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in Mind
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chapter 12
1 Introduction
In the Millennium issue of the Brain and Language journal, several articles
emphasised the importance of studying temporal aspects of information pro-
cessing and their close associations with language processing. One article even
stated that “…on space, time and language: for the next century, timing is
(almost) everything” (Osterhout, 2000).
Temporal information processing (TIP) mechanisms have been identified as
the neural basis for many higher cognitive functions, such as language, memory,
new learning, attention, emotional evaluation, motor control, executive system,
planning of activities or decision making. All these functions can be character-
ized by specific temporal dynamics at different ranges of TIP. Such temporal
constraints can be observed both within millisecond and multisecond time
ranges, which create pre-semantically defined (i.e., prior to any semantic evalu-
ation) temporal ‘windows’ for cognitive processing (Pöppel, 1997, 2004, 2009).
Such temporal dynamics appear to be a general property of human cognition. It
provides a structure not only for language, but also for any perceptual or motor
act, as well as any functional state characterized apparently by spatiotemporal
patterns of behaviour, which are evidenced in neuroimaging studies.
Strong experimental evidence supporting this conceptual notion comes from
the language domain in which temporal structure has been well documented by
every day observations of fluent speech, as well as linguistic and psychophysical
data. Using different techniques and populations, experimental studies have
consistently indicated that the left hemispheric superiority for processing verbal
information may reflect more specific control of temporal cues for which human
speech is one example (Szelag et al., 2008, 2011; Wittmann et al., 2004). This evi-
dence can be supported by clinical data, indicating that certain left hemispheric
lesions selectively affect temporal mechanisms (see Table 12.2).
2 Language Function
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330 Szelag et al.
It should be stressed that these processes do not work sequentially one after
another. On the contrary, parallel processing occurs in both speaking and lis-
tening. Direct feedback interactions between particular components of speech
production or speech understanding processes have been heavily debated.
There is only some evidence on the existence of highly limited feedback
from phonological to grammatical encoding in speech production (Blanken
et al., 1993).
Despite diversity of speech sounds, grammar, and syntax among different
mother tongues, some important generalization regarding the neuroanatomi-
cal representation and neural mechanisms underlying language communica-
tion are possible and, thus, reviewed below.
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Table 12.1 The summary of main language deficits observed in particular aphasic syndromes.
Global Extensive damage to the LH, including both anterior and non – fluent impaired impaired impaired
posterior speech areas
Broca’s Inferior part of the premotor cortex (BA 44 and 45) non- fluent preserved impaired impaired
(agrammatism)
Wernicke’s Posterior part of the STG (BA 22) and surrounding cortices fluent impaired impaired impaired
Amnestic Different parts of temporal, parietal lobes, also other areas fluent preserved preserved impaired
of the LH
Conduction Arcuate fasciculus fluent preserved impaired impaired
Transcortical motor Frontal cortex anterior and/ or superior to the Broca’s area, non – fluent preserved preserved impaired
SMA
Abbreviations: LH: left hemisphere; BA: Brodmann area; SMA: supplementary motor area; STG: superior temporal gyrus.
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331
332 Szelag et al.
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Aphasia As A Temporal Information Processing Disorder 333
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334 Szelag et al.
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Aphasia As A Temporal Information Processing Disorder 335
speakers. These deficits were caused by damage to the left hemispheric tempo-
ral lobe, more specifically, to the posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus,
which is referred to, in honour of its discoverer, as Wernicke’s area. According
to the Brodmann map it comprises area 22, but often also surrounding tempo-
ral and parietal cortices. The lesions in this part of the brain caused Wernicke’s
aphasia (other names: receptive aphasia, sensory aphasia or fluent aphasia).
In contrast to Broca’s aphasia, patients suffering from lesions affecting
Wernicke’s area cannot understand the speech of other people, as well as their
own speech. As a consequence, utterances generated by such patients have little
(or even not at all) sense because phonemes, syllables, and words are not cor-
rectly linked. In more severe forms of this disorder, the verbal output is named
‘jargon aphasia’, as the listener cannot understand it at all. Wernicke’s aphasia
can be characterized by fluent speech, adequate syntax and grammar, but inap-
propriate choice of words (paraphasia) and little spontaneous repetitions. A
core symptom of Wernicke’s aphasia is disruption of phonemic hearing, i.e., the
ability of analysis and synthesis of speech sounds (phonological decoding). For
example, a patient with such disruption cannot properly decode phonemes
(consonants and vowels) and, as a consequence, is not able to properly decode
words and sentences. The impaired phonological hearing results, therefore, in
disordered comprehension. The schematic description of classic aphasic syn-
dromes is given in Figure 12.1 (compare also Table 12.2 and Section 7, below).
