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352 • Chapter 10 / Phase Transformations in Metals

REFERENCES
Atkins, M., Atlas of Continuous Cooling Transfor- Shewmon, P. G., Transformations in Metals,
mation Diagrams for Engineering Steels, British McGraw- Hill, New York, 1969. Reprinted
Steel Corporation, Sheffield, England, 1980. by Williams Book Company, Tulsa, OK.
Atlas of Isothermal Transformation and Cooling Vander Voort, G. (Editor), Atlas of Time–
Transformation Diagrams, ASM International, Temperature Diagrams for Irons and Steels,
Materials Park, OH, 1977. ASM International, Materials Park, OH,
Brooks, C. R., Principles of the Heat Treatment of 1991.
Plain Carbon and Low Alloy Steels, ASM In- Vander Voort, G. (Editor), Atlas of Time–
ternational, Materials Park, OH, 1996. Temperature Diagrams for Nonferrous Alloys,
Porter, D. A. and K. E. Easterling, Phase ASM International, Materials Park, OH,
Transfor- mations in Metals and Alloys, 1991.
Chapman and Hall, New York, 1992.

QUES TIONS AND PR OBLEMS

The Kinetics of Phase Transformations 10.5 (a) Assume for the solidification of nickel
10.1 Name the two stages involved in the forma- (Problem 10.4) that nucleation is homoge-
tion of particles of a new phase. Briefly neous, and the number of stable nuclei is
describe each. 106 nuclei per cubic meter. Calculate the crit-
ical radius and the number of stable nuclei
10.2 (a) Rewrite the expression for the total free
that exist at the following degrees of super-
energy change for nucleation (Equation
cooling: 200 K and 300 K.
10.1) for the case of a cubic nucleus of edge
length a (instead of a sphere of radius r). (b) What is significant about the magnitudes
Now differentiate this expression with re- of these critical radii and the numbers of sta-
spect to a (per Equation 10.2) and solve for ble nuclei?
both the critical cube edge length, a*, and 10.6 For some transformation having kinetics that
also ¢G*. obey the Avrami equation (Equation 10.17),
(b) Is ¢G* greater for a cube or a sphere? the parameter n is known to have a value of
Why? 1.5. If, after 125 s, the reaction is 25% com-
10.3 If ice homogeneously nucleates at 40 C, plete, how long (total time) will it take the
calculate the critical radius given values of transformation to go to 90% completion?
3.1 108 J/m3 and 25 10 3 J/m2, respec- 10.7 Compute the rate of some reaction that
tively, for the latent heat of fusion and the obeys Avrami kinetics, assuming that the
surface free energy. constants n and k have values of 2.0 and
10.4 (a) For the solidification of nickel, calculate 5 10 4, respectively, for time expressed in
the critical radius r* and the activation free seconds.
energy ¢G* if nucleation is homogeneous. 10.8 It is known that the kinetics of recrystal-
Values for the latent heat of fusion and sur- lization for some alloy obey the Avrami
3
face free energy are 2.53 109 J/m and equation, and that the value of n in the ex-
2
0.255 J/m , respectively. Use the supercool- ponential is 5.0. If, at some temperature, the
ing value found in Table 10.1. fraction recrystallized is 0.30 after 100 min,
(b) Now calculate the number of atoms determine the rate of recrystallization at this
found in a nucleus of critical size. Assume a temperature.
lattice parameter of 0.360 nm for solid nickel 10.9 The kinetics of the austenite-to-pearlite
at its melting temperature. transformation obey the Avrami
relationship.
 Questions and Problems • 353
Using the fraction transformed–time data (a) How long will it take for the austenite-
