Resources, Conservation and Recycling 72 (2013) 102–107

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Resources, Conservation and Recycling

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/resconrec

Grey water reclamation by decentralized MBR prototype

Carme Santasmasas a , Miquel Rovira b , Frederic Clarens b , César Valderrama c,∗
a
Recubrimientos y Moldeados S.A. (REMOSA), 08260 Súria, Spain
b
Fundació CTM Centre Tecnològic, 08240 Manresa, Spain
c
Departament d’Enginyeria Química, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Av. Diagonal 647, 08028 Barcelona, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Grey water treatment and reuse for non-drinking water requirements has become of great interest in
Received 27 July 2012 arid and semi-arid zones where water resources are becoming both quantitatively and qualitatively
Received in revised form 4 January 2013 scarce. In this study a decentralized and automatic MBR prototype has been designed and installed in the
Accepted 4 January 2013
REMOSA facilities for treatment of low-load grey water to be recycled in flushing-toilet application. The
recycling treatment of grey water comprises four stages: screening, biological oxidation, filtration and
Keywords:
a final disinfection by chlorination. The influent and effluent were monitored in order to determine the
Grey water
treatment efficiency and assessment of the quality potential of treated grey water. The results obtained
Wastewater treatment
Water reuse
indicate that recycling of grey water allows an effluent of excellent quality with organic, surfactants
Membrane bioreactor and microbial parameters under the limits defined by Spanish legislation for urban water reuse. The
Recycled water disinfection of treated grey water is required to ensure compliance with microbial standards and to
Disinfection avoid the health risk in storage and application of recycled water.
© 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction of water savings in domestic residences (Al-Hamaiedeh and Bino,

2010; Christova-Boal et al., 1996; Eriksson et al., 2002). According
Water stress is a reality in many European countries and climate to WHO, grey water can contribute to this as it is: (a) still water; (b)
change will only accentuate the frequency and intensity of those makes up the largest volume of the waste flow from households (c)
events in the future, especially in southern European countries has nutrient content that, although low, can be beneficially used
(EEA, 2009; Santos et al., 2012). With pressures on potable water for crop irrigation; (d) has low pathogen content; and, (e) can be
supplies continuing to increase worldwide, interest in the use of used to reduce the demand for first use water (Mandal et al., 2011;
alternative water sources such as recycled wastewater is also grow- WHO, 2006).
ing (Bixio et al., 2006; Chu et al., 2004; Revitt et al., 2011). In this Grey water production and potential for reuse depends, among
scope, grey water reuse is a process with significant importance and other factors, on the buildings activity. In dwellings and residential
development, to achieve sustainable water consumption in build- buildings, treated grey water reuse might represent 40–47% reduc-
ings (Santos et al., 2012). This is because grey water generally has tion of total water consumption (Santos et al., 2012). The grey water
a lower organic pollutant and pathogen content than combined treatment system designs vary based on the site conditions and
municipal wastewater which also contains toilet waste (Eriksson grey water characteristics. The design of a grey water reuse system
et al., 2002). Thus, grey water is considered particularly suitable for primarily depends on quantity to be treated and reuse applications
on-site (i.e. decentralized) treatment and reuse (Revitt et al., 2011). (Mandal et al., 2011).
Grey water is defined as wastewater generated from domestic Many new technologies have been developed to treat grey
activities such as dish washing, laundry and bathing, whereas black water (Diaper et al., 2010; Friedler et al., 2005; Gross et al.,
water consists of toilet water. Grey water can be further classified as 2007; Hills et al., 2001; Ogoshi et al., 2001). The major difficulty
low load and high load in terms of organic strength. Low-load grey presented for treatment of GW is the large variation in its com-
water excludes the more polluted kitchen and laundry wastewa- position. Reused GW should fulfil four criteria: hygienic safety,
ter (Friedler, 2004; Winward et al., 2008a,b). Considering that grey aesthetics, environmental tolerance, and technical and economic
water accounts for as much as 50–80% of the total domestic water feasibility (Al-Hamaiedeh and Bino, 2010; DHWA, 2002). Biologi-
use, the grey water reuse represents the largest potential source cal grey water treatment technology options for grey water reuse
include membrane bioreactor (Jefferson et al., 2001; Lesjean and
Gnirss, 2006), rotating biological contactor (Friedler et al., 2005;
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 93 4011818; fax: +34 93 401 58 14. Nolde, 1999) or constructed wetland (Dallas and Ho, 2005). All
E-mail address: [email protected] (C. Valderrama). these biological systems have been capable of meeting a 10 mg/L

