SYSTEM SIMULATION AND

MODELING

COMPUTER SCIENCE
ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

CS 703
INTRODUCTION TO MODELING AND
SIMULATION

UNIT I
 SYSTEM
A System is defined as an aggregation or assemblage of
objects joined in some regular interaction or
interdependence. While this definition is broad enough to
include static systems, the principal interest will be in
dynamic systems where the interactions cause changes over
time.

Desire Gyroscope Control Airframe

Heading Surface
Actual Heading

An aircraft under autopilot control

 SIMULATION EXAMPLE
A FACTORY SYSTEM

CUSTOMER PRODUCTION
ORDER CONTROL DEPT.
RAW
MATERIALS

PURCHASING FABRICATION ASSEMBLING SHIPPING

DEPT DEPT DEPT DEPT

PRODUCT
 SYSTEM ENVIRONMENT
System is affected by changes occurring outside the system.

Such changes occurring Outside the system

are said to occur in system environment.

ENDOGENEOUS EXOGENEOUS

Used to describe activities

Used to describe activities In the environment that
occurring within the system affect the system
 ACTIVITIES

DITERMINISTIC STOCHASTIC

Outcome of activity can be Effect of activity vary

describe randomly Over
completely in terms of input various possible outcome.

SYSTEM SYSTEM
CONTINUOUS AND
DISCRETE SYSTEM
 In continuous  In discrete system,
system, changes changes are
are predominantly predominantly
smooth. discontinuous.

 Example: Aircraft.  Example: Factory.

SYSTEM MODELING

Model is defined as the body of

information about a system gathered for
the purpose of studying the system.
TYPES OF MODEL
PHYSICAL MATHEMATICAL

 It is based on analogy  It uses symbolic

between such system notation and
as mechanical and mathematical equation
electrical. In this, to represent system.
system attributes are
represented by
measurements such as
voltage or position of
shaft
 MODEL

Physical Model Mathematical Model

Static Dynamic Static Dynamic

Numerical Analytical Numerical

System
Simulation
STATIC PHYSICAL
MODEL

 An example of a static physical model is a stick model of

a water molecule, with two small hydrogen "balls" stuck
with short sticks on either side of the oxygen "ball." This
model does not change with time. Another physical
model is that of a tank of water with sand, which shows

the effect of the wind and the movement of water.

DYNAMIC PHYSICAL
MODEL
 In this dynamic model, the sand and water show patterns
that depend on the intensity and direction of the wind with
time. In most simulation models there is an element of
dynamism.

 For example, for a simulation of a factory workflow, one

machine can be modeled as an element that takes a certain
amount of time to create a particular part, while another
machine takes a different amount of time. The time to
move parts between machines may be ignored for machines
which are close together. The number, the rate, and the
time at which the raw material and the work orders come
into the factory are modeled. Based on all these, the
simulation determines whether the output of the factory
meets the demand.
MATHEMATICAL MODEL

 A mathematical model is a description of a system

using mathematical language. The process of
developing a mathematical model is termed
mathematical modeling (also written modeling).
Mathematical models are used not only in the natural
science (such as physics, biology, earth science,
meteorology) and engineering disciplines, but also in
the social science (such as economics, psychology,
sociology and political science); economists use
mathematical models most extensively.
EXAMPLES OF
MATHEMATICAL MODEL
 Population Growth.

 Model of a particle in a potential-field.

 Model of rational behavior for a

consumer.
STATIC V/S DYNAMIC
MODEL
 Static vs. dynamic: A static model does

not account for the element of time, while a

dynamic model does. Dynamic models

typically are represented with difference

equation or differential equations.

PRINCIPLES USED IN
MODELING
 Block Building
Description of system should be
organized in series of blocks.

 Relevance
Model should only include those aspects
of the system that are relevant to the
study objectives.
SYSTEM SIMULATION AND CONTINUOUS
SYSTEM SIMULATION

UNIT II
TECHNIQUE OF SIMULATION

ANALYTICAL NUMERICAL

It produces directly It produces solution

the general in
solution steps

Dynamic Problems Static Problems

Monte Carlo Simulation
 Select numbers randomly from a
probability distribution
 Use these values to observe how a
model performs over time
 Random numbers each have an equal
likelihood of being selected at random
MONTE-CARLO
SIMULATION
 .