given here, determine the total time required to-pearlite reaction to go to 50% comple-
for 95% of the austenite to transform to tion? To 100% completion?
pearlite:
(b) Estimate the hardness of the alloy that
has completely transformed to pearlite.
Fraction Transformed Time (s)
10.16 Briefly cite the differences between pearlite,
0.2 280
bainite, and spheroidite relative to micro-
0.6 425
structure and mechanical properties.
10.10 The fraction recrystallized–time data for the 10.17 What is the driving force for the formation
recrystallization at 350 C of a previously de- of spheroidite?
formed aluminum are tabulated here. 10.18 Using the isothermal transformation dia-
Assum- ing that the kinetics of this process gram for an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid
obey the Avrami relationship, determine composition (Figure 10.22), specify the na-
the fraction recrystallized after a total time ture of the final microstructure (in terms of
of 116.8 min. microconstituents present and approximate
percentages of each) of a small specimen
Fraction Recrystallized Time (min) that has been subjected to the following
0.30 95.2 time–temperature treatments. In each case
0.80 126.6 assume that the specimen begins at 760 C
(1400 F) and that it has been held at this
10.11 (a) From the curves shown in Figure 10.11 temperature long enough to have achieved
and using Equation 10.18, determine the a complete and homogeneous austenitic
rate of recrystallization for pure copper at structure.
the several temperatures. (a) Cool rapidly to 350 C (660 F), hold for
(b) Make a plot of ln(rate) versus the
reciprocal of temperature (in K 1), and 103 s, then quench to room temperature.
determine the activation energy for this (b) Rapidly cool to 625 C (1160 F), hold for
recrystallization process. (See Section 5.5.) 10 s, then quench to room temperature.
(c) By extrapolation, estimate the length of
(c) Rapidly cool to 600 C (1110 F), hold for
time required for 50% recrystallization at
4 s, rapidly cool to 450 C (840 F), hold for
room temperature, 20 C (293 K).
10 s, then quench to room temperature.
10.12 Determine values for the constants n and k
(d) Reheat the specimen in part (c) to 700 C
(Equation 10.17) for the recrystallization of
(1290 F) for 20 h.
copper (Figure 10.11) at 119 C.
(e) Rapidly cool to 300 C (570 F), hold for
Metastable Versus Equilibrium States 20 s, then quench to room temperature in
3
10.13 In terms of heat treatment and the develop- water. Reheat to 425 C (800 F) for 10 s and
ment of microstructure, what are two major slowly cool to room temperature.
limitations of the iron–iron carbide phase (f ) Cool rapidly to 665 C (1230 F), hold for
diagram? 103 s, then quench to room temperature.
10.14 (a) Briefly describe the phenomena of su- (g) Rapidly cool to 575 C (1065 F), hold for
perheating and supercooling. 20 s, rapidly cool to 350 C (660 F), hold for
(b) Why do these phenomena occur? 100 s, then quench to room temperature.
(h) Rapidly cool to 350 C (660 F), hold for
Isothermal Transformation Diagrams 150 s, then quench to room temperature.
10.15 Suppose that a steel of eutectoid composi- 10.19 Make a copy of the isothermal transforma-
tion is cooled to 675 C (1250 F) from 760 C tion diagram for an iron–carbon alloy of
(1400 F) in less than 0.5 s and held at this eutectoid composition (Figure 10.22) and
temperature. then sketch and label time–temperature paths
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354 • Chapter 10 / Phase Transformations in Metals

