center (many resources on numerous Forest Farming Products) - http://nac.
unl.edu/index.htm
• UM Center for Agroforestry: (publications on a variety of products and practices) - http://www.
centerforagroforestry.org/pubs/index.asp#pubs
• Missouri Alternatives Center: (topics alphabetically organized) - http://agebb.missouri.edu/mac/
links/index.htm
• Association for Temperate Agroforestry: (many topics) - http://www.aftaweb.org/ATTRA
• National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service: (numerous publications) - https://attra.ncat.
org/horticultural.html#Agroforestry
Forestry Consultation
UMCA DVD
Visit www.centerforagroforestry.org or the University of Missouri Extension web page at http://ex-
tension.missouri.edu/explore/agguides/agroforestry/index.htm to purchase.
Forest Farming video - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ssFQXgGbwTE
In Print
Chamberlain, J.L., D. Mitchell, T. Brigham, T. Hobby, L. Zabek, and J. Davis. 2009. Forest Farming Prac-
tices. IN: North American Agroforestry: An Integrated Science and Practice. 2nd Edition. (H.E. Garrett,
editor). Agronomy Society of America, Madison, WI. pp. 219-255.
Persons, W.S. and J.M. Davis. 2007. Growing and marketing ginseng, goldenseal, and other wood-

EXERCISE: REVIEW OF FOREST FARMING
1. Identify the top three landowner objectives related to forest farming.
i. _______________________________________________________
ii. _______________________________________________________
iii. _______________________________________________________
2. What are the four general categories of Non-Timber Forest Products?
i. _______________________________________________________
ii. _______________________________________________________
iii. _______________________________________________________
iv. _______________________________________________________
3. What are the four methods of integrating forest farming with wooded environments?
Which are the highest input and cost and which are the lowest?
i. _______________________________________________________
ii. _______________________________________________________
iii. _______________________________________________________
iv. _______________________________________________________
4. Identify three products to be produced from the managed land.

i. _______________________________________________________
ii. _______________________________________________________
iii. _______________________________________________________
5. Identify how the landowner can reach their objectives while producing the desired
crops.

EXERCISE KEY
1. Identify the top three landowner objectives related to forest farming.

i. Alternative income from forested land
ii. Improved forest health
iii. Improved timber value
2. What are the four general categories of Non-Timber Forest Products?

i. Medicinal
ii. Edible
iii. Floral
iv. Decoratives and Crafts
3. What are the four methods of integrating forest farming with wooded environments?
Which are the highest input and cost and which are the lowest?
i. Woods grown – highest input and costs
ii. Wild- Simulated
iii. Managed wild
iv. Wild-harvested – lowest input and costs
4. Identify three products to be produced from the managed land.

i. High quality timber
ii. Shiitake Mushrooms
iii. Ginseng
5. Identify how the landowner can reach their objectives while producing the desired
crops.
First identify certain wooded areas that may be more appropriate than others for growing the
desired crop. Choose a northerly aspect and well drained site for ginseng production. There can
be a bit more flexibility on the mushroom site (but, place it where access is good). And, are there
sites that are best for just producing timber (soils, aspect, slope position)? Select crop trees to
create appropriate shade levels. Thin. Plant ginseng by planned method. Inoculate mushroom
logs in an identified area.

Notes

Chapter 8: Agroforestry and Wildlife
In this chapter: sity of plantings, produce structural and spatial
• Wildlife benefits in your agroforestry diversity. It is this species and structural diver-
sity that is beneficial to wildlife.
operation
• What do I need to consider? The sorts of benefits that landowners receive
• What lives here and nearby now? from wildlife are at least fourfold, including
• Setting goals and objectives 1) aesthetics, 2) ecological, 3) economic, and
• Agroforestry practices as habitat 4) recreational. Migratory birds, such as wood
• Economic opportunities presented ducks and yellow warblers provide ample
by wildlife pleasure to the observer. Bees and flies are
• Resources for more information important pollinators in agroforestry systems,
while foxes and weasels are important preda-
tors on seed-eating mice and others. Land-
owners can benefit from agricultural tourism,
including birders, bicyclists and families that
are interested in visiting a farm to teach their
children about food, or by providing lease
hunting opportunities. Wildlife provide 1) end-
less opportunities for the amateur naturalist to
learn about the interconnections among plants,
animals, and their surroundings, 2) a plethora
of photographic opportunities, and 3) endless
entertainment at feeding stations.
Summary of benefits
Aesthetic – Wildlife provide music to our ears
and beauty to our eyes
Wildlife benefits in your Social – Wildlife help in providing a sense
agroforestry operation of place and attract families, photographers,
Regardless of what a landowner does on their birdwatchers, hunters and anglers
land, including nothing, there are both posi- Ecological – Wildlife, such as amphibians,
tive and negative effects on wildlife. Many of indicate high-quality habitat that provides
our current agricultural practices, particularly clean water and unpolluted soil. Some wild-
those associated with larger farms and the life species provide soil aeration services, such
associated increase in size of equipment, has as moles, while other wildlife species disperse
drastically reduced the quality and quantity seeds, such as birds and mammals.
of available wildlife habitat. Agroforestry Economic - Wildlife can provide you with an
practices offer an opportunity to both provide economic return when you open your land to
benefits to wildlife as well as quality timber others for birdwatching, hunting, guiding or
production. Many landowners view wildlife as agritourism. Indirectly, pollinators provide bil-
an important by-product of their land manage- lions of dollars worth of pollinating services,
ment activities, particularly wood production. while bats provide billions of dollars in insect
Agroforestry practices which include a diver- “pest” control.

What do I need to teristics of wildlife will in part, determine the
feasibility of managing for them as part of your
consider about wildlife agroforestry operation.
and agroforestry?
For wildlife to be present, their basic needs Geographic scale, or size, of both agroforestry
must be met, including food, water, shelter and areas and surrounding land use is an impor-
space. A shortage of any of these elements will tant factor in wildlife habitat management. The
severely limit the numbers of a given wildlife scale of agroforestry practices, typically 4-8
species that are able to be supported on a given ha, is small enough that managing for many
property. In addition, many wildlife species wildlife species is impractical. This includes
have complex needs that include 1) the need larger-bodied animals and area-sensitive spe-
for multiple habitats during their life cycle, 2) cies. If your agroforestry practice is embedded
the need for different food items based on their in a larger matrix of suitable habitat, it may be
age, 3) the difference in behaviors of the spe- possible to benefit many other wildlife spe-
cies between the breeding and non-breeding cies. However, there are many wildlife species,
seasons, and 4) an annual migration of many particularly smaller bodies animals that can be
birds, as well as some mammals and insects managed on smaller areas.
each year to warmer climes, where someone
else is managing wildlife. Agroforestry practices embedded in some
habitats can lead to negative impacts on cur-
Types and amounts of wildlife that will benefit rent wildlife populations. The linear and
from agroforestry practices are dependent on fragmented makeup of many riparian forest
the size of the agroforestry area, surrounding sites can lead to a decrease in the different
land uses, types of plantings, configurations of types of small mammals inhabiting an area, as
plantings, age of plantings, and the juxtaposi- well as birds, reptiles and amphibians. In some
tion of different habitat types. Some wildlife cases, the increase in habitat and reproductive
species are known as area-sensitive, needing success for songbirds can be negated because
large, contiguous areas of habitat in which to of an increase in nest predation. Importantly,
live. Other wildlife species thrive where there landscape context matters when managing
is a lot of edge habitat, the area where two for wildlife. The wildlife benefit derived from
habitat types intersect. Some wildlife species agroforestry is directly related to the surround-
are specialists, animals that are reliant on just ing habitat matrix.
one or two food sources, for example. Others
are generalists, animals that can either feed Fragmentation, or the isolation of habitats,
on a large variety of foods, live in a variety of poses another issue for wildlife. Whenever
different habitat types, or both. These charac- possible, it is preferable to restore larger frag-
ments or more connected fragments of habitat
than to restore many small and isolated frag-
ments. One important example of this has to do
with cowbirds, a bird that lays its eggs in other
birds’ nests. Many songbirds are naïve to this
sort of “parasitic” behavior and will work to
raise the larger and louder cowbird chick(s) at
the expense of raising their own offspring. The
rates at which cowbirds parasitize the nests of
forest songbirds typically decline with distance
from forest edges. Fragmentation limits dis-
persal in amphibians and thereby decreases

their opportunities to colonize wetlands. For
wildlife to thrive, it is important to maintain or
recreate, habitat connectivity, within a larger
geographic area. Agroforestry practices can
be used to reduce the negative consequences
of fragmentation by lessening habitat isola-
tion through the use of plantings that are well
thought out and well-connected with other
habitats.
A final consideration pertaining to habitat

fragmentation and isolation is source and
sink population dynamics. When installing
agroforestry practices on the land, it may prove wildlife production. A strictly economic cost-
to be very inviting to wildlife species, and in benefit analysis is unlikely to result in favoring
fact, be heavily used by wildlife. However, when wildlife production. However, it’s the previ-
such practices are isolated from other suitable ously mentioned benefits of wildlife that help
patches of habitat, they can serve to increase to balance the scales. In some instances, dis-
predator use of the area and thus lead to an cussed later in this chapter, it is also possible to
overall reduction in the prey species. This is reap some economic return on an investment
because as the prey species disappears from in production of wildlife habitat.
the site, it becomes open and inviting for others
of its kind to recolonize, thereby increasing
predator use of the area, and leading to another What lives here and
reduction or disappearance of the prey species nearby now?
from the area. This can be compounded when The first step in constructing a wildlife man-
the site is irregularly shaped, which increases agement plan for your agroforestry area(s) is to
the amount of “edge” habitat which makes the conduct an inventory of what wildlife species
prey species more vulnerable to predators. are currently using or living on your land. It is
advised that you conduct an inventory prior to
In addition to the limits inherent in the wildlife goal and objective setting, because your goals
species themselves and the land and land use and objectives, should consider the wildlife
of an area, wildlife benefits that can result from that is currently on the property. Your inter-
your agroforestry operation are also contin- est and the amount of time and energy that
gent upon your own goals and objectives for you have available to invest, will determine
your property and the investment that you can the completeness of your inventory and the
and will make to integrate wildlife benefits frequency with which you go out to observe
with your timber production and agricultural wildlife. A good first step to take in conducting
production. To maximize benefits to wildlife, your inventory is to download an aerial map of
a landowner can slightly modify plantings and your property or create your own map of your
select plants that meet the needs of wildlife property on which structures, crops, standing
species with little impact to the production timber, and water features are delineated. This
of wood products or field management. With will be the foundation for your efforts to moni-
careful selection of trees and shrubs, you can tor wildlife. Spending time in the field to iden-
develop a new wildlife product and diversify tify trees, shrubs and important understory
your returns. However, it goes without say- plants will add detail to your map and provide
ing that compromise is inherent when you are information regarding current food, water and
balancing wood production, crop income and cover resources available to wildlife.

Standard methods are available to inventory In defining goals and objectives for wild-
mammals, birds, amphibians and reptiles on life, it’s important to remember that as your
your property. Some insect groups, such as agroforestry areas age and the structure and
butterflies and moths, are more easily observed plant composition of these areas change, so too
and identified than others. Some wildlife spe- will the wildlife change. As your forests ma-
cies are active when people normally are, dur- ture, those wildlife species that are dependent
ing the day, and are thus more easily observed on young, or early successional forest habitat,
than species that are night-active. Some spe- will decline while species that are dependent
cies are year round residents, such as nuthatch- on mature forests will appear and increase in
es and cardinals, while others are only in the number. For example, in very young stands,
area for part of the year such as yellow-rumped we can expect species such as quail and field
warblers and kingbirds. To be able to document sparrow to thrive, while in more developed
the greatest percentage of wildlife that are stands, it is more likely that birds such as
currently using your property, it is necessary brown thrashers and northern cardinals with
to get out in different seasons and at various benefit. When the stand reaches maturity (30-
times during the day. Citizen science programs 60 years), species that are dependent on mast
and trainings in your area can provide you with will increase, such as white-tailed deer, white-
the skills, checklists and sometimes even the footed mice and tree squirrels. The point is to
equipment you need to inventory wildlife on recognize that wildlife species and benefits will
your property. These events will also provide change as your plantings mature. Realizing this
you with opportunities to meet with like-mind- from the beginning can lead to setting realistic
ed individuals and the instructors running the goals and can reduce later disappointment.
trainings, and perhaps garner some assistance
in your inventory work. Your wildlife objectives will guide you in your
choice of trees to plant, distance between
Once you know what plants and wildlife plants, cover crops and even the configura-
already frequent your property, as well as the tion of your fields. Some options may be more
time and money you have and are willing to economically viable than others, while some
invest in a wildlife management plan, you’re options may give rise to more wildlife view-
ready to define your goals and objectives. ing opportunities. Another point regarding
the setting of wildlife goals and objectives is to
Setting Goals and consider some of the potential downsides of
managing for wildlife.
Objectives
You are more likely to meet with success in Wildlife can and may cause considerable dam-
increasing wildlife on your property if you age in agroforestry fields. Eastern cottontail
have clearly identified goals, and both short
and long-term wildlife objectives. Your goals
and objectives will guide you in your manage-
ment activities and subsequent monitoring of
wildlife populations on your land. If you do not
clearly define what your goals and objectives
are from the start, you may find that you divert
time and financial resources with little return
on your investment. The identified end goal of
your wildlife management i.e. to harvest deer,
will influence the sorts of agroforestry prac-
tices that you use to meet your goal.

rabbits and white-tailed deer routinely feed on you with opportunities to manage for a diver-
tree and crop plantings, as well as ornamental sity of habitats that may benefit wildlife. Trees
plants and even weeds. While rabbit damage and shrubs can enhance wildlife habitat as well
is easily identified by the clean 45° cut made, as provide additional products on the farm.
white-tailed deer damage can be identified by
the ragged ends they leave behind. During the Alley Cropping
summer, rabbit and deer damage to woody veg-
Alley cropping systems are designed to grow an
etation is minimal because of the abundance
annual crop between rows of high value trees,
of green, leafy vegetation available, but they
like oak, pecan or walnut, until the trees are
can do considerable damage to seedlings and
harvested or the alley crops are shaded out.
saplings during the fall and winter. In addition
Alley cropping diversifies plant structure for
to feeding on woody stems, male deer will rub
wildlife habitat. Such structure is important for
their antlers on seedlings and saplings, some-
birds, and the matrix of trees and crops provide
times knocking stems completely out of the
travel corridors for mammals and reptiles. You
ground; in other cases, leading to misshapen
can optimize benefits to wildlife by carefully
boles and decreased value of the wood.
choosing the agricultural crop to be planted
and its configuration. Once the trees have ma-
Rabbits can cause considerable damage in tured to the degree that they are shading out
agroforestry. Dugger et al. (2003) found that the crop, that habitat becomes important for
damage to oaks planted in plots with natural amphibians, which must travel from one activ-
vegetation was greater than in plots that had ity area to another but that must stay moist.
been planted to redtop grass (85% of the
bareroot seedlings clipped and 31% of the
bareroot seedlings clipped, respectively) Cover Crops
– Millspaugh et al. 2009 A native cover crop mixture that includes na-
tive warm season grasses will benefit wildlife.
Previous research in such habitat has garnered
There are many methods available to reduce observations of greater bird abundance, spe-
rabbit and deer herbivory in agroforestry plots. cies richness, and reproductive success.
These range from fencing, which can be 100%
effective but can also be quite costly, to protect- Riparian Forest Buffers
ing individual stems using plastic mesh tubes Riparian buffers consist of streamside
or shelter tubes (but note that shelter tubes plantings of a mixture of grasses, shrubs, forbs
affect the microclimate within them which is and saplings, which are attractive to wildlife.
warmer and more humid during the day). Fall While these buffers can serve as travel cor-
mowing may be effective in reducing rabbit ridors for wildlife, they are not necessarily a
herbivory because of the elimination of winter good place for birds to reproduce, unless other
cover. Keep in mind that even a relatively small high quality habitat exists nearby. These buffer
patch (< 10m2 ) may contain rabbits. strips can also be valuable as habitat and travel
corridors for amphibians, but need to be about
Agroforestry practices as 100 m wide to protect stream amphibians. The
tree canopy of buffers reduces water tempera-
habitat ture, while roots and fallen leaves provide
Managing for a diversity of habitat types will food and hiding places for wildlife. A potential
also tend to promote a diversity of wildlife. downfall of streamside buffers for wildlife is
Agroforestry practices such as alley crop- that they can lead to reduced nest success in
ping, windbreaks, forested riparian buffers, some birds, particularly grassland birds. These
silvopasture, and forest farming will provide areas are most used by generalist birds.

