1.

Petrophysics is important because it

provides a basic understanding of
the physical properties of porous
geologic materials, and the
interactions of various fluids with
the interstitial surfaces and the
distribution of pores of various sizes
within the porous medium.
Procedures for the measurement of
petrophysical properties are
included as a necessary part of this
text. Applications of the
fundamental properties to
subsurface geologic strata must be
made by analyses of the variations
of petrophysical properties in the
subsurface reservoir.
2. Petrology is the branch of science
concerned with the origin, small-
scale structure, and composition of
rocks.
Petrophysics is the study of rock
properties and their interactions
with fluids (gases, liquid
 hydrocarbons, and aqueous
solutions).
Geology is the study of the earth,
which is a dynamic system covered by
crustal plates that are constantly
moving and changing in structure.
Lithology is the study of the
general physical characteristics of
rocks.
3.

4.
5.

The Bowen series of specific

crystallization occurs only for
some basaltic magmas (a variety of
different reaction series occurs
within different melts), but the
processes discussed by Bowen are
significant because they explain the
occurrence of rocks with
compositions different from that of
the original melted magma.
6. The source rocks of petroleum are
those rocks formed from fine-
 grained sediments mixed with
ogrganic materials.
A fundamental property of a
reservoir rock is its porosity.
However, for it to be an effective
reservoir rock, THE fundamental
property is permeability. Both
porosity and permeability are
geometric properties of a rock and
both are the result of its lithologic
(composition) character. The
physical composition of a rock and
the textural properties (geometric
properties such as the sizes and
shapes of the constituent grains, the
manner of their packing) are what is
important when discussing reservoir
rocks and not so much the age of
the rock.
7. Mudrocks is the least likely to be a
reservoir rock because it has a very
poor porosity. But it is a very good
cap rock/seal because it impedes the
escape of hydrocarbons from the
reservoir due to its low permeability.
8. well logs provide data not directly
accessible by means other than
coring; well logs can be used to
extend core analysis data to wells
from which only logs are available.
9. The first kind of body wave is the P
wave or primary wave. This is the
fastest kind of seismic wave, and,
consequently, the first to 'arrive' at
a seismic station. The P wave can
move through solid rock and fluids,
like water or the liquid layers of
the earth.
The second type of body wave is
the S wave or secondary wave,
which is the second wave you feel in
an earthquake. An S wave is slower
than a P wave and can only move
through solid rock, not through
any liquid medium.
10.
The Petroleum System consists of
a mature source rock, migration
pathway, reservoir
rock, trap and seal. Appropriate
relative timing of formation of
these elements and the processes
of generation, migration
and accumulation are necessary for
hydrocarbons to accumulate and
be preserved.
The components and critical timing
relationships of a petroleum system
can be displayed in a chart that
shows geologic time along the
horizontal axis and the petroleum
system elements along the vertical
axis.
Exploration plays and prospects are
typically developed in basins or
regions in which a complete
petroleum system has some likelihood
of existing.
11. A trap is a configuration of rocks
suitable for containing
hydrocarbons and sealed by a
relatively impermeable formation
through which hydrocarbons will
not migrate. A trap is an essential
component of a petroleum system.
A seal is a relatively impermeable rock,
commonly shale, anhydrite or salt,
that forms a barrier or cap above
and around reservoir rock such
that fluids cannot migrate beyond
the reservoir. A seal is a critical
component of a complete petroleum
system.
12. HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE GRADIENT
An important physical property
of reservoir fluids is the density and
its relationship to the hydrostatic
gradient (the increase of the fluid
pressure with increasing depth due
to the increasing weight of the
overlying fluid).
LITHOSTATIC PRESSURE GRADIENT
The lithostatic pressure gradient
is caused by the density of the rocks
and is transmitted through the
grain-to-grain contacts of
successive layers of rocks. The
lithostatic weight is, however,
supported by the pressure of the
subsurface fluids in the pore spaces.
GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT
The geothermal gradient varies
at different areas on the globe
depending on the annual mean
surface temperature and the
thermal conductivity of the
subsurface formations, but an
overall average temperature
gradient Gt of 18.2"C/km (l.O°F/lOO ft)
of depth has been recorded around
the world.
Compressibility
 Compressibility of water is a
function of the environmental
pressure and temperature. At any
given pressure, the compressibility
decreases as the temperature is
increased from ambient, reaching a
minimum compressibility at about
55°C.
Gas Solubility
The solubility of hydrocarbon
gases in water at any given pressure
does not change very much as the
temperature is increased. The
behavior is similar to compressibility