0921-3449/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.01.004
 C. Santasmasas et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 72 (2013) 102–107 103

Fig. 1. Scheme of the MBR prototype used for grey water treatment: 1. filter (1 mm), 2. bioreactor, 3. air diffusers, 4. membranes, 5. extraction pump, 6. chlorination tank.

biological oxygen demand (BOD) standard. The major difference undesired disinfection-by-products (DBP) like organo-chlorinated
between technologies has been the level of suspended solids and compounds. The MBR prototype scheme for grey water reuse is
microorganism removal (Winward et al., 2008a). Indicator bacte- shown in Fig. 1.
ria (coliforms, Escherichia coli and enterococci) are consistently The prototype system is a submerged MBR with a bioreactor
detected in grey water (Ottoson and Stenström, 2003), demonstrat- volume of 1200 L and a chlorination tank of 500 L with two flat
ing the potential for a range of enteric pathogenic bacteria (e.g. sheet polyethersulfone (PES) membranes with a pore size of 50 nm
Salmonella, Campylobacter), protozoa (e.g. Cryptosporidium, Giar- and total area of 7 m2 . The system was designed to operate auto-
dia) and viruses (e.g. rotavirus, norovirus) to persist in grey water matically; following permeate extraction cycles according to the
(Winward et al., 2008a). water levels inside the prototype in order to assure the water sup-
The aim of this study is to design and operate a decentralized ply. The prototype was started up in February 2008 and fed for 300
MBR prototype to treat grey water from showers and bathroom days with a maximum recycling capacity of 1500 L/day (hydraulic
sinks in REMOSA facilities. The grey and recycled water have been retention time (HRT) of 19.5 h) with permeate flux of 19.2 LMH
characterized in order to evaluate the performance of MBR treat- (L/m2 h), which could satisfy the water needs for recharging the
ment and to define the effluent quality according to the Royal WC cisterns of a housing estate with 40 residents. The membrane
Spanish Decree for water reuse. This legislation can be consid- cleaning was performed by means of air diffusers, while chemical
ered relevant worldwide for similar applications in the absence of cleaning was performed soaking the membranes during 2 h with a
specific regulations. A final disinfection step has been also consid- sodium hypochlorite solution (0.16%).
ered in order to avoid the health risk and negative aesthetic and
environmental effects on recycled water. 2.2. Chemical analyses

