Systems Development Life Cycle

Model of the Systems Development Life Cycle with the Maintenance bubble highlighted.

The Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC), or Software Development Life Cycle in
systems engineering, information systems and software engineering, is the process of
creating or altering systems, and the models and methodologies that people use to
develop these systems. The concept generally refers to computer or information systems.

In software engineering the SDLC concept underpins many kinds of software

development methodologies. These methodologies form the framework for planning and
controlling the creation of an information system[1]: the software development process.

[edit] Overview
Systems and Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a process used by a systems analyst to
develop an information system, including requirements, validation, training, and user
(stakeholder) ownership. Any SDLC should result in a high quality system that meets or
exceeds customer expectations, reaches completion within time and cost estimates, works
effectively and efficiently in the current and planned Information Technology
infrastructure, and is inexpensive to maintain and cost-effective to enhance.[2]

Computer systems are complex and often (especially with the recent rise of Service-
Oriented Architecture) link multiple traditional systems potentially supplied by different
software vendors. To manage this level of complexity, a number of SDLC models have
been created: "waterfall"; "fountain"; "spiral"; "build and fix"; "rapid prototyping";
"incremental"; and "synchronize and stabilize".[citation needed]
SDLC models can be described along a spectrum of agile to iterative to sequential. Agile
methodologies, such as XP and Scrum, focus on light-weight processes which allow for
rapid changes along the development cycle. Iterative methodologies, such as Rational
Unified Process and Dynamic Systems Development Method, focus on limited project
scopes and expanding or improving products by multiple iterations. Sequential or big-
design-upfront (BDUF) models, such as Waterfall, focus on complete and correct
planning to guide large projects and risks to successful and predictable results[citation needed].
Other models, such as Anamorphic Development, tend to focus on a form of
development that is guided by project scope and adaptive iterations of feature
development.

In project management a project can be defined both with a project life cycle (PLC) and
an SDLC, during which slightly different activities occur. According to Taylor (2004)
"the project life cycle encompasses all the activities of the project, while the systems
development life cycle focuses on realizing the product requirements".[3]

[edit] History
The systems development life cycle (SDLC) is a type of methodology used to describe
the process for building information systems, intended to develop information systems in
a very deliberate, structured and methodical way, reiterating each stage of the life cycle.
The systems development life cycle, according to Elliott & Strachan & Radford (2004),
"originated in the 1960s to develop large scale functional business systems in an age of
large scale business conglomerates. Information systems activities revolved around heavy
data processing and number crunching routines".[4]

Several systems development frameworks have been partly based on SDLC, such as the
Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method (SSADM) produced for the UK
government Office of Government Commerce in the 1980s. Ever since, according to
Elliott (2004), "the traditional life cycle approaches to systems development have been
increasingly replaced with alternative approaches and frameworks, which attempted to
overcome some of the inherent deficiencies of the traditional SDLC".[4]

[edit] Systems development phases

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The System Development Life Cycle framework provides system designers and
developers to follow a sequence of activities. It consists of a set of steps or phases in
which each phase of the SDLC uses the results of the previous one.

A Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) adheres to important phases that are
essential for developers, such as planning, analysis, design, and implementation, and are
explained in the section below. A number of system development life cycle (SDLC)
models have been created: waterfall, fountain, spiral, build and fix, rapid prototyping,
incremental, and synchronize and stabilize. The oldest of these, and the best known, is the
waterfall model: a sequence of stages in which the output of each stage becomes the input
for the next. These stages can be characterized and divided up in different ways,
including the following[5]:

• Project planning, feasibility study: Establishes a high-level view of the intended

project and determines its goals.

• Systems analysis, requirements definition: Refines project goals into defined

functions and operation of the intended application. Analyzes end-user
information needs.

• Systems design: Describes desired features and operations in detail, including

screen layouts, business rules, process diagrams, pseudocode and other
documentation.

• Implementation: The real code is written here.

• Integration and testing: Brings all the pieces together into a special testing
environment, then checks for errors, bugs and interoperability.

• Acceptance, installation, deployment: The final stage of initial development,

where the software is put into production and runs actual business.

• Maintenance: What happens during the rest of the software's life: changes,
correction, additions, moves to a different computing platform and more. This, the
least glamorous and perhaps most important step of all, goes on seemingly
forever.

In the following example (see picture) these stage of the Systems Development Life
Cycle are divided in ten steps from definition to creation and modification of IT work
products:
The tenth phase occurs when the system is disposed of and the task performed is either
eliminated or transferred to other systems. The tasks and work products for each phase
are described in subsequent chapters. [6]

Not every project will require that the phases be sequentially executed. However, the
phases are interdependent. Depending upon the size and complexity of the project, phases
may be combined or may overlap.[6]

[edit] System analysis

The goal of system analysis is to determine where the problem is in an attempt to fix the
system. This step involves breaking down the system in different pieces to analyze the
situation, analyzing project goals, breaking down what needs to be created and attempting
to engage users so that definite requirements can be defined. Requirements analysis
sometimes requires individuals/teams from client as well as service provider sides to get
detailed and accurate requirements....often there has to be a lot of communication to and
from to understand these requirements. Requirement gathering is the most crucial aspect
as many times communication gaps arise in this phase and this leads to validation errors
and bugs in the software program.
[edit] Design

In systems design the design functions and operations are described in detail, including
screen layouts, business rules, process diagrams and other documentation. The output of
this stage will describe the new system as a collection of modules or subsystems.

The design stage takes as its initial input the requirements identified in the approved
requirements document. For each requirement, a set of one or more design elements will
be produced as a result of interviews, workshops, and/or prototype efforts.