because the solubility decreases
slightly as the temperature is
increased from ambient temperature
reaching a minimum solubility.
Oil Density
The most commonly measured
physical property of crude oils and
its fractions is the API gravity. It is
an arbitrary scale adopted for
simplified measurement by
hydrometers, because it enables a
 linear scale for gravity
measurement.
Oil Viscosity
Two methods for measuring the
viscosity of crude oils and their
fractions that have received
universal acceptance are: (1) the kine-
matic viscosity measurement, which is
obtained by timing the flow of a
measured quantity of oil through a
glass capillary, yields the viscosity in
centistokes, and (2) the Saybolt
viscosity measurement which is the
time (seconds) required for a
standard sample of oil to flow
through a standard orifice (ASTM
Test D-88).
Viscosity of Gases
Gas viscosity varies with respect to
temperature, pressure, and molecular
weight. The exact mathematical
relationships have not been developed;
however, Carr et al. developed two
charts that may be used
Gas Density
The density of gases may be calculated
from the equation of state for real
gases (Equation 2.15), which is corrected
for non-ideal behavior by a
compressibility factor 2. The factor 2 is
the ratio of the actual volume
occupied by a real gas to the volume it
would occupy if it behaved like an ideal
gas where Z = 1.0:
Viscosity
All fluids resist a change of form, and
many solids exhibit a gradual yield in
response to an applied force. The force
acting on a fluid between two surfaces
is called a shearing force because it
tends to deform the fluid. The shearing
force per unit area is the shear stress (2).
The absolute viscosity is defined by: z
13. PETROLEUM CHEMISTRY
Petroleums are frequently
characterized by the relative amounts
of four series of compounds. The
members of each series are similar in
chemical structure and properties. The
petroleums are generally classified as
paraffinic, naphthenic, aromatic and
asphaltic according to the relative
amounts of any of the series [ 141.
Organic chemistry is
a chemistry subdiscipline involving the
scientific study of the structure,
properties, and reactions
of organic compounds
and organic materials, i.e., matter in its
various forms that contain carbon
atoms.
14. (1) the kine- matic viscosity
measurement, which is obtained by
timing the flow of a measured
quantity of oil through a glass
capillary, yields the viscosity in
centistokes, and (2) the Saybolt
viscosity measurement which is the
time (seconds) required for a
standard sample of oil to flow
 through a standard orifice (ASTM
Test D-88).
15. (a) Uniformity of groin size:
Uniformity or sorting is the
gradation of grains. If small
particles of silt or clay are mixed
with larger sand grains, the
effective (intercommunicating)
porosity will be considerably
reduced as shown in Figure 3.1. These
reservoirs are referred to as dirty
or shaly. Sorting depends on at
least four major factors: size range
of material, type of deposition,
current characteristics, and the
duration of the sedimentary process.
(b) Degree of cementation or
consolidation: The highly cemented
sand stones have low porosities,
whereas the soft, unconsolidated
rocks have high porosities.
Cementation takes place both at the
time of lithification and during
rock alteration by circulating
groundwater. The process is
essentially that of filling void
spaces with mineral material, which
reduce porosity. Cementing materials
include: calcium carbonate,
magnesium carbonate, iron
carbonate, iron sulfides, limonite,
hematite, dolomite calcium sulphate,
clays, and many other materials
including any combination of these
materials.
(c) Amount of compaction during
and after deposition: Compaction
tends to lose voids and squeeze
fluid out to bring the mineral
particles close together, especially
the finer-grained sedimentary rocks.
This expulsion of fluids by
compaction at an increased
temperature is the basic mechanism
for primary migration of petroleum
from the source to reservoir rocks.
Whereas compaction is an important
lithifying process in claystones,
shales, and fine-grained carbonate
rocks, it is negligible in closely
 packed sandstones or
conglomerates. Generally, porosity
is lower in deeper, older rocks, but
exceptions to this basic trend are
common. Many carbonate rocks
show little evidence of physical
compaction.
(d) Methods of packing: With
increasing overburden pressure,
poorly sorted angular sand grains
show a progressive change from
random packing to a closer packing.
Some crushing and plastic
deformation of the sand particles
occur.

16. . A common method of classlfying

porosity of petroleum reservoirs is
based on whether pore spaces in
which oil and gas are found
originated when the sand beds were
laid down (primary or matrix
porosity), or if they were formed
through subsequent diagenesis (e.g.,
dolomitization in carbonate rocks),
 catagenesis, earth stresses, and
solution by water flowing through
the rock (secondary or induced
porosity).
Secondary porosity is the result
of geological processes (diagenesis
and catagenesis) after the
deposition of sediment. The
magnitude, shape, size, and
interconnection of the pores may
have no direct relation to the form
of original sedimentary particles.
Induced porosity can be subdivided
into three groups based on the most
dominant geological process:

17. Equally important to porosity is

the relative extent to which the
pores of the rock are filled with
specific fluids. This property is called
fluid saturation and is expressed as
the fraction, or percent, of the
total pore volume occupied by the
oil, gas, or water.
18. Permeability is the property of
rocks that is an indication of the
ability for fluids (gas or liquid) to
flow through rocks. High
permeability will allow fluids to
move rapidly through rocks.
Permeability is affected by the
pressure in a rock.
19. The permeability, k, in Equation 3.9
is termed the “absolute” permeability if
the rock is 100% saturated with a
single fluid (or phase), such as oil,
gas, or water. In presence of more
than one fluid, permeability is called
the “effective” permeability (b, k,, or k,
being oil, gas, or water effective
permeability respectively).
In presence of more than one fluid in
the rock, the ratio of effective
permeability of any phase to the
absolute permeability of the rock is
known as the "relative" permeability

20. Petroleum reservoirs can have

primary permeability, which is also
 known as the matrix permeability,
and secondary permeability. Matrix
permeability originated at the time
of deposition and lithification
(hardening) of sedimentary rocks.
Secondary permeability resulted
from the alteration of the rock
matrix by compaction, cementation,
fracturing, and solution
21. The rock’s ability to conduct
fluids is termed as permeability. This
indicates that non-porous rocks
have no permeability. The permeability
of a rock depends on its effective
porosity, consequently, it is affected
by the rock grain size, grain shape,
grain size distribution (sorting),
grain packing, and the degree of
consolidation and cementation.
22. In carbonates, the solution of
minerals by percolating surface and
subsurface acidic waters as they pass
along the primary pores, fissures,
fractures, and bedding planes,
increase the permeability of the
reservoir rock. (a) Shape and size of
sand grains: If the rock is composed
of large and flat grains uniformly
arranged with the longest
dimension horizontal, as illustrated
in Figure 3.7, its horizontal
permeability (kH) will be very high,
whereas vertical permeability (kv)
will be medium-to-large. If the rock is
composed of mostly large and
rounded grains, its permeability wiU
be considerably high and of same
magnitude in both directions, as
shown in Figure 3.8. Permeability of
reservoir rocks is generally lower,
especially in the vertical direction, if
the sand grains are small and of
irregular shape (Figure 3.9). Most
petroleum reservoirs fall in this
category. Reservoirs with
directional permeability are called
anisotropic. Anisotropy greatly
affects fluid flow characteristics of
the rock. The difference in
permeability measured parallel and
vertical to the bedding plane is the
consequence of the origin of the
sediment, because grains settle in the
water with their longest and
flattest sides in a horizontal
position. Subsequent compaction of
the sediment increases the ordering
of the sand grains so that they
generally lie in the same direction [
131.
(b) Lamination: Platy minerals such as
muscovite, and shale laminations,
act as barriers to vertical
permeability. In this case the k&v
ratio generally ranges from 1.5 to 3
and may exceed 10 for some reservoir
rocks. Sometimes, however, kv is
higher than kH due to fractures or
vertical jointing and vertical
solution channels. Joints act as
barriers to horizontal permeability
only if they are fdled with clay or
other minerals. The importance of
the clay minerals as a determinant
of permeability is often related not
 only to their abundance but also
to their mineralogy and
composition of the pore fluids.
Should the clay minerals, which
coat the grain surfaces, expand
and/or become dislodged due to
changes in the chemistry of the pore
fluids or mud filtrate invasion, as
explained in Chapter 10, the
permeability will be considerably
reduced.
(c) Cementation: Figure 3.6 shows
that both permeability and porosity
of sedimentary rocks are influenced
by the extent of the cementation
and the location of the cementing
material within the pore space.
(d) Fracturing and solution: In
sandstone rocks, fracturing is not an
important cause of the secondary
permeability, except where sandstones
are interbedded with shales,
limestones, and dolomites. In
carbonates, the solution of minerals
by percolating surface and subsurface
acidic waters as they pass along the
primary pores, fissures, fractures, and
bedding planes, increase the
permeability of the reservoir rock. As
shown by Chilingarian et al. [7],
horizontal and vertical permeabilities
are equal in many carbonate
reservoirs.
24. Fracturing is a technology
designed to increase the efficiency of
removal and in-situ treatment
techniques. It is primarily used in
difficult soil conditions to enlarge
existing fissures and introduce new
fractures.
Hydrofracturing. Hydrofracturing
injects pressurized water into wells
to increase the permeability of the soil
matrix. The process creates fissures,
which expand away from the wells.
The fissures are filled with
a porous slurry composed of sand
and guar gum gel. The sand grains
hold the fracture open while an
enzyme additive breaks the guar gum
down into a thinned fluid. The fluid is
pumped from the fracture,
leaving permeable
subsurface channels. The
hydraulic fracturing
process is repeated at
varying depths (typically 5 to 30 ft)
creating a “stack” of sand-filled
fractures. This technology is used
primarily to fracture silts, clays, shale,
and bedrock. Hydraulic fracturing is
applicable to a complete range of
contaminant groups with no
particular target group.

