14

The Plane Stress

Problem

14–1
Chapter 14: THE PLANE STRESS PROBLEM 14–2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
§14.1. Introduction 14–3
§14.1.1. Plate in Plane Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–3
§14.1.2. Mathematical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–4
§14.2. Plane Stress Problem Description 14–4
§14.2.1. Given Problem Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–4
§14.2.2. Problem Unknowns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–5
§14.3. Linear Elasticity Equations 14–6
§14.3.1. Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–7
§14.3.2. Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–7
§14.3.3. Weak Forms versus Strong Form . . . . . . . . . . . 14–8
§14.3.4. Total Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–9
§14.4. Finite Element Equations 14–10
§14.4.1. Displacement Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–10
§14.4.2. Element Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–11
§14.4.3. Element Stiffness Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–11
§14. Notes and Bibliography
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–12
§14. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–12
§14. Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–13

14–2
14–3 §14.1 INTRODUCTION

§14.1. Introduction

We now pass to the variational formulation of two-dimensional continuum finite elements. The
problem of plane stress will serve as the vehicle for illustrating such formulations. As narrated in
§1.7.1, continuum finite elements were invented in the aircraft industry (at Boeing, early 1950s) to
solve this kind of problem when it arose in the design and analysis of delta wing panels [251].
The problem is presented here within the framework of the linear theory of elasticity.

§14.1.1. Plate in Plane Stress

In structural mechanics, a flat thin sheet of material is called a plate.1 The distance between the
plate faces is called the thickness and denoted by h. The midplane lies halfway between the two
faces.
z
The direction normal to the midplane is the transverse
direction. Directions parallel to the midplane are called
in-plane directions. The global axis z will be oriented
along the transverse direction. Axes x and y are placed y
in the midplane, forming a right-handed Rectangular x
Cartesian Coordinate (RCC) system. Thus the midplane
equation is z = 0. See Figure 14.1. Figure 14.1. A plate structure in plane stress.

A plate loaded in its midplane is said to be in a state of plane stress, or a membrane state, if the
following assumptions hold:
1. All loads applied to the plate act in the midplane direction, and are symmetric with respect to
the midplane.
2. All support conditions are symmetric about the midplane.
3. In-plane displacements, strains and stresses can be taken to be uniform through the thickness.
4. The normal and shear stress components in the z direction are zero or negligible.
The last two assumptions are not necessarily consequences of the first two. For the latter to hold,
the thickness h should be small, typically 10% or less, than the shortest in-plane dimension. If the
plate thickness varies it should do so gradually. Finally, the plate fabrication must exhibit symmetry
with respect to the midplane.
To these four assumptions we add the following restriction:
5. The plate is fabricated of the same material through the thickness. Such plates are called
transversely homogeneous or (in aerospace) monocoque plates.
The last assumption excludes wall constructions of importance in aerospace, in particular composite
and honeycomb sandwich plates. The development of mathematical models for such configurations
requires a more complicated integration over the thickness as well as the ability to handle coupled
bending and stretching effects, and will not be considered here.

1 If it is relatively thick, as in concrete pavements or Argentinian beefsteaks, the term slab is also used but not for plane
stress conditions.

14–3
Chapter 14: THE PLANE STRESS PROBLEM 14–4

y
Midplane
Mathematical
idealization

Plate
Γ
x

Figure 14.2. Mathematical model of plate in plane stress.

Remark 14.1. Selective relaxation from assumption 4 leads to the so-called generalized plane stress state, in
which z stresses are accepted. The plane strain state is obtained if strains in the z direction are precluded.
Although the construction of finite element models for those states has many common points with plane stress,
we shall not consider those models here. For isotropic materials the plane stress and plane strain problems
can be mapped into each other through a fictitious-property technique; see Exercise 14.1.

Remark 14.2. Transverse loading on a plate produces plate bending, which is associated with a more complex
configuration of internal forces and deformations. This subject is studied in more advanced courses.

§14.1.2. Mathematical Model

The mathematical model of the plate in plane stress is a two-dimensional boundary value problem
(BVP). The BVP is posed over a plane domain  with a boundary , as illustrated in Figure 14.2.
In this idealization the third dimension is represented as functions of x and y that are integrated
through the plate thickness. Engineers often work with internal plate forces, which result from
integrating the in-plane stresses through the thickness. See Figure 14.3.

