EDEXCEL A LEVEL

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PETER SMITH
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Edexcel A level Economics
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 Contents

Book 1
Introduction

Theme 1 Introduction to markets and market failure

Chapter 1  The nature of economics
Chapter 2  How markets work: demand
Chapter 3  How markets work: supply
Chapter 4  How markets work: price determination
Chapter 5  How markets work: the price mechanism in action
Chapter 6  Market failure: externalities
Chapter 7  Market failure: public goods and information gaps
Chapter 8  Government intervention and government failure
Theme 1 key terms
Theme 1 practice questions

Theme 2 The UK economy – performance and policies

Chapter 9  Measures of economic performance
Chapter 10  Aggregate demand
Chapter 11  Aggregate supply
Chapter 12  National income
Chapter 13  Economic growth
Chapter 14  Macroeconomic objectives
Chapter 15  Macroeconomic policies
Theme 2 key terms
Theme 2 practice questions

  1
Book 2
Introduction

Theme 3 Business behaviour and the labour market

Chapter 1  Business growth and objectives
Chapter 2  Market structures: perfect competition and monopoly
Chapter 3 Market structures: monopolistic competition and
oligopoly
Chapter 4  Pricing strategies and contestable markets
Chapter 5 The labour market
Chapter 6  Government intervention
Theme 3 key terms
Theme 3 practice questions

Theme 4 A global perspective

Chapter 7  International economics: globalisation and trade
Chapter 8  The balance of payments and exchange rates
Chapter 9  Poverty and inequality
Chapter 10  Emerging and developing economies
Chapter 11 The financial sector
Chapter 12  The state in the macroeconomy
Theme 4 key terms
Theme 4 practice questions
 6 Market failure and
externalities

Earlier chapters have shown that prices can act as signals that help to guide the
allocation of resources. However, there are situations in which markets fail to
produce the ideal outcome for society. This chapter and the next discuss some key
ways in which market failure can occur. The main focus of this chapter is to explore
what happens if market prices are not able to reflect the full costs and benefits
associated with market transactions. There are many situations in which there are
costs or benefits that are external to the workings of the market mechanism.

Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you should:
➜ recognise situations in which the free market mechanism may fail to take account of costs
or benefits that are associated with market transactions
➜ be familiar with situations in which there may be a divergence between private and social
costs or benefits, such that price is not set equal to marginal cost
➜ be able to use diagrams to analyse positive and negative externalities in either production
or consumption
➜ be familiar with a wide range of examples of externalities

Causes of market failure

This chapter and the next explore a number of ways in which markets may fail to
bring the best result for society as a whole. In each case, the failure arises because
a market settles in a position in which marginal social cost diverges from marginal
social benefit. This chapter introduces the most important reasons for market Key term
failure and examines one common form — externalities. Some other forms of
market failure are discussed in Chapter 7. market failure a situation
in which the free market
Externalities mechanism does not lead
to an optimal allocation
If market forces are to guide the allocation of resources, it is crucial that the costs of resources — for
that firms face and the prices to which they respond fully reflect the actual costs and example, where there is
benefits associated with the production and consumption of goods. However, there a divergence between
are a number of situations and markets in which this does not happen because of marginal social benefit and
externalities. In the presence of such externalities, a price will emerge that is not marginal social cost.
equal to the ‘true’ marginal cost.
externality a cost or a
benefit that is external to
Information failure a market transaction, and
If markets are to perform a role in allocating resources, it is essential that all relevant is thus not reflected in
economic agents (buyers and sellers) have good information about market conditions; market prices.
otherwise they may not be able to take rational decisions.

6 Market failure and externalities 3

 It is important that consumers can clearly perceive the benefits of consuming
particular goods or services, in order to determine their own willingness to pay.
Such benefits may not always be clear. For example, people may not fully perceive
the benefits to be gained from education — or they may fail to appreciate the
harmfulness of smoking tobacco.
In other market situations, economic agents on one side of the market may have
different information from those on the other side: for example, sellers may have
information about the goods that they are providing that buyers cannot discern.
Chapter 7 explains that such information failure can also lead to a suboptimal
allocation of resources.