DISTRIBUTION
RANDOM SIMULATION
NUMBER RANDOM OUTPUT
VARIABLE

MODEL

REAL
SYSTEM
TYPES OF SYSTEM
 CONTINUOUS  DISCRETE SYSTEM
SYSTEM

 In continuous  In discrete system,

system, changes changes are
are predominantly predominantly
smooth. discontinuous.

 Example: Aircraft.  Example: Factory.

DISTRIBUTED LAG
MODEL
 Model that have the properties of changing
only at fixed interval of time are called
distributed lag model.

 These are used in economic studies where

the uniform steps corresponds to a time
interval, such as month or a year.

 These model consist of linear, algebraic

equations.
 COBWEB MODEL
The cobweb model or cobweb theory is an
economic model that explains why prices might

Be subject to periodic fluctuations in certain types

of markets. It describes cyclical supply and
demand in a market where the amount produced
must be chosen before prices are observed.
Producers' expectations about prices are assumed
to be based on observations of previous prices.
COBWEB MODEL

Simplifying, the cobweb model can have two main types of

outcomes:

If the slope of the supply curve is greater than the slope of

the demand curve (in absolute value), then the fluctuations
decrease in magnitude with each cycle, so a plot of the
prices and quantities over time would look like an inward
spiral, as shown in the diagram. This is called the stable or
convergent case.

If the slope of the supply curve is less than the slope of the
demand curve (in absolute value), then the fluctuations
increase in magnitude with each cycle, so that prices and
quantities spiral outwards. This is called the unstable or
divergent case.
COBWEB MODEL

 Two other possibilities are:

 Fluctuations may also remain of constant magnitude,
so a plot of the equilibria would produce a simple
rectangle, if the supply and demand curves have
exactly the same slope.
 If the supply curve is less steep than the demand
curve near the point where the two curves cross, but
more steep when we move sufficiently far away, then
prices and quantities will spiral away from the
equilibrium price but will not diverge indefinitely;
instead, they may converge to a limit cycle.
COBWEB MODEL

In either of the first two scenarios, the

combination of the spiral and the supply
and demand curves often looks like a
cobweb, hence the name of the theory.
Continuous System
Models
 Continuous system models were the first widely
employed models and are traditionally described by
ordinary and partial differential equations.

 Such models originated in such areas as physics and

chemistry, electrical circuits, mechanics, and
aeronautics.

 They have been extended to many new areas such as

bio-informatics, homeland security, and social
systems.

 Continuous differential equation models remain an

essential component in multi-formalism compositions.
 Analog computer
 Analog computer measures and
answer the questions by the method
of ―HOW MUCH‖. The input data is not
a number infect a physical quantity
like tem, pressure, speed, velocity.
 Signals are continuous of (0 to 10 V)
 Accuracy 1% Approximately
 High speed
 Output is continuous
 Time is wasted in transmission time
 Digital Computers
 Digital computer counts and answer the
questions by the method of ―HOW Many‖.
The input data is represented by a number.
These are used for the logical and
arithmetic operations.
 Signals are two level of (0 V or 5 V)
 Accuracy unlimited
 low speed sequential as well as parallel
processing
 Output is continuous but obtain when
computation is completed.
 Hybrid Computer
 The combination of features of analog
and digital computer is called Digital
computer. The main example are
central national defense and
passenger flight radar system. They
are also used to control robots.
SYSTEM DYNAMICS & PROBABILITY
CONCEPT IN SIMULATION

UNIT III
 EXPONENTIAL GROWTH
MODEL
Exponential growth (including exponential decal occurs
when the growth rate of a mathematical function is
propotional to the function's current value.