Windbreaks provided by trees and shrubs. Bottomland
Windbreaks, plantings of trees perpendicular forests are important for birds in every stage of
to prevailing winds, can protect soil, crops, live- development from grassland to mature forest.
stock, buildings and wildlife from harsh winds
when properly designed and located. The Recently a number of federal programs have
microclimate that windbreaks create enables aimed to restore some of the millions of hect-
native insects to pollinate crops more efficient- ares of bottomland forest that were converted
ly. Size of the windbreak is often considered to agricultural use in the 19th and 20th centu-
most important to bird diversity. However, it’s ries. Although trees can be difficult to estab-
important to note that birds that most benefit lish, newer techniques, which includes the use
from windbreaks are forest-edge and general- of larger seedlings with well-developed root
ist species. Windbreaks have been reported to systems, can increase the likelihood of planting
have negative effects on grassland birds due to success. Once established, oak species provide
higher predation and cowbird parasitism rates. mast for waterfowl and deer and are favored
Some mammals, such as white-tailed deer and foraging areas for spring-migrating and breed-
cottontail rabbits benefit from windbreaks ing warblers. Faster-growing tree species can
because of the mix of food and cover available. also benefit wildlife by providing needed struc-
Windbreaks are most beneficial to wildlife ture to forest songbirds. During the early years
when they are large and provide a diversity of of an oak planting, this habitat will be used by a
structure, including both deciduous and conif- number of grassland species. By planting oaks
erous trees, shrubs and a diversity of under- in combination with fast-growing tree species
story grasses and forbs. that promote quick stand development, you
can more quickly benefit and attract forest
songbirds. The downside to this approach is
Forest Farming that the taller trees provide perches for cow-
High value specialty crops like ginseng and birds, which leads to increased rates of cow-
goldenseal can be cultivated under the pro- bird parasitism on forest songbirds. However,
tection of a forest canopy. This provides a the rates of cowbird parasitism are not only
harvestable product for the landowner which varied at the local level, but are also sensitive to
provides incentive to keep the land in forest regional and landscape effects such as regional
habitat. The diversity created with forest farm- forest cover.
ing attracts a variety of wildlife species.
Special Applications
Silvopasture Many agroforestry practices have been adapted
Silvopastures combine trees, forage and to help people and communities deal with
livestock in an intensively managed system.
Silvopastures are typically less diverse than a
natural forest understory, but incorporating
clumps of native grasses and forbs can pro-
vide quality habitat for wild turkey and other
animals.
Restoration of Bottomland Forests

Bottomland forests can be incredibly beneficial
to wildlife because of the availability of mast
from oaks and nut-producing trees, fruit from
soft mass trees and the variety of structure

problems, such as wastewater and stormwater operation or activity that brings visitors to a
treatment, with fast growing willows and cot- farm or ranch. In the United States, it includes
tonwood trees. These trees provide wildlife such activities as picking your own fruit, shop-
habitat and may be a future energy source. ping at farmstands, horseback riding, honey or
wine tasting, birdwatching or learning about
Elements of Wildlife Habitat cheesemaking. The Whiterock Conservancy,
in Coon Rapids, Iowa, provides an example of
and its Management a working farm enterprise that has also em-
Provided by Agroforestry braced agritourism in its mission. Its three-
part mission includes: 1) Protect & Preserve
Practices the Natural Resources of the Middle Raccoon
River Watershed, 2) Demonstrate Sustainable
Disturbance Multipurpose Land Management, and 3) Pro-
mote Low-impact Outdoor Recreation & Pro-
Historically, fire, floods, wind, ice and wildlife
vide Environmental Education. Their approach
browsing disturbed the land which in turn
to tourism is structured around stewardship
helped control invasive species and promote
which emphasizes the diverse landscape man-
native plant growth. Today, vegetation can be
aged with diverse methods and used by diverse
managed by mowing, disking, thinning, pre-
audiences. Their tourism focus is on education
scribed burning and grazing. The extent and
particular as it pertains to conservation and to
timing of disturbances helps create diversity
manage visitor impacts to the property.
and structure. Timing can also minimize im-
pact to wildlife, such as mowing after nesting is
A hunting lease is an agreement between a
complete.
landowner and a hunter or group of hunters,
where the right to trespass and hunt is granted
Vertical and Horizontal Structure for a particular time and fee. Hunting leases
Different layers of vegetation allow an assort- are most popular in areas where little public
ment of wildlife to utilize the same area. Each land is available to hunt and access to private
tier creates a niche in the habitat area. Five or lands is at a premium. Before you delve into
more layers are optimal and include the can- the world of hunting leases, it’s important to
opy, understory, shrub layer, herbaceous layer consider what is reasonable to expect. The type
and the floor. and quantity of game animals depends upon
not only your land, but that of the surround-
Connectivity ing area. As your trees move through differ-
Many species of wildlife need a minimum ent phases of the growth cycle (i.e. seedling,
amount of a particular habitat type; if it gets to sapling, mature tree), the type and extent of
be too small they won’t use it. Vegetation can habitat available to game animals will change.
be used to connect several small isolated areas The most profitable pay-to-hunt operations
within a landscape, thus making it more viable usually require the greatest investment in labor
and increasing the usable space for wildlife. and management by the landowner.
Some general considerations when contem-

Economic Opportunities plating lease hunting include the following. To
Presented by Wildlife be effective and profitable, you need to have
Agri-tourism and hunting leases are just two of willing participants partake of the opportu-
the ways in which you can diversity your farm nity. It is therefore, suggested, that providing
income with wildlife. Agritourism in its broad- such opportunities near expanding urban and
est sense involves any agriculturally-based suburban areas will be advantageous. Another

consideration is the “quality” of the hunting ex- interactions with hunters and more intensive
perience provided to clients. This includes cost wildlife habitat management to assure that
of the lease, distance from the clients’ homes, game animals are available on the opening day
the abundance and variety of game animals, of the season.
hunter safety, camping or lodging facilities and
others. Short-term or season leases necessitate much
less labor on the part of the landowner. This
Finally, you’ll need to consider what sorts of sort of lease works best for species such as tur-
leasing opportunities will be available through- key or white-tailed deer. Some considerations
out your timber rotation. Early on, it may be for short-term leases include the use of equip-
that mourning doves provide an opportunity, ment, such as blinds. You need to be sure that
but once the stand has matured, opportunities hunters do not use any kind of screw-in type of
for turkey and white-tailed deer hunting will tree stand or climbing steps, which may dam-
be available which will require less intensive age the eventual value of the trees that you’re
management on your part. growing.
Types of hunting leases are variable. In the In an annual or multi-year lease, a landowner
past, many landowners provided non-fee ac- enters into an agreement with a hunt club or
cess with an informal verbal permission agreed a group of friends willing to share the cost of
to by a handshake. This may still be useful for having long-term access to a hunting spot. An
managing nuisance populations, particularly if advantage to this sort of arrangement is that be
you don’t want to invest the time or energy or the establishment of a long-term relationship
simply are not interested in fee hunting. How- with the land, the hunters may start to develop
ever, agreements are becoming rare. They are a sense of stewardship for the property and
most often still found in rural or rural-small may ask to help conduct or participate in wild-
town areas where hunters are more aware of life habitat management activities.
farm-related issues and concerns. Another non-
monetary hunting lease is an exchange of ser- A broker or outfitter lease involves a middle
vices, whereby a landowner allows hunting in man that rents all of the hunting rights from
exchange for a service such as the monitoring a landowner and then subleases to individual
of land for trespassers or helping with farming hunters by species or season. This alleviates a
operations. These arrangements can be either lot of the work by a landowner, who then only
formal or informal. has to interact with one individual on all hunt-
ing related issues.
There are four general categories of fee
hunting: Regardless of the flavor of hunting arrange-
1) daily lease; ment that you enter into, one of the most
2) short-term or season lease; important concerns for most landowners has
3) annual or multi-year lease; and to do with liability. Most landowners fear being
sued or held liable for injuries sustained by
4) broker or outfitter lease.
hunters or others while on the land. The degree
of landowner liability differs by the status of
A daily lease is often used when there is a rela-
the visitor or use, with trespassers being af-
tively short hunting season and when a number
forded the least protection and invited visitors,
of hunters can be accommodated on a small
the most. A qualified lawyer and an insurance
parcel of land. Most commonly, game species
agent should be consulted before you enter
include pen-reared birds or mourning doves.
into any hunting lease agreement or purchase
This sort of lease is intensive for a landowner
liability insurance.
to manage, requiring a greater intensity of

Resources for More are instrumental in putting private landown-
ers in touch with professionals who will as-
Information sist in designing habitat that is appropriate
Cost share programs for wildlife exist on the for the landowners’ needs and desires. These
federal, state and local levels. There are two private groups often have seed mixes available
federal agencies, both under jurisdiction by at reduced costs and equipment to rent for the
the United States Department of Agriculture development of local wildlife habitats.
(USDA) that provide the majority of support for
conservation practices. In recent history, most
of the support for conservation practices has
been associated with federal farm programs.
However, cost share programs that have not
typically allowed for production of harvestable
products can be used to develop and maintain
habitat components in conjunction with farm-
ing practices.
The Farm Service Agency (FSA) administers the

Conservation Reserve Program (CRP). The CRP
includes many conservation practices, includ-
ing windbreaks (Conservation Practice (CP) 5)
and riparian buffers (CP22). The FSA also have
several other programs that can be used to
create or maintain wildlife habitat, including:
Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program
(CREP) and the Grassland Reserve Program.
(http://www.fsa.usda.gov)
The Natural Resources Conservation Service

(NRCS) often provides the technical support
needed to design a CRP conservation practice.
NRCS is also responsible for supporting and
administering the following: the Conserva-
tion Security Program (CSP), Wildlife Habitat
Incentive Program (WHIP), Wetlands Reserve
program (WRP); and Environmental Quality
Incentives Program(EQIP) (http://www.nrcs.
usda.gov).
Private programs that provide support for
wildlife habitat management activities on the
national level include: Pheasants Forever (PF)
(http://www.pheasantsforever.org/); National
Wild Turkey Federal (NWTF) (www.nwtf.org/);
Quail Forever (QF) (www.quailforever.org/)‎;
and Ducks Unlimited (DU) (www.ducks.org). In
each case, the main thrust of the organization
is to develop, maintain, and manage habitat for
the wildlife species of interest. These groups

Agritourism and Lease Hunting

Agricultural Marketing Resource Center
http://www.agmrc.org/commodities__products/agritourism/agritourism-businesses/
University of Missouri Extension: http://muextension.missouri.edu/explorepdf/agguides/wildlife/G09420.pdf
Whiterock Conservancy
http://www.whiterockconservancy.org/
Wildlife Habitat Management

A Bird’s Eye View: A Guide to Managing and Protecting Your Land for Neotropical Migratory Birds in the Upper
Mississippi River Blufflands
http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/wildlifehabitat/documents/wcbmp.pdf
A Landowner’s Guide to Woodland Wildlife Management
http://woodlandinfo.org/sites/woodlandinfo.org/files/pdf/UWEX/G3578.pdf
Agroforestry and Wildlife Management Go Together on Small Farms
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/ar/archive/dec04/farm1204.pdf
Basics of Managing Wildlife on Agricultural Lands (IN)
http://www.extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/FNR/FNR-193-W.pdf
Best Management Practices for Woodcock and Associated Bird Species
http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/wildlifehabitat/documents/wcbmp.pdf
General Management for Wildlife (MO)
http://mdc.mo.gov/documents/landown/wild/wmml_2000.pdf
Habitat Management Guidelines for Amphibians and Reptiles of the Midwestern United States
http://www.mwparc.org/products/habitat/
Wildlife Management for Missouri Landowners
http://mdc.mo.gov/sites/default/files/resources/2010/05/5354_3245.pdf
Xerces Society (for information about providing habitat for pollinators)
http://www.xerces.org/pollinator-conservation/
References
Anonymous. 2008. Silvopasture: an agroforestry practice. USDA, National Agroforestry Center.
Anonymous. 2005. Working trees for wildlife. USDA, National Agroforestry Center.
Millspaugh, J.J., J.H. Schulz, T.W. Mong, D. Burhans, W.D. Walter, R. Bredesen, R.D. Pritchert, and D. C. Dey. 2009.
Agroforestry wildlife Benefits, Chapter 11. In: Garrett, H.E. (Ed). North American Agroforestry: An Integrated
Science and Practice. 2nd Edition. Agronomy Society of America, Madison, Wis.
Robinson, J. 2005. Silvopasture and eastern wild turkey. USDA National Agroforestry Center, AF Note, #28.

Notes

Chapter 9: Marketing Principles
In this chapter: elderberry); specialty wood products (e.g.,

• Marketing agroforestry products diamond willow canes, redcedar closet liners,
• The “black box” of agroforestry walnut gunstock blanks); floral and greenery
products (e.g., curly and pussy willow), ferns,
enterprises
salal; fiber and mulch (e.g., cedar pet bedding,
• Data collection pine straw); and recreation (e.g., agritourism,
• Analyze of current situation (SWOT fee hunting).
Analysis)
• Industry assessment ( Porter Five The “black box” of agroforestry
Forces Model)
enterprises, the need for market
• Researching and selecting target
markets
research
Agroforestry enterprises often produce niche
• Developing product, price,
products for markets about which little is
distribution and promotion known. All that may be known about a prod-
strategies uct’s market is that it is produced and eventu-
• Real world examples ally purchased and consumed. What happens
to the product along the value chain between
producer and consumer and why the consumer
Marketing agroforestry is buying the product is unknown, and it is
products commonly referred to as the “black box”. From
a producer’s perspective, the list of unan-
Unlike other types of conservation prac- swered questions is long. How do I get into
tices where land is taken out of production, the market? What are my costs and potential
agroforestry is “productive conservation.” returns? Where can I buy what I need for my
Agroforestry practices enable landowners to business and for what price? Is the supply
generate income from the production of a wide readily available? Who are my customers? How
range of conventional and specialty products many times does the product change hands
while simultaneously protecting and conserv- before it reaches the final consumer? Who are
ing soil, water and other natural resources. my competitors, what are they doing? How is
Products produced through agroforestry prac- this market changing? What strategy should
tices, including specialty or non-timber for- I use in order to be successful in this market?
est products, are produced from trees, within These and many other questions complicate
forests, or in myriad combinations with trees the decision to produce and market niche prod-
or shrubs, crops and/or animals. Many of these ucts. Unlike commodity markets with readily
products have proven economic value but have available market information, the challenge
been ignored by, or are unknown to, agricul- for farms and small businesses that engage in
tural and forest landowners. In North America agroforestry enterprises to overcome is the
such products include: edibles (e.g., mush- lack of information about niche specialty prod-
rooms, chestnuts, heartnuts, pecans, hickories, uct markets. In order to successfully exploit
hazelnuts, persimmon, pawpaw, Asian pears, niche product markets, agroforestry entrepre-
cornelian cherry, Kiwi fruit, aronia, elderberry, neurs must perform some market research to
mayhaw, goji berry, other berries); herbal me- open the “black box” and overcome information
dicinals (e.g., ginseng, goldenseal, witch hazel, asymmetry inherent in these niche markets.