§14.2. Plane Stress Problem Description

§14.2.1. Given Problem Data

Domain geometry. This is defined by the boundary  illustrated in Figure 14.2.

Thickness. Most plates used as structural components have constant thickness. If the thickness
does vary, in which case h = h(x, y), it should do so gradually to maintain the plane stress state.
Material data. This is defined by the constitutive equations. Here we shall assume that the plate
material is linearly elastic but not necessarily isotropic.
Specified Interior Forces. These are known forces that act in the interior  of the plate. There
are of two types. Body forces or volume forces are forces specified per unit of plate volume; for
example the plate weight. Face forces act tangentially to the plate faces and are transported to the
midplane. For example, the friction or drag force on an airplane skin is of this type if the skin is
modeled to be in plane stress.
Specified Surface Forces. These are known forces that act on the boundary  of the plate. In
elasticity these are called surface tractions. In actual applications it is important to know whether
these forces are specified per unit of surface area or per unit length.

14–4
14–5 §14.2 PLANE STRESS PROBLEM DESCRIPTION

In-plane internal forces

y
h pyy
pyy
y
pxx pxy pxy
x pxx x

z In-plane stresses

h Positive sign convention

σyy y
y x σxx σxy = σ yx

x
In-plane strains In-plane displacements

h h
eyy y uy y
e xx e xy = eyx ux
x x

Figure 14.3. Notation for in-plane stresses, strains, displacements and internal
forces for a plate in plane stress.

Displacement Boundary Conditions. These specify how the plate is supported. Points on the plate
boundary may be fixed, allowed to move in one direction, or subject to multipoint constraints. In
addition symmetry and antisymmetry lines may be identified as discussed in Chapter 8.
If no displacement boundary conditions are imposed, the plate structure is said to be free-free.

§14.2.2. Problem Unknowns

The unknown fields are displacements, strains and stresses. Because of the assumed wall fabrication
homogeneity the in-plane components are assumed to be uniform through the plate thickness. Thus
the dependence on z disappears and all such components become functions of x and y only.
Displacements. The in-plane displacement field is defined by two components:
 
u x (x, y)
u(x, y) = (14.1)
u y (x, y)

The transverse displacement component u z (x, y, z) component is generally nonzero because of

Poisson’s ratio effects, and depends on z. However, this displacement does not appear in the
governing equations.
Strains. The in-plane strain field forms a tensor defined by three independent components: ex x , e yy
and ex y . To allow stating the FE equations in matrix form, these components are conventionally
arranged to form a 3-component “strain vector”
 
ex x (x, y)
e(x, y) = e yy (x, y) (14.2)
2ex y (x, y)

14–5
Chapter 14: THE PLANE STRESS PROBLEM 14–6

Prescribed Displacement
BCs Displacements Body forces
displacements
^
u u = u^ u b
on Γu Γ
Ω

e = D u Kinematic Equilibrium DTσ + b = 0

in Ω (aka Balance) in Ω

Constitutive Stresses Force BCs Prescribed

Strains
σ tractions ^
t or
e σ=Ee σT n = t
^
^
forces q
or e = Cσ or pT n = q^
in Ω on Γt

Figure 14.4. The Strong Form of the plane stress equations of linear elastostatics displayed
as a Tonti diagram. Yellow boxes identify prescribed fields whereas orange boxes denote
unknown fields. The distinction between Strong and Weak Forms is explained in §14.3.3.

The factor of 2 in ex y shortens strain energy expressions. The shear strain components ex z and e yz
vanish. The transverse normal strain ezz is generally nonzero because of Poisson’s ratio effects.
This strain does not enter the governing equations as unknown, however, because the associated
stress σzz is zero. This eliminates the contribution of σzz ezz to the internal energy.
Stresses. The in-plane stress field forms a tensor defined by three independent components: σx x ,
σ yy and σx y . As in the case of strains, to allow stating the FE equations in matrix form, these
components are conventionally arranged to form a 3-component “stress vector”
 
σx x (x, y)
σ(x, y) = σ yy (x, y) (14.3)
σx y (x, y)
The remaining three stress components: σzz , σx z and σ yz , are assumed to vanish.
The plate internal forces are obtained on integrating the stresses through the thickness. Under the
assumption of uniform stress distribution,

px x = σx x h, p yy = σ yy h, px y = σx y h. (14.4)

These p’s also form a tensor. They are called membrane forces in the literature. See Figure 14.3.