Public goods
There is a category of goods known as public goods, which because of their
characteristics cannot be provided by a purely free market. Street lighting is one
example: there is no obvious way in which a private firm could charge all the users
of street lighting for the benefits that they receive from it. Such goods are also
discussed in Chapter 7.

Merit and demerit goods

There are some goods that the government believes will be under-consumed in a
free market. If people do not fully perceive the benefits to be gained from consuming
a good, then they will demand less than is socially desirable. In some developing
countries, education may show some aspects of a merit good, if parents do not
fully perceive the benefits their children could gain from education. This helps to
explain low school enrolment in such countries. There are also some goods that the
government believes will be over-consumed in a free market. An obvious example
is addictive recreational drugs, where consumers may misperceive the benefits from
consumption. Chapter 7 examines these goods in more detail.

Summary
Study tip l Free markets do not always lead to the best possible allocation of resources: there may be
Market failure is often market failure.
l When there are costs or benefits that are external to the price mechanism, the economy will
used as a justification for
government intervention in not reach allocative efficiency.
l Markets can operate effectively only when participants in the market have full information
markets, so it is important
to be aware of its various about market conditions.
l Public goods have characteristics that prevent markets from supplying the appropriate
causes and to be able to
recognise situations in quantity.
l Merit (demerit) goods are those which government believes are under- (over-) consumed in
which market failure may
occur. a free market.

Externalities
Externality is one of those ugly words invented by economists, which says exactly
what it means. It simply describes a cost or a benefit that is external to the market
mechanism.
An externality will lead to a form of market failure because, if the cost or benefit

4 Theme 1 Introduction to markets and market failure

is not reflected in market prices, it cannot be taken into consideration by all parties
to a transaction. In other words, there may be costs (or benefits) resulting from a
Key terms
transaction that are borne (or enjoyed) by some third party not directly involved in consumption externality
that transaction. This in turn implies that decisions will not be aligned with the best an externality that affects
interests of society. the consumption side of
For example, if there is an element of costs that is not borne by producers, it is likely a market, which may be
that ‘too much’ of the good will be produced. Conversely, where there are benefits either positive or negative.
that are not included, it is likely that too little will be produced. Later in the chapter, production externality
you will see that this is exactly what does happen. Externalities can affect either an externality that affects
demand or supply in a market: that is to say, they may arise either in consumption the production side of
or in production. a market, which may be
either positive or negative.
In approaching this topic,
Exercise 6.1
begin by tackling Exercise
Each of the following situations describes a type of externality. Do they affect production or 6.1, which offers an
consumption? example of two types of
1 A factory situated in the centre of a town, and close to a residential district, emits toxic externality.
fumes through a chimney during its production process. Residents living nearby have to private cost a cost
wash their clothes more frequently, and incur higher medical bills as a result of breathing in incurred by an individual
the fumes. (firm or consumer) as part
2 Residents living along a main road festoon their houses with lavish Christmas lights and of its production or other
decorations during the month of December, helping passers-by to capture the festive spirit. economic activities.
external cost a cost
associated with an
Toxic fumes individual’s (a firm or
Example (1) is a negative production externality. The factory emits toxic fumes that household’s) production or
impose costs on the residents (third parties) living nearby, who incur high washing other economic activities,
and medical bills. The households face costs as a result of the production activities which is borne by a third
of the firm, so the firm does not face the full costs of its activity. party and is not reflected
in market prices.
Thus, the private costs faced by the producer are lower than the costs faced by
society as a whole. The producer will take decisions based only on its private costs, social cost private cost
ignoring the external costs it imposes on society. In other words, the social plus external cost.
cost of producing a good includes both private and external costs. In looking at marginal social cost
decisions, we will often focus on marginal social cost, which is the cost to society the cost to society of
of producing an extra unit of a good. producing an extra unit of
a good.
Figure 6.1 illustrates this situation under the assumption that firms
operate in a competitive market (i.e. there is not a monopoly). Here,
Costs,
D (MSB) represents the demand curve, which was characterised in benefits
MSC
MPC
Chapter 5 as representing the marginal social benefit derived from
consuming a good. In other words, the demand curve represents
P*
consumers’ willingness to pay for the good, and thus reflects their
marginal valuation of the product. P1