Data collection accomplish your goals and makes you competi-
The first step in any market research process tive? (e.g., the ability to provide quality prod-
is data collection. It starts with investigating ucts, consistent year-round supply, excellent
publicly available data (secondary information customer service, competitive price, produc-
sources) and continues with information gath- tion or marketing skills, good location, reliable
ered specifically for the market(s) of interest workforce, previous experience in the industry,
(primary information sources). strong financial position). Weaknesses are
areas where the farm/business can be vulner-
Secondary information sources: able to competitors. What can create problems
• Published reports and studies. in your business? What do your competitors do
better that you? (e.g., lack of experience in the
• Online information sources, such as web-
industry, insufficient finances, limited access
sites, newsgroups, and electronic bulletin
to distribution channels, seasonal product,
boards.
insufficient workforce). Identified weaknesses
• Trade magazines and journals, newspapers, (e.g., lack of consistent supply because of the
books and literature from competitors. seasonality of the product) can be transformed
• Business directories. into strengths (e.g., building indoor facilities
Primary information sources: to extend production time). In general, a farm
• Personal interviews with consumers, pro- must find ways to minimize the impact of its
ducers, and other persons involved in the weaknesses on its business operations.
value chain.
• Observations (visiting farmer’s markets, The second part of the SWOT analysis requires
retail outlets, production facilities, as well you to look outside your business at issues
as attending farmer field days, trade shows, that you cannot control but can manage and
and marketing conferences). identify opportunities or threats and find ways
• Online, mail or phone surveys. to influence their impact on your business. Is
• Focus groups. there anything in the marketing environment
related to suppliers, intermediaries, customers,
This list is not complete but should give you competitors, and public-at-large that can help
an idea of some potential sources for market (opportunity) or affect (threat) your business’s
information that will help with analyzing the ability to produce and sell products? Are there
business environment and the industry for any trends favorable (opportunities) or disad-
whatever product you may be interested in vantageous (threats) for your business?
selling.
Examples of opportunities include a farmers
market just developing in your area; a grower
Analyze your current situation – coop just taking shape close to you; buying
SWOT analysis property near a large population area that
Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats would allow you to direct market your product;
(SWOT) analysis includes an examination of increasing interest in locally produced prod-
both internal factors (strengths and weak- ucts; increased interest in new, more sustain-
nesses) and external factors (opportunities able agricultural practices; development of new
and threats) that can have an influence on the varieties or cultivars.
success of your enterprise.
Examples of threats include changes in federal
First, look inside the farm business and identify and state regulations, increased competition
its strengths and weaknesses. What strengths from imports, inflation, shortage in raw ma-
does the farm/business have that helps you terials, extreme climate events, fluctuations of

markets, seasonal purchasing trends, and high (Porter, 1980) that describes the forces driving
levels of competition. industry competition, known as the Porter’s
Five Forces Model (PFFM) (Fig. 1). Porter’s
The process of identifying any strengths, weak- strategic forces help evaluate the ease of
nesses, opportunities or threats should help market entry and exit, buyer and seller power,
you identify areas where your strengths and power of substitute products and competitive
opportunities align with a high probability of rivalry and provide a general view of the indus-
success as well as combinations of weaknesses try. With respect to agroforestry, the method is
and threats that need to be avoided or at least especially useful for farm businesses that plan
provide for methods to minimize their effects to enter new markets.
on the farm business. The SWOT analysis helps
provide direction and serves as a basis for de- The forces and the questions they help
veloping a business plan. It should be repeated answer:
at least once a year to review achievements, Potential entrants (barriers to entry)
measure production efficiencies, and evaluate How difficult is it to enter the market and what
alternatives. resources are needed?
Barriers to entry are advantages that existing
Industry assessment – Porter’s firms have relative to new entrants like high
Five Forces Model start-up costs, proprietary knowledge and
An approach proven successful in shedding learning curve, and cost advantages for existing
light on the “black box” is the model developed firms.
by Dr. Michael Porter of Harvard University
Fig. 1. Porter’s Five Forces Model

For example, if you want to produce mush- use intermediaries? Who are the intermediar-
rooms, large white button mushrooms firms ies? How much control does the buyer exert?
definitely have advantages of scale and cost Who are the final customers and what are their
advantages associated with equity in facilities. needs? Are you competing against a respected
Even if you have the necessary information, brand name that creates a higher value for its
materials and equipment available, it’s tough products?
to break into the white button mushroom Buyers are the people/organizations who cre-
industry because of the large capital required ate demand in an industry. When the buyers
to achieve a competitive scale. When supply is exert power in an industry, they may impose
limited (like in the case of the elderberry indus- specific requirements on the quantity and
try), larger, existing firms have better access to quality of products they buy. These may im-
the limited supply, leaving new entrants with pose additional costs to sell the products. For
the need of paying higher prices and/or limit- small niche specialty products produced in
ing production. For all agroforestry specialty agroforestry settings, there is a challenge to
crops, information about production and mar- provide large enough quantities to enter distri-
keting is lacking. In a few areas, universities, bution channels. Another challenge on the buy-
experienced growers and processors lower this ers’ side is handling perishable products. For
barrier by providing the necessary informa- example, due to the newness of the industry,
tion to get started. Attention should be given there is little knowledge among buyers on how
to researching laws and regulations which can to handle chestnuts. Due to high moisture con-
facilitate or hinder entry into the industry. As a tent, chestnuts need to be kept refrigerated to
new firm (entrant), you would like to have easy minimize water loss and decay. Communication
access to the new industry, but once there, you and information provided to retailers will en-
would like to have some barriers to protect you sure that chestnuts will be handled and stored
from new entrants. It is important to know and properly and consumers will have a positive
understand these barriers for an easy entry experience with the chestnuts they purchase.
and for creating protection in the future.
Substitutes (substitute products)
Bargaining power of suppliers Are my products in any way unique or can they
Who can provide the needed supply? Who has be easily substituted by other products with a
more control in the supply chain? Can you similar function? If buyers decide your products
choose from a variety of suppliers thus getting are too expensive, will they buy another product?
competitive prices for the supply you need? If It is very important to distinguish your prod-
prices get too high can you use another input? If ucts and to communicate their unique proper-
not, can you produce it yourself? ties otherwise they will be easily substituted
Suppliers are the individuals and businesses by lower price substitutes. For example, you
that provide the raw materials to be trans- need to distinguish native pecans from Geor-
formed into goods. Lack of available supply gia or Texas pecans if you want to sell them
may increase the cost of production (e.g., lim- at a premium. Also, you need to communi-
ited sources of ginseng seed, import of elder- cate and educate the consumer of the various
berry concentrate from Europe) or delay the health benefits of elderberry if you want them
production start (e.g., need to propagate own to choose elderberry juice and not another
elderberry plants or produce and graft own cheaper or better known juice on the shelf.
trees).
Industry competitors (rivalry among exist-
Bargaining power of buyers ing firms)
Who is going to buy my product(s)? Would it Who are the competitors and what are their
be better to deliver directly to consumers or to competitive advantages? What can I do better

than them? Are you competing against a respect- Developing product, price,
ed brand name that creates a higher value for its distribution and promotion
products?
Rivalry can take many forms, such as price
strategies tailored for each
discounting, new product introductions, adver- target market selected
tising campaigns, and service improvements. A marketing strategy is a plan regarding what
Characteristic for new and small markets like products to develop, how the products will
the ones for niche specialty crops, the level get to the customers, for what price and how
of competition is low and existing businesses the product benefits will be communicated to
cooperate to grow together the industry. How- customers.
ever, to protect your place in the market, you
need to start to differentiate from the others Product strategy
and create competitive advantages like quality, What product will you offer to satisfy the
customer service and convenience. needs of your target customers?
Researching and selecting The most common marketing strategy for farm-
target markets ers producing agroforestry products is product
differentiation to appeal to a focused group of
Customers differ in their values, needs, wants,
consumers (the target market). Farmers have
believes and incentives to purchase. Product
the opportunity to implement many creative
oriented businesses, who find a product they
marketing ideas to differentiate their products
can produce and try to sell it without first
and services in response to the needs of their
looking at customers’ needs, risk developing a
product that won’t sell. Instead, most success-
ful businesses are customer oriented—they
design marketing strategies around the needs
of their customers.
The process of identifying customers’ pref-

Left: Terry
erences and dividing the larger market into
Durham, pro-
groups is called segmentation. Markets can be ducer and seller
segmented in a variety of ways. The most com- of elderberry juice
mon ways of segmentation are by demographic (Hartsburg, Mo.)
characteristics (e.g., age, sex, race, religion, Bottom: A variety
of elderberry value
education, income, household size), geographic added products
location (e.g., counties, states, regions) and psy- offered by Wyl-
chographic characteristics (e.g., lifestyle char- dewood Cellars
acteristics, behavioral patterns, beliefs, values (Wichita, Kan.)
and attitudes).
Creating a customer profile for each segment

will help describe who are the customers,
what they value, how much are they willing
to buy and determine which segment can be
the most profitable to target. By identify-
ing and targeting only specific market seg-
ments you can develop more effective product,
price, distribution and promotion strategies.

customers. Differentiation equates to adding • Are financial and human resources/ex-
value to the products. Adding value will al- pertise available to develop value-added
low you to obtain a better price for the same processing?
amount of raw material. For small landowners, • If not, what will it take to acquire them
adding value to agricultural and non-timber (e.g., loans, training)?
crops can make an enormous difference to the • Do you have the long-term supply of re-
bottom line. sources to support a value-added strategy?
• What are the markets for potential value-
Ideas for Adding Value added products?
Value can be added through processing, pack- • Can you meet the requirements of the mar-
aging and customer service. A few of the more ketplace?
common methods of adding value to your
• How easy will it be to break into those
agroforestry products are described below.
markets?
• Many edibles you could produce in an
• How long will it take to recoup the costs of
agroforestry practice also have a market
any processing equipment involved?
in a value added form. Fresh products
• Can you handle the risks sometimes in-
are usually perishable and only available
volved in adding value? For example, are
for short periods. Processing extends the
you better off taking less for your product
period during which products can be made
but letting a middleman absorb the risk?
available, and allows processors to in-
crease potential returns. Examples include:
As with any business, you have to do the
processed fruit products (jams, jellies, fruit
research, consider your resources and crunch
leathers, sauces, chutneys, vinegars); fro-
the numbers to see if it’s worthwhile. Usually,
zen products (berries are the most obvious
adding value is smart marketing.
candidates, though mushrooms are some-
times frozen); and dried products (mush-
rooms, berries).
• Value-added decorative and craft prod-
ucts can provide immediate returns. The
amount of skill required to produce these
products varies. Some products (e.g.,
wreaths) are fairly easy to produce, while
others (e.g., baskets and furniture) may
require more time to develop proper skills.
• Herbal products offer a number of opportu-
nities for adding value. Medicinal herbs are Top: Curly
a good option for marketing at a local level willow can be a
profitable crop
but you must adhere to regulations that when sold to
govern the sale of these products. Getting local florists
into the business of selling ‘drugs’ to the (Nebraska
mass market should not be taken lightly. Woody Florals
Cooperative).
Herbal teas sold under food regulations Left: Chestnuts
may offer a much easier approach. sold at the Mis-
souri Chestnut
Is it Worth it? The ‘Cons’ of Adding Value Roast Festival
Adding value is not always the best option.
Ask yourself some hard questions before you
embark on the value-added route:

Distribution strategy: to provide a constant, dependable supply of
Getting products to buyers large quantities of quality goods. Wholesalers
There are three aspects to getting your prod- may only accept a few weeks’ worth of product
ucts to buyers: at any one time, forcing the producer to incur
A. Distribution: The sales channel(s) your storage and multiple delivery costs. Another
product will follow. challenge is to maintain premium product
B. Location: Where you sell your product. integrity along the value chain (i.e., maintain
C. Transportation: How your product will freshness or maintain organic integrity at each
reach the buyer. stage of the product’s journey to the market).
In general, the closer the producer is to the
A. Distribution: Sales Channels. Your prod- consumer, the greater the return as well as
uct may be able to take a number of different the workload. Your choice of sales channels
routes—or sales channels—to the end user. may significantly impact your bottom line.
Which sales channel(s) you end up using will You may be tempted to eliminate one or more
depend on a number of factors, such as: middlemen in the chain. Remember that if
you’re being paid outright by a broker/buyer/
• Existence of a ‘dominant’ distribution sys-
wholesaler, that person is also accepting the
tem for your product
risk of selling your product to the next level
• Demand for your product from various in the sales chain. Before you take over that
levels in the marketing chain role yourself, make sure that you are willing to
• Time you have available and your market- accept the additional risk. Also, some products
ing abilities. and markets may allow you to invite bids from
different buyers and possibly obtain a bet-
Using these criteria, among others, you can ter price. Knowing how your product is being
choose one of the two basic marketing chan- distributed could, over time, help you establish
nels that most products follow: ‘alternative marketing strategies’ to improve
Direct marketing is the process of selling a your returns. You may find opportunities to
product or service directly to the consumer. Di- sell your products at a higher level and to cut
rect marketing is the alternative most suited to out some of the middlemen. You may also
agroforestry product producers. Selling direct discover potential channels that will provide
provides the grower the opportunity to capture other business opportunities.
a larger share of the consumers’ spending and
the opportunity to educate the consumer about B. Location. When selling directly to consum-
the farm and its production methods (e.g., ers, there is a range of choices as to where
about the advantages to buy organic or locally you will offer your product. Possible sites for
grown products). Direct marketing is growing marketing agroforestry products include:
in popularity because consumers now demand • Your property (everything from timber to
safer and high quality products. Buyers place a berry jam), if not too remote
value on coming face-to-face with the producer
• Roadside stands (your driveway, highway
and their production location (farm, farmers
rest areas, park-and-ride locations)
market, on-farm retail store) and obtaining
more information about the products pro- • Farmers markets (in urban areas these can
duced. be especially lucrative)
• Craft markets
Intermediary distribution provides other mar- • Co-operative marketing with other firms
ket outlets and include wholesalers, brokers, (e.g., renting seasonal space at a plant
cooperatives and retailers. One of the chal- nursery, Christmas tree lot, supermarket,
lenges in the wholesale marketplace is the need bed and breakfast).

Many businesses take orders over the phone, to the viability of your business, so do not
by fax, email, or regular mail, and deliver the simply accept the first quote you receive from
product (themselves or using a delivery ser- a shipper. For air cargoes, some freight brokers
vice) directly to customers. For some products, may be able to offer much better rates than
particularly specialty foods and crafts, the the airlines. Greater volumes may permit price
Internet can provide easier access to a wider breaks, so partnering with another businesses
market than traditional mail-order techniques. in assembling loads can be beneficial. Another
All ‘mail-order’ type direct marketing systems way to reduce freight costs is to find trucking
require a product that is easily handled and ac- firms which are seeking ‘back-haul’ loads (i.e.,
cess to reliable transportation for it. freight for trucks from regional or provincial
distribution centers that would otherwise be
C. Transportation Options. If you are pursu- returning empty). It is important to compile a
ing a sales channel where your customers are list of prospective transport options and their
not coming to you, it is necessary to consider respective costs. In some cases it is simply not
how your product will get to them. Impor- profitable to ship a specific product into a par-
tant factors to consider include: cost to ship ticular market.
to distant markets via various transportation
modes, inclusion (or not) of transportation Pricing Strategy: For how much can we
costs in the selling price (i.e., whether you or sell our products?
the buyer pays the freight costs), the reliability Product pricing can be challenging since
and timeliness of various modes of transporta- pricing for niche products produced through
tion (especially for perishable goods). Nego- agroforestry practices is not regulated as in
tiating favorable freight terms may be critical commodity markets. Producers who sell com-
modities are normally price takers, sellers
that have no market control and must “take”
or accept the going market price. For differ-
entiated niche products, one or more pricing
strategies can be considered, depending on the
target market and product strategy. The basic
functions of pricing are to cover costs, make
Right: Paw- a profit, and encourage customers to buy. You
paw samples can either price to the market or price to your
and sales at
the Farmers costs. (See http://extension.missouri.edu/p/
Market. Below: G648 - Break-even Pricing, Revenue and Units;
Chestnuts sold http://extension.missouri.edu/p/G649 - Se-
in a local natural lecting an Appropriate Pricing Strategy).
products store
Pricing to the Market. When you’re just start-

ing out, pricing to the market is often the sim-
plest approach. Pricing to the market involves
finding out what others are charging for the
same products, and then using that information
to establish a similar price range. Buyers are
also pricing to the market when they tell you
what they’re willing to pay for your products.
Pricing information on agricultural products
can be obtained from a number of sources. If
you plan to sell directly to the public, various

retail market outlets will provide you with Price setter or price taker?
information on the going rate for your product. Sometimes you will be able to set prices for
Buyers will also provide pricing information, your product, other times you won’t. A num-
but keep in mind that these prices are usu- ber of factors will influence whether you are a
ally negotiable. The Internet may be another price-setter or a price-taker:
source of pricing information, depending on • The scale of the market; Prices for interna-
the market you are seeking to access. Pricing tionally traded commodities (e.g., lumber,
information for agroforestry specialty crops wheat) tend to be set far from the place
and products can be difficult to obtain, but your of production. This is also true for many
best bet is talking to other producers and the agricultural commodities and agroforestry
buyers you’ve identified. The Internet also has products (e.g., mushrooms, some floral
limited pricing information for some products, greens, medicinal herbs) that are traded in
especially for ‘finished’ or value-added prod- international or other extended markets.
ucts such as crafts, wreaths, berry jam and the • Product differentiation; If your product is
like (these may also be obtained from cata- unique (the opposite of a commodity) you
logues from various companies). are more likely able to influence the price
you receive. ‘Niche’ market and value-add-
Pricing to Your Costs. Pricing to your costs ed products usually have superior opportu-
ensures that what you charge covers all your nities for cost-driven pricing.
expenses – not necessarily the case when pric- • Your reputation within the industry;
ing to the market. Businesses sometimes start Sometimes experienced, dependable sup-
out by pricing to the market, and then shift to pliers are able to get a higher price for their
pricing according to costs once these become products (a ‘premium’) because buyers
clearly identified. If you find that similar prod- know they will reliably supply a high qual-
ucts are available for a much lower price than ity product.
you could charge, you’ll have to either adjust • Your negotiating skills; If you have good
your profit margin or differentiate your prod- negotiating skills, your ability to influence
uct so that consumers feel it is worth the higher the prices you receive for a product will
price. The timing of sales has a strong influ- increase greatly.
ence over the price which can be obtained, and
the obvious objective is to sell when prices are In the end, the single most important influence
highest (i.e., demand is high relative to supply). on your pricing decisions will be your cus-
Non-perishable products allow greater flex- tomer’s ability and willingness to pay the price
ibility in this choice, as do products processed you are asking. However, keep in mind that you
to allow out-of-season sales. You may also wish can also influence prices by promoting your
to explore different management practices that products.
will enable you to harvest early or late in the
season when other supplies may be limited. Communication (Promotion) Strategy:
How and what will be communicated to
What goes into the cost equation? buyers and consumers?
Production costs, materials, fixed overhead, Promotion is essential to gain product recogni-
time/labor and profit. A simple formula for set- tion among customers. The promotion strategy
ting the price per unit is: should identify the message, the way of deliv-
Price per unit = Total costs of production per ery, and costs.
unit + Desired profit per unit