§14.3. Linear Elasticity Equations

We shall develop plane stress finite elements in the framework of classical linear elasticity. The
necessary governing equations are presented below. They are graphically represented in the Strong
Form Tonti diagram of Figure 14.4.

14–6
14–7 §14.3 LINEAR ELASTICITY EQUATIONS

§14.3.1. Governing Equations

The three internal fields: displacements, strains and stresses (14.1)–(14.3) are connected by three
field equations: kinematic, constitutive and internal-equilibrium equations. If initial strain effects
are ignored, these equations read
    
ex x ∂/∂ x 0
ux
e yy = 0 ∂/∂ y ,
uy
2ex y ∂/∂ y ∂/∂ x
    
σx x E 11 E 12 E 13 ex x
σ yy = E 12 E 22 E 23 e yy , (14.5)
σx y E 13 E 23 E 33 2ex y
   σx x     
∂/∂ x 0 ∂/∂ y b 0
σ yy + x = .
0 ∂/∂ y ∂/∂ x by 0
σx y
In these equations, bx and b y are the components of the interior body force b, E is the 3 × 3
stress-strain matrix of plane stress elastic moduli, D is the 3 × 2 symmetric-gradient operator and
its transpose the 2 × 3 tensor-divergence operator.2 The compact matrix version of (14.5) is

e = Du, σ = Ee, DT σ + b = 0, (14.6)

in which E = ET . If the plate material is isotropic with elastic modulus E and Poisson’s ratio ν, the
moduli in the constitutive matrix E reduce to E 11 = E 22 = E/(1 − ν 2 ), E 33 = 12 E/(1 + ν) = G,
E 12 = ν E 11 and E 13 = E 23 = 0. See also Exercise 14.1.

§14.3.2. Boundary Conditions

Boundary conditions prescribed on  may be of two types: displacement BC or force BC (the
latter is also called stress BC or traction BC). To write down those conditions it is conceptually
convenient to break up  into two subsets: u and t , over which displacements and force or
stresses, respectively, are specified. See Figure 14.5.
Displacement boundary conditions are prescribed on u in the form

u = û. (14.7)

Here û are prescribed displacements. Often û = 0. This happens in fixed portions of the boundary,
as the ones illustrated in Figure 14.5.
Force boundary conditions (also called stress BCs and traction BCs in the literature) are specified
on t . They take the form
σn = t̂. (14.8)

Here t̂ are prescribed surface tractions specified as a force per unit area (that is, not integrated
through the thickness), and σn is the stress vector shown in Figure 14.5.

2 The dependence on (x, y) has been omitted to reduce clutter.

14–7
Chapter 14: THE PLANE STRESS PROBLEM 14–8

n (unit
t exterior normal)

;;;
;;
^t n
σnt ^t

;;;
;;
;;
t
t^ σn
^t
Γu + Γt

;;;
;;
;;
σ nn
Stress BC details

;;;
;
(decomposition of forces
u^ = 0 q^ would be similar)
Boundary displacements u ^ Boundary tractions ^t or
are prescribed on Γu boundary forces q^
(figure depicts fixity condition) are prescribed on Γt

Figure 14.5. Displacement and force (stress, traction) boundary conditions for the plane stress problem.

An alternative form of (14.8) uses the internal plate forces:

pn = q̂. (14.9)

Here pn = σn h and q̂ = t̂ h. This form is used more often than (14.8) in structural design,
particularly when the plate wall construction is inhomogeneous.
The components of σn in Cartesian coordinates follow from Cauchy’s stress transformation formula

     σx x 
σx x n x + σx y n y nx 0 ny
σn = = σ yy , (14.10)
σx y n x + σ yy n y 0 ny nx
σx y

in which n x and n y denote the Cartesian components of the unit normal vector ne (also called
the direction cosines of the normal). Thus (14.8) splits into two scalar conditions: tˆx = σnx and
tˆy = σny . The derivation of (14.10) is the subject of Exercise 14.4.
It is sometimes convenient to write the condition (14.8) in terms of normal n and tangential t
directions:
σnn = tˆn , σnt = tˆt (14.11)

in which σnn = σnx n x + σny n y and σnt = −σnx n y + σny n x .