2. Materials and methods The COD, total suspended solids (TSS) and anionic surfactants
contents were determined according to Standard Methods (Clesceri
2.1. Experimental setup et al., 1998). BOD5 , conductivity (Crison GLP31–32), nitrogen Kjel-
dahl and P-total were measured by the procedures of the Spanish
The grey water is produced in the showers and bathroom sinks Standard Methods (UNE standards) (UNE-EN, 1993, 1997) of water
of the REMOSA production plant facilities. Grey water was trans- quality and nitrogen reported as total nitrogen (NKj BÜCHI K-
ported and stored into an intermediate accumulation tank of 500 L 355). Further, pH, and turbidity data were measured using a
(at ambient temperature). The recycling treatment of grey water GLP-22, Crison pH metre, and turbidity metre (HACH COMPANY
by MBR prototype designed by REMOSA comprises the following 2100N), respectively. The microbial parameters, E. coli as well as
stages: (i) Screening: separation of any debris that could dam- the total and faecal coliforms were determined by standard meth-
age the membranes with a mesh size of 1 mm. (ii) Biological ods (Clesceri et al., 1998). Following the approval of Royal Decree
oxidation: the decomposition of the organic matter takes place 1620/2007 (RD1620, 2007), the method for intestinal nematode
in the bioreactor like in conventional activated sludge process eggs was updated. During the experimental test, the total nema-
(CAS). (iii) Filtration: the solid/liquid separation is produced by todes were analyzed by the method described by Ayres and Mara
means of ultrafiltration membrane technology. A suction system (1996) on 1 L of sample. The samples collected to analyze COD,
applies a vacuum pressure in the membranes and creates an inward SS, BOD5 , temperature, conductivity, turbidity and pH were 50,
flow whereby the water penetrates through the membranes while while P-total, nitrogen and microbial parameters were limited to
solids and bacteria are retained in the external wall. (iv) Chlo- 25. Sampling and monitoring was performed approximately every
rination and accumulation: the recycled water is chlorinated by 48 h during the first month and then every 7 days under stabilized
adding a small quantity of sodium hypochlorite (<1 ppm of free conditions.
chlorine) allowing the sanitary properties to be conserved and, sub- Dissolved oxygen plus temperature, pressure gauge and flow
sequently, it can be stored in the in the chlorination tank. Thanks rate were determined by means of OxyMax W COS 41 Membrane-
to the degradation of organic matter in the biological reactor, com- covered amperometric sensor (Endress+Hauser), Cerabar T PMP
pared with alternatives grey water treatments like sand filtration 131 Pressure Transducer (Endress+Hauser), and Proline promag
and chlorination, is expected a reduction in the generation of the 50/53 W flow rate (Endress+Hauser), respectively. Finally the data
104 C. Santasmasas et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 72 (2013) 102–107

Table 1 200
Grey water
Influent low-load grey water characterization.
Recycled
RD1620
Parameter Number of Grey water 150

SS (mg/L)
samples

Min. Average Max. 100

pH 50 7.2 7.7 8.3

Conductivity (␮S/cm) 50 910 1267 1652 50
MES (mg/L) 50 22 57.5 160
Turbidity (UNT) 50 50 68 158 0
DBO5 (mgO2 /L) 50 50 138 258 0 50 100 150 200 250
DQO (mgO2 /L) 50 153 302 461 Time (days)
Surfactant (mg LSS/L) 25 0.1 7.1 20
E. coli (CFU 100 mL−1 ) 25 80 3.3 × 104 4.4 × 105 20 200
Recycled
Nematode eggs (egg/10 L) 25 <1 <1 <1 RD1620

Turbidity (NTU)

Turbidity (NTU)
P total (mg/L) 25 0.8 3 15 Grey water
15 150
N total (mg/L) 25 11 23 36

10 100
collection and control process were performed by means of pro-
grammable logic controller (PLC) SE300 Siemens. 5 50

3. Results and discussion 0 0

0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (days)
The influent grey water for MBR prototype was characterized
during the experiment and the values indicate that the influent cor- Fig. 3. Evolution of SS and turbidity in grey water and the recycled water.
respond to the typical low-load grey water (Friedler, 2004; Paris
and Schlapp, 2010; Winward et al., 2008a) as can be shown in
Table 1 where main parameters are presented. O2 /L for the COD and 25 mg O2 /L for the BOD5 , which are also shown
for comparison in Fig. 2. In all cases effluent values are guaranteed
3.1. COD and BOD5 removal to be substantially below the limits.
From the point of view of the water reuse, the international
The influent, effluent, and removal of COD and BOD5 during the guidelines about the maximum values allowed of BOD5 for differ-
experimental period are shown in Fig. 2. A substantial reduction is ent uses varied from 5 and 20 mg O2 /L of average concentration
observed in the removal of organic matter, with averages of 90% (Queensland Government, 2005; US EPA, 2004). The average con-
for the COD and of 95% for the BOD5 . This high, stable reduction centration for BOD5 in recycled water was 6.2 mg O2 /L. It means
is enhanced because the membranes allow working with higher that, the common indicator of effectiveness removal of organic mat-
concentrations in the reactor and in turn, guarantee retention of ter is under or close to the most restricted international limits for
biomass and part of the organic and inorganic matter. In the absence water reuse for the MBR prototype.
of limits for COD and BOD5 parameters in the RD1620 (2007), the
reference regulation is the European Directive 91/271 EEC (CEC,
3.2. Quality criteria for wastewater reuse
1991), which sets the discharge limits of purified water: 125 mg