Message: What do I want to communicate
about my product? Consumers are often
unfamiliar with niche agroforestry products, Real World Example
therefore the more information provided about Ben’s Black Walnuts: Marketing the
the products benefits, the more likely people Eastern Black Walnut
are to try the product. Communicating “fresh- Ben’s Black Walnuts, a small eastern black wal-
ness” and “local” or “small scale production nut nutmeat producer located in Iowa, provides
methods” can be an important part of a promo- an excellent example of strategies for success
tion strategy. in the eastern black walnut nutmeat market.
Bill and Geri Hanson, owners of Ben’s Black
Tools and delivery: How am I going to com- Walnuts, successfully linked their unique abili-
municate this message? Local producers can ties with an untapped market niche to provide
advertise in newspapers, magazines, flyers quality black walnut nutmeat.
and catalogs, radio, TV, billboards, within
health food stores, and online. Publicity is Eastern black walnut (Juglans nigra L.) markets
more convenient than advertising because are often categorized with other nut markets,
it uses non-paid media coverage of the firm such as pecan or English walnut. However, east-
and its products. Methods used to generate ern black walnuts are unique for many reasons.
publicity include participation in festivals and They are native, locally grown nuts with a
fairs, collaboration with charities, sponsoring robust and rich flavor. Black walnuts are low in
community events, and news releases. News saturated fats, have no cholesterol and are high
releases to the media are a low cost method to in polyunsaturated and monosaturated fats
get promotion. Offering free samples is a com- (the “good” fats) which can lower “bad” cho-
monly used practice that helps establish local lesterol levels (LDL) without damaging “good”
markets. Organizing workshops, giving talks, cholesterol (HDL).
farm tours, attending farmers markets, collabo-
rating with local Community Supported Agri- Historically there has been only one major
culture (CSA) groups and word of mouth are processor of black walnut meat, Hammon’s
ways to raise awareness, inform and educate Products Company. Hammon’s is located in
consumers, and build trust and understanding. southwest Missouri, but has contract buyers
For products with health benefits not so known and hullers located in numerous locations
to consumers, fact sheets distributed at farm- throughout the Midwest. The going market
ers markets and educational on farm displays price for black walnuts delivered to these con-
are very useful. tract buyers and hullers ranges from $0.10 to
$0.13 per pound. Supply is collected 99% from
Costs: How much will all of these cost? If paid the wild; there are no large producers using im-
advertising media are used, partnering with proved cultivated varieties. Producers who are
other farms can reduce individual advertising growing improved cultivars have the option of
costs. Brands are created to identify a busi- selling directly to Hammon’s for a higher price;
nesses’ product and distinguish it from the however, those improved cultivars must be de-
competition. While expensive, many niche livered to the processing plant in Stockton, Mo.
producers concentrate promotional efforts on The market demand for eastern black walnut
image advertising, i.e., promoting the concepts nutmeats is small compared to the demand for
of “heart healthy”, “locally grown” or “green” pecans or other popular nutmeats. Black wal-
products. nut nutmeats are used in ice cream, baking, and
candies. However, due to the strong flavor asso-
ciated with the wild crop, the demand for black
walnut nutmeats as a stand-alone “snack” is

small. Currently, the black walnut market is not face with a place). In other words, Ben’s Black
structured in a way that allows for segregation Walnuts are not just a product that comes from
of improved cultivars. Hammon’s processing some distant processor; it is a product that
requires large quantities of nuts to meet their comes from Bill and Geri Hanson. The Hanson’s
current demand in the ice cream and nutmeat have developed a trust relationship with the
markets. Due to the fact that there are very few retailer and consumer through their personal
plantations of improved cultivars and it may involvement with those market participants.
take up to 15 years for a plantation of improved Finally, the scale of the operation is designed
cultivars to reach full production, Hammon’s for the labor and inputs available. The Hanson’s
has to rely on the wild nut crop. operation is designed to handle no more than
10,000 pounds of nuts per year. They currently
The Hanson’s strategies were to grow their have enough trees planted to reach this capac-
own improved black walnut cultivars; process ity. Labor, the constraining factor in the produc-
those nuts on the farm; and sell them directly tion system, is provided by Bill and Geri.
to retail stores within a close radius of the farm.
They started planting black walnut trees in While the eastern black walnut market is still
1984 on 10 acres. Since then they have expand- faced with a single large buyer, low commodity
ed to nearly 18 acres of grafted black walnut prices, and wild nuts of variable quality, Ben’s
trees. Instead of looking to the existing market Black Walnuts has carved out a niche. Focusing
for nuts which was controlled by Hammon’s on quality, adding a personal marketing touch,
Products Company, the Hanson’s began devel- vertical integration and capturing the full value
oping the machinery and equipment needed chain, the Hanson’s have recognized market
to process nutmeats. By modifying equipment forces and developed successful strategies.
designed for other uses, such as a huller/
washer that was designed for English walnut,
the Hanson’s developed a completely vertically
integrated production system. Through direct
marketing to local grocery stores and other Real World Example
retail outlets, nearly 2000 pounds of nutmeats Oak Leaf Wood and Supplies: “Your Trash
are sold annually, grossing nearly $12,000. By is My Cash”
controlling the process from the tree to the Paul and Kathy Easley have a “stump to store”
store, they were able to maintain a higher qual- niche market wood manufacturing business in
ity product, create a niche market for quality central Illinois. At its outset 18 years ago, the
black walnut nutmeats and capture a larger Easleys’ hardwood business cut exactly what
profit for themselves. the customer wanted, including fence boards,
bridge decking and hog farrowing crates.
Ben’s Black Walnuts are successful because of At the same time, the Easleys began their
several reasons. First, the Hanson’s control the own primary market research to study the
supply and quality of the nut crop by owning competition by touring numerous hardwood
their own grafted trees. Yield and quality from facilities in adjoining states. The entrepreneurs
their black walnut plantation is predictable. also studied everything these facilities weren’t
The Hanson’s continually work to improve the doing, learning they weren’t involved in niche
cultivars that they grow in order to extend the markets, such as the production of bowl, gun
harvest season and improve cracking and nut- stock, pen or flute blanks. After making these
meat qualities. market discoveries and focusing on these
market opportunities, the Easleys moved their
Second, direct marketing to local retail outlets business in a new direction from its original
has helped link a person with a product (a markets.

Paul’s experience with wood enabled him to Paul attributes part of the business success to
recognize that highly figured wood products his involvement in a variety of related activi-
can be sawn from less than perfect logs. Today, ties. He is also a sawmill distributor, finding it
he and Kathy saw up the lumber, then run the easy to sell sawmills because people can see
trees through their sawmill kiln and surfacing for themselves how they benefit his success-
operation. They also have their own hardwood ful entrepreneurship efforts. Because demand
retail store (established 1990) in downtown for Oak Leaf Wood and Supplies products grew
Moweaqua, Ill. faster than the Easleys’ ability to supply their
customers, Paul networks with 25 sawmills
The Easleys maintain a competitive advantage in a 50-mile radius of his facility, buying the
in several ways. First, they have a very low product that his sawmill customers make and
raw material (supply) cost. Tree services bring selling it in his retail outlet.
wood to the business instead of paying landfill
dumping fees. Nearly 80% of his product con-
sists of wood that would otherwise have been
deposited into landfills, with the remaining
20% coming from their own farm.
Second, their knowledge and ability to turn

“junk wood” into high value blanks helps
maintain an edge on the competition. Crotch
material, from logs often left behind in the
woods after timber harvest, contains feathered
(figured) grain. By proper slicing, Paul puts the
feathered grain into the wood blanks and in-
creases their value as much as 10 fold. He also
adds value by using everything – for example, Using a band sawmill, Paul processes wood others might
the pen blank is a byproduct that normally consider trash into value-added products on his farm.
gets burned or thrown away as edging waste.
Blanks are put back through the edger to create
their shape (¾ of an inch square, and 6 inches The Easleys’ market area includes the entire
long), then put through a chop saw table 6 at a United States and seven foreign countries.
time. Pen blanks alone add up to $10,000 per They attribute this to tremendous high-quality,
year. free publicity, and making a product that
people wanted.
Oak Leaf Wood and Supplies combines vision
and experience with patience, taking the time to “Publicity is free, while advertising costs a lot
cut the wood to maximize its value. The busi- of money,” said Paul. “Good publicity is easy to
ness puts the needs of the customers, crafters do. If you are doing things that are unique and
and other high-end users at the center of activ- different than everybody else, if you’re having
ity. Recognizing that there are many different a good time at what you do, tell people about
facets to woodworking and many market niches it, and there will be magazines writing articles
to be filled, the Easleys do not actually make about you and your business.”
any finished products in the retail business.
The products they manufacture and sell include The Easleys’ business has been featured in
cabinet grade stock, carving stock and ballpoint close to one hundred magazines. Paul does not
pen blanks. The retail business handles approxi- have a web site, nor does he want one. “We are
mately one hundred species of wood. so busy doing what we do that there is no room
to do anything else.

“Keep it small, keep it simple, and don’t buy
any more equipment than it takes to get the job
done,” suggests Easley. “Then go to work, do
the job with a smile on your face and be enthu-
siastic about your product. If you’re willing to
do that, and talk with your customer, you can
succeed. We’re living proof.”

Credit: the “Forest Landowner’s Guide to Evaluating and Choosing a Natural Resource-Based Enterprise,” published by the Natural
Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service (NRAES-151) Cooperative Extension program, based at Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.
MARKETING EXAMPLES FOR FORESTRY, AGROFORESTRY AND

NATURAL RESOURCES

NATURAL RESOURCES (con’t)

NATURAL RESOURCES (con’t)

Online Marketing Resources:

• http://ohioline.osu.edu/ae-fact/0008.html - Direct Marketing as a Value-Added Opportunity for Agricul-
ture, Ohio State University Fact Sheet
• http://www.sfp.forprod.vt.edu – Non-Timber Forest Products, The Center for Forest Products Marketing
and Management, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, and The Southern Research Station,
USDA Forest Service, Blacksburg, Virginia
• http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/database/commonM.html - Plants For A Future Database, Plants for a Future,
Blagdon Cross Plant Research and Demonstration Gardens, Ashwater, Beaworthy, Devon, EX21 5DF, Eng-
land
• http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/chatham/ag/SustAg/marketing.html - Growing Small Farms, North Carolina
Cooperative Extension.
• http://www.sare.org/Learning-Center/Books/Building-a-Sustainable-Business - Building a Sustainable
Business. A Guide to Developing a Business Plan for Farms and Rural Businesses. Developed by the Min-
nesota Institute for Sustainable Agriculture.
• https://attra.ncat.org/publication.html - National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service Publication
List
• http://www.centerforagroforestry.org/profit/ - University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry resources
• http://nac.unl.edu/documents/morepublications/sfp1.pdf - Scott Josiah, University of Nebraska, Lincoln,
Marketing Specialty Forest Products
• http://nac.unl.edu/documents/morepublications/sfp2.pdf - Scott Josiah, University of Nebraska, Lincoln,
Productive Conservation: Growing Specialty Forest Products in Agroforestry Plantings
• http://www.agmrc.org/business_development/strategy_and_analysis/ - Agricultural Marketing Resource
Center. Resources for Business Strategy and Analysis.
• http://extension.missouri.edu/p/G648 - Break-even Pricing, Revenue and Units.
• http://extension.missouri.edu/p/G649 - Selecting an Appropriate Pricing Strategy.
Publications
• Gold, M.A., M.M. Cernusca and L.D. Godsey. 2009. Agroforestry product markets and marketing. Chapter
11. In: Garrett, H.E. (ed). North American Agroforestry: An Integrated Science and Practice. 2nd Edition.
Agronomy Society of America, Madison, WI.
• Cernusca M.M., M.A. Gold and L.D. Godsey 2012. Using the Porter model to analyze the U.S. elderberry
industry. Agroforestry Systems 86(3):365-377.
• Gold, M.A., M.M. Cernusca and L.D. Godsey. 2008. A competitive market analysis of the U.S. shiitake mush-
room marketplace. HortTechnology 18(3): 489-499.
• Gold, M.A., M.M. Cernusca and L.D. Godsey. 2006. Competitive Market Analysis: Chestnut Producers. Hort-
Technology, 16(2):360-369.
• Gold, M.A., L.D. Godsey and M.M. Cernusca. 2005. Competitive market analysis of Eastern red cedar. For-
est Products Journal 55(12):58-65.
Literature Cited
Porter, M.E. 1980. Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors. New York: The
Free Press. 396 pp.

EXERCISE: REVIEW OF MARKETING
1. According to Michael Porter, there are five forces that influence how an industry is struc-
tured. What are they?
2. What are the main marketing strategies that you need to develop for each target mar-
ket?

EXERCISE KEY
1. According to Michael Porter, there are five forces that influence how an industry or a
business is structured. What are they?
The five forces defined by Michael Porter are:

1) Barriers to entry,
2) Bargaining power of suppliers,
3) Bargaining power of buyers,
4) Threat of substitute products, and
5) Rivalry among existing firms.
2. What are the main marketing strategies that you need to develop for each target mar-
ket?
The main marketing strategies are:

Product – The right products to satisfy the needs of your target customers
Price – For what price can we sell our products?
Distribution – How are we getting the products in the hands of our customers?
Promotion – How are we letting people know what we have for sale?

Notes

Chapter 10: Economic Considerations
In this chapter: Monitoring the economic costs and benefits

• Agroforestry Budgeting from an agroforestry practice is essential for
analyzing its economic success or failure.
• Agroforestry Costs
Economic budgeting provides a method for
• Revenues systematically tracking costs and revenues that
• Funding Incentives for Agroforestry are incurred on any productive enterprise.
• Summary
• Additional Resources For most agroforestry practices, there are nu-
merous incentive programs available that can
help offset establishment costs. Federal income
Agroforestry Economics tax laws can also provide incentives in the form
of increased deductions from taxable income
Overview and lower tax rates on certain types of income.
This chapter is a brief overview of the re- This chapter will briefly discuss agroforestry
sources and information found in the detailed from an economic perspective.
Agroforestry in Action guides produced by the
Center for Agroforestry. These guides are in- Budgeting, funding incentives, and tax incen-
cluded in the Appendix of this Training Manual: tives are three of the most important economic
considerations when analyzing an agroforestry
• Economic Budgeting for Agroforestry practice. Even if the goals of the landowner do
Practices not include managing the agroforestry practice
• Tax Considerations for the Establishment of for income, the landowner should be aware
Agroforestry Practices of ways to minimize the costs associated with
• Funding Incentives for Agroforestry in establishing and maintaining that practice.
Missouri
Economic Budgeting
Agroforestry should not be thought of as a set Economic budgeting is a decision making tool
of practices that take land out of production. used to:
Instead, agroforestry is a set of practices that 1) report,
responsibly weaves together production and
2) monitor,
stewardship. There are many economic bene-
fits to incorporating agroforestry practices into 3) analyze, and
agricultural landscapes. The five practices of 4) forecast the financial performance of an
agroforestry provide opportunities for gener- economic enterprise.
ating income from a wide array of alternative
products, ranging from edible nut and berry Budgets can be highly detailed standardized
crops to diverse woody floral crops. Addition- forms or roughly delineated estimates on the
ally, agroforestry practices provide valuable back of an envelope. The quality of the econom-
environmental services for landowners, such as ic analysis and thus the quality of the decisions
soil and stream protection, wildlife habitat, and made based on the analysis depend on the time
aesthetics at a low cost. and effort put into the budget.