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Table 12.2 Summary of results reported in the existing literature regarding deficient temporal processing in aphasic patients.
336
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presented with soas varied from: 20 to auditory ones;
640ms; non ap : no deficits on the visual
Task: tasks, but required longer intervals
Szelag et al.
damage;
17 nc.
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5 v. n = 62: Stimuli: Fluent AP: increased tot in
Steinbüchel 7 non – fluent AP paired 1-ms clicks presented comparison to all other groups.
337
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6 non AP with rh
post – central
damage.
Szelag et al.
7 Fink et al., n = 38: Stimuli: AP: increased tot in both tasks. Affected timing,
2006. 8 anomic AP; Exp. 1 – paired 1-ms clicks presented depending on
2 Wernicke’s AP; monaurally; the subject
4 Broca’s AP; Exp. 2 – paired tones of 800Hz and group.
5 non- classified AP; 1200Hz presented binaurally;
19 nc. Task:
Exp. 1, 2 – to report the order of
presented stimuli.
8 Stefanatos n = 13: Stimuli: AP: impaired gap detection task. Affected timing
et al., 2007. 5 Broca’s AP; noise segments modelled after formant in in all groups of
7 anomic AP; speech of different length, separated by a AP.
1 Wernicke's AP. silent gap of 10, 20, 40, or 80ms duration;
Task:
to detect the gap between stimuli and
ascertain if two stimuli were the same or
different.
9 Sidiropoulos n = 6: Stimuli: AP: Affected or
ischemic infarction spectral energy distribution (‘intra- Exp. 2 – reduced performance in depending on
and an older, channel condition’); ‘inter- channel condition’. the experiment.
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contralateral parieto – Exp. 2
occipital cerebrovas- pairs of different noise segments:
339
Task:
Exp. 1 – to detect the gap
between two identical noise segments;
Exp. 2 – to detect the gap
between pairs of different noise
segments.
Evidence from multiseconds timing
10 Szeląg et al., n = 56: Stimuli: Broca’s AP: disrupted temporal Affected timing
1997. 6 Broca’s AP with LH metronome beats presented at 9 integration evidenced by a different only in Broca’s
pre – central damage; different frequencies; strategy in mental accentuation AP.
14 Wernicke's or Task: based on counting;
amnestic AP with lh to accentuate mentally every 2nd, 3rd or Other groups: a combination of
post- central damage; other beat to create subjective rhythmic mental counting and constant time
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6 non AP with rh
post – central
damage;
Szelag et al.
15 nc.
11 v. n = 65: Stimuli: Exp. 1: longer duration of spontane- Affected timing
Steinbüchel 7 non – fluent APExp. 1 ous reversal rate in patients than in in AP in both
et al., 1999a. with LH damage; visual: ambiguous figures: Necker Cube nc; hundreds of
or Rubin Vase;
16 fluent AP with lh Exp. 2: AP apply integration by milliseconds
damage; auditory: tones of different frequencies, counting differently than all other and a few
9 non AP with lh reversible syllables; groups; seconds time
damage; Exp. 2 Exp. 3: impaired self- paced tapping domains.
8 non AP with rh metronome beats presented at 9 tempo in AP;
different frequencies;
pre – central damage; Exp. 4: no differences between
8 non AP with rh Task: patients and nc in a maximum
post – central Exp. 1 – to press a button at each tapping tempo.
damage; perspective switching for a presented
17 nc. ambiguous figure;
Exp. 2 – to accentuate mentally every
2nd, 3rd or other beat to create a
subjective rhythmic pattern;
Exp. 3 – to tap in a self- paced tempo;
al., 2001. 22 AP with lh damage; Exp. 1 – to tap in a self- paced tempo; Exp. 2: no differences between in AP in
14 non AP with rh Exp. 2 – to tap in a maximum tempo. patients and nc. hundreds of
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damage; milliseconds
9 non AP with lh time range.
341
subcortical damage;
16 nc.
Table 12.2 Summary of results reported in the existing literature regarding deficient temporal processing in aphasic patients (cont.)
342
13 Kagerer et al., n = 43: Stimuli: No differences between patients and Affected timing
2002. 5 Broca’s AP; visual: nc in reproduction of short intervals in non AP with
10 Wernicke’s, 1.green oblong of 80 x 50 cm2, with equal (1000 – 2500ms); rh damage in a
amnestic AP; luminance Impaired reproduction of long few seconds
9 non AP with lh 2.19th century painting depicting a intervals (3000 – 5500ms) in non AP time range.
damage; pastoral scene with rh damage both pre- – and post
5 non AP with rh auditory: – central, in comparison to other
pre- central damage; 1. 500 Hz tone groups.
5 non AP with rh 2. noise of running water
post – central Stimuli presented in blocks with different
damage; standard intervals varied from 1000ms to
9 nc. 5500ms.
