Solving Cubic Polynomials: 1.1 The General Solution To The Quadratic Equation
Solving Cubic Polynomials: 1.1 The General Solution To The Quadratic Equation
Solving Cubic Polynomials: 1.1 The General Solution To The Quadratic Equation
3. Solve then for y as a square root. (Remember to use both signs of the square root.)
a1
4. Once this is done, recover x using the fact that x = y − .
2
For example, let’s solve
2x2 + 7x − 15 = 0.
First, we divide both sides by 2 to create an equation with leading term equal to one:
7 15
x2 + x − = 0.
2 2
a1 7
Then replace x by x = y − = y − to obtain:
2 4
169
y2 =
16
Solve for y:
13 13
y= or −
4 4
Then, solving back for x, we have
3
x= or − 5.
2
This method is equivalent to “completing the square” and is the steps taken in developing the much-
memorized quadratic formula. For example, if the original equation is our “high school quadratic”
ax2 + bx + c = 0
1
The solutions to this quadratic depend heavily on the value of b2 − 4ac. We give this a name (the
discriminant) and a symbol (∆) and so discuss the discriminant
∆ = b2 − 4ac.
If the coefficients of the polynomial are integers and ∆ is a perfect square integer, we have rational roots.
If the discriminant is positive, we have real roots. If the discriminant is zero, we have a single root. If
the discriminant is negative, we have imaginary roots.
We note for later that if the discriminant ∆ = b2 − 4ac is equal to zero then we have a single root and
so our polynomial is a perfect square.
Here are the first steps in Cardano’s method of solving the cubic. First, we do the two automatic
steps:
1. Divide by the leading term, creating a cubic polynomial x3 + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 with leading coefficient
one.
a2
2. Then substitute x = y − to obtain an equation without the term of degree two. This creates an
3
3
equation of the form x + P x − Q = 0.
Cardano would rewrite this equation in the form x3 + P x = Q. He then noticed (!) the following
algebra identity:
P
For example, we might replace a by 3b (using the first equation) and then substitute into the second
equation to obtain
P 3
( ) − b3 = Q.
3b
Multiplying by b3 , we have
P 3
) − (b3 )2 = Qb3
(
3
which is a quadratic equation in b3 . Rewrite this equation as
P 3
(b3 )2 + Qb3 − ( ) =0
3
2
so that
Q √
b3 = − ± ∆ (2)
2
where the discriminant ∆ is
P 3 Q
∆ := () + ( )2 .
3 2
Now there are three possible solutions to equation (2).
This is where Cardano struggled. The next steps sometimes involved “imaginary” numbers and he
wasn’t sure what to do with them. We will press on and finish Cardano’s work by jumping ahead to
Euler’s day and using his understanding of complex numbers.
Using Euler’s formula
eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ (3)
we will create the element √
2πi/3 1 3
ω := e =− + i.
2 2
Notice that ω 3 = 1 and that (ω 2 )3 = 1 so that 1, ω and ω 2 are all cube roots of 1!
Using ω, we can see that any real number has three cube roots. Given one cube root, β, the others
will be ωβ and ω 2 β. √
We use this to finish equation 2 by picking on cube root of −Q/2 ± ∆. We call that one particular
solution β. The other solutions to the equation (2) are b = ωβ and b = ω 2 β.
P
Each solution to (2) gives a value for a so that ab = P/3. Let α := .
3β
Then
α − β, αω 2 − βω, and αω − βω 2
are all solutions to the cubic equation.
Euler’s example
We work through an example due to Euler: We find all solutions to
x3 − 6x = 4. (4)
Therefore b3 = −2 ± 2i. √ 3π
We choose
√ a sign and solve the cubic equation b3 = −2 + 2i. Write −2 + 2i in polar form as 8 (e 4 i ).
π
Then b3 = 8 e 4 i has a particular solution
√ π
β = 2 e 4 i = 1 + i.
Set
−2 −2 π √ π √ 3π
α= = √ e− 4 i = − 2 e− 4 i = 2 e 4 i .
β 2
Or, in cartesian form, α = −1 + i.
Then
x = α − β = (−1 + i) − (1 + i) = −2
is one solution to the cubic equation.
3
If x1 = α − β is a solution then so are
√ 3π 4π π 2π √ 25π 11π √ π −π
x2 = αω 2 − βω = 2(e 4 i e 3 i − e 4 i e 3 i ) = 2(e 12 i − e 12 i ) = 2(e 12 i + e 12 i )
and √ √ √ −7π
3π 2π π 4π 17π 19π 7π
x3 = αω − βω 2 = 2(e 4 i e 3 i − e 4 ie 3 i )= 2(e 12 i −e 12 i )= 2(e 12 i + e 12 i )
By Euler’s formula, eθi + e−θi = 2 cos θ. So our answers are equivalent to
√ π √ 7π
x2 = 2 2 cos( ) and x3 = 2 2 cos( ).