Human Population, if the number of births and deaths per

person per year were to remain at current levels
Heat Transfer experiments yield results whose best fit line are
exponential growth curves.
Compound Interest at a constant interest rate provides
exponential growth of the capital.
LIMITATIONS

Exponential growth models of physical phenomena

only apply within limited regions, as unbounded
growth is not physically realistic. Although growth
may initially be exponential, the modeled
phenomena will eventually enter a region in which
previously ignored Negative feedback factors
become significant (leading to a Logistic growth
model) or other underlying assumptions of the
exponential growth model, such as continuity or
instantaneous feedback, break down.
EXPONENTIAL DECAY
MODEL

A quantity is said to be subject to exponential

decay if it decreases at a rate proportional to its
value. Symbolically, this process can be modeled
by the following differential equation, where N is
the quantity and λ (lambda) is a positive number
called the decay constant:
 EXPONENTIAL DECAY
MODEL
Exponential decay occurs in a wide variety of
situations. Most of these fall into the domain of the
natural sciences. Any application of mathematics to
the

Social science or humanities is risky and uncertain,

because of the extraordinary complexity of human
behavior. However, a few roughly exponential
phenomena have been identified there as well.
Many decay processes that are often treated as
exponential, are really only exponential so long as
the sample is large and the law of large numbers
holds. For small samples, a more general analysis is
necessary, accounting for a Poission process.
LOGISTIC CURVES
 A logistic function or logistic curve is a common
sigmoid curve, given its name in 1844 or 1845 by
Pierre François Verhulst who studied it in relation to
population growth. It can model the "S-shaped" curve
(abbreviated S-curve) of growth of some population P.
The initial stage of growth is approximately
exponential; then, as saturation begins, the growth
slows, and at maturity, growth stops.
APPLICATIONS
 Ecology
 Neural Network
 Statistics
 In medicine: modeling of growth of
tumors
System dynamics
Diagram
 System dynamics is an approach to
understanding the behaviour of complex
systems over time. It deals with internal
feedback loops and time delays that affect
the behaviour of the entire system.[1]
What makes using system dynamics
different from other approaches to
studying complex systems is the use of
feedback loops and stocks and flows.
These elements help describe how even
seemingly simple systems display baffling
nonlinearity.
System dynamics is an aspect of systems theory
as a method for understanding the dynamic
behavior of complex systems. The basis of the

method is the recognition that the structure of

any system — the many circular, interlocking,
sometimes time-delayed relationships among its
components — is often just as important in
determining its behavior as the individual
components themselves. Examples are chaos
theory and social dynamics. It is also claimed that
because there are often properties-of-the-whole
which cannot be found among the properties-of-
the-elements, in some cases the behavior of the
whole cannot be explained in terms of the
behavior of the parts.
Causal loop diagrams
Stock and flow diagrams
MULTI SEGMENT MODEL
 A multi-segment model is used to investigate optimal
compliant-surface jumping strategies and is applied to
springboard standing jumps. The human model has
four segments representing the feet, shanks, thighs,
and trunk–head–arms. A rigid bar with a rotational
spring on one end and a point mass on the other end
(the tip) models the springboard. Board tip mass,
length, and stiffness are functions of the fulcrum
setting. Body segments and board tip are connected
by frictionless hinge joints and are driven by joint
torque actuators at the ankle, knee, and hip.
MULTI SEGMENT MODEL
 Optimal springboard jumping simulations can
reasonably predict jumper vertical velocity and jump
height. Qualitatively similar joint torque activation
patterns are found over different fulcrum settings.
Different from rigid-surface jumping where maximal
activation is maintained until takeoff, joint activation
decreases near takeoff in compliant-surface jumping.
The fulcrum–height relations in experimental data
were predicted by the models. However, lack of
practice at non-preferred fulcrum settings might have
caused less jump height than the models’ prediction.
Lar
RANDOM NUMBER
GENERATION
 A random number generator (often
abbreviated as RNG) is a
computational or physical device
designed to generate a sequence of
numbers or symbols that lack any
pattern, i.e. appear random.
Practical applications
and uses
 Gambling
 Statistical sampling
 Computer Simulation
 Cryptography
 Completely randomized design
SIMULATION OF QUEUING SYSTEM
AND DISCRETE SYSTEM SIMULATION