on this diagram to produce the following (e) Rapidly cool to 650 C (1200 F), hold at
microstructures: this temperature for 3 s, rapidly cool to 400
(a) 100% coarse pearlite C (750 F), hold for 25 s, then quench to
(b) 50% martensite and 50% austenite room temperature.
(f ) Rapidly cool to 350 C (660 F), hold for
(c) 50% coarse pearlite, 25% bainite, and
300 s, then quench to room temperature.
25% martensite
(g) Rapidly cool to 675 C (1250 F), hold for
10.20 Using the isothermal transformation diagram
7 s, then quench to room temperature.
for a 1.13 wt% C steel alloy (Figure 10.39),
de- termine the final microstructure (in terms (h) Rapidly cool to 600 C (1110 F), hold at
of just the microconstituents present) of a this temperature for 7 s, rapidly cool to 450
small specimen that has been subjected to C (840 F), hold at this temperature for 4 s,
the fol- lowing time–temperature treatments. then quench to room temperature.
In each case assume that the specimen begins 10.21 For parts a, c, d, f, and h of Problem 10.20,
at 920 C (1690 F) and that it has been held at determine the approximate percentages of
this tem- perature long enough to have the microconstituents that form.
achieved a com- plete and homogeneous 10.22 Make a copy of the isothermal transforma-
austenitic structure. tion diagram for a 1.13 wt% C iron–carbon
(a) Rapidly cool to 250 C (480 F), hold for alloy (Figure 10.39), and then on this diagram
103 s, then quench to room temperature. sketch and label time–temperature paths to
(b) Rapidly cool to 775 C (1430 F), hold for produce the following microstructures:
500 s, then quench to room temperature. (a) 6.2% proeutectoid cementite and 93.8%
(c) Rapidly cool to 400 C (750 F), hold for coarse pearlite
500 s, then quench to room temperature. (b) 50% fine pearlite and 50% bainite
(d) Rapidly cool to 700 C (1290 F), hold at (c) 100% martensite
this temperature for 105 s, then quench to (d) 100% tempered martensite
room temperature.
Figure 10.39 900 1600
Isothermal
transformation A A+ C
800 1400
diagram for a 1.13
wt% C iron–carbon
alloy: A, austenite; 700
1200
A+ P
B, bainite;
C, proeutectoid P
600
cementite; 1000
Temperature (°F)

M, martensite; 500
Temperature (°C)

A+ B
P, pearlite.
[Adapted from 800
400 B
H. Boyer
(Editor), Atlas of
300 A 50 % 600
Isothermal
Transformation
and Cooling 200 M(start) 400
Transformation
Diagrams, American M(50%)
100
Society for Metals, M(90%) 200
1977, p. 33.]

0
1 10 102 103 104 105 106
Time (s)
 Questions and Problems • 355
Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams transformation diagram for an iron–carbon
10.23 Name the microstructural products of eutec- alloy of eutectoid composition.
toid iron–carbon alloy (0.76 wt% C) speci- 10.27 Name the microstructural products of 4340
mens that are first completely transformed to alloy steel specimens that are first com-
austenite, then cooled to room temperature pletely transformed to austenite, then
at the following rates: (a) 1 C/s, (b) 20 C/s, cooled to room temperature at the following
(c) 50 C/s, and (d) 175 C/s. rates: (a) 0.005 C/s, (b) 0.05 C/s, (c) 0.5
10.24 Figure 10.40 shows the continuous cooling C/s, and (d) 5 C/s.
transformation diagram for a 0.35 wt% C 10.28 Briefly describe the simplest continuous
iron–carbon alloy. Make a copy of this figure cooling heat treatment procedure that would
and then sketch and label continuous cooling be used in converting a 4340 steel from one
curves to yield the following microstructures: microstructure to another.
(a) Fine pearlite and proeutectoid ferrite (a) (Martensite ferrite bainite) to
(b) Martensite (martensite ferrite pearlite bainite)
(c) Martensite and proeutectoid ferrite (b) (Martensite ferrite bainite) to
spheroidite
(d) Coarse pearlite and proeutectoid ferrite
(c) (Martensite + bainite + ferrite) to tem-
(e) Martensite, fine pearlite, and proeutec- pered martensite
toid ferrite
10.29 On the basis of diffusion considerations,
10.25 Cite two important differences between con- explain why fine pearlite forms for the
tinuous cooling transformation diagrams for moderate cooling of austenite through the
plain carbon and alloy steels. eutectoid temperature, whereas coarse
10.26 Briefly explain why there is no bainite trans- pearlite is the product for relatively slow
formation region on the continuous cooling cooling rates.