During grey water treatment with MBR prototype physico-

500 Grey water chemical (SS and turbidity) and microbial (E. coli and nematode
Recycled eggs) pollutants were qualitatively removed according to the limits
400 91/270 EC
COD (mgO2 /L)

determined by the Spanish royal decree 1620/2007 for wastewater

reuse (RD1620, 2007). The evolution of the influent and effluent SS
300
and the value of 10 mg/L defined by the Spanish royal decree for
200 residential use are shown in Fig. 3.
It can be observed how the effluent values were lower than
100 the limit defined for wastewater reuse (urban and residential).
The average SS concentration was 1.3 mg/L, representing a total
0 removal of 98%. The quality criteria defined for the international
0 50 100 150 200 250
guidelines varied from 5 to 30 mg/L for some states in the USA
Time (days)
(US EPA, 2004) to 20 mg/L in certain government regulations
250 (Queensland Government, 2005). Thus, the values obtained in this
Grey water
Recycled study are under the Spanish Royal decree and other international
BOD5(mgO2 /L)

200 91/270 EC
guidelines and regulations for water reuse. Turbidity was also con-
150 trolled considering the water quality criteria for wastewater reuse,
thus, in Fig. 3 is showed the evolution of this parameter for MBR
100 prototype. Here, the limits defined for Spanish Royal decree are 2
and 10 NTU for residential and urban use, respectively. It is impor-
50 tant to point out that, international guidelines and regulations
define the same maximum value defined in the Spanish legislation
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 (Queensland Government, 2005; US EPA, 2004). The turbidity in
Time (days) effluent was 1.2 NTU as average value. Both parameters remained
constant from start-up independently of the variability of intake
Fig. 2. Evolution of the COD and BOD5 in grey water and the recycled water. water values. In this sense, the small pore size of the membranes
 C. Santasmasas et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 72 (2013) 102–107 105

6
Grey water
the Queensland government define 6–8.5 and 1600 ␮S/cm as the
E. Coli log (cfu/100mL)

5 Recycled specification range and maximum value allowed for pH and con-
RD1620 ductivity, respectively (Queensland Government, 2005). In this
4
study, these parameters reported an average value of 7.9 and
3 1244 ␮S/cm for pH and conductivity, respectively. Finally, the
10

total nitrogen and phosphorus concentration were also monitored

2
during the experiment. No significant differences were observed
1 between influent and effluent for both parameters, thus ions
0
removal is not achieved by the ultrafiltration step.
0 50 100 150 200 250 A parameter not considered in the RD1620 (2007), but interest-
Time (days) ing for the present study, is the level of surfactants. A high removal
40 efficiency of anionic surfactants, defined as sodium lauryl sulphate,
Grey water
is observed, with an average reduction of 98%, with stable values in
Nematode eggs/10 L