Producers face marginal private costs given by the line MPC, but in
fact impose higher costs than this on society. Thus MSC represents D (MSB)
the total costs imposed on society in the production of this good.
Q* Q1 Quantity of
If the market is unregulated by the government, firms will choose chemicals
per period
how much to supply on the basis of the marginal (private) cost they
face, shown by MPC in Figure 6.1. The market equilibrium will Figure 6.1 A negative productive externality

6 Market failure and externalities 5

 thus be at quantity traded Q1, where firms just break even on the marginal unit sold.
Price will be set at P 1.
This is not a good outcome for society, as it is clear that there is a divergence between
the price in the market and the ‘true’ marginal cost — in other words, a divergence
between marginal social benefit and marginal social cost. This divergence is at the
heart of the market failure. The last unit of this good sold imposes higher costs on
society than the marginal benefit derived from consuming it. Too much is being
produced.
In fact, the optimum position is at Q*, where marginal social benefit is equal to
marginal social cost. This will be reached if the price is set equal to (social) marginal
cost at P*. Less of the good will be consumed, but also less pollution will be created,
and society will be better off than at Q1.
The extent of the welfare loss that society suffers can be identified: it is shown by
the shaded triangle in Figure 6.1. Each unit of output that is produced above Q*
imposes a cost equal to the vertical distance between MSC and MPC. The shaded
area thus represents the difference between marginal social cost and marginal benefit
over the range of output between the optimum output and the free market level of
output.

Christmas lights
Example (2) in Exercise 6.1 is an example of a positive consumption externality.
Residents of this street decorate their homes in order to share the Christmas spirit
with passers-by. The benefit they gain from the decorations spills over and adds
to the enjoyment of others. In other words, the social benefits from the residents’
decision to provide Christmas decorations go beyond the private enjoyment that
they receive.
Costs, MSC Figure 6.2 illustrates this situation. MPB represents the marginal
benefits
private benefits gained by residents from the Christmas lights; but MSB
represents the full marginal social benefit that the community gains,
which is higher than the MPB. Residents will provide decorations up
to the point Q 2, where their marginal private benefit is just balanced
by the marginal cost of the lights. However, if the full social benefits
received are taken into account, Q* would be the optimum point: the
MSB
residents do not provide enough décor for the community to reach the
MPB
optimum. The shaded triangle in Figure 6.2 shows the welfare loss:
Q2 Q* Quantity of
Christmas that is, the amount of social benefit forgone if the outcome is at Q 2
decorations instead of Q*.
Figure 6.2 A positive
consumption externality
Positive and normative revisited
Example (2) is a reminder of the distinction between positive and normative analysis,
which was introduced in Chapter 1. Economists would agree that Figure 6.2 shows
the effects of a beneficial consumption externality. However, probably not everyone
would agree that the lavish Christmas decorations are providing such benefits. This
is where a normative judgement comes into play. It could equally be argued that the
lavish Christmas decorations are unsightly and inappropriate, or that they constitute
a distraction for drivers and are therefore likely to cause accidents. After all, not
everyone enjoys these lavish (and sometimes garish) displays.

6 Theme 1 Introduction to markets and market failure

 Extension material
Discussion has centred on two examples of water. This is an example of a positive production
externalities: a production externality that had externality, so that marginal social cost is lower
negative effects, and a consumption externality than marginal private cost.
that was beneficial to society. In fact, there are two
In contrast, think about Liz, a ‘metal’ enthusiast,
other possibilities.
who enjoys playing her music at high volume late at
Think about a factory that produces chemicals and night, in spite of the fact that she lives in a f lat with
is located on the banks of a river. It installs a new inadequate sound insulation. The neighbours prefer
water purification plant that improves the quality rock, but cannot escape the metal. This would be
of water discharged into the river. A trout farm an example of a negative consumption externality,
located downstream finds that its productivity in which marginal social benefit would be lower
increases, so it has to spend less on filtering the than marginal private benefit.