1000 Figure 10.40 Continuous

cooling transformation diagram
for a 0.35 wt% C iron–carbon
alloy.
800
A F

A
600
Temperature (°C)

400
A M

200

0 103 105 107

0.1 10
Time (s)
356 • Chapter 10 / Phase Transformations in Metals
Mechanical Behavior of Iron–Carbon Alloys (f) Pearlite to spheroidite
Tempered Martensite (g) Tempered martensite to martensite
10.30 Briefly explain why fine pearlite is harder (h) Bainite to spheroidite
and stronger than coarse pearlite, which in 10.35 (a) Briefly describe the microstructural dif-
turn is harder and stronger than spheroidite. ference between spheroidite and tempered
10.31 Cite two reasons why martensite is so hard martensite.
and brittle. (b) Explain why tempered martensite is
10.32 Rank the following iron–carbon alloys and much harder and stronger.
associated microstructures from the hardest 10.36 Estimate the Rockwell hardnesses for spec-
to the softest: (a) 0.25 wt% C with coarse imens of an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid
pearlite, (b) 0.80 wt% C with spheroidite, composition that have been subjected to the
(c) 0.25 wt% C with spheroidite, and (d) 0.80 heat treatments described in parts (d), (e),
wt% C with fine pearlite. Justify this (f), (g), and (h) of Problem 10.18.
ranking.
10.37 Estimate the Brinell hardnesses for speci-
10.33 Briefly explain why the hardness of tem- mens of a 1.13 wt% C iron–carbon alloy that
pered martensite diminishes with temper- have been subjected to the heat treatments
ing time (at constant temperature) and described in parts (a), (d), and (h) of Prob-
with increasing temperature (at constant lem 10.20.
tempering time).
10.38 Determine the approximate tensile strengths
10.34 Briefly describe the simplest heat treatment for specimens of a eutectoid iron–carbon al-
procedure that would be used in converting loy that have experienced the heat treat-
a 0.76 wt% C steel from one microstructure ments described in parts (a), (b), and (d) of
to the other, as follows: Problem 10.23.
(a) Martensite to spheroidite 10.39 For a eutectoid steel, describe isothermal
(b) Spheroidite to martensite heat treatments that would be required to
(c) Bainite to pearlite yield specimens having the following Brinell
hardnesses: (a) 180 HB, (b) 220 HB, and
(d) Pearlite to bainite (c) 500 HB.
(e) Spheroidite to pearlite

DESIGN PR OBLEMS
Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams 10.D3 It is desired to produce an iron–carbon alloy
Mechanical Behavior of Iron–Carbon Alloys that has a minimum hardness of 200 HB and
10.D1 Is it possible to produce an iron–carbon al- a minimum ductility of 35%RA. Is such an
loy of eutectoid composition that has a min- alloy possible? If so, what will be its com-
imum hardness of 200 HB and a minimum position and microstructure (coarse and
ductility of 25%RA? If so, describe the con- fine pearlites and spheroidite are alterna-
tinuous cooling heat treatment to which the tives)? If this is not possible, explain why.
alloy would be subjected to achieve these
properties. If it is not possible, explain why. Tempered Martensite
10.D2 Is it possible to produce an iron–carbon 10.D4 (a) For a 1080 steel that has been water
alloy that has a minimum tensile strength quenched, estimate the tempering time at
of 620 MPa (90,000 psi) and a minimum 535 C (1000 F) to achieve a hardness of
ductility of 50%RA? If so, what will be its 45 HRC.
composition and microstructure (coarse and (b) What will be the tempering time at
fine pearlites and spheroidite are alter- 425 C (800 F) necessary to attain the same
natives)? If this is not possible, explain why. hardness?
 Design Problems • 357
10.D5 An alloy steel (4340) is to be used in an ap- 10.D6 Is it possible to produce an oil-quenched
plication requiring a minimum tensile and tempered 4340 steel that has a
strength of 1515 MPa (220,000 psi) and minimum yield strength of 1240 MPa
a minimum ductility of 40% RA. Oil (180,000 psi) and a ductility of at least
quenching followed by tempering is to be 50%RA? If this is possible, describe the
used. Briefly describe the tempering heat tempering heat treatment. If it is not pos-
treatment. sible, then explain why.