Remark 14.3. The separation of  into u and t is useful for conciseness in the mathematical formulation,
such as the energy integrals presented below. It does not exhaust, however, all BC possibilities. Frequently
at points of  one specifies a displacement in one direction and a force (or stress) in the other. An example
of these are roller and sliding conditions as well as lines of symmetry and antisymmetry. To cover these
situations one needs either a generalization of the split, in which u and t are permitted to overlap, or to
define another portion m for “mixed” conditions. Such generalizations will not be presented here, as they
become unimportant once the FE discretization is done.

14–8
14–9 §14.3 LINEAR ELASTICITY EQUATIONS

Prescribed Displacement
BCs Displacements Body forces
displacements ^
^
u u = u u b
on Γu Γ
Ω

e = D u Kinematic Equilibrium δΠ= 0

in Ω (weak) in Ω

Force BCs
Constitutive Stresses (weak) Prescribed
Strains
σ tractions ^
t or
e σ=Ee δΠ = 0 ^
forces q
or e = Cσ on Γt
in Ω

Figure 14.6. The TPE-based Weak Form of the plane stress equations of
linear elastostatics. Weak links are marked with grey lines.

§14.3.3. Weak Forms versus Strong Form

We introduce now some further terminology from variational calculus. The Tonti diagram of Figure
14.4 is said to display the Strong Form of the governing equations because all relations are verified
point by point. These relations, called strong links, are shown in the diagram with black lines.
A Weak Form is obtained by relaxing one or more strong links. Those are replaced by weak links,
which enforce relations in an average or integral sense rather than point by point. The weak links
are then provided by the variational formulation chosen for the problem. Because in general many
variational forms of the same problem are possible, there are many possible Weak Forms. On the
other hand the Strong Form is unique.
The Weak Form associated with the Total Potential Energy (TPE) variational form is illustrated
in Figure 14.6. The internal equilibrium equations and stress BC become weak links, which are
drawn by gray lines. These equations are given by the variational statement δ = 0, where the
TPE functional is given in the next subsection. The FEM displacement formulation discussed
below is based on this particular Weak Form.
§14.3.4. Total Potential Energy
As usual the Total Potential Energy functional for the plane stress problem is given by
= U − W. (14.12)
The internal energy is the elastic strain energy:
 
U=2 1
h σT e d = 1
2
h eT E e d. (14.13)
 

The derivation details are relegated to Exercise E14.5. The external energy is the sum of contribu-
tions from known interior and boundary forces:
 
W = h u b d +
T
h uT t̂ d. (14.14)
 t

14–9
Chapter 14: THE PLANE STRESS PROBLEM 14–10

Note that the boundary integral over  is taken only over t . That is, the portion of the boundary
over which tractions or forces are specified.

§14.4. Finite Element Equations

The necessary equations to apply the finite element (a) (b)

method to the plane stress problem are collected
here and expressed in matrix form. The domain Γ
of Figure 14.7(a) is discretized by a finite element
mesh as illustrated in Figure 14.7(b). From this mesh
we extract a generic element labeled e with n ≥ 3 Ω
node points. In subsequent derivations the number
n is kept arbitrary. Therefore, the formulation is
(c)
applicable to arbitrary two-dimensional elements,
for example those sketched in Figure 14.8. Ωe Γe
To comfortably accommodate general element types,
the node points will be labeled 1 through n. These
are called local node numbers. Numbering will Figure 14.7. Finite element discretization and
extraction of generic element.
always start with corners.
The element domain and boundary are denoted by e and  e , respectively. The element has 2n
degrees of freedom. These are collected in the element node displacement vector

ue = [ u x1 u y1 u x2 . . . u xn u yn ]T . (14.15)

§14.4.1. Displacement Interpolation

The displacement field ue (x, y) over the element is interpolated from the node displacements. We
shall assume that the same interpolation functions are used for both displacement components.3
Thus
n 
n
u x (x, y) = Ni (x, y) u xi ,
e
u y (x, y) = Nie (x, y) u yi , (14.16)
i=1 i=1

where Nie (x, y) are the element shape functions. In matrix form:
   e 
u x (x, y) N1 0 N2e 0 ... Nne 0
u(x, y) = = ue = N ue . (14.17)
u y (x, y) 0 N1e 0 N2e ... 0 Nne

This N (with superscript e omitted to reduce clutter) is called the shape function matrix. It has
dimensions 2 × 2n. For example, if the element has 4 nodes, N is 2 × 8.
The interpolation condition on the element shape function Nie (x, y) states that it must take the value
one at the i th node and zero at all others. This ensures that the interpolation (14.17) is correct at
the nodes. Additional requirements on the shape functions are stated in later Chapters.