Summary Study tip

l Markets can operate effectively only if all relevant costs and benefits are taken into account Externalities are a
in decision making. common topic, so be
l Some costs and benefits are external to the market mechanism, and are thus neglected, ready to respond if
causing a distortion in resource allocation. questioned. Be very
l Such external costs and benefits are known as ‘externalities’. careful when drawing
l Externalities may occur in either production or consumption, thereby affecting either the diagram, especially
demand or supply. in identifying the area
l Externalities may be either positive or negative, but either way resources will not be representing welfare loss.
optimally allocated if they are present. If you understand why this
area represents welfare
loss, you should be able
Exercise 6.2 to check whether you have
identified it correctly.
Discuss examples of some externalities that you meet in everyday situations, and classify them
as affecting either production or consumption.

Examples of markets with externalities

Externalities occur in a wide variety of market situations, and constitute an
important source of market failure. This means that externalities may hinder the
achievement of good resource allocation from society’s perspective. The rest of this
chapter explores some examples of markets in which externalities may be present.

Externalities and the environment

Concern for the environment has been growing, with ‘green’ lobbyist groups
drawing attention to the issues, sometimes through demonstrations. There are so
many different facets to environmental concern that it is sometimes difficult to
isolate the core issues. Externalities lie at the heart of much of the debate.

Global warming
Some of the issues are international in nature, such as global warming. At the
heart of this concern is the way in which emissions of greenhouse gases are said

6 Market failure and externalities 7

 to be warming up the planet. Sea levels are rising and major climate change seems
imminent – if it is not already happening.
One reason why global warming is especially difficult to tackle is that actions taken
by one country can have effects on other countries. Scientists argue that the problem
is caused mainly by pollution created by transport and industry, especially in the
richer countries. However, poorer nations suffer the consequences as well, especially
countries such as Bangladesh Here much of the land is low lying and prone to severe
flooding almost every year. In some years up to three-quarters of the land area is
under water at the height of the flooding.
In principle, this is similar to example (1) in Exercise 6.1: it is an example of a
negative production externality, in which the nations causing most of the damage
face only part of the costs caused by their lifestyles and production processes. The
inevitable result in an unregulated market is that too much pollution is produced.
When externalities cross international borders in this way, the problem can be
tackled only through international cooperation. For example, at the Kyoto World
Climate Summit held in Japan in 1997, almost every developed nation agreed to cut
greenhouse gas emissions by 6% by 2010. The USA, the largest emitter of carbon
dioxide, did not ratify the agreement, fearing the consequences of such a restriction
for the US economy. The Kyoto Protocol was discussed at the 2012 Doha climate
change talks and it was agreed to begin a new round of negotiations. However,
the problems inherent in getting almost 200 countries to commit to a binding
agreement seem intractable.

Acid rain
Global warming is not the only example of international externality effects.
Scandinavian countries have suffered from acid rain caused by pollution in other
European countries, including the UK. Forest fires left to burn in Indonesia have
caused air pollution in the neighbouring countries of Singapore and Malaysia.

River water
Another environmental issue concerns rivers. Some of the big rivers of the world,
such as the Nile in Africa, pass through several countries on their way to the
sea. The Nile runs through Egypt at the end of its journey, and is crucial for the
economy. If countries further upstream were to increase their usage of the river,
perhaps through new irrigation projects, this could have disastrous effects on Egypt.
Again, the actions of one set of economic agents would be having damaging effects
on others, and these effects would not be reflected in market prices, in the sense that
the upstream countries would not have to face the full cost of their actions.
Part of the problem here can be traced back to the difficulty of enforcing property
rights. If the countries imposing the costs could be forced to make appropriate
payment for their actions, this would help to bring the costs back within the market
mechanism. Such a process is known in economics as ‘internalising the externality’,
and will be examined later in this chapter.