UNIT IV
 Learning Objectives

• Describe the elements of a waiting line

problem.
• Use waiting line models to estimate
system performance.
• Use waiting line models to make
managerial decisions.
Elements of Waiting
Lines
• ―Queue‖ is another name for a waiting
line.
• A waiting line system consists of two
components:
 The customer population (people or objects
to be processed)‫‏‬
 The process or service system
• Whenever demand exceeds available
capacity, a waiting line or queue forms
• There is a tradeoff between cost and
service level.
Customer Population
Characteristics
• Finite versus Infinite populations:
 Is the number of potential new customers materially
affected by the number of customers already in queue?
• Balking
 When an arriving customer chooses not to enter a queue
because it’s already too long.
• Reneging
 When a customer already in queue gives up and exits
without being serviced.
• Jockeying
 When a customer switches between alternate queues in
an effort to reduce waiting time.
Service System

• The service system is defined by:

 The number of waiting lines
 The number of servers
 The arrangement of servers
 The arrival and service patterns
 The service priority rules
Number of Lines

• Waiting lines systems can have

single or multiple queues.
 Single queues avoid jockeying behavior
and perceived fairness is usually high.
 Multiple queues are often used when
arriving customers have differing
characteristics (e.g. paying with cash,
less than 10 items, etc.) and can be
readily segmented.
Servers

• Single servers or multiple, parallel

servers providing multiple channels
• Arrangement of servers (phases)‫‏‬
 Multiple phase systems require customers
to visit more than one server
 Example of a multi-phase, multi-server
system: 1 4
Arrivals C C C 2 C C 5 Depart

3 6
Phase 1 Phase 2
Example Queuing
Systems
 Arrival & Service
Patterns
• Arrival rate:
 The average number of customers arriving
per time period
 Modeled using the Poisson distribution
 Arrival rate usually denoted by lambda ()‫‏‬
 Example: =50 customers/hour; 1/=0.02
hours between customer arrivals (1.2 minutes
between customers)‫‏‬
 Arrival & Service Patterns
• Service rate:
 The average number of customers that can be
served during the period of time
 Service times are usually modeled using the
exponential distribution
 Service rate usually denoted by mu (µ)‫‏‬
 Example: µ=70 customers/hour; 1/µ=0.014
hours per customer (0.857 minutes per
customer).
• Even if the service rate is larger than the
arrival rate, waiting lines form!
 Reason is the variation in specific customer
Example Priority Rules
• First come, first served
• Best customers first (reward loyalty)‫‏‬
• Highest profit customers first
• Quickest service requirements first
• Largest service requirements first
• Earliest reservation first
• Emergencies first
• Etc.
Waiting Line Performance
Measures
• Lq = The average number of customers
waiting in queue
• L = The average number of customers
in the system
• Wq = The average waiting time in
queue
• W = The average time in the system
• p = The system utilization rate (% of
time servers are busy)‫‏‬
 Single-Server Waiting Line
• Assumptions
 Customers are patient (no balking, reneging, or
jockeying)
 Arrivals follow a Poisson distribution with a mean
arrival rate of . This means that the time
between successive customer arrivals follows an
exponential distribution with an average of 1/ 
 The service rate is described by a Poisson
distribution with a mean service rate of µ. This
means that the service time for one customer
follows an exponential distribution with an
average of 1/µ
 The waiting line priority rule is first-come, first-
served
 Infinite population
 Formulas: Single-Server
Case
λ= lambda= mean arrival rate
μ= mu= mean service rate
λ
p= = average system utilization
μ
Note:μ>λ for system stability. If this is not the case,
an infinitly long line will eventually form.
 Formulas: Single-Server
Case (continued)‫‏‬
λ
L= = average number of customers in system
μ− λ
Lq =pL=average number of customers in line
1
W= = average time in system including service
μ− λ
W q =pW=average time spent waiting
Pn= 1− p p n= probability of n customers in the system
at a given point in time
Example
• A help desk in the computer lab serves
students on a first-come, first served
basis. On average, 15 students need
help every hour. The help desk can
serve an average of 20 students per
hour.
• Based on this description, we know:
 µ = 20 students/hour (average service time
is 3 minutes)‫‏‬
  = 15 students/hour (average time
between student arrivals is 4 minutes)‫‏‬
Average Utilization