3 This is the so called element isotropy condition, which is studied and justified in advanced FEM courses.

14–10
14–11 §14.4 FINITE ELEMENT EQUATIONS

3 4
3 3 8
4 9 3
2 5
6 10 12 7
2 11 6
1
1
1 2 1 4 5 2

n=3 n=4 n=6 n = 12

Figure 14.8. Example plane stress finite elements, characterized by their number of nodes n.

Differentiating the finite element displacement field yields the strain-displacement relations:
 ∂Ne ∂ N2e ∂ Nne 
1 0 0 . . . ∂x 0
 ∂x ∂x 
 ∂ N1e
∂ N2e
∂ Nne 

e(x, y) =  0 ...  e
∂y  u = B u . (14.18)
e
∂y 0 ∂y 0
 
∂ N1e ∂ N1e ∂ N2e ∂ N2e ∂ Nne ∂ Nne
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x . . . ∂y ∂x
This B = D N is called the strain-displacement matrix. It is dimensioned 3 × 2n. For example, if
the element has 6 nodes, B is 3 × 12. The stresses are given in terms of strains and displacements
by σ = E e = EBue , which is assumed to hold at all points of the element.

§14.4.2. Element Energy

To obtain finite element stiffness equations, the variation of the TPE functional is decomposed into
contributions from individual elements:

δ e = δU e − δW e = 0. (14.19)
where  
U =
e 1
2
h σ e d = T e 1
2
h eT Ee de (14.20)
e e

and  
W = e
h u b d +
T e
h uT t̂ d e (14.21)
e e

Note that in (14.21) te has been taken equal to the complete boundary  e of the element. This is
a consequence of the fact that displacement boundary conditions are applied after assembly, to a
free-free structure. Consequently it does not harm to assume that all boundary conditions are of
stress type insofar as forming the element equations.

§14.4.3. Element Stiffness Equations

Inserting the relations u = Nue , e = Bue and σ = Ee into e yields the quadratic form in the
nodal displacements
e = 12 ue T Ke ue − ue T fe . (14.22)

14–11
Chapter 14: THE PLANE STRESS PROBLEM 14–12

Here the element stiffness matrix is


K = e
h BT EB de , (14.23)
e

and the consistent element nodal force vector is

 
f =
e
h N b d +
T e
h NT t̂ d e . (14.24)
e e

In the second integral of (14.24) the matrix N is evaluated on the element boundary only.
The calculation of the entries of Ke and fe for several elements of historical or practical interest is
described in subsequent Chapters.
Notes and Bibliography
The plane stress problem is well suited for introducing continuum finite elements, from both historical and
technical standpoints. Some books use the Poisson equation for this purpose, but problems such as heat
conduction cannot illustrate features such as vector-mixed boundary conditions and shear effects.
The first continuum structural finite elements were developed at Boeing in the early 1950s to model delta-wing
skin panels [47,251]. A plane stress model was naturally chosen for the panels. The paper that gave the
method its name [38] used the plane stress problem as application driver.
The technical aspects of plane stress can be found in any book on elasticity. A particularly readable one is the
excellent textbook by Fung [104], which is unfortunately out of print.

References
Referenced items have been moved to Appendix R.

14–12
14–13 Exercises

Homework Exercises for Chapter 14

The Plane Stress Problem

EXERCISE 14.1 [A+C:25] Suppose that the structural material is isotropic, with elastic modulus E and
Poisson’s ratio ν. The in-plane stress-strain relations for plane stress (σzz = σx z = σ yz = 0) and plane strain
(ezz = ex z = e yz = 0) as given in any textbook on elasticity, are
    
σx x E 0 1 ν ex x
plane stress: σ yy = 0 ν 1 e yy ,
σx y 1 − ν2 1−ν 0 0 2ex y
2 (E14.1)
    
σx x E 1 −ν ν 0 ex x
plane strain: σ yy = ν 1−ν 0 e yy .
σx y (1 + ν)(1 − 2ν) 0 0 1
(1 − 2ν) 2ex y
2

Show that the constitutive matrix of plane strain can be formally obtained by replacing E by a fictitious
modulus E ∗ and ν by a fictitious Poisson’s ratio ν ∗ in the plane stress constitutive matrix. Find the expression
of E ∗ and ν ∗ in terms of E and ν.
You may also chose to answer this exercise by doing the inverse process: go from plane strain to plain stress
by replacing a fictitious modulus and Poisson’s ratio in the plane strain constitutive matrix.
This device permits “reusing” a plane stress FEM program to do plane strain, or vice-versa, as long as the
material is isotropic.
Partial answer to go from plane stress to plane strain: ν ∗ = ν/(1 − ν).