Biodiversity
Concern has also been expressed about the loss of biodiversity, a word that is shorthand
for ‘biological diversity’. The issue here is that when a section of rainforest is cleared
to plant soya beans, or for timber, it is possible that species of plants, insects or

8 Theme 1 Introduction to markets and market failure

even animals whose existence is not even known at present may be wiped out.
Many modern medicines are based on chemicals that occur naturally in the wild.
By eradicating species before they have been discovered, possible scientific advances
will be forgone. Notice that when it comes to measuring the value of what is being
destroyed, biodiversity offers particular challenges — namely, the problem of putting
a value on something that might not even be there.
Costs,
Externalities and transport benefits
MSC
MPC
The London authorities have attempted to tackle traffic congestion
in the city using the congestion charge. When traffic on the roads
reaches a certain volume, congestion imposes heavy costs on road
users. This is another example of an externality.
Figure 6.3 illustrates the situation. Suppose that D (MSB) represents
the demand curve for car journeys along a particular stretch of road. D (MSB)
When deciding whether or not to undertake a journey, drivers
Q* Q1 Number of
will balance the marginal benefit gained from making the journey journeys
against the marginal cost that they face. This is given by MPC — per period
the marginal private cost of undertaking journeys. When the road is Figure 6.3 Traffic congestion
congested, a motorist who decides to undertake the journey adds to the congestion,
and slows the traffic. The MPC curve incorporates the cost to the motorist of joining
a congested road, and the chosen number of journeys will be at Q 1.

However, in adding to the congestion the motorist not only suffers the costs of
congestion, but also imposes some marginal increase in costs on all other users
of the road. Thus, the marginal social costs (MSC) of undertaking journeys are
higher than the cost faced by any individual motorist. MSC is therefore higher than

The congestion charge in

London is an attempt to make
drivers face some of the
social costs of their journeys

6 Market failure and externalities 9

 MPC. Society would be better off with lower congestion: that is, with the number
of journeys undertaken being limited to Q*, where marginal social benefit equals
marginal social cost. By imposing a charge on motorists entering central London,
the authorities are trying to ensure that drivers face at least part of the social costs
they impose on others by using congested roads.

Externalities and health

Healthcare is a sector in which there is often public provision, or at least some state
intervention in support of the health services. In the UK, the National Health Service
is the prime provider of healthcare, but private healthcare is also available, and the
use of private health insurance schemes is on the increase. Again, externalities can
help to explain why there should be a need for government to intervene.
Consider the case of vaccination against a disease such as measles. Suppose an
individual is considering whether or not to be vaccinated. Being vaccinated reduces
the probability of that individual contracting the disease, so there are palpable
potential benefits to that individual. However, these benefits must be balanced
against the costs. There may be a direct charge for the vaccine, some individuals may
have a phobia against needles, or they may be concerned about possible side-effects.
Individuals will opt to be vaccinated only if the marginal expected benefit to them
is at least as large as the marginal cost.
From society’s point of view, however, there are potential benefits that
Costs,
individuals will not take into account. After all, if they do contract
benefits MC measles, there is a chance of their passing it on to others. Indeed, if
lots of people decide not to be vaccinated, there is the possibility of a
widespread epidemic, which would be costly and damaging to many.
Figure 6.4 illustrates this point. The previous paragraph argues that the
social benefits to society of having people vaccinated against measles
exceed the private benefits that will be perceived by individuals,
so that marginal social benefits exceed marginal private benefits.
Private individuals will choose to balance marginal private benefit
MPB MSB
against marginal private cost at Q 1, whereas society would prefer
Q1 Q* Quantity of more people to be vaccinated at Q*. This parallels the discussion of a
vaccinations positive consumption externality. Chapter 7 considers another aspect
Figure 6.4 Vaccination of healthcare provision.

Externalities and education

As you are reading this textbook, it is reasonably safe to assume that you are following
a course in economics. You have decided to demand education. This is yet another
area in which externalities may be important.
When you decided to take AS/A-levels (including economics), there were probably
a number of factors that influenced your decision. Perhaps you intend to demand
even more education in the future, by going on to study at university. Part of your
decision process probably takes into account the fact that education improves your
future earnings potential. Your expected lifetime earnings depend in part upon
your level of qualifications. Research has shown that, on average, graduates earn
more during their lifetimes than non-graduates. This is partly because there is
a productivity effect: by becoming educated, you cultivate a range of skills that
in later life will make you more productive, and this helps to explain why you