λ 15
p= = = 0 .75 or 75
μ 20
 Average Number of Students
in the System, and in Line

λ 15
L= = = 3 students
μ− λ 20− 15

Lq =pL=0.75 3 = 2.25 students

 Average Time in the System,
and in Line

1 1
W= = = 0.2 hours
μ− λ 20− 15
or 12 minutes

W q =pW=0.75 0.2 = 0.15 hours

or 9 minutes
 Probability of n
Students in the Line
0
P0= 1− p p = 1− 0 . 75 1= 0 . 25
1
P1= 1− p p = 1− 0. 75 0 . 75= 0. 188
2 2
P2= 1− p p = 1− 0. 75 0 . 75 = 0 . 141
3 3
P3= 1− p p = 1− 0 .75 0 . 75 = 0 . 105
4 4
P 4= 1− p p = 1− 0 . 75 0 .75 = 0 . 079
 Single Server: Spreadsheet
Approach
Key Formulas
A B C
B9: =1/B5
1Q u e u in gA na ly s is :S in gleS erver
2 B10: =1/B6
3 Inp u ts
4T im eu n it ho u
r B13: =B5/B6
5A rriv a lR a te(la m b d a ) 15 c
us tomers/hour
6S e rv iceR a te(m u ) 20 c
us tomers/hour
B14: =1-B13
7 B15: =B5/(B6-B5)
8 Inte rm e d ia teC a lc u latio n s
9A v e ra getim eb etw e ena rriva ls 0.0
6 6667 hour B16: =B13*B15
1
0A v e ra ges e rv icetim e 0.05 hour
1
1 B17: =1/(B6-B5)
2P
1 e rfo rm a n c eM e a su re s
1
3R ho(a v e rag es erv e ru tiliz atio n
) 0.75 B18: =B13*B17
1
4P 0(p rob a bilityth es y ste m ise m pty
) 0.25
B22: =(1-
1
5L(a v era g en u mb e rinth es ystem ) 3 c u
sto
m e rs
1
6L q(a ve ra g en um b e rw a itin ginth equeu
e) 2.25 c u
sto
m e rs B$13)*(B13^B21)
1
7W
1
8W
(a
q(a
v e
v
ra
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g
ra
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eq
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h
h
o
o
u
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r
r
• Use Data Table (tracking
1
9 B22) to easily compute
2
0P ro b ab ilityo fas p e cificn u m berofcustome
rsinth esystem the probability of n
2
1N um be r 2
2
2P ro b a bility 0.1
4 0625 customers in the
system.
Multiple Server Case
• Assumptions
 Same as Single-Server, except here we
have multiple, parallel servers
 Single Line
 When server finishes with customer, first
person in line goes to the idle server
 All servers are identical
 Multiple Server Formulas

λ= lambda= mean arrival rate

μ= mu= mean service rate for one server
s= number of parallel, identical servers
λ
p= = average system utilization
sμ
Note:sμ>λ for system stability. If this is not the case,
an infinitly long line will eventually form.
 Multiple Server Formulas
(continued)‫‏‬

s− 1 n s −1

[
P0 = ∑
λ/ μ
n=0 n!
λ /μ 1
s! 1− p ] = probability of zero

customers in the system at a given point in time

n

{ }
λ/ μ
P0 for n≤ s
n!
Pn = n = probability of n customers
λ/ μ
n− s
P0 for n>s
s!s
in the system at a given point in time
 Multiple Server Formulas
(continued)‫‏‬

s
P0 λ / μ p
Lq = 2
= average number of customers in line
s! 1− p
W q =Lq / λ=average time spent waiting in line
1
W=W q = average time in system including service
μ
L=λW= average number of customers in system
Example: Multiple Server
• Computer Lab Help Desk
• Now 45 students/hour need help.
• 3 servers, each with service rate of
18 students/hour
• Based on this, we know:
 µ = 18 students/hour
 s = 3 servers
  = 45 students/hour
 Flexible Spreadsheet Approach
• Formulas are somewhat complex to set up initially, but
you only need to do it once!