Task:
Abbreviations: LH – left hemisphere, rh – right hemisphere, ap -aphasic patients, non ap – non aphasic patients, nc – normal controls, tot – temporal –
order – threshold, isi – inter – stimulus – interval, soa – stimulus – onset – asynchrony
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Szelag et al.
Aphasia As A Temporal Information Processing Disorder 343
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344 Szelag et al.
on TIP in different time domains can indicate the activity of the dynamic net-
work in which human language is rooted in norm and pathology. If the activity
of the timing mechanisms operating at different ranges differs reliably in
patients and controls, it may interfere with the associated mental activity.
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Aphasia As A Temporal Information Processing Disorder 345
unique human ability to analyse and synthesise speech sounds. These pro-
cesses are fundamental with respect to auditory comprehension. In the time
platform of about 20–40ms, information about the place of articulation in stop-
consonants (p, b, t, d etc.) is contained. Formant transitions, characterized as
short sound waveforms that change frequency across a time interval of ca. 40ms
vary, according to the place of articulation. Spectrographic analyses of our ver-
bal utterances clearly indicated that rapid formant transitions in stop-
consonants (p, b, t, d etc.) are limited in time up to 40ms. Because of the specific
structure of our articulators these stop-consonants cannot be prolonged in the
fluent speech because a forthcoming vowel sounds immediately.
On the other hand, fricatives (w, f, s, z etc.) or vowels (a, o, u etc.) are charac-
terized by a structure less limited in time and can sound in the fluent speech
much longer, even up to 200ms. Despite important individual differences in
the speech expression rate, particular speech sounds come on average as fast
as 10 to 15 phonemes per second. The temporal structure of the verbal output
is usually automatic (controlled by procedural memory) and often happens
without any attentional or motor control of ‘how’ we say things. In contrast,
‘what’ we say is fully consciously controlled.
Another example of temporal constraints with respect to phonemic aware-
ness on the millisecond time scale comes from the Voice-Onset-Time (vot)
paradigm. In the perception of voicing contrasts of stop-consonants in sylla-
bles like DO vs. TO, a difference in duration of about 40ms between the burst
of the air and the onset of laryngeal pulsing in articulation of the initial conso-
nant, is defined as the vot. It distinguishes voiced (/b/, /d/, /g/ etc.) from voice-
less stop-consonants (e.g., /p/, /t/, /k/ etc.).
Such evidence supports the thesis that the high-frequency processing sys-
tem is related to phoneme processing and phonemic hearing, thus, the crucial
processes with respect to auditory comprehension.
Furthermore, there exists the low-frequency processing system, corresponding
to the time range of a few seconds, which is related to the duration of sentences
in fluent speech. For example, our average syllabic rate is ca. 3–4 per seconds,
whereas words are usually articulated at a speed of approx. 2 per second. At this
rate we are able to retrieve lexical items from a mental lexicon that on average
contains probably tens of thousands items. Although there are some so-called
‘fast speakers’ who are able to produce even up to 7 words per second, it is usually
difficult to follow such fast speech tempo, which does not fit the typical tempo.
Another source of evidence comes from analysis of the temporal structure
of fluent speech in many languages, like Polish, Russian, German, English or
Chinese (Pöppel, 1997). Several data have indicated that in many languages
the duration of phrases in fluent speech is limited in time up to a few seconds.
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346 Szelag et al.
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Aphasia As A Temporal Information Processing Disorder 347
The first evidence of this type was provided by Efron (1963) and later by Swisher
and Hirsh (1972). They observed that aphasic patients displayed parallel defi-
cits in both speech comprehension and rapidly changing temporal
information.
These observations were confirmed in several further reports, including our
own studies. Table 12.2 summarized the results of studies conducted using dif-
ferent patient populations and experimental techniques. Looking at Table 12.2,
we may conclude that TIP within both the millisecond (points 1–9) and multi-
second (points 10–13) time ranges is usually disturbed in patients with aphasia
following left hemispheric brain damage.
There exist also some experimental evidence on the high frequency pro-
cessing system in normal healthy volunteers. These studies are often focussed
on temporal order of incoming events and measurement of temporal-order
threshold. It reflects an ability to perceive the relation before-after for stimuli
presented in rapid succession in order to be brought into a sequence by
approximately the same value of some tens of milliseconds for visual, auditory,
and tactile modality (Hirsh and Sherrick 1961; Kanabus et al., 2002; Zampini et
al., 2003, 2005). The correspondence of this value across different senses sug-
gests a common central mechanism for vision, hearing or touch and it may be
concluded that the neural process underlying sequential ability is activated to
identify primordial events, independently of the sensory modality (Pöppel,
2009). Such ability allows us to reduce complexity of incoming events, which
stimulate incessantly our senses, and to create our conscious percepts.