EXERCISE 14.2 [A:25] In the finite element formulation of near incompressible isotropic materials (as well
as plasticity and viscoelasticity) it is convenient to use the so-called Lamé constants λ and µ instead of E and
ν in the constitutive equations. Both λ and µ have the physical dimension of stress and are related to E and ν
by
νE E
λ= , µ=G= . (E14.2)
(1 + ν)(1 − 2ν) 2(1 + ν)
Conversely
µ(3λ + 2µ) λ
E= , ν= . (E14.3)
λ+µ 2(λ + µ)
Substitute (E14.3) into (E14.1) to express the two stress-strain matrices in terms of λ and µ. Then split the
stress-strain matrix E of plane strain as
E = E µ + Eλ (E14.4)
in which Eµ and Eλ contain only µ and λ, respectively, with Eµ diagonal and E λ33 = 0. This is the Lamé or
{λ, µ} splitting of the plane strain constitutive equations, which leads to the so-called B-bar formulation of
near-incompressible finite elements.4 Express Eµ and Eλ also in terms of E and ν.
For the plane stress case perform a similar splitting in which where Eλ contains only λ̄ = 2λµ/(λ + 2µ) with
E λ33 = 0, and Eµ is a diagonal matrix function of µ and λ̄.5 Express Eµ and Eλ also in terms of E and ν.

4 Equation (E14.4) is sometimes referred to as the deviatoric+volumetric splitting of the stress-strain law, on account of
its physical meaning in plane strain. That meaning is lost, however, for plane stress.
5 For the physical significance of λ̄ see [218, pp. 254ff].

14–13
Chapter 14: THE PLANE STRESS PROBLEM 14–14

EXERCISE 14.3 [A:20] Include thermoelastic effects in the plane stress constitutive field equations, assuming
a thermally isotropic material with coefficient of linear expansion α. Hint: start from the two-dimensional
Hooke’s law including temperature:
1 1
ex x = (σx x − νσ yy ) + α T, e yy = (σ yy − νσx x ) + α T, 2ex y = σx y /G, (E14.5)
E E
in which T = T (x, y) and G = 12 E/(1 + ν). Solve for stresses and collect effects of T in one vector
of “thermal stresses.”

EXERCISE 14.4 [A:15] Derive the Cauchy stress- ty n(nx =dx/ds, ny =dy/ds)
to-traction equations (14.10) using force equilibrium y
along x and y and the geometric relations shown σx x
x dy ds tx
in Figure E14.1. (This is the “wedge method” in dx
Mechanics of Materials.) σx y = σy x
σyy
Hint: tx ds = σx x dy + σx y d x, etc.
Figure E14.1. Geometry for deriving (14.10).

EXERCISE 14.5 [A:25=5+5+15] A plate is in linearly elastic plane stress. It is shown in courses in elasticity
that the internal strain energy density stored per unit volume is

U = 12 (σx x ex x + σ yy e yy + σx y ex y + σ yx e yx ) = 12 (σx x ex x + σ yy e yy + 2σx y ex y ). (E14.6)

(a) Show that (E14.6) can be written in terms of strains only as

U = 12 eT E e, (E14.7)

and hence justify (14.13).

(b) Show that (E14.6) can be written in terms of stresses only as

U = 12 σT C σ, (E14.8)

where C = E−1 is the elastic compliance (strain-stress) matrix.

(c) Suppose you want to write (E14.6) in terms of the extensional strains {ex x , e yy } and of the shear stress
σx y = σ yx . This is known as a mixed representation. Show that
 T   
ex x A11 A12 A13 ex x
U= 1
2
e yy A12 A22 A23 e yy , (E14.9)
σx y A13 A23 A33 σx y

and explain how the entries Ai j can be calculated6 in terms of the elastic moduli E i j .

6 The process of computing A is an instance of “partial inversion” of matrix E. See Remark 11.3.

14–14