• For other multiple-server problems, can just change the

input values.
• This approach also makes sensitivity analysis possible.
A B C E F G H
1Q u e u in gA n a ly s is :M u ltip leS ervers 3W ork
ingCalc
ula tio ns,m ain
lyforP 0Ca
lculation
4
2 5 lambda/mu 2.5
3 Inp u ts 6s ! 6
4T im eu n it hour 7
5A rriv a lR a te(la m bd a ) 45 c
us tomers/hour 8 n (/)^ n n! S u m
6S e rv iceR a tep erS erv e r(m u ) 18 c
us tomers/hour 9 0 1 1 1
7N um be ro fS erve rs(s ) 3 se
rvers 10 1 2 .5 1 3 .5
8 11 2 6 .25 2 6.6 25
12 3 1 5 .625 6 9.2291 6
6667
9 Inte rm e d ia teC alc u la tio n s
13 4 3 9 .0 625 2
4 10.856 7
7083
1
0A v e ra getim eb e tw e e na rriva ls 0.0
2222 2 hour 14 5 97 .6 5625 120 11.670 5
7292
1
1A v e ra ges e rv icetim ep e rs e rve r 0.0
5555 6 hour 15 6 2 4 4 .1 4063 720 12.009 6
5712
1
2C om bin e ds e rvicera te(s *m u ) 54 c
us tomers/hour 16 7 6 1 0 .3 5156 5
04 0 12.130 7
5862
1
3 17 8 1 5 2 5 .8789 40320 1 2.168 6
0284
1
4P e rfo rm a n c eM e a su re s 18 9 3 8 1 4 .6973 3 6
28 80 12.179 1
1512
1
5R ho(a v e rag es erv e ru tiliz atio n) 0.8
3333 3 19 10 9 5 3 6 .7432 3 628800 12.181 7
4319
1
6P 0(p rob a bilityth es y ste m ise m p ty
) 0.0
4494 4 20 11 2 3 8 4 1.858 3 9
9168 0
0 12.182 3
4048
1
7L(a v era g en u m be rinth es yste m ) 6.0
1123 6 c u
stom ers 21 12 5 9 6 0 4.645 4 7900160012.182 4
6492
22 13 1 4 9 0 11.61 6 .22
7E +0912.182 4
8885
1
8L q(a ve ra g en um b e rw a itin ginth eq ue
ue) 3.5
1123 6 c u
stom ers
23 14 3 7 2 5 29.03 8 .71
8E +1012.182 4
9312
1
9W (a v era g etim einth es yste m ) 0.1
3358 3 hour
24 15 9 3 1 3 22.57 1 .30
8E +1212.182 4
9383
2
0W q(a ve ra g etim einth eq ue ue ) 0.0
7802 7 hour 25 16 2 3 2 8 306.4 2 .09
2E +1312.182 4
9394
2
1 26 17 5 8 2 0 766.1 3 .55
7E +1412.182 4
9396
2
2P ro b ab ilityo fas p e c ificn u m be rofcusto
m e
rsinth esystem 27 18 14 5 5191 5 6 .40
2E +1512.182 4
9396
2
3N um be r 5 1
08 99 2.4 8 9E +39 9 .33
E +15512.182 4
9396
2
4P ro b a bility 0.0
8127 9 1
09 100 6.2 2 3E +39 9 .33
E +15712.182 4
9396
 Key Formulas for Spreadsheet
• F10: =F$5^E10 (copied down)
• G10: =E10*G9 (copied down)
• H10: =H9+(F10/G10) (copied down)
• F5: =B5/B6
• F6: =INDEX(G9:G109,B7+1)
• B10: =1/B5
• B11: =1/B6
• B12: =B7*B6
• B15: =B5/B12
• B16: = (INDEX(H9:H109,B7)+ (((F5^B7)/F6)*((1)/(1-B15))))^(-1)
• B17: =B5*B19
• B18: =(B16*(F5^B7)*B15)/(INDEX(G9:G109,B7+1)*(1-B15)^2)
• B19: =B20+(1/B6)
• B20: =B18/B5
• B24: =IF(B23<=B7, ((F5^B23)*B16)/INDEX(G9:G109,B23+1),
((F5^B23)*B16)/ (INDEX(G9:G109,B7+1)*(B7^(B23-B7))))‫‏‬
Probability of n students in the
system
Probability of Number in System