There are several methods for budgeting, de- not. A tractor will depreciate in value even if it
pending on the type of analysis being conduct- is parked in a barn and never used. The amount
ed. For agroforestry economic analysis, two and type of capital that depreciates will depend
main types of budgets are used: enterprise on the production activities. A crop enterprise
budgets and cash flow budgets. may have depreciation from specialized equip-
ment such as a combine and a planter, but a
• Enterprise budget: This is a detailed list livestock enterprise will not have this type of
of all cost and revenues for a single enter- depreciation.
prise, such as corn or livestock, typically for
a single planning period. • Variable costs:
Variable costs are those costs attributed to the
• Cash flow budget: This is a detailed sched- productive use of resources. Variable cash costs
ule of the amount and timing of costs and include all input costs, such as seed, chemicals,
revenues. Cash flow budgets can identify fuel, hired labor, and maintenance. Variable
possible risks, predict cash needs over cash costs for agroforestry practices can be
a period of time, and provide a basis for broken down even farther into four main cost
comparison with other alternatives. A cash areas: establishment, maintenance, harvesting,
flow budget can combine several enterprise and marketing. One of the most common mis-
budgets to identify areas where losses from takes that many landowners make is failing to
one enterprise can be offset by revenues account for their own personal time. Although
from another enterprise. many landowners enjoy the time they spend
working with trees and nature in general, there
Costs is still an economic cost to the time that is
Costs can be grouped into two categories: fixed spent establishing, managing, harvesting, and
and variable. Within these two categories, marketing products from agroforestry prac-
costs are separated even further into cash and tices. Remember to count personal time spent
non-cash costs. Cash costs are those costs that as a variable cost.
require out-of-pocket cash payments. Non-cash
costs are often called economic costs or op- Revenues
portunity costs. Understanding each of these Typical revenues from conventional forestry
categories of costs will help organize data into can come from things such as nuts, timber, and
economic information. seedlings. In agriculture, revenues are typi-
cally based on monocultured crops or livestock
• Fixed costs: enterprises. However, by combining agriculture
Fixed costs are typically those costs that are at- and forestry, more revenue opportunities can
tributed to resource ownership. In other words, be realized from the same natural resource
fixed costs occur regardless of any productive base. Revenues in agroforestry are limited only
activity being attempted. Fixed cash costs are by the creative resources of the decision maker.
out-of-pocket expenses that are not dependent
on production level or commodity. Examples Many agroforestry practices require significant
of fixed cash costs include property taxes and investment during establishment years, fol-
insurance. Fixed non-cash costs are account- lowed by a period of several years before the
ing costs that do not require a cash outlay. trees start to generate a return on that invest-
Although these costs are incurred regardless ment. This may be a strong disincentive to the
of production, they are influenced by produc- adoption of these practices, even if long-run
tion activities. For example, depreciation is a estimates indicate that the practice will be
non-cash fixed cost that accrues regardless of more profitable. Because of this characteristic
whether the capital is used for production or of agroforestry, landowners should be encour-

aged to seek out additional incentives for State funding programs are very similar to
agroforestry. the federal programs. In 1990, the State of
Missouri passed an innovative program called
the Missouri Agroforestry Program which was
Incentives for Agroforestry part of the Missouri Economic Diversification
Agroforestry incentives can come from many and Afforestation Act. Although this program
different sources. The fact that the practice has had limited funding, the concept is unique
improves the environmental quality of a in the fact that it encourages landowners to
landowner’s property may be all the incentive seek income opportunities from alternative
needed to convince that landowner to adopt products grown or harvested from land that is
that practice. However, for some landowners to managed primarily for conservation benefits.
adopt requires a significant financial incentive. The Missouri Department of Conservation
Programs designed to minimize or offset the was given the responsibility of overseeing this
initial establishment cost burden are the most program along with a cost share program that
common type of funding incentive available to promotes conservation practices. Other sourc-
landowners interested in agroforestry. es of funding in Missouri include the Missouri
Department of Agriculture and the Missouri
Funding incentives can come from at least Department of Natural Resources.
three major sources:
1) Federal, Private funding sources with application for
2) State, and agroforestry often center on organizations
3) private conservation programs. that promote game animals or forestry. Pri-
vate sources include groups such as Pheasants
Federal conservation programs are those Forever, Ducks Unlimited, Quail Unlimited, and
initiated by major legislation, such as the Farm the National Wild Turkey Federation. These
Bill. Examples of federally funded agroforestry organizations offer cost-share programs and
incentives would include programs such as: land easement payments to landowners who
• Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) manage their land in a way that improves the
• Environmental Quality Incentive Program habitat of the game animal they represent.
(EQIP)
• Wetland Reserve Program (WRP) Tax Incentives
• Wildlife Habitat Incentive Program (WHIP) Another incentive for agroforestry adoption
• Conservation Security Program (CSP) may be the income tax benefits that a landown-
• Sustainable Agriculture Research and Edu- er could receive.
cation Program (SARE)
• Partners for Fish and Wildlife (PFW) There are three basic ways to substantially
reduce your tax burden:
These programs offer cost share payments, 1) increased deductions,
land easement payments, and other incentive 2) reduced tax rate, and
payments to landowners who adopt environ- 3) tax credits.
mentally responsible land-use practices. One
downside to many of these programs is the fact The current Internal Revenue Code (IRC) offers
that the landowner often foregoes design flex- at least four areas where a landowner can re-
ibility and alternative product market income duce their potential tax burden by establishing
for the guaranteed program payments. an agroforestry practice.

The IRC offers tax benefits for Some agroforestry practices may have substan-
1) reforestation, tial cost during an establishment period and
2) conservation, not generate revenue to offset those costs until
3) business investment, and several years later. Because of this, landown-
ers may wish to seek funding incentives to help
4) capital gains.
ease the establishment cost burden. Federal,
• Section 194 of the IRC describes the refor-
state and private conservation programs offer
estation deduction and amortizable basis
land easements and cost-share payments for
deduction. This deduction allows a land-
establishing agroforestry practices or related
owner to deduct the first $10,000 of refor-
land use practices.
estation expenses from taxable income and
then amortize and deduct the remaining
In addition to these programs, the IRC offers
expense over an 84-month period.
some substantial tax benefits for those who
• Section 175 describes the conservation de-
invest in reforestation, conservation, or some
duction that allows a landowner to deduct
form of business that relies on the management
certain conservation expenses up to 25% of
of the natural resource base.
the gross income earned from the farm-
ing business. These conservation expenses
must be incurred in accordance with a plan
approved by the United States Department
of Agriculture (USDA) Natural Resources
Conservation Service (NRCS), or a similar
agency.
• Section 126 details how to exclude cost-
share payments received from approved
federal or state conservation programs
from taxable income.
• Section 179 allows a landowner who is
managing the agroforestry practice as an
active business to deduct a large amount
of expenses incurred for personal property
used more than 50% in the business.
Summary
Agroforestry is a set of land-use practices that
interlaces production and stewardship. From an
economic standpoint, agroforestry can increase
production diversity by integrating a wide
range of commodity and alternative products. In
order to monitor and analyze the economic pa-
rameters of an agroforestry practice, landown-
ers may need to adopt some form of economic
budgeting. Because of the impact of long estab-
lishment periods and long periods where no
economic returns are generated, a combination
of enterprise budgeting and cash flow budget-
ing is recommended in order to fully capture
the short- and long-term revenue potentials.

Economic Budgeting Websites:

• http://www.pubs.ext.vt.edu/category/agricultural-financial-mgmt.html
• http://extension.missouri.edu/main/DisplayCategory.aspx?C=77
• http://www.agrifoodbc.ca/communities
Funding Incentive Websites:

• http://www.fsa.usda.gov – USDA Farm Service Agency homepage.
• http://www.nrcs.usda.gov – USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service homepage.
• http://www.sare.org – Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (SARE) homepage.
• http://www.attra.org/attra-pub/summaries/betterrural.html – Building Better Rural Places, A
publication of the U.S. Department of Agriculture agencies working together for sustainable ru-
ral development in collaboration with The Michael Fields Agricultural Institute and The National
Center for Appropriate Technology (NCAT).
• http://www.na.fs.fed.us/pubs/misc/flg - Forest Landowners Guide to Internet Resources: States
of the Northeast, US Forest Service Northeastern Area and the Northeastern Area Association of
State Foresters.
Tax Incentive Websites:

• http://www.timbertax.org – National Timber Tax Website
• http://www.irs.gov – Internal Revenue Service Website

EXERCISE: REVIEW OF ECONOMIC INCENTIVES
Variable cash costs can be grouped into four categories, what are they?
1.
2.
3.
4.
Two types of budgets are recommended for the economic analysis of agroforestry practices,
what are they?
1.
2.
What are the four sections of the Internal Revenue Code (IRC) that can affect agroforestry
adopters?
1.
2.
3.
4.
What is the difference between a variable cost and a fixed cost?

EXERCISE KEY
Variable cash costs can be grouped into four categories, what are they?
1. Establishment
2. Maintenance
3. Harvesting
4. Marketing
Two types of budgets are recommended for the economic analysis of agroforestry practices,
what are they?
1. Enterprise budget
2. Cash flow budget
What are the four sections of the Internal Revenue Code (IRC) that can affect agroforestry
adopters?
1. Section 194- Reforestation deduction and amortizable basis deduction

2. Section 175-Conservation deduction
3. Section 126-Cost-share exclusion
4. Section 179-Business investment deduction
What is the difference between a variable cost and a fixed cost?
A fixed cost is a cost that is associated with the ownership of resources. Fixed costs must be paid regard-
less of what activity is conducted on the property. Variable costs are costs associated with the productive
use of resources. Variable costs are the costs that are used when comparing the economics of competing
resource-use options.

Notes

Appendix Section 2:
Trees and Shrubs for Agroforestry
In this chapter: What Makes a Tree
• Identifying the Proper Trees and/ Appropriate for
or Shrubs
• Design and Management
Agroforestry?
The answer is not always the same for any
• Tree and Shrub Recommenda-
given situation, and will likely vary according to
tions each landowner’s specific interest. That said,
• Selection Table many trees and shrubs can be planted in con-
figurations and/or densities that will enable
them to meet several objectives.
The following pages may be used as a general

reference and guide for the selection of appro-
priate trees and/or shrubs.
Identifying the proper trees and shrubs
When selecting a tree species, begin by

matching the species with the site. The se-
lected species should be capable of providing
the products and services desired by the land-
owner. Depending on the practice selected,
other considerations might include:
• Suited to the soil and site conditions
The Center for Agroforestry is conducting research
• Species compatibility trees should be com-
on Chinese chestnuts as a tree for profitable
agroforestry plantings. patible with the companion crop
• High value
Agroforestry combines trees, shrubs, forages, • Fast growing or of such high value that a
grasses, livestock and crops in innovative, flex- slower growth rate is acceptable
ible combinations tailored to the landowner’s • Deep-rooted so the trees do not compete
needs. However, it is the trees and shrubs that with companion crops for moisture
are the foundation of any of the agroforestry • Drought-tolerant or capable of growing on
practices. They occupy land for many years, a wet site
taking longer to produce marketable crops • Produce a light rather than a heavy shade.
than other agricultural crops and, thus, require • What species already exist on the site?
careful thought before planting and long-term
• Marketability - What products (nuts, wood,
care. Yet, through deliberate integration with
etc.) do you want to market? Do markets
farm practices, long lasting production and
exist?
conservation benefits can occur simultane-
ously.

Tree and Shrub
Recommendations
Following is a table of tree and shrub species
suitable for agroforestry practices in Missouri.
Included in the table are recommended re-
gions, agroforestry application, potential mar-
kets, typical site (upland or bottomland), soil
moisture requirements, growth rate, height,
light preference, and additional notes for each
species. Trees and shrubs are listed in alpha-
betical order by common name.
This list is not exhaustive, but rather a starting

point. All species listed for a given region may
not be suited to all sites in that region. Species
not generally recommended for a given region
may have application on individual sites. For
more specific information on trees and shrubs
for a particular site, contact the area Missouri
Department of Conservation Forester or Pri-
vate Lands Specialist.
Mark Coggeshall, UMCA Tree Improvement Specialist, works

to produce control pollinated seeds from eastern black wal-
nut trees he is growing on a trellis system.
In addition to the table, a series of crop sheets

have been developed that contain a short de-
scription of each species, its habitat, manage-
ment and harvesting considerations, methods
of propagation and economic uses.

Design and Management of Trees and Shrubs for Agroforestry
Planting design and management of an agroforestry practice depends on existing site conditions
and the goals of the landowner (you may also refer to the section on each specific practice for more
information on design considerations). Trees can be planted in single or multiple rows, on contours
or in groups. Consider the products you wish to produce, any conservation or wildlife benefits de-
sired, on-farm equipment and the needs of companion crops when planning the planting design.
As trees require some maintenance, management requirements may influence the planting design.
Some important management considerations are:
Weed control - most important in a young trees life

Fertilization - depends on species selected and production objectives
Pruning - a must for timber production and recommended for nut production
Thinning - timely thinnings are critical to maintaining tree growth
Grafting - recommended for nut production, yet limit the number of trees requiring
grafting in any given year.
• Weed control can reduce competition for moisture, nutrients and, in some cases, for light. Op-
tions for weed control include the use of herbicides, mulches (including living mulches such as
many clovers, and fabric mulches) and cultivation. To gain the best growth from newly estab-
lished trees, weed control should be maintained for a minimum of 3 years, and often for as
many as 5 years.
• Timely fertilization may be necessary for high-yielding fruit and nut production. In fruit and nut
production, having certain nutrients available to the tree at the appropriate time of year is often
essential for flower and nut set. For timber production, the cost of fertilization is usually not
recovered over the time it takes for a timber tree to reach maturity.
• Pruning allows room for equipment to pass below the branches and can be used to promote
the production of desired products such as timber. Pruning is also a useful tool in management
of fruit and nut trees. Through proper pruning, the shape of the crown and its density can be
managed to facilitate and improve a trees productivity.
• Timely thinnings promote good tree growth by reducing competition for water, light and nutri-
ents. As trees mature they grow to occupy more of the space where they are being managed.
As crowns of adjacent trees begin to touch or overlap, this is also a general indicator that their
root systems are overlapping. When trees touch or overlap, competition for light, moisture and
nutrients between adjacent trees may become a factor limiting tree growth. At this point, thin-
ning can be beneficial.
• Grafting primarily applies to fruit and nut production. By grafting scion wood to a tree you are
assured that the fruit or nut produced has the potential to exhibit the exact same characteristics
as the adult tree from which the scion came. However, this does not always occur, since mois-
ture, nutrients and management also play a significant role in fruit and nut development. Yet,
it is the best way to ensure success. Spread planting over several years to limit the number of
trees that will require grafting in a single year.

Online:
• USDA NRCS Plant Database – http://www.plants.usda.gov/
• Plant Resource Guide: Materials and Management – http://www.centerforagroforestry.org/
pubs/training/appendix6.pdf
• University of Connecticut Plant Database of Trees, Shrubs and Vines – http://www.hort.uconn.
edu/plants/a/a.html
• Grow Native – http://www.grownative.org/
• Native Plant Information – http://www.grownative.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=plants.main
• Silvics of North American Trees – http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/table_of_
contents.htm
• MDC Private Lands Division – http://www.mdc.mo.gov/landown
• Missouri Flora Database – http://www.missouriplants.com/
• Arkansas Home and Garden Plant Database – http://www.arhomeandgarden.org/planto-
ftheweek/archivesa_d.htm
• Grasses of Iowa – http://www.eeob.iastate.edu/research/iowagrasses/speciescn-nat.html
• Kansas Wildflowers and Grasses – http://www.lib.ksu.edu/wildflower/
• USDA Forest Service Plant Database – http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/
• The Right Tree Handbook - Minnesota Power – http://www.mnpower.com/treebook/

Notes

Appendix Section 3:
Grasses and Forages for Agroforestry
In this chapter: grasses. In fact, the University of Missouri Cen-
• Identifying the Proper Grasses ter for Agroforestry has researched and identi-
and Forages for Agroforestry fied many cool season grasses and legumes that
• Design and Management produce better or the same under 50% shade
as compared to full sun.
The following pages may be used as a general

reference and guide for the selection of an ap-
propriate forage/grass for your agroforestry
practice.
As a component of a farm system, the prop-

erly designed and implemented agroforestry
practice will help:
• Increase crop production
• Diversify products and farm income
• Improve soil quality and reduce erosion
• Improve water quality and reduce damage
due to flooding
Shade Trials: Learning about the shade tolerance of plant • Enhance wildlife habitat and improve bio-
species is important to the Center for Agroforestry. Here diversity
mulches and forage crops are tested to identify their
potential for planting under trees. • Reduce pest management inputs.
Agroforestry combines trees, shrubs, forages, Design and Management

grasses, livestock and crops in innovative, flex- Planting design and management of an
ible combinations tailored to the landowner’s agroforestry practice depends on existing site
needs. Through their integration with farm conditions and the goals of the landowner. (You
practices, production and conservation benefits may also refer to the section on each spe-
can occur simultaneously. However, because cific practice for more information on design
the same resources are often used by all the considerations) Many forages/grasses will do
plants in a given area, competition can pose quite well under partially shaded conditions.
some challenges to productivity. The following table outlines some of the for-
ages/grasses that the University of Missouri
Center for Agroforestry has identified for use in
What Makes a Forage/Grass partially shaded environments, and what can
Appropriate? be expected from their productivity in shaded
The answer will likely vary according to each environments. In all cases, consider the prod-
landowner’s specific interest and goals. That ucts you wish to produce, any conservation or
said, many trees and shrubs can be planted in wildlife benefits desired, on-farm equipment
configurations or densities that will also en- and the needs of companion crops when plan-
hance the production of select forages and/or ning the planting design.