25. Conventional coring, which refers

to core taken without regard to
precise orientation, encompasses
arrange of coring devices and
core barrels. The main
disadvantages of conventional
coring is that coring equipment
requires that the entire drill
string be pulled to retrieve the core;
however, the corresponding
advantage is that large cores, 3 to 5
in. in diameter and 30 to 90 ft long,
may be recovered .
. In the wireline coring method, the
core may be retrieved without pulling
the drill string by using an overshot
run down the drill pipe on a wireline.
The cores obtained by this method are
small, approximately 1 to 2 in. in
diameter and 10 to 20 ft in length.
Other advantages include downhole
durability and higher core recovery.
Sidewall coring is necessary
when it is desirable to obtain
core samples from a
particular zone already
drilled, especially in soft
rock zones where hole
conditions are not conducive to
openhole drillstem testing.
26.

27.d
28. d
29. Primary oil recovery is affected by
the wettability of the system because a
water-wet system will exhibit greater
primary oil recovery, but the
relationship between primary recovery
and wettability has not been
developed. Studies of the effects of
wettability on oil recovery are
confined to waterflooding and
analyses of the behavior of relative
permeability curves. The changes in
waterflood behavior as the system
wettability is altered are clearly
shown in Figure 6.9. Donaldson et al.
treated long cores with various
amounts of organochlorosilane to
progressively change the wettability
of outcrop cores from water- wet
(USBM Iu = 0.649) to strongly oil-wet (I,,
= -1.333) [48]. After determining the
wettability, using a smd piece of the
core, they conducted waterfloods,
using a crude oil. The results show
that as the system becomes more oil-
wet, less oil is recovered at any given
amount of injected water. Similar
results have also been reported by
Emery et al. and Kyte et al. 18, 91
30. Several methods have been used to
alter wettability:
(1) treatment with organosilanes of
general formula (CH&3iClx; the silanes
chemisorb on the silica surface,
producing HCl and exposing the CH;
groups which produce the oil
wetting characteristics; (2) aging
under pressure in crude oil; (3)
treatment with naphthenic acids; (4)
treatment with asphaltenes; and (5)
addition of surfactants to the fluids.
31. Darcy’s law is a simple proportional
relationship between instantaneous
discharge rate through a porous
medium, the viscosity of the fluid and
the pressure drop over a given
distance. It forms the scientific basis
of fluid permeability used in earth
sciences particularly in
hydrogeology. It is based on the flow
of water through beds of sand. An
application of Darcy’s law is to water
flow through an aquifer.
32. The changes of porosity and
formation resistivity factor obtained
by Longeron et al. for sandstone and
limestone cores, when stressed to a
moderate pressure of 20 MPa, are listed
in Table 6.5. At this total overburden
pressure, the deformation was found
to be completely elastic-that is, the
cores returned to their original
porosities when the overburden stress
was removed. If greater stress is applied,
however, inelastic deformation will
take place and a reduction in
porosity will result.
33. The basic physical properties needed
to evaluate a petroleum reservoir are
its permeability, porosity, fluid
saturation, and formation thickness.
These parameters can be estimated from
three common sources: core, well
logging, and pressure test analyses. A
less common source is geochemistry.
The application of geochemical
techniques to oil and gas
exploration has only recently
achieved widespread acceptance
among exploration geologists;
however, it is beyond the scope of this
text. It is not the purpose of this
section to make complete discussion
 of core analysis, well logging and
well testing but rather to highlight
the significance of the measuring
techniques.
34. WELL LOG ANALYSIS
Well logging can be defined as a
tabular or graphical portrayal of
any drilling conditions or subsurface
features encountered that relate to
either the progress or evaluation of
an individual well [46]. The ultimate
aim of the well log interpretation,
however, is the evaluation of
potential productivity of porous and
permeable formations encountered by
the drill.
35. A petroleum engineer designs and/or
develops plans for a gas field and oil
drilling and product treatment and
recovery. They supervise, design, and
monitor the evaluation of new and
old wells. They determine and estimate
economic value of gas and oil wells
and it’s production capabilities.
A petroleum engineer analyzes data in
order to advise a company in the
placement of wells and ways to
enhance production. They evaluate
producing rates and if needed plan
rework processes to improve it’s
performance. He or she would assist
personnel or engineering in the
solution of operating problems and
interact with technical personnel,
engineers or scientists to resolve issues
in design, testing or research.

A petroleum engineer would

coordinate the operation of field and
mining equipment as well as the
maintenance and installation. They
require knowledge in technology and
engineering, mathematics, physics and
chemistry among other subjects. A
petroleum engineer should be skilled in
systems analysis, reading comprehension,
and complex problem solving.