Strong experimental evidence provided in Table 12.2 (points 1–9) may sug-
gest a disruption of this high-frequency process following left hemispheric
brain damage, resulting in disordered language communication, as a conse-
quence of primordial event disruption. Moreover, the data on temporal con-
straints of human speech on the milliseconds level discussed in the previous
section have indicated the importance of this time platform with respect to
speech reception. Hence, disordered processing of information on this level
following brain injury may underlie language problems, especially, problems
in phonemic hearing and auditory comprehension. These problems often con-
stitute a core symptom after posterior lesions to the left hemisphere, resulting
in receptive aphasia (see above for aphasia classification).
On the other hand, Table 12.2 presents also data indicating deficient timing
on low frequency processing, i.e., in the domain of hundreds of milliseconds or
a few seconds (points 9–13). Considering temporal constraints of speech (see
Section 5), the former time window is related to the level of syllables, whereas,
the latter one may be important with respect to the fluent verbal output and
expression of phrases and sentences. It requires the ordering of successive
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348 Szelag et al.
syllables and words into logic strings, which build fluent utterances and pro-
vide a structure for language communication.
According to the hierarchical model of time perception proposed by Ernst
Pöppel (1997, 2004; Szelag et al., 2004), the existence of temporal integration on
a few seconds scale creates a high-frequency level of complexity reduction. In
fact, in fluent verbal communication we usually do not concentrate so much
on particular phonemes, syllables or words, but on logic utterances of what we
say or what we hear. Thus, the primordial events identified on a level of higher
temporal resolution (some tens of milliseconds) are next sequentially linked
together into a perceptual ‘gestalt’, representing an operating range of a few
seconds. This process is also labelled in the literature as ‘temporal binding’ or
‘temporal integration’ and it is expected to be important for our conscious
experience, of which verbal communication may be one example.
Although reports on TIP on the supra-second level are fewer, Table 12.2
shows that using different experimental paradigms, like subjective accentua-
tion of metronome beats (points 10–11), spontaneous reversal rate of ambigu-
ous figures (point 11), finger tapping in a self-pace and maximum tempi (point
12) or reproduction of temporal intervals (point 13), a disruption of temporal
binding can be observed, which has been also evidenced following injury to
the brain, predominantly to the anterior parts of left hemisphere, resulting in
motor aphasia. The patients suffering from this syndrome had deficient bind-
ing operations that probably underlie problems with the fluent verbal output
(i.e., effortful, nonfluent speech, compare above), but also some comprehen-
sion deficits, especially for longer utterances, which need to integrate and hold
the incoming information for a few seconds.
To sum up, acquired language disorders following brain damage are strongly
related to deficient timing on several levels, which create a neural timeframe
for verbal communication. Thus, the superiority of the left hemisphere for the
processing of verbal information may reflect more primary specialization for TIP.
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Aphasia As A Temporal Information Processing Disorder 349
Figure 12.2 Auditory order thresholds (mean and standard deviations) for the five patient
groups with focal brain injuries and for an orthopaedic control group are
shown: lh. pre-anterior left hemisphere (pre-central) with non-fluent aphasia;
lh. post-posterior left hemisphere (post-central) with fluent aphasia (*p<1%
for group differences as compared with controls and L. noAph; statistical
calculation with Scheffe post-hoc test); L. noAph-left-sided subcortical
lesions without aphasia; rh. pre-anterior right hemisphere (pre-central); rh.
post-posterior right hemisphere (post-central). Reprinted from Neuroscience
Letters, 264, v. Steinbüchel N., Wittmann M., Strasburger H., Szelag E. “Auditory
temporal-order judgment is impaired in patients with posterior regions of the left
hemisphere” 168–71.
Copyright (1999) with permission from Elsevier
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350 Szelag et al.
Figure 12.3 The measured integration interval length (miil) plotted against the metronome
frequency using three different strategies in Broca’s aphasia and other patients.
Integration (A) by time; (B) by number; (C) in Broca’s aphasic patients; (D) in all
the remaining patients. Standard deviation values (in ms) for the consecutive
frequencies in the Broca’s aphasic patients: 1964, 911, 887, 591, 439, 363, 408, 491,
406; in the other subjects: 1191, 698, 535, 370, 338, 370, 363, 394, 401. Reprinted from
Neuroscience Letters, 235, Szelag E.v. Steinbüchel N., Pöppel E. "Temporal process-
ing disorders in patients with Broca’s aphasia" 33–36.
copyright (1997) with permission from Elsevier
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Aphasia As A Temporal Information Processing Disorder 351
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352 Szelag et al.
8 Concluding Remarks
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Aphasia As A Temporal Information Processing Disorder 353
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