Recycled
30 RD1620 the output below 0.2 mg/L, independently of the incoming water
levels. In Table 2 are summarized the effluent parameters moni-
20 tored during the experiment.
Considering the results obtained in this study, it can be
10
stated that the MBR prototype can achieve satisfactory removal
efficiencies of organic substances, surfactants and microbial con-
taminations. Furthermore, the MBR effluent quality meets most
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 of the standards for non-potable urban reuse (urban, agricul-
Time (days) tural and recreational) (Queensland Government, 2005; RD1620,
2007). The BOD5 concentration was the only standard that was
Fig. 4. Evolution of the Escherichia coli and nematode eggs in grey water and the not meet under the regulation set for the state of Texas for unre-
recycled water.
stricted urban use, which requires that not exceed 5 mg/L (monthly
average), except when reclaimed water is used for landscape
impoundments. In that case, BOD is limited to 10 mg/L (US EPA,
guaranteed retention of the particles and, therefore, compliance of 2004).
these two parameters.
The microbial parameters were also monitored in order to define
if the effluent from MBR prototype was under the limits defined for 3.3. Implications of MBR + disinfection treatment
wastewater reuse. In Fig. 4 is shown the evolution of the influent
and effluent concentration of E. coli (log10 CFU 100 mL−1 ) as well as It is clear that faecal contamination of grey water is a common
the limit defined by the Spanish Royal decree for this parameter occurrence and therefore the potential exists for a range of fae-
for wastewater reuse. It is observed that effluent was 1 log10 units cally transmitted pathogens to be passed into grey water (Winward
lower than limit defined for urban service, agricultural and recre- et al., 2008b). The total and faecal coliforms, which are generally
ational uses and most of the days the effluent is below the detection used as indicators to determine the degree of disinfection (US EPA,
limit of the analytical method (0 CFU 100 mL−1 ). The ensuing chlo- 2004) were also monitored during the experiment, the influent con-
rination of the recycled water assures the absence of E. coli, and centration were around 7 log10 CFU 100 mL−1 , while the effluent of
conserves the microbiological quality of the water with time ful- MBR prototype were lower than 5 CFU 100 mL−1 for most of the
filling the limit of wastewater recycled for residential use. samples, however, the average of these parameters were around
In the case of nematode eggs (Fig. 4), in spite of carrying out the 1 log10 CFU 100 mL−1 during the experiment. Then, disinfection of
tracking exercise from start-up, only the results from day 150 are grey water is required to ensure compliance with microbial stan-
representative since it was not until then that the analytic method dards for reuse to avoid the health risk and negative aesthetic and
was adapted to work with a sample of 10 L. The results prior to this environmental effects (Li et al., 2009). In the study of chlorine dis-
date were determined by extrapolation from a sample of 1 L. The infection of grey water for reuse purpose performed by Winward
final results revealed the absence of nematode eggs both at the inlet et al. (2008b) was concluded that: (i) the organic concentration
and output water. affects disinfectant demand but does not influence microbial resis-
Other quality parameters defined by international guidelines tance to inactivation and (ii) additional removal of organics is also
and legislation are pH and electrical conductivity. For instance beneficial, creating a low, stable chorine demand, and reducing the

Table 2
Recycled water characterization before chlorination step.

Parameter Number of samples Recycled water Removal efficiency (%)

Min. Average Max.

pH 50 7.5 7.9 8.3

Conductivity (␮S/cm) 50 931 1244 1633
MES (mg/L) 50 <1 1.3 5 98%
Turbidity (UNT) 50 0.2 1.2 4.3 98%
DBO5 (mgO2 /L) 50 1 6 16 95%
DQO (mgO2 /L) 50 5 29 74 90%
Surfactant (mg LSS/L) 25 0.06 0.1 0.6 98%
E. coli (CFU 100 mL−1 ) 25 <5a <5a 100 Log 4
Nematode eggs (egg/10 L) 25 <1 <1 <1
P total (mg/L) 25 2 3 8
N total (mg/L) 25 14 22 30
a
Detection limit.
106 C. Santasmasas et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 72 (2013) 102–107

potential for microbial regrowth in the distribution system and, in Acknowledgments

the case of toilet-flushing applications, the toilet cistern.
In viewing of results obtained in this study is possible to state This research was financially supported by the Spanish Ministry
that MBR treatment plus disinfection step can achieve satisfactory of Industry, Tourism and Trade through the Centre for the Devel-
removal efficiencies of organic substances, surfactants and micro- opment of Industrial Technology (CDTI) through the CENIT project
bial contamination. This is an important fact from the point of view SOSTAQUA and Centre for Innovation and Business Development
of water reuse. Furthermore, if it is considered that levels of organ- (CIDEM) of Generalitat de Catalunya.
ics are clearly reduced by the MBR treatment, then, the disinfection
step requires less amount of chlorine which represents low capac-
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