10 Theme 1 Introduction to markets and market failure

can expect higher lifetime earnings than someone who chooses not to demand
education. There is also a signalling effect, as having a degree signals to potential
employers that you have the ability to cope with university study and have gained
a range of skills.
What does society get out of this? Evidence suggests that, not only does education
improve productivity, but a group of educated workers cooperating with each other
become even more productive. This is an externality effect, as it depends upon
interaction between educated workers — but each individual perceives only the
individual benefit, and not the benefits of cooperation.
In other words, when you decide to undertake education, you do so on the basis of
the expected private benefits that you hope to gain from education. However, you
do not take into account the additional benefits through cooperation that society
will reap. So here is another example of a positive consumption externality. As with
healthcare, some other aspects of education will be discussed in Chapter 7.

Waste disposal and recycling

A major problem faced by twenty-first century society and governments is waste
disposal. Landfill is one way of dealing with waste, but it has long-term effects on
the environment, and imposes negative externalities on people living near landfill
sites. Recycling is an alternative, but also suffers from externality effects. There are
positive consumption externalities associated with recycling, in the sense that the
benefits to society exceed the benefits to individuals (i.e. MSB > MPB). In such a
situation, there will be ‘too little’ recycling relative to the best outcome for society,
and the government or local authorities may need to find ways of encouraging
households to recycle more.

Externalities and tourism

As international transport has become easier and cheaper, more people are wanting
to travel to new and different destinations. For less developed countries, this offers
an opportunity to earn much-needed foreign exchange.
There has been some criticism of this. The building of luxury hotels in the midst of
the poverty that characterises many less developed countries is said to have damaging
effects on the local population by emphasising differences in living standards.
However, constructing the infrastructure that tourists need may have beneficial
effects on the domestic economy. Improved roads and communication systems can
benefit local businesses. This effect can be interpreted as an externality, in the sense
that the local firms will face lower costs as a result of the facilities provided for the
tourist sector.

Summary
l Externalities arise in many aspects of economic life.
l Environmental issues are especially prone to externality effects, as market prices do not
always incorporate impacts on the environment, especially where property rights are not
assigned.
l Congestion on the roads can also be seen as a form of externality.
l Externalities also arise in the areas of healthcare provision and education, where individuals
do not always perceive the full social benefits that arise.

6 Market failure and externalities 11

 Exercise 6.3
Table 6.1 shows the situation in a market where pollution is generated by the production
process.
Table 6.1 A market with pollution
Quantity produced Marginal Marginal Marginal
(thousands per week) social benefit private cost social cost
10 80 5 10
20 75 10 20
30 70 20 35
40 60 32 60
50 48 48 90
60 30 75 125
70 8 110 175
1 At what level of output would marginal social benefit be equal to marginal private cost?
(Note: this would be the quantity of output that would be produced by firms in an
unregulated competitive market.)
2 By how much would marginal social cost exceed marginal private cost at this level of
output?
3 At what level of output would marginal social benefit be equal to marginal social cost?
4 What amount of tax would induce firms to supply this quantity of output?

Case study 6.1

Healthcare: public or market?
In July 2008, the NHS celebrated its 60th anniversary amid In the case of preventative healthcare, there may be other
rising debate about whether healthcare should be state- factors at work. Take the case of vaccination against disease.
provided, or whether market forces should be given a greater If vaccinations are provided by a private competitive market,
role. In the UK, market forces have played an increasing part an individual faces costs of the treatment, both financial
in allocating resources within the public health sector through and perhaps in the unpleasantness and possible risks of
the operation of internal markets, but the debate over public being vaccinated. The benefits of having been vaccinated
vs private provision continues. So far, the proportion of may be perceived to be relatively low, if the individual sees
health expenditure that is undertaken by the public sector a low probability of being infected. However, the benefits of
has changed little. vaccination from the point of view of society may be greater,
What does economic analysis have to say about the matter? because a widespread vaccination programme not only
The justification for public provision of healthcare rests on reduces the risk of infection for each individual, but also
the existence of market failure. There may be a number reduces the likelihood of an epidemic.
of reasons why there might be some form of market failure Adapted from Smith, P. (2008) ‘Healthcare: public or private?’
in the provision of healthcare, whether we consider the Economic Review, Vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 32–33.

provision of preventative or curative measures.