When you decide on the appropriate forage/
Identifying the proper forages
grass for your agroforestry practice, you should
then seek out specific information on how to
and grasses
manage or establish that specific forage/grass
When selecting a forage/grass species, con-
species. Some considerations that will have a
sider compatibility with the site. The selected
significant influence on the success of the for-
species should be capable of providing
age/grass of choice include:
the products and services desired by the
landowner. Depending on the agroforestry
• Soil pH
practice selected, other forage/grass consider-
• Time of seeding
ations may include:
• The use of companion or nurse crops
• Seeding method (broadcast vs. • Level of shade tolerance
drilling) • Season of production (example, warm vs.
• The use of herbicides to control cool season grasses)
undesirable/competing species • Productivity capacity for a given site. For
• Seeding rates example: is it drought-tolerant, or capable of
• The need for Inoculation growing on a wet site that is known to flood
• Seed bed preparation periodically?
• Soil fertility • Compatibility with end use (example: is the
forage for livestock, or is the grass intended
Each of the above mentioned establishment for erosion control and other conservation
and management considerations can have a needs?)
significant impact on both growth and pro- • What species already exist on the site and
ductivity of a forage/grass stand. For more on can a natural forage/grass stand be en-
establishing forages and seeding of a variety of hanced?
forages common to Missouri, please reference:
Forage and Grass

Recommendations for
Agroforestry
Following is a table of forage and grass species
suitable for agroforestry practices in Missouri.
Included in the table are recommendations
on practice applicability, potential uses and
general site recommendations. Forages and
grasses are listed in alphabetical order by com-
mon name. Consult with your regional agron-
omy specialist, or check with your University
Extension personnel, to identify specifics on
the appropriateness of a forage or grass to your
region.
The following list is not exhaustive, but rather

a starting point. All species listed may not be
suited to all sites or regions within the State.

Online:
• For a number of publications on specific forages and grasses, visit:
http://muextension.missouri.edu/explore/agguides/crops/#Forages
• Plant Resource Guide: Materials and Management – http://www.centerforagroforestry.org/
pubs/training/appendix6.pdf
• Establishing Forages – http://muextension.missouri.edu/explore/agguides/crops/g04650.htm
• Seeding Rates, Dates and Depths for Common Missouri Forages – http://muextension.missouri.
edu/explore/agguides/crops/g04652.htm
• USDA NRCS Plant Database – http://www.plants.usda.gov/
• University of Connecticut Plant Database of Trees, Shrubs and Vines – http://www.hort.uconn.
edu/plants/a/a.html
• Grow Native – http://www.grownative.org/
• Native Plant Information – http://www.grownative.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=plants.main
• Silvics of North American Trees – http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/table_of_
contents.htm
• MDC Private Lands Division – http://www.mdc.mo.gov/landown
• Missouri Flora Database – http://www.missouriplants.com/
• Arkansas Home and Garden Plant Database – http://www.arhomeandgarden.org/planto-
ftheweek/archivesa_d.htm
• Grasses of Iowa – http://www.eeob.iastate.edu/research/iowagrasses/speciescn-nat.html
• Kansas Wildflowers and Grasses – http://www.lib.ksu.edu/wildflower/
• USDA Forest Service Plant Database – http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/
• The Right Tree Handbook - Minnesota Power – http://www.mnpower.com/treebook/

Notes

Appendix Section 4:
The Basics of Selling Timber
Selling timber can be a rewarding experience management plan. Such objectives may include:
for some forest land owners while a traumatic • Improving the overall health and vigor of the
experience for others. Landowners who do a forest
thorough job of planning and marketing are • Promoting seedling regeneration
usually satisfied with a timber harvest; those
• Creating wildlife habitat
who did not prepare for a timber sale are likely
• Reducing the density of the forest (if over-
to be dissatisfied. Many people receive a frac-
crowded)
tion of their timber’s true value because they
do not know what they have or do not know • Establishing planting areas
how to sell it. This article presents guidelines • Creating vistas and trails
to assist individuals in selling timber from their • Developing certain types of recreational
woodlands. activities
• Salvaging damaged trees
Define Your Objectives

A wise man once said, “Without a road map, Steps in Selling Timber
you will probably never get to your destina- When selling timber these steps should be fol-
tion.” A successful timber harvest begins with lowed:
identifying your objectives. This can best be 1. Know what you have to sell
done with a written Forest Management Plan 2. Determine what your timber is worth
that identifies your objectives, steps to achiev- 3. Determine what method you will use to
ing them, and times when they will be con- sell your timber
ducted. 4. Determine a method of payment
5. Advertise your sale
The plan should also identify the type of har-
vest to be conducted and steps to be taken for 6. Develop a written contract with the buyer
reforestation after the harvest. 7. Supervise and inspect the harvest
8. Practice good forestry
You need to tell the log buyer exactly what you
expect from the timber sale. This is best done Know What You Have to Sell
through provisions written into a timber sale Before advertising a timber sale, you first need
contract. For example, if one of your objectives to determine what you have to sell. This in-
is maintaining water quality, a provision in the volves selecting the trees to be harvested and
contract should state that Best Management determining what volumes and products are
Practices (BMPs) will be followed during road present in those trees. Make sure the trees are,
building, stream crossing, and harvesting. For in fact, on your property. Settle any boundary
a list of voluntary BMPs, contact a Missouri disputes with your neighbors before you sell
Department of Conservation (MDC) forester. any timber. Clearly mark the trees to be har-
vested so the logger can easily see them. Mark
Why Sell Timber each tree with a spot of paint about chest high
(bright blue or orange works best) on the same
Other than simply for financial gain, timber
side of the tree so they are visible from a main
harvesting is a tool for accomplishing objec-
trail or road. A second spot of paint should
tives that you may have identified in your forest

be placed at the ground line. This paint spot • Distance to the mill. The closer a woodlot
will remain after logging to serve as a check is to the mill, the lower the hauling costs.
to make certain that only marked trees were • Site accessibility. The ease with which the
harvested. forest land can be reached affects costs.
• Logging difficulty. Steepness of terrain and
After selecting the trees to be harvested, soil moisture conditions affect the equip-
estimate the wood volume or the number of ment that can be used and speed of har-
products that will be cut by species. Timber vesting.
volumes are estimated by measuring individual • Market conditions. Poor markets mean
trees. For more details read the University lower timber prices. Buyers often pay more
Extension guide “How to Measure Trees and for logs when their inventories are low to
Logs,” which is available from a MDC forester or ensure continued mill operation.
the county Extension Service agent. • Your restrictions on harvesting and skid-
ding techniques. Restrictions set forth in
Some common products that may be produced your timber sale contract, such as seeding
from trees include sawlogs, stave bolts (to skid trails after harvest, will increase log-
make barrels), veneer logs, firewood, pulpwood ging costs.
(to make paper), posts and poles. These prod-
ucts are determined by the species, size and Different buyers may offer substantially differ-
quality of your timber and can vary greatly in ent prices for the same timber, depending on
price. There may not be a market for all these their own particular costs and markets. The
products within any given area. Local mills will only way to actually determine what your tim-
determine the specifications for each product ber is worth is to offer it for sale on the open
they purchase. For current market conditions, market and contact as many potential buyers
Timber Price Reports are available from a MDC as possible.
forester.
Determine a Selling Method
Determine What Your Timber is Selecting the appropriate selling method for
Worth marketing your timber is the key to having
The price paid for standing trees before they a successful timber sale. The two methods
are harvested (called stumpage) has no set commonly used in Missouri are sealed bid and
value. negotiation.
Your timber is worth whatever you and the The sealed bid sale is recommended most of-
buyer agree to. Many factors influence the price ten for private woodland owners. This process
of standing trees. These include: informs potential buyers about the timber sale.
These buyers are allowed a length of time (usu-
• Tree species. Wood from some species is ally 4 to 6 weeks) to inspect the sale and sub-
more valuable than wood from other spe- mit bids. Each bidder is allowed to make only
cies. one bid and late bids are always rejected. Bids
• Tree size. Large trees will have more vol- are then opened at a specified time and place,
ume and clear wood than smaller trees. and the successful buyer is selected. If no bids
• Tree quality. Trees with fewer defects (e.g., meet your minimum requirements, you have
branch scars, decay, imbedded wire) have the right to refuse all bids. No further price
higher quality, more valuable wood. negotiations should take place after a buyer
• Volume of sale. Large volume sales will has been selected and unsuccessful bidders
bring a higher per unit price than small notified that the timber was sold. A blank Bid
volume sales. Solicitation is available from a MDC forester.

A negotiated sale involves face-to-face nego- vantage of a yield sale is that the landowner is
tiations between the seller and a single buyer. being paid for the timber that is actually being
This procedure often results in a price well harvested. The disadvantage is that problems
below what the timber is worth because the can arise in obtaining an accurate tally since
buyer has no competition and the seller is often tracking the logs is difficult once they leave
uninformed about the timber’s value. For that your property.
reason, do not be too anxious to accept the first
offer for your timber. A negotiated sale, how- Advertising Your Sale
ever, may be the best method if:
There are several steps to follow in preparing a
timber sale notice. You must have accurate, reli-
• You have a small amount of timber or poor
able information and you need to send it to as
quality timber to sell.
many prospective bidders as possible. An up-
• Markets for the species and products for sale to-date Log Buyers List is available from a MDC
are so poor that few buyers would be inter- forester. A timber sale notice should include the
ested. basic information that will later become part of
• You want to work with a particular buyer the timber sale contract including:
that you know and trust. • Your name, address and telephone number.
• You are marketing certain specialty prod- • Location of the timber for sale. Include a
ucts. map, legal description and directions.
• Description of the trees or logs to be sold.
Method of Payment Include volume by species, number of trees,
There are two methods of payment available to diameter classes and sawlog grades if ap-
woodland owners who sell timber. propriate. Describe how the trees and sale
boundaries will be marked.
In a lump sum sale you receive a single pay- • Type of bid you are expecting: lump sum or
ment for the trees to be sold before the harvest yield sale.
begins. Splitting payments for each cutting area • Times when potential buyers can visit and
may be necessary for large sales. Payment is inspect the timber.
based on the amount of timber volume esti- • Date, time and place written bids will be
mated and not the actual volume harvested. opened. Include how the successful bidder
Lump sum sales, therefore, depend heavily on will be selected and notified.
the accuracy of your estimate of the volume • Whether or not a down payment is required
and quality of timber for sale. to bind the offer when the contract is signed.
An amount of 5 to 10 percent of the bid price
An advantage of a lump sum sale is simplic- is normally required.
ity. The landowner is relieved of the burden of
• Any limitations or special ownership con-
keeping track of the volume of timber being
siderations on the sale. Such considerations
harvested and income is provided before har-
include harvesting deadline, restrictions
vesting begins. A disadvantage is that the seller
on access, conditions when loggers cannot
receives bids that are based on an estimate of
operate (such as wet conditions), streamside
the volume to be harvested, which may be dif-
management zones or buffers, etc.
ferent from the amount actually harvested.
• Requirements for a performance bond. A
performance deposit is an amount of money
In a yield sale the landowner is paid a certain
above the sale price (usually 10 percent of
amount for each unit of product cut. This re-
sale price) posted by the buyer when the
quires that someone (usually at the mill) scale
contract is signed and held in escrow by the
the volume of products after harvest. An ad-
seller. The bond’s purpose is to ensure that

the buyer abides by the terms set forth in the Once timber harvesting begins, visit the area
contract. The performance deposit should be frequently. When you visit the site make sure
refunded immediately after the sale is com- that logging meets the terms of the contract.
pleted and contract requirements are met. Questions that arise should be discussed with
• Statement whether the logger must carry the logger. Unless you discover a flagrant viola-
insurance and liability. Insurance will avoid tion of the contract, a simple suggestion to the
possible legal complications if a logger is logger in charge of the operation will usually
injured on your property and liability insur- solve the problem. After the harvest is com-
ance will cover any damage to your property pleted and all provisions of the contract have
or adjoining lands caused by the logger. been fulfilled, write a letter releasing the buyer
• Statement indicating your right to reject any from the contract and return the performance
or all bids. deposit.
Timber Sale Contract Practice Good Forestry

The purpose of a timber sale contract is to pro- Improper logging practices can have adverse
tect the interests of buyer and seller and must effects on water quality, wildlife and forest
be signed by both parties. You should meet regeneration. To ensure that you are satisfied
with the logger or buyer to discuss the items to with the end result of the timber harvest, it
be included in the contract; this will reduce the is important that good forestry practices are
possibility of misunderstandings. applied during and after the logging operation.
Following BMPs and having a reforestation
The written contract does not need to be a plan are two important considerations for har-
complex document, but it should reflect what vesting timber on your property.
you and the logger have agreed to with respect
to the sale. Timber buyers will frequently pro-
vide their own standard contract. Such con-
Sources of Forestry Advice
Landowners who have little experience in for-
tracts may not adequately represent your inter-
estry should contact a professional forester to
est as a seller. A blank Timber Sale Contract is
assist in managing their woodlands. There are
available from a MDC forester. You may want to
private and public foresters available to help
have a lawyer draft or review your contract. It
you with your management plan.
is critical that you include the provisions that
you feel are important regarding the harvest on
Private Sources. A consultant is a professional
your property.
forester whose services are available on a
contract or fee basis, with the fee paid by the
Supervise the Timber Harvest client. Consultants can perform a variety of
One of the most important things you can do work including forest inventories, timber sales
during the harvest is to inspect it periodically. and land appraisal. Consultants may also serve
Before harvesting begins, review the timber as the main contractor in carrying out a Forest
sale contract with the logger and point out Management Plan on your land. A list of con-
sale boundaries. If possible, walk the site to be sulting foresters is available from the Missouri
harvested with the logger. This will accomplish Department of Conservation.
two objectives; 1) it will give you an oppor-
tunity to get to know the logger, and 2) it will Public Sources. The Missouri Department of
give you a chance to explain your objectives of Conservation can help private landowners
harvesting timber. A logger that is familiar with become good stewards of their forest land
you personally and aware of your objectives by providing technical forestry assistance. A
will likely do a better job on the site. forester can provide a variety of services to

help you meet your land management goals.
These services are free-of-charge and will be
as in-depth as you need, depending on your
commitment to the long-term management of
your forest lands. A forester can answer your
questions over the telephone or may provide
onsite assistance. A brochure entitled “Forest
Management Assistance for Missouri Land-
owners” is available from a MDC forester and
describes the services offered.
Contact: State Forester or a local forester at:

Missouri Department of Conservation
P.O. Box 180
Jefferson City, MO 65102-0180

Notes

Appendix A: Sample Solicitation of Bid for Timber
You are invited to bid on timber located as follows: in the NW 1/4, Section 23, Township 25 North,
Range 14 West, Timber County, Missouri. The timber is located five miles south of Oak Grove on Route
AB.
For additional information or for directions on how to see the timber, contact: Forrest Farmer, Oak
Grove, Missouri; telephone 573/555-1234.
DESCRIPTION:
Approximately 160 acres of mixed oak timber. The trees to be cut are marked with a fresh orange
paint spot at breast height and on the stump. About 1,600 trees are marked. Bids are to be made on a
lump sum basis.
BID INSTRUCTIONS:
After the bid is completed, return it to:
Forrest Farmer, Route 1

Oak Grove, MO 61234
On or before -- Time: 1:00 P.M. Date:
Mark “TIMBER BID” on the envelope.