Design elements describe the desired software features in detail, and generally include
functional hierarchy diagrams, screen layout diagrams, tables of business rules, business
process diagrams, pseudocode, and a complete entity-relationship diagram with a full
data dictionary. These design elements are intended to describe the software in sufficient
detail that skilled programmers may develop the software with minimal additional input
design.

[edit] Implementation

Modular and subsystem programming code will be accomplished during this stage. Unit
testing and module testing are done in this stage by the developers. This stage is
intermingled with the next in that individual modules will need testing before integration
to the main project.

[edit] Testing

The code is tested at various levels in software testing. Unit, system and user acceptance
testings are often performed. This is a grey area as many different opinions exist as to
what the stages of testing are and how much if any iteration occurs. Iteration is not
generally part of the waterfall model, but usually some occur at this stage.

Following are the types of testing:

• Data set testing.

• Unit testing
• System testing
• Integration testing
• Black box testing
• White box testing
• Regression testing
• Automation testing
• User acceptance testing
• Performance testing
• Production process that ensures that the program performs the intended task.

[edit] Operations and maintenance

The deployment of the system includes changes and enhancements before the
decommissioning or sunset of the system. Maintaining the system is an important aspect
of SDLC. As key personnel change positions in the organization, new changes will be
implemented, which will require system updates.

[edit] Systems development life cycle topics

[edit] Management and control

SDLC Phases Related to Management Controls.[7]

The Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) phases serve as a programmatic guide to
project activity and provide a flexible but consistent way to conduct projects to a depth
matching the scope of the project. Each of the SDLC phase objectives are described in
this section with key deliverables, a description of recommended tasks, and a summary of
related control objectives for effective management. It is critical for the project manager
to establish and monitor control objectives during each SDLC phase while executing
projects. Control objectives help to provide a clear statement of the desired result or
purpose and should be used throughout the entire SDLC process. Control objectives can
be grouped into major categories (Domains), and relate to the SDLC phases as shown in
the figure.[7]

To manage and control any SDLC initiative, each project will be required to establish
some degree of a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) to capture and schedule the work
necessary to complete the project. The WBS and all programmatic material should be
kept in the “Project Description” section of the project notebook. The WBS format is
mostly left to the project manager to establish in a way that best describes the project
work. There are some key areas that must be defined in the WBS as part of the SDLC
policy. The following diagram describes three key areas that will be addressed in the
WBS in a manner established by the project manager.[7]
[edit] Baselines in the SDLC

Baselines are an important part of the Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC). These
baselines are established after four of the five phases of the SDLC and are critical to the
iterative nature of the model .[8] Each baseline is considered as a milestone in the SDLC.

• Functional Baseline: established after the conceptual design phase.

• Allocated Baseline: established after the preliminary design phase.
• Product Baseline: established after the detail design and development phase.
• Updated Product Baseline: established after the production construction phase.

[edit] Complementary to SDLC

Complementary Software development methods to Systems Development Life Cycle

(SDLC) are:

• Software Prototyping
• Joint Applications Design (JAD)
• Rapid Application Development (RAD)
• Extreme Programming (XP); extension of earlier work in Prototyping and RAD.
• Open Source Development
• End-user development
• Object Oriented Programming

Comparison of Methodology Approaches (Post, & Anderson 2006)[9]

Open End
SDLC RAD Objects JAD Prototyping
Source User
Control Formal MIS Weak Standards Joint User User
Time Frame Long Short Medium Any Medium Short Short
Users Many Few Few Varies Few One or Two One
MIS staff Many Few Hundreds Split Few One or Two None
Transaction/DSS Transaction Both Both Both DSS DSS DSS
Interface Minimal Minimal Weak Windows Crucial Crucial Crucial
Documentation In
Vital Limited Internal Limited Weak None
and training Objects
Integrity and In
Vital Vital Unknown Limited Weak Weak
security Objects
Reusability Limited Some Maybe Vital Limited Weak None

[edit] Strengths and weaknesses

Few people in the modern computing world would use a strict waterfall model for their
Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) as many modern methodologies have
superseded this thinking. Some will argue that the SDLC no longer applies to models like
Agile computing, but it is still a term widely in use in Technology circles. The SDLC
practice has advantages in traditional models of software development, that lends itself
more to a structured environment. The disadvantages to using the SDLC methodology is
when there is need for iterative development or (i.e. web development or e-commerce)
where stakeholders need to review on a regular basis the software being designed. Instead
of viewing SDLC from a strength or weakness perspective, it is far more important to
take the best practices from the SDLC model and apply it to whatever may be most
appropriate for the software being designed.

A comparison of the strengths and weaknesses of SDLC:

Strength and Weaknesses of SDLC [9]

Strengths Weaknesses
Control. Increased development time.
Monitor Large projects. Increased development cost.
Detailed steps. Systems must be defined up front.
Evaluate costs and completion targets. Rigidity.
Documentation. Hard to estimate costs, project overruns.
Well defined user input. User input is sometimes limited.
Ease of maintenance.
Development and design standards.
Tolerates changes in MIS staffing.

An alternative to the SDLC is Rapid Application Development, which combines

prototyping, Joint Application Development and implementation of CASE tools. The
advantages of RAD are speed, reduced development cost, and active user involvement in
the development process.

It should not be assumed that just because the waterfall model is the oldest original
SDLC model that it is the most efficient system. At one time the model was beneficial
mostly to the world of automating activities that were assigned to clerks and accountants.
However, the world of technological evolution is demanding[citation needed] that systems