Follow-up questions
1 Explain what is meant by market failure.
2 Draw a diagram to help to explain the possible market failure outlined in relation to a vaccination programme.

12 Theme 1 Introduction to markets and market failure

 Test yourself
1 From Figure 6.5, it can be deduced that:
A The free market level of output is OY.
B The welfare loss is EAC.
C The welfare gain from increasing output from OY to OX is YACX.
D A reduction in the quantity produced below OX would reduce
the welfare loss.
Costs and
benefits MSC
B MPC

A
C

E
MPB = MSB

O Y X Quantity
Figure 6.5
2 A new vaccine is developed to prevent the spread of coughs and colds,
which are the main cause of around 130 million working days lost through
absenteeism in the UK. The government decides to make this vaccine freely
available to anyone who wants it, much to the delight of the pharmaceutical
company that developed it.
a What are the private benefits of the production and consumption
of this new vaccine?
b Explain the opportunity cost of providing the vaccine free to
individuals.
c Assess the external benefits of the new vaccine, illustrating
your answer with an externalities diagram.

6 Market failure and externalities 13

 Key terms glossary
allocative efficiency this occurs when there is an optimal increase in demand a rightward shift of the demand curve.
distribution of goods and services, taking into account increase in supply a rightward shift of the supply curve.
consumer’s preferences. inferior good a good for which demand decreases as income
competing supply when raw materials are used to produce one rises and demand increases as income falls
good they cannot be used to produce another good. joint supply when one good is produced, another good is also
competitive market market in which the large number of buyers produced from the same raw materials.
and sellers possess good market information and easily enter or market demand the quantity of a good or service that all the
leave the market. consumers in a market are willing and able to buy.
complementary good a good in joint demand, or a good which is market equilibrium when planned demand equals planned
demanded at the same time as the other good. supply in the market.
composite demand demand for a good which has more than market supply the quantity of a good or service that all the firms
one use. in a market are willing to sell.
condition of demand a determinant of demand, other than the merit good a good which when consumed leads to benefits
good’s own price, that fixes the position of the demand curve. which other people enjoy, or a good for which the long-term
conditions of supply determinants of supply, other than the benefit of consumption exceeds the short-term benefit enjoyed by
good’s own price, that fix the position of the supply curve. the person consuming the merit good.
cross-elasticity of demand the proportionate change in quantity normal good a good for which demand increases as income
demanded of a particular good as a ratio of a proportionate rises and demand decreases as income falls.
change in the price of another good. price elasticity of demand the proportionate change in quantity
decrease in demand a leftward shift of the demand curve demanded of a good as a ratio of a proportionate change in the
decrease in supply a leftward shift of the supply curve. good’s price.
decrease of demand a leftward shift of the demand curve price elasticity of supply the proportionate change in supply of
demand the quantity of a good or service that consumers are a good following an initial proportionate change in the good’s own
willing and able to buy at given prices in a given period of time. price.
For economists, demand is always effective demand. productive efficiency occurs when a firm minimises its average
derived demand demand for a good which is an input into the cost of producing a good.
production of another good. profit the difference between total sales revenue and total costs
disequilibrium a situation in which equilibrium is prevented from of production.
happening, in a market when there is excess supply or excess revenue the money a firm receives from selling its output.
demand. substitute good a good in competing demand, namely a good
effective demand the desire for a good or service backed by an which can be used in place of the other good.
ability to pay. supply the quantity of a good or service that firms are willing and
elasticity the proportionate responsiveness of a second variable able to sell at given prices in a given period of time.
to an initial proportionate change in the first variable.
equilibrium a state of rest or balance between opposing forces.
equilibrium price the price at which planned demand for a good
or service exactly equals planned supply.
excess demand when consumers wish to buy more than firms
wish to sell, with the price below the equilibrium price.
excess supply when firms wish to sell more than consumers wish
to buy, with the price above the equilibrium price.
income elasticity of demand the proportionate change in
quantity demanded of a good as a ratio of a proportionate
change in household income.

14 Theme 1 Introduction to markets and market failure

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