The owner reserves the right to reject any or all bids.
BIDDER: TELEPHONE:
ADDRESS: SIGNATURE:
AMOUNT OF BID:

Appendix B: Sample Timber Sale Contract
Joe Logger of Big Cedar, Missouri, herein after called the Purchaser, agrees to purchase from Forrest
Farmer of Oak Grove, Missouri, herein after called the Seller, the designated timber specified below:
WITNESSETH:
ARTICLE I. The Seller hereby agrees to sell to the Purchaser, subject to the terms listed below, all of the
timber specified below, on a certain tract owned by the Seller, located in NW 1/4, Section 23, Town-
ship 25 North, Range 14 West, County of Timber, State of Missouri, located on 160 acres, more or less.
ARTICLE II. The Purchaser agrees:

1. To cut only those trees marked with a fresh orange paint spot. Trees marked with an “X” may be cut
if desired.
2. Trees other than those specified above may be cut only for access on areas used for roads and land-
ings.
3. To pay the Seller a lump price of $12,000.00 when the contract is signed to pay for the trees desig-
nated for cutting.
4. To pay three times the stumpage value per tree, a penalty rate, for each tree that is cut which is not
designated for cutting.
5. To keep fields, fences, roads, and streams free from tree tops and other logging debris at all times.
He also agrees to remove all oil and gasoline cans and other debris accumulated during cutting.
6. And understands that the Seller is not responsible or liable in any manner for injury or damage
resulting from the cutting and removing of these trees.
7. That this contract cannot be transferred to another party without the written permission of the
Seller.
ARTICLE III. The Purchaser further agrees to cut and remove said timber in strict accordance with the
following conditions:
1. To waive all claims to the above described trees unless they are cut and removed on or before De-
cember 31, 1999.
2. To do all in his power to prevent and suppress forest fires on or threatening the sale area.
3. To protect from unnecessary injury young growth and other trees not designated for cutting.
4. To repair damage caused by logging to fences, bridges, roads, trails, or other improvements dam-
aged beyond ordinary wear and tear.
5. To allow the owner to cut and remove any portion of a tree left on the ground by the Purchaser
after he has removed his products.

Sample Timber Sale Contract (cont.)
ARTICLE IV. The Seller agrees to the following conditions:

1. To guarantee title to the forest products covered by this agreement and to defend it against all
claims at his expense.
2. To grant or secure necessary entry and right-of-way to the Purchaser and his employees on and
across the area covered by this agreement, and also other privileges usually extended to purchasers.
ARTICLE V. It is mutually understood and agreed by and between the parties hereto as follows:
1. All timber included in this agreement shall remain the property of the Seller, and shall not be re-
moved until paid for in full.
2. In case of a dispute over the terms of this contract, we agree to accept the decision of an arbitration
board of three selected persons as final. Each of the contracting parties will select one person and the
third will be the State Forester or his chosen representative.
Signed in duplicate this ______ day of _______________, 20___.

____________________________ _____________________________
(Witness) (Purchaser)
____________________________ _____________________________
(Witness) (Seller)
____________________________ _____________________________
(Witness) (Seller)
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
STATE OF _________________
COUNTY OF_________________
On this ______ day of ________________________, 20 _____ before me personally appeared

______________________________ to be known to be the person(s) described in and who executed
the foregoing instrument and acknowledged that ______ executed same as ________ free act and
deed.
In Testimony Whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and affixed my official seal, at my office in
______________________, the day and year first above written.
My Commission as Notary
Public Expires _______________.
________________________
NOTARY PUBLIC [an error occurred while processing this directive]

Appendix Section 5: Planning for
Agroforestry Workbook
Personal Assessment
Step 2: Evaluate Personal Resources
Biophysical Site Assessment
Step 3: Identify Current Land Uses
Step 4: Map Area(s) for Agroforestry Development
Step 5: Climate Assessment
Step 6: Soil Assessment
Step 7: Physical Features (Terrain)
Step 8: Timber and Non-Timber Forest Crop Inventory
Step 10: Listing ‘Best Bets’
Evaluate the ‘Best Bets’ in the Context of the Industry
Step 11: SWOT Analysis
Step 13: Revising Your ‘Best Bets’
Step 15: Adding Value to Products
Step 16: Getting Products to the Buyer
Step 17: Setting the Price
Step 18: Promoting Your Products
Agroforestry Practice Design and Management
Step 19: Revisit Your Objectives and Priorities
Step 20: Detailed ‘Best Bets’ Crop Information
Step 21: Designing Your Agroforestry Practices
Step 22: A Five-Year Management Projection
Step 23: Yearly Activity Schedule

Personal Assessment
Rank (X) the following management objectives according to your land-use priorities (low, medium,
high). Remember these objectives are a starting point, and you can (and probably will) modify them
later. If possible, numerically rank the top five objectives for your agroforestry project (1=highest to
5=lowest priority).
Objective Low Medium High Top 5

A new source of
income from
unproductive land
Reduce costs of
current farm or
forest operations
Develop new source

of long-term income
(i.e., timber)
Increase short-term
income while
awaiting long-term
timber income
Tax advantages
Increase grazing
opportunities
Increase wildlife
opportunities
Undertake
environmental
improvements
Access to govern-
mental programs
and cost-share
Other

Personal Assessment
Step 2: Evaluate Personal Resources
What resources – in addition to your land base – do you have that could be to put into your
agroforestry development? The section below allows you to list and evaluate the resources of all
the family members who will be involved and that you think will have an impact on your ability to
develop this agroforestry area.
Resource Landowner use and potential of resource
1. Management time – When will the new

activity not be in conflict with existing
activities?
2. Labor – Times of year when labor is

most available.
3. Equipment and facilities – For animals,

storage, value-added processing, time of
year available.
4. Specialized farm equipment – Identify

special farm equipment, such as tractors,
ATVs, spray equipment, etc.
5. Irrigation – Water source available.
6. Plant material – Your own sources of

seed, seedlings, cuttings and larger trees,
or will you need to purchase them?
7. Livestock – Cattle, sheep or other ani-

mals. What are their needs, and when are
those greatest (i.e. calving)?
8. Materials – Sawdust or shavings, ma-

nure and straw, or pine straw, for mulch,
etc.
9. Other

Exercise: Can I meet my labor and man-
agement needs?
Distribution of hours
Total hours (for one year or for production period)
for year
Jan-Mar Apr-June July-Sept Oct-Dec
Suggested hours, 2,000 500 500 500 500
full-time worker
(~ 40 hours/week)
My estimate,
cost of wages,
full-time worker
($7.25/hr. min.
wage – in 2013)
Labor and management hours available
Principal
Manager
Team Member 1
Team Member 2
Team Member 3
Hired Labor
Total Hours
Available
Direct labor and management hours needed by enterprise

Enterprise 1
Enterprise 2
Enterprise 3
Total labor hours

needed
Total labor hours
available (from
above)
Additional labor
hours required
(total hours needed
minus total hours
available)
Excess labor
hours available
(total hours avail-
able minus total
hours needed)

Step 3: Identify Current Land Uses
List present uses of each part of your land and the products you harvest. Possibilities include: resi-
dential, recreation, farming (which crop), grazing (type of livestock), timber production, non-timber
production, wildlife areas and green belts.
Land Use Product/Resources Available

1. Residential
2. Recreation
3. Farming (list crops)
4. Grazing Livestock
(type)
5. Timber Production
6. Non-Timber
Production
7. Wildlife Areas
8. Green Belts
9. Other

Exercise: Inventory your land and natural
resources
Agricultural land resources: Cropland and pasture

Who can help? Your local extension agent or NRCS (Natural Resource Conservation Ser-
vice) office can look at your property, indicate whether your present farm-management
plan is sound, and recommend other options that could enhance your operation. Cost share
programs or the sale of your agricultural development rights are other options that may be
of value to you.
Number of acres of tillable land __________

Number of acres of pasture __________
Number of acres left idle __________
Number of acres you farm __________
Number of acres rented __________
Current crop(s)
Number of head of livestock __________

Total annual rental income from land rented to others who grow crops __________
Total annual rental income from land rented to others who raise livestock __________
Fertility of land, agricultural crops: Excellent Good Poor

Fertility of land, forests: Excellent Good Poor
Total annual income from pasture and livestock ______

How much of the annual pasture and livestock income is from land rented to others? ______
Rented from others? ______
Total annual income from cropland ______
How much of the annual cropland income is from land rented to others? ______
Rented from others? ______

resources, con’t
Natural resources
Forest. Who can help? You may want to contact a state forester to assist you with the in-
ventory and evaluation of your forest resources. He or she can advise you on the procedure
for developing a forest stewardship plan. In some states, a state forester can help you pre-
pare a forest stewardship plan. In all states, they can provide names of private consultant
foresters to assist with a timber sale or assess the potential of your forest under different
management options.
Total number of acres of forest ______

Three most common tree species (oak, poplar, pine, hickory, etc.) ______________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Do you have a written forest management plan? ______

If yes, what year was it prepared? ______
Have your property taxes been reduced because you are enrolled in a land-use-tax assess-
ment program for forestry? ______
What nontimber forest products, if any, are present on the property? (Include edible and
medicinal plants, decorative or floral products, specialty wood products, and native wild
plants.)
Have you or has a past owner sold timber to a commercial timber harvester?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
If yes, when? ______ How many acres? ______

(Developing a forest stewardship plan will provide the information to answer the last two
questions.)

resources, con’t
How many acres of forest could a commercial operator potentially harvest during the next
five years?______
Within the next five years, what is the estimated income from a commercial timber
harvest(s) that is compatible with your forest stewardship objectives?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Wildlife
Who can help? State wildlife biologists have limited time but may be able to visit and
discuss options. Leasing the hunting rights is an option that could generate income to pay
taxes or more. Investigate educational materials on hunting options and discuss them with
your extension wildlife specialist. Also contact the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Are deer causing significant crop or forest damage?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Are other wildlife species causing crop damage? _________

If yes, what species?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Do you have large numbers of geese on your property? _____________________________

Do you have quail or pheasant on your property? _____________________________
Do you have wild turkeys on your property? _____________________________
What other type of wildlife have you seen on the property?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

resources, con’t
What type of habitat improvements could be made to attract the wildlife you are interested
in introducing to the property (timber harvesting, food plots, tree planting, etc.)?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Do you or other family members hunt on the property?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Do neighbors or other local residents now hunt on the property, with or without permis-
sion? _________________________________________
Do existing hunters pay you for the right to hunt on the property? _________
If yes, how much are you paid a year? _________
List any unique wildlife habitats or species on your property (e.g., forest ponds, wetlands,
old forests, caves).
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Aesthetic or intangible resources

List locations on your property that have aesthetic appeal and could be developed for
recreational enterprises, such as vacation cabin or hunting camp. Unique locations include
rivers, streams, scenic overlooks, rock cliffs and wetlands.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

resources, con’t
Water resources
If you have more than one pond, or spring, assess each.
Who can help? For assistance with evaluating your water resources, you may want to con-
tact your local cooperative extension office. An extension agent should be able to direct you
to a water-quality specialist in your area.
Ponds. Pond size (in acres) __________

Maximum pond depth (in feet) __________
Maximum summer water temperature at 2 feet __________
pH __________
Alkalinity (in parts per million) __________
What type of fish live in the pond? ___________________________________
Do livestock have full access to the pond? __________
Does livestock waste drain into the pond? __________
Streams/Rivers. Stream width ___________

Stream depth ___________
Does the stream run all year? _________________________________________
What type of fish live there? __________________________________________
Do livestock use the stream or does livestock waste run into the stream? __________
Is the stream bordered by forest of at least 25 feet in width along each side? __________
Springs. Number of springs on the property __________________

Rate of flow of largest spring (gallons per hour) __________________

Exercise: Inventory your physical and
personal resources, con’t
Buildings, houses, barns and other structures
List size, age, condition and the cost to convert or upgrade structures for use in the enter-
prise.
House
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Barn 1
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Barn 2
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Other
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
List rental cost and location of any available public or private structures or facilities that
you can use for your enterprise (e.g., kitchen, storage facility, or processing facility).
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Machinery and equipment

For each piece of equipment (tractor, chainsaw, wagon, rototiller, backhoe, bulldozer, etc.),
list make, horsepower, age, condition, attachments, or other relevant information.
1. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________
5. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________

Use of byproducts of farm/forest operation

Is animal manure produced from the farm operation? ________
Can it be used onsite? ________
List other byproducts, if any, from farm operations

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Can they be used onsite? ________
How and where?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Are limbs and other wood from a recent timber harvest currently available for use? ________
What is the type and quantity of this material (e.g., cords of firewood that it would produce
and number and species of vines)?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Labor and management resources

Time for management and labor involved in an enterprise must come from the team mem-
bers or from outside sources. The opposite chart will help team members determine how
much time they have available during each quarter of the year for management and labor
activities. The time available can be on weekends or weekdays. Completing the chart will
help you look at your time realistically and determine whether the enterprises you are in-
vestigating are compatible with the time you have available.

Hours by season and time of the week
Total hours Jan-Mar Apr-June July-Sept Oct-Dec
Resource avail/year Weekday/ Weekday/ Weekday/ Weekday/
person Weekend Weekend Weekend Weekend
Management/
labor
Labor
Potential labor
sources
outside team

Financial resources
How much startup money can you raise by using personal or family resources? ________
Where will the startup money come from (e.g. personal savings, family member, farm
credit, bank, cooperative)?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Do you plan to borrow money from a bank for the enterprise?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Is there a grant program that could provide some startup money? _____________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Special skills that are commonly overlooked
If you or any of your team members have any of the following skills or experience, fill in the names.
Also, add the names of relevant agencies or organizations with which you or your team members
may have connections (such as cooperative extension, university agricultural experiment stations,
the U.S. Department of Agriculture, state department of agriculture, and state forestry agencies).
Relevant experience Name of person Short description of

skill/experience
Marketing skills
Computer skills
Production skills
Sales ability
Special skills, such as

innovative thinking
Other
(list skill)

Step 4: Map Area(s) for Agroforestry Development
Using the legend, draw a sketch map of your agroforestry development area in the space below.
This map will be used to mark the locations of areas that have various advantages and limitations.
Note key reference points, such as roads, boundaries and buildings, and include:
Existing land uses – such as crop fields, pastures, stands of trees
Be sure to label with a scale and orientation arrow
Physical features – like steep slopes, rock outcrops, streams and ponds
Scale
Orientation
road windbreak quarry debris pile
property boundary building plantation swamp
fence access road marsh orchard
brush grass/abandoned field bridge

Scale:
woodland area hydroline steep slope
watercourse railway shallow & rocky

Step 5: Climate Assessment
Simply stated, the site assessment provides an overall measure of a land area’s ability to support,
or grow, a desired plant. Therefore, as a part of this assessment, the biological areas that will be
considered include the climate, the soils and the land’s physical features, sometimes called the
topography or terrain.
Development Area
Hardiness Zone: Include frost-free

days, first and last frosts (see heat zone
map on the next page).
Indicator Plants
Other Useful Climate

Information:
- Mean annual rainfall
- Mean annual snowfall
- Average temperatures
- Open ground: Average date of spring
thaw and fall freeze

Step 5: Climate Assessment, con’t
USDA Hardiness Zones and Average Annual Minimum

Temperature Range
Zone Fahrenheit Celsius Example Cities

4a -30 to -25 F -31.7 to -34.4 C Minneapolis/St. Paul, Minn.;
Lewiston, Mont.
4b -25 to -20 F -28.9 to -31.6 C Northwood, Iowa; Nebraska
5a -20 to -15 F -26.2 to -28.8 C Des Moines, Iowa; Illinois
5b -15 to -10 F -23.4 to -26.1 C Columbia, Mo.; Mansfield,
Pa.
6a -10 to -5 F -20.6 to -23.3 C St. Louis, Mo.; Lebanon, Pa.
6b -5 to 0 F -17.8 to -20.5 C McMinnville, Tenn.;
Branson, Mo.
7a 0 to 5 F -15.0 to -17.7 C Oklahoma City, Okla.; South
Boston, Va.
7b 5 to 10 F -12.3 to -14.9 C Little Rock, Ark.; Griffin, Ga.

