Ceramic
Ceramic
Ceramic
Ceramic History
Ceramic Processing
The next step is to form the ceramic particles into a desired shape. This is
accomplished by the addition of water and/or additives such as binders,
followed by a shape forming process. Some of the most common forming
methods for ceramics include extrusion, slip casting, pressing, tape casting
and injection molding. After the particles are formed, these "green"
ceramics undergo a heat-treatment (called firing or sintering) to produce a
rigid, finished product. Some ceramic products such as electrical insulators,
dinnerware and tile may then undergo a glazing process. Some ceramics
for advanced applications may undergo a machining and/or polishing step
in order meet specific engineering design criteria.
Ceramic Properties
The properties of ceramic materials, like all materials, are dictated by the
types of atoms present, the types of bonding between the atoms, and the
way the atoms are packed together. This is known as the atomic scale
structure. Most ceramics are made up of two or more elements. This is
called a compound. For example, alumina (Al2O3), is a compound made up
of aluminum atoms and oxygen atoms.
The atoms in ceramic materials are held together by a chemical bond. The
two most common chemical bonds for ceramic materials are covalent and
ionic. For metals, the chemical bond is called the metallic bond. The
bonding of atoms together is much stronger in covalent and ionic bonding
than in metallic. That is why, generally speaking, metals are ductile and
ceramics are brittle. Due to ceramic materials wide range of properties,
they are used for a multitude of applications. In general, most ceramics are:
hard,
wear-resistant,
brittle,
refractory,
thermal insulators,
electrical insulators,
nonmagnetic,
oxidation resistant,
prone to thermal shock, and
chemically stable.
A ceramic is an inorganic, nonmetallic solid material
comprising metal, nonmetal ormetalloid atoms primarily held
in ionic and covalent bonds. The crystallinity of ceramic materials
ranges from highly oriented to semi-crystalline, and often
completelyamorphous (e.g., glasses). Varying crystallinity
and electron consumption in the ionic and covalent bonds cause most
ceramic materials to be good thermal and electrical insulators and
extensively researched in ceramic engineering. Nevertheless, with
such a large range of possible options for the composition/structure
of a ceramic (e.g. nearly all of the elements, nearly all types of
bonding, and all levels of crystallinity), the breadth of the subject is
vast, and identifiable attributes (e.g. hardness,toughness, electrical
conductivity, etc.) are hard to specify for the group as a whole.
However, generalities such as high melting temperature, high
hardness, poor conductivity, high moduli of elasticity, chemical
resistance and low ductility are the norm,[1] with known exceptions to
each of these rules (e.g. piezoelectric ceramics,glass
transition temperature, superconductive ceramics, etc.). Many
composites, such as fiberglass and carbon fiber, while containing
ceramic materials, are not considered to be part of the ceramic
family.[2]
The word "ceramic comes from the Greek word κεραμικός (keramikos),
"of pottery" or "for pottery", [3] from κέραμος (keramos), "potter's clay,
tile, pottery".[4] The earliest known mention of the root "ceram-" is
the Mycenaean Greek ke-ra-me-we, "workers of ceramics", written
in Linear B syllabic script.[5] The word "ceramic" may be used as an
adjective to describe a material, product or process, or it may be used
as a noun, either singular, or, more commonly, as the plural noun
"ceramics".[6]
The earliest ceramics made by humans were pottery objects,
including 27,000-year-old figurines, made from clay, either by itself
or mixed with other materials like silica, hardened, sintered, in fire.
Later ceramics were glazed and fired to create smooth, colored
surfaces, decreasing porosity through the use of glassy, amorphous
ceramic coatings on top of the crystalline ceramic
substrates.[7] Ceramics now include domestic, industrial and building
products, as well as a wide range of ceramic art. In the 20th century,
new ceramic materials were developed for use in advanced ceramic
engineering, such as in semiconductors.