12 12
π
The value of cos( 12 ) is not immediate, but we can find it from a trig identity.
Since
cos(2θ) = 2 cos2 θ − 1
then
1 + cos 2θ
cos2 θ = .
2
Thus s √
π 1 3
cos = +
12 2 4
and s √
√ √
q
1 3
x2 = 8 + = 4 + 2 3.
2 4
In a similar manner we can find x3 . Our final answers are
√ √
q q
x2 = 4 + 2 3 and x3 = − 4 − 2 3.
3ab = −6 and a3 − b3 = 9.
If b = −1 then a = −2 and x = a − b = 3, so choosing the other factor does not give new information.
We have found one solution, x = 3.
4
But what about other solutions?
Set β = −2 as a solution to the cubic equation (6), so that β 3 = −8 and let α = 1 be the corresponding
choice for a.
Then b = βω = −2ω is also a solution to that cubic and in this case a = αω 2 = ω 2 is the corresponding
choice for a.
Then a second solution is
√
2 1 3 √ 1 √
x = a − b = ω + 2ω = (− − i) + (−1 + 3i) = (−3 + 3 i).
2 2 2
If instead we have a = αω and b = βω 2 then the final solution is
√
1 3 √ 1 √
x = a − b = ω + 2ω 2 = (− + i) + (−1 − 3i) = (−3 − 3 i).
2 2 2
So we have found all three solutions:
1 √ 1 √
3, (−3 + 3 i). and (−3 − 3 i).
2 2
x3 − 6x − 9 = (x − 3)(x2 + 3x + 3).
The quadratic equation, applied to x2 + 3x + 3 would have given us the final two solutions without the
extra work.
We can try this method on polynomials of higher degree with integer coefficients. Descartes would
point out, in the 1600s, that if f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ...a1 x + a0 has a root x = p/q then q must
divide an and p must divide a0 (Notice how this works on the quadratic 3x2 − 2x − 8.) With then a short
list of possible rational solutions, Descartes was willing to try these solutions and exhaust the possibilities
for a rational root.
The modern version of this is to pull out a graphing calculator, graph the polynomial equation y = f (x)
and hope that the calculator identifies a nice rational (or even integer!) root.
For example, with Euler’s cubic x3 − 6x − 9 , we discover that x = 3 is a root. When then divide the
polynomial by x − 3 to obtain a quadratic polynomial and now we can go ahead and use the quadratic
formula.
This method is much faster than the general method, but it requires that we be “lucky” and stumble
upon a root.
5
1.4 Quartic Polynomials
After del Ferro and Tartaglia solved the general cubic equation (and the result was released to the public
by Cardano), mathematicians then concentrated on the quartic equation. Cardano’s student, Ferrari,
around 1540, suggested a general method for solving the depressed quartic.
Given the depressed quartic
x4 + px2 + qx + r = 0
rewrite the problem so that it appears to involve a square:
In other words, given a quartic, we make it monic, and then turn it into a depressed equation, insert
y, and solve the associated cubic for y. Once this is done, we solve the quadratic equation (x2 + p + y)2 =
(p + 2y)x2 − qx + (p2 − r + 2py + y 2 ) for x.
This is lengthy and tedious, but it works in general! (Well, it works if one is willing to believe in
complex numbers.)
By 1545, after Cardano published Ferrari’s work (with his permission, apparently!) mathematicians
began to search for solutions to the general fifth-degree or quintic equation. It would take the work of
Abel, Galois and others to show that in fact a general solution to the quintic is impossible.
We will save that story for another time.
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Exercises on cubic equations
1. For each of the equations, below, do the appropriate substitution to turn the polynomial on the
left-hand side into a “depressed” polynomial.
(a) 2x2 − 5x + 3 = 0
(b) x3 − 6x2 + 2x + 3 = 0
(c) x4 + 8x3 + 3x − 12 = 0
2. Complete your work in equation part (a), above, finding the solutions to the equation by completing
the square.
3. For parts (b) and (c) in problem 1, guess a rational solution and then use this to find all solutions
to the polynomial.
4. Find a rational solution for the following polynomials. Then use this solution to find all the roots.
(a) Viete and Cardano-Tartaglia examined this polynomial: x3 + 63x − 316.
(b) Viete and Cardano-Tartaglia also did this one: x3 − 63x − 162.
(c) Euler’s cubic: x3 − 6x − 4.
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Miscellanea
3. Cardano and 13x2 = x4 + 2x3 + 2x + 1. (Eves 293) This is “magic”: Cardano added 3x2 to both
sides to get a perfect square.
4. Ferrari on page 293. a + b + c = 10; ac = b2 , ab = 6 leads to the quartic b4 + 6b2 + 36 = 60b. This
can be turned into a cubic by Ferrari and Viete’s methods.
5. The quartic equation
( Ferrari on page 273 of Eves.)
6. Descarte’s solution: Use it on x4 − 2x2 + 8x − 3 = 0.
Or translate this by x = y + 1. (Eves p. 371)