0.1600

0.1400

0.1200
Probability

0.1000

0.0800

0.0600

0.0400

0.0200

0.0000
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
Number in System
Changing System Performance
• Customer Arrival Rates
 Try to smooth demand through non-peak discounts
or price promotions
• Number and type of service facilities
 Increase or decrease number of servers, or dedicate
specific servers for certain tasks (e.g., express line
for under 10 items)‫‏‬
• Change Number of Phases
 Can use multi-phase system instead of single phase.
This spreads the workload among more servers and
may result in better flow (e.g., fast food restaurants
having an order phase, pay phase, and pick-up
phase during busy hours)‫‏‬
Changing System Performance
• Server efficiency
 Add resources to each phase (e.g., bagger
helping a checker at the grocery store)‫‏‬
 Use technology (e.g. price scanners) to
improve efficiency
• Change priority rules
 Example: implement a reservation protocol
• Change the number of lines
 Reduce multiple lines to single queue to
avoid jockeying
 Dedicate specific servers to specific
transactions
 Supplement D Highlights

• The elements of a waiting line system include the customer

population source, the patience of the customer, the service
system, arrival and service distributions, waiting line priority
rules, and system performance measures. Understanding these
elements is critical when analyzing waiting line systems.
• Waiting line models allow us to estimate system performance by
predicting average system utilization, average number of
customers in the service system, average number of customers
waiting in line, average time a customer waits in line, and the
probability of n customers in the service system.
• The benefit of calculating operational characteristics is to
provide management with information as to whether system
changes are needed. Management can change the operational
performance of the waiting line system by altering any or all of
the following: the customer arrival rates, the number of service
facilities, the number of phases, server efficiency, the priority
rule, and the number of lines in the system. Based on proposed
changes, management can then evaluate the expected
performance of the system.
Changing System Performance
• Customer Arrival Rates
 Try to smooth demand through non-peak discounts
or price promotions
• Number and type of service facilities
 Increase or decrease number of servers, or dedicate
specific servers for certain tasks (e.g., express line
for under 10 items)‫‏‬
• Change Number of Phases
 Can use multi-phase system instead of single phase.
This spreads the workload among more servers and
may result in better flow (e.g., fast food restaurants
having an order phase, pay phase, and pick-up
phase during busy hours)‫‏‬
Changing System Performance
• Server efficiency
 Add resources to each phase (e.g., bagger
helping a checker at the grocery store)‫‏‬
 Use technology (e.g. price scanners) to
improve efficiency
• Change priority rules
 Example: implement a reservation protocol
• Change the number of lines
 Reduce multiple lines to single queue to
avoid jockeying
 Dedicate specific servers to specific
transactions
 Supplement D Highlights

• The elements of a waiting line system include the customer

population source, the patience of the customer, the service
system, arrival and service distributions, waiting line priority
rules, and system performance measures. Understanding these
elements is critical when analyzing waiting line systems.
• Waiting line models allow us to estimate system performance by
predicting average system utilization, average number of
customers in the service system, average number of customers
waiting in line, average time a customer waits in line, and the
probability of n customers in the service system.
• The benefit of calculating operational characteristics is to
provide management with information as to whether system
changes are needed. Management can change the operational
performance of the waiting line system by altering any or all of
the following: the customer arrival rates, the number of service
facilities, the number of phases, server efficiency, the priority
rule, and the number of lines in the system. Based on proposed
changes, management can then evaluate the expected
performance of the system.