By usage
For convenience, ceramic products are usually divided into four sectors;
these are shown below with some examples:
Knife blades: the blade of a ceramic knife will stay sharp for much
longer than that of a steel knife, although it is more brittle and can snap
from a fall onto a hard surface.
Ceramics such as alumina and boron carbide have been used in ballistic
armored vests to repel large-caliber rifle fire. Such plates are known
commonly as small arms protective inserts, or SAPIs. Similar material is
used to protect thecockpits of some military airplanes, because of the
low weight of the material.
Ceramics can be used in place of steel for ball bearings. Their higher
hardness means they are much less susceptible to wear and typically
last for triple the lifetime of a steel part. They also deform less under
load, meaning they have less contact with the bearing retainer walls and
can roll faster. In very high speed applications, heat from friction during
rolling can cause problems for metal bearings, which are reduced by the
use of ceramics. Ceramics are also more chemically resistant and can be
used in wet environments where steel bearings would rust. In some
cases, their electricity-insulating properties may also be valuable in
bearings. Two drawbacks to ceramic bearings are a significantly higher
cost and susceptibility to damage under shock loads.
Work is being done in developing ceramic parts for gas turbine engines.
Currently, even blades made of advanced metal alloys used in the
engines' hot section require cooling and careful limiting of operating
temperatures. Turbine engines made with ceramics could operate more
efficiently, giving aircraft greater range and payload for a set amount of
fuel.
Ceramics in archaeology[edit]
Ceramic artifacts have an important role in archaeology for understanding
the culture, technology and behavior of peoples of the past. They are
among the most common artifacts to be found at an archaeological site,
generally in the form of small fragments of broken pottery called sherds.
Processing of collected sherds can be consistent with two main types of
analysis: technical and traditional.
Traditional analysis involves sorting ceramic artifacts, sherds and larger
fragments into specific types based on style, composition, manufacturing
and morphology. By creating these typologies it is possible to distinguish
between different cultural styles, the purpose of the ceramic and
technological state of the people among other conclusions. In addition, by
looking at stylistic changes of ceramics over time is it possible to separate
(seriate) the ceramics into distinct diagnostic groups (assemblages). A
comparison of ceramic artifacts with known dated assemblages allows for a
chronological assignment of these pieces. [11]
The technical approach to ceramic analysis involves a finer examination of
the composition of ceramic artifacts and sherds to determine the source of
the material and through this the possible manufacturing site. Key criteria
are the composition of the clay and the temper used in the manufacture of
the article under study: temper is a material added to the clay during the
initial production stage, and it is used to aid the subsequent drying
process. Types of temper include shell pieces, granite fragments and
ground sherd pieces called 'grog'. Temper is usually identified by
microscopic examination of the temper material. Clay identification is
determined by a process of refiring the ceramic, and assigning a color to it
using Munsell Soil Color notation. By estimating both the clay and temper
compositions, and locating a region where both are known to occur, an
assignment of the material source can be made. From the source
assignment of the artifact further investigations can be made into the site of
manufacture.
Sintering
Sintering is the process of compacting and forming a solid mass of
material by heat[1] and/or pressure[2] without melting it to the point of
liquefaction.
Sintering happens naturally in mineral deposits or as a manufacturing
process used with metals, ceramics, plastics, and other materials. The
atoms in the materials diffuse across the boundaries of the particles, fusing
the particles together and creating one solid piece. Because the sintering
temperature does not have to reach the melting point of the material,
sintering is often chosen as the shaping process for materials with
extremely high melting points such as tungsten and molybdenum. The
study of sintering in metallurgy powder-related processes is known
as powder metallurgy. An example of sintering can be observed when ice
cubes in a glass of water adhere to each other, which is driven by the
temperature difference between the water and the ice. [citation needed]Examples
of pressure-driven sintering are the compacting of snowfall to a glacier, or
the forming of a hard snowball by pressing loose snow together.