Step 5: Climate Assessment, con’t
AHS Plant Heat-Zone Map

The 12 zones of the map indicate the average number of days each year that a given region experi-
ences “heat days” – temperatures over 86 degrees (30 degrees Celsius). That is the point at which
plants begin suffering physiological damage from heat. The zones ranges from Zone 1 (less that one
heat day) to Zone 12 (more than 210 heat days).
Avg. No. Days

Annually Temp. is over 86 degrees F
ZONE 1: -1
ZONE 2: 1-7
ZONE 3: 7-14
ZONE 4: 14-30
ZONE 5: 30-45
ZONE 6: 45-60
ZONE 7: 60-90
ZONE 8: 90-120
ZONE 9: 120-150
ZONE 10: 150-180
ZONE 11: 180-210
ZONE 12: 210+

Step 6: Soil Assessment
This area is for notes about the soil(s) present on specific areas of the sketch map. You should
include information that is directly useful to your agroforestry development. Photocopy the table
below if you are assessing more than one development area.
Development Area Soil Type(s) if Known
1. Soil texture and composi-

tion: Sand and gravel, loam,
silt and clay, organic layer
(depth).
2. Soil depth: Include rock

outcroppings and hardpan
(depth of soil cover), rocki-
ness.
3. Soil moisture: Particular

note of wet areas and flood-
ing (with time of year).
4. Soil nutrients: pH, salinity,

fertility (attach soil reports).
5. Aspect: Especially south

vs. north facing.
6. Terrain relief: Slope,

steepness, gullies.
7. Soil stability: Presence of

high risk indicators such as
sheet, rill or gully erosion.
8. Frost pockets.
9. Roots, stumps and other

debris in or on soil.

Step 7: Physical Features (Terrain)
There are a number of physical features, or topography characteristics, that can influence the capa-
bility of your land to produce particular crops on a site. Because physical features are often closely
related to soil characteristics, the information you obtain for each of your agroforestry development
areas should be entered into the same table as the information from Step 6: Soil Assessment.
In combination, the terrain relief and aspect create a lay of the land that often will enhance the
opportunities for a successful agroforestry practice. By listing unique land features you will be
better able to place practices and plant species to the landscape to best ensure their survival and
growth. For example, slope is very important in relation to the moisture available for plant growth.
In general, north-facing slopes will have better moisture than south-facing slopes that are typically
drier.

In addition to telling you what products you might have for sale, the number and quality of plants
revealed by your vegetation inventory will provide additional information on site conditions. Photo-
copy and fill in for each development area.
Timber Inventory Summary

Development area:
Area (ac):
Plot #s:
Plot Area (ft2):
Plots/ac:
Tree Inventory
Tree species Percentage of Age Height Crown Density
each (opt’l) (opt’l) closure (trees/ha)
(%age)

In addition to telling you what products you might have for sale, the number and quality of plants
revealed by your vegetation inventory will provide additional information on site conditions. Photo-
copy and fill in for each development area.
Non-Timber Inventory Summary

Development area:
Area (ac):
Plot #s:
Plot Area (ft2):
Plots/ac:
Non-Timber Inventory
Harvestable Total # of Cover (%) Harvestable Size of plants Info on plants
species plants (ea. spe- (ea. species) vs. non (%) outside plots
cies)

List your agroforestry ideas separately for each development area. An additional category
(Associated Practices) is provided for systems that are not real agroforestry systems, such as
hybrid poplar plantations.
Development Area Agroforestry Ideas
1. Forest Farming
2. Alley Cropping
3. Silvopasture
4. Riparian Forest
Buffers
5. Windbreaks
6. Associated Practices
(e.g., Poplar plantations)
7. Wildlife Areas (e.g.,

increase quail habitat,
lease hunting)
8. Other ideas for

integrating forest
practices on the farm

Exercise: Assessing my resources, goals
and possible enterprises
1. Describe the long- and short-term goals that you and your team hope to achieve by starting
this new enterprise.
(a) Long-term goals
1.
2.
(b) Short-term goals

1.
2.
2. List the family members or team members who want to be actively involved. Describe each
person’s responsibilities.
3. Specify how much time each week you and your teammates will have available to spend on
your new enterprise.
4. How much money can each team member provide now to initiate the enterprise?

Exercise: Assessing my resources, goals
and possible enterprises, con’t
(Read and fill in number 5 only if you currently run a natural resources-based enterprise; otherwise, go
to number 6).
5. Check the responses that best characterize your business goals during the next 3 to 5 years
for your current enterprise. Answer any follow-up questions.
 Maintain at about the same level as in the past

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
 Expand. How?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
 Get out altogether. Why?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
 Other:
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
6. The following information will help you determine your financial goals for any current or
new enterprise. List the yearly income (you and your family or teammates) expect from the
sources listed below:
Current farm/forest enterprises

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
New enterprise (once it is established)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Non-natural-resource employment (current job)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Other
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
TOTAL
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Step 10: Listing ‘Best Bets’
The list you make in this step should include all the plants that can grow on your land, and the
products that can be derived from them. This list represents a summary of the information you have
gathered so far. Photocopy the table below if you are assessing more than one development area.
It is also very useful to consider which Government (State and Federal) Programs are available to
provide funding incentives for a broad range of agroforestry activities, from practice establishment
through value-added and product marketing.
Development Area Available Government Incentive Programs:
‘Best Bet’ Plants Potential Products Volumes (indicate when available)

Exercise: What will it take to produce my
product or service?
You will probably have to make some capital purchases, such as buying buildings, equipment or
land and making major improvements, to start your new business. List the capital purchases and
their costs.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
What will be your major production tasks, such as planting, harvesting, building, advertising, sales
and maintenance? Describe the tasks according to the month they should occur. Also indicate which
months you expect to receive income.
Month Task
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December

Exercise: Relative merits of various
enterprise ideas
Enterprise ideas*
Criteria
Total
*Rated on a scale of 1 to 10, with 1 being least compatible and 10 being most compatible
Example EXERCISE for Smiths: Relative merits of various enterprise ideas

Enterprise ideas*
Criteria Shiitake Grape- Hunting Ginseng Aqua-
vine lease culture
wreaths
Compatible with 10 10 7 10 10
residency status
Preferred by family 9 6 7 9 3
Meets financial 9 9 5 10 9
goals
Uses underused 4 9 8 6 8
physical resources
Uses management/ 8 6 5 3 6
labor resources
Potential market 10 5 9 10 6
exists
Uses farm, forest 9 9 3 7 5
byproducts
Family financial 10 8 10 4 8
resources avail.
TOTAL 69 62 54 59 55
*Rated on a scale of 1 to 10, with 1 being least compatible and 10 being most compatible

Evaluate the ‘Best Bets’ in the
Step 11: SWOT Analysis
Start the evaluation with an assessment of internal factors (strengths and weaknesses) and external
factors (opportunities and threats). (Refer to the Training Manual, Chapter 9 – Marketing Principles
for this exercise)
Internal Factors External Factors

Strengths Opportunities
Weaknesses Threats

Identify potential barriers to entry, information about suppliers and buyers, competition and sub-
stitute products, and summarize the information in the following worksheet. (Refer to the Training
Manual, Chapter 9 – Marketing Principles for this exercise)
Potential entrants (Barriers to entry)
Suppliers – Bargaining power of suppliers
Buyers – Bargaining power of buyers

Step 12: Porter Five Forces Model, con’t
Substitutes
Competitors

Exercise: Identify barriers to entry
Crop/Product Critical Resources Needed

Exercise: Identify suppliers and supply
availability
Development Available Government Incentive Programs:
Area
Crop/Product Supply Needed Supplier Information about

supply (quality,
availability)

Exercise: Identify buyers and their needs
Crop/Product Buyer (and reasons) Buyer needs

Exercise: Identify substitute products
Development Available Government Incentive Programs:

Area
Crop/Product Unique Substitute product Unique

characteristics of characteristics of sub-
product stitute product

Exercise: Researching the competition
Crop/Product Competitor Competitor Info

Evaluate the ‘Best Bets’
in the Context of the Industry
Step 13: Revising Your ‘Best Bets’
List your revised ‘best bets’ in the table below, based on what you know about the marketing poten-
tial of the plants listed. This list will form the basis for your in-depth market research. Photocopy
the table if you are assessing more than one development area.
‘Best Bet’ Plants Marketable Products Volumes (indicate when avail-

able)

Complete this worksheet for each major product you plan to produce. Develop a profile of the
customer(s) you intend to target by market segment. (Refer to the Training Manual, Chapter 9 –
Marketing Principles for this exercise)
Product
Customer 1. 2. 3.
Segment
Geographic
Demographic
Psychographic
Needs/
Preferences

Step 15: Adding Value to Products
List the ‘pros’ and ‘cons’ of each value-added activity you are considering. Photocopy the table be-
low if you are assessing more than one development area.
Plant/Product Value-Added ‘Pros’ ‘Cons’

Opportunity

Step 16: Getting Products to the Buyer
Use the table below to outline how you will get each of your products to buyers. The three main fac-
tors to consider are:
1. Location: Where will you sell your product?

2. Distribution: Which sales channels will your product follow?
3. Transportation: How will your product reach the buyer?
Photocopy the table below if you are assessing more than one development area.
Product Location Distribution Transportation

Step 17: Setting the Price
For each product on your ‘best bets’ list, establish a realistic price or price range. Photocopy the
table below if you are assessing more than one development area.
Product Price Range Product Price Range

Step 18: Promoting Your Products
Complete this worksheet for each major product you plan to produce. Choose a promotion approach
for each customer segment. (Refer to Chapter 9 – Marketing Principles for this exercise)
Product
Customer 1. 2. 3.
Segment
Message
Tools
Frequency
Cost

Agroforestry Practice Design and
Management
Step 19: Revisit Your Objectives and Priorities
List your top five land management goals (see original objectives listed in Step 1):
Top Five Land Management Goals:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Management
Step 20: Detailed ‘Best Bets’ Crop Information
Use the table to summarize everything you know about each plant you plan to grow in one
agroforestry development area. You can photocopy the table below so that you have one for each
crop plant.
Crop Plant:
Agroforestry practice
(best produced in)
Where produced
(in development area)
Shade (requirement or tolerance)
Soil and water

(requirement or tolerance)
Particular plant needs

(to produce needed
quantity and quality)
Labor required to grow and harvest

(amount and time of year)
Resource use fit (time, labor and other

resources with other activities)
Compatible crop plants (can be grown

with or should not be grown with)

Management
Step 20: Detailed ‘Best Bets’ Crop Information (con’t)
Crop Plant:
Compatible livestock
(animal and useful
interaction)
Harvest requirements (e.g., by

hand, machine, cut tops, dig)
Post-harvest
requirements (e.g.,
storage, drying)
Packaging and shipping re-

quirements
Cost to grow and harvest
Product(s) on market
Current market price
Profit potential

Management
Step 20: Detailed ‘Best Bets’ Crop Information (con’t)
Crop Plant:
Volume (potential
production)
Grade standards in
market
Product influences and trends
Value-added
opportunities
Other

Management
Step 21: Designing Your Agroforestry Practice
Depending on the size of your operation, you may be able to put your entire development area on
one table, or you may need several. Photocopy as required. You will want to create a separate table
for each development area.
Crop Plant(s) Agroforestry Practice Management

Required (to grow marketable
quality)

Step 22: A Five-Year Management Projection
Using the information compiled in your Workplan, complete the following table. Depending on the
size of your operation, you may wish to complete one table for each proposed system. Photocopy
this table as required.
Size of Area Practice and Associated Year Management Objectives

Crop

Step 23: Yearly Activity Schedule
This table will represent the work you plan to do in the coming year to develop your agroforestry
practice. You should fill in a table for each agroforestry practice. Photocopy as necessary. Be pre-
pared to revise this schedule as necessary.
Agroforestry Government Incentive Program Special Requirements:

Practice
Time of Year Management Specific Tasks Materials Labor and Equip-

Objective ment

Notes

Appendix Section 6:
Plant Resource Guide: Materials and
Management
Please see http://www.centerforagroforestry.org/pubs/training/appendix6.pdf for the full plant
resource guide. For your convenience, the Table of Contents follows.
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) Lespedeza

American Basswood (Tilia americana L.) COMMON (KUMMEROWIA STRIATA)
American Hazelnut (Corylus americana) KOREAN (KUMMEROWIA STIPULACEA)
Bald Cypress (Taxodium distichum) Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda)
Big Bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) Ninebark (Physocarpus opulifolius)
Bittersweet (Celastrus scandens) Northern Red Oak (Quercus rubra)
Black Locust (Robina pseudoacacia) Osage-Orange (Maclura pomifera)
Black Walnut (Juglans nigra) Passion-flower (Passiflora incarnata)
Blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica) Paulownia (Paulownia tomentosa)
Blackhaw (Viburnum prunifolium) Paw paw (Asimina triloba)
Bloodtwig Dogwood (Cornus sanguineum) Peppermint (Mentha piperita L.)
Bluebells (Mertensia virginica) Common Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana)
Buffaloberry (Shepherdia canadensis) Plains Coreopsis (Calliopsis) (Coreopsis tinctoria
Butternut (Juglans cinerea) Nutt.)
Canola (Brassica napus) Red Clover (Trifolium pratense L.)
Catnip (Nepeta cataria) Red Maple (Acer rubrum)
Chinquapin Oak (Quercus muehlenbergii Engelm.) Redtop (Agrostis alba)
Chokecherry (Prunus virginiana) River birch (Betula nigra)
Dill (Anethum graveolens) Sassafras (Sassafras albidum)
Dogbane (Apocynum cannabinum) Scarlet Curls Willow (Salix matsudana 'Scarcuzam'
or 'Scarlet Curls')
Eastern Cottonwood (Populus deltoides)
Scarlet Oak (Quercus coccinea)
Eastern Gamagrass (Tripsacum dactyloides)
Serviceberry (Amelanchier arborea)
Common Elderberry (Sambucus nigra ssp. canaden-
sis (L.)) Shellbark Hickory (Carya laciniosa)
Faba Bean (Vicia faba) Skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora)
Gray Dogwood (Cornus racemosa Lam) Smooth Sumac (Rhus glabra)
Green Ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) St. John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum)
Illinois Bundleflower (Desmanthus illinoensis) Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum Marshall)
Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans) Swamp White Oak (Quercus bicolor)
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) White Oak (Quercus alba)
Kentucky Coffeetree (Gymnocladus dioicus) Wild Plum/American Plum (Prunus americana)
Witch-Hazel (Hamamelis virginiana)

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Training Manual

for Applied Agroforestry Practices

The Center for Agroforestry

Produced by the University of Missouri

The Center for Agroforestry

2 Training Manual for Applied Agroforestry Practices – 2013 Edition

View this manual online at: www.centerforagroforestry.org

Michael Gold, Mihaela Cernusca & Michelle Hall, Eds.

University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry 3

Chapter 1: Defining Agroforestry Section 1:

Chapter 8: Agroforestry and Wildlife

Chapter 9: Marketing Principles

Chapter 10: Economic Considerations for

4 Training Manual for Applied Agroforestry Practices – 2013 Edition

Mike Gold, University of Missouri Bruce Wight, USDA National Resources

University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry 5

F armers and other landowners drawing

This updated edition of the training manual

6 Training Manual for Applied Agroforestry Practices – 2013 Edition

Land management practices that integrate

Gene Garrett, left,

University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry 7

8 Training Manual for Applied Agroforestry Practices – 2013 Edition

Definition of Temperate Agroforestry (USA):

University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry 9

Field windbreaks are used to protect a vari-

Forest Farming Silvopasture Alley Cropping Riparian Forest Buffers Windbreaks

10 Training Manual for Applied Agroforestry Practices – 2013 Edition

Silvopasture can be established by adding trees

University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry 11

12 Training Manual for Applied Agroforestry Practices – 2013 Edition

University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry 13

14 Training Manual for Applied Agroforestry Practices – 2013 Edition

University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry 15

16 Training Manual for Applied Agroforestry Practices – 2013 Edition

University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry 17

Step 1: Initial Objectives and Management and labor availability – Periods

Turn to the Planning for Agroforestry Work- Residential

18 Training Manual for Applied Agroforestry Practices – 2013 Edition

For each agroforestry development area, you Step 5: Climate Assessment

University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry 19

20 Training Manual for Applied Agroforestry Practices – 2013 Edition

University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry 21

22 Training Manual for Applied Agroforestry Practices – 2013 Edition

University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry 23

24 Training Manual for Applied Agroforestry Practices – 2013 Edition

University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry 25

26 Training Manual for Applied Agroforestry Practices – 2013 Edition

University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry 27

The Development Plan includes two distinct

28 Training Manual for Applied Agroforestry Practices – 2013 Edition

Like the five-year management projection, your

Conducting a Simple Timber Inventory, The University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture,

University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry 29

30 Training Manual for Applied Agroforestry Practices – 2013 Edition

Alley Cropping Reducing soil erosion from wind and water:

University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry 31

32 Training Manual for Applied Agroforestry Practices – 2013 Edition