Ceramic sintering
Sintering is part of the firing process used in the manufacture
of pottery and other ceramic objects. These objects are made from
substances such
as glass, alumina, zirconia, silica, magnesia, lime, beryllium oxide,
and ferric oxide. Some ceramic raw materials have a lower affinity for
water and a lower plasticity index than clay, requiring organic additives in
the stages before sintering. The general procedure of creating ceramic
objects via sintering of powders includes:
Vitrification
Vitrification (from Latin vitreum, "glass" via French vitrifier) is the
transformation of a substance into a glass.[1] In ceramics it is the
impermeability to water.[2]
Description
Examples
When sucrose is cooled slowly it results in crystal sugar (or rock candy),
but when cooled rapidly it can form syrupy cotton candy (candyfloss). In
the process of vitrification the solid waste is exposed to heat and is
converted into a sort of glass-like substance.
Vitrification can also occur when starting with a liquid such as water,
usually through very rapid cooling or the introduction of agents that
suppress the formation of ice crystals. This is in contrast to
ordinary freezing which results in ice crystal formation. Additives used
in cryobiology or produced naturally by organisms living in polar
regions are called cryoprotectants.
Arctic frogs and some other ectotherms naturally
produce glycerol or glucose in their livers to reduce ice formation. When
glucose is used as a cryoprotectant by arctic frogs, massive amounts of
glucose are released at low temperature and a special form
of insulin allows for this extra glucose to enter the cells. When the frog
rewarms during spring, the extra glucose must be rapidly eliminated, but
stored. Arctic insects also use sugars as cryoprotectants. Arctic fish
use antifreeze proteins, sometimes appended with sugars, as
cryoprotectants.
Applications
Ordinary soda-lime glass, used in windows and drinking containers, is
created by the addition of sodium carbonate and lime (calcium oxide)
to silicon dioxide. Without these additives silicon dioxide will require very
high temperature to obtain a melt and subsequently (with slow cooling) a
glass.
Vitrification is a proven technique in the disposal and long-term storage
of nuclear waste or other hazardous wastes[13] in a method
called geomelting. Waste is mixed with glass-forming chemicals in a
furnace to form molten glass that then solidifies in canisters, thereby
immobilizing the waste. The final waste form resembles obsidian and is a
non-leaching, durable material that effectively traps the waste inside. The
waste can be stored for relatively long periods in this form without concern
for airor groundwater contamination. Bulk vitrification uses electrodes to
melt soil and wastes where they lay buried. The hardened waste may then
be disinterred with less danger of widespread contamination. According to
the Pacific Northwest National Labs, "Vitrification locks dangerous
materials into a stable glass form that will last for thousands of years." [14]
Ethylene glycol is used as automotive antifreeze and propylene glycol has
been used to reduce ice crystals in ice cream, making it smoother.
Vitrification in cryopreservation is used as a common method to preserve,
for example, human egg cells (oocytes) (in oocyte cryopreservation) and
embryos (in embryo cryopreservation). For years, glycerol has been used
in cryobiology as a cryoprotectant for blood cells and bull sperm, allowing
storage at liquid nitrogen temperatures. However, glycerol cannot be used
to protect whole organs from damage. Instead, many biotechnology
companies are researching the development of other cryoprotectants more
suitable for such uses. A successful discovery may eventually make
possible the bulk cryogenicstorage (or "banking") of transplantable human
and xenobiotic organs. A substantial step in that direction has already
occurred. Twenty-First Century Medicine has vitrified a rabbit kidney to -
135 °C with their proprietary vitrification cocktail. Upon rewarming, the
kidney was successfully transplanted into a rabbit, with complete
functionality and viability, able to sustain the rabbit indefinitely as the sole
functioning kidney.[15]
Currently, vitrification techniques have only been applied to brains
(neurovitrification) by Alcor and to the upper body by theCryonics
Institute, but research is in progress by both organizations to apply
vitrification to the whole body.