The Representation of Nature

in Contemporary Physics*
WERNER HEISENBERG

THE PROBLEMS of modem art, so frequently and passionately dis

cussed in our time, force us to examine those foundations which form
the presupposition for every development of art, foundations which
at other times are taken as self-evident. Indeed, the question has
been raised whether the relation of modern man toward nature
differs so fundamentally from that of former times that this difference
alone is responsible for a completely different point of departure for
the fine arts in contemporary culture. Certainly the relation of our
period toward nature hardly finds its expression, as it did in earlier
centuries, in a developed natural philosophy; rather, it is determined
mainly by modern science and technology.
For this reason it is worthwhile to consider the view of nature
held by modern science, and in particular by contemporary physics.
From the start, however, a reservationmust be made: there is little
ground for believing that the current world view of science has
directly influenced the development of modern art or could have
done so. Yet we may believe that the changes in the foundations of
modem science are an indication of profound transformations in
the fundamentals of our existence, which on their part certainly have
their effects in all areas of human experience. From this point of
view itmay be valuable for the artist to consider what changes have
occurred during the last decade in the scientific view of nature.

I
First, let us consider the historical roots of recent science. When
this science was being established in the seventeenth century by
Kepler, Galileo, and Newton, the medieval image was at first still
unbroken: man saw in nature God's creation. Nature was thought
of as the work of God. It would have seemed senseless to people of
' From Die Kiinste im Technischen Zeitalter, published on behalf of the Bavarian
Academy of Fine Arts, Munich; R. Oldenbourg, publisher, 1956. Printed by
permission of the author and publisher. Original translation by 0. T. Benfey,
Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana.
96 Daedalus
that time to ask about thematerial world apart from its dependence
on God. The words with which Kepler concluded the last volume
of his Harmony of theWorld may be cited as a document of that era:
I thank thee, 0 Lord, our Creator, that thou hast permitted me to look
at the beauty in thy work of creation; I exult in the works of thy hands.
See, I have here completed the work to which I felt called; I have earned
interest from the talent that thou hast given me. I have proclaimed the
glory of thy works to the people who will read these demonstrations, to
the extent that the limitationsof my spiritwould allow.
In the course of a few decades, however, this relation of man
toward nature altered fundamentally. As the scientist immersed
himself in the details of natural processes, he recognized that itwas
in fact possible, following Galileo's example, to separate out in
dividual processes of nature from their environment, describe them
mathematically, and thus "explain" them. At the same time, it
certainly became clear to him what an endless task was thus pre
sented to the infant science. Newton could no longer see the world
as the work of God, comprehensible only as a whole. His position
toward nature is most clearly circumscribed by his well-known
statement that he felt like a child playing at the seashore, happy
whenever he found a smoother pebble or a more beautiful sea shell
than usual, while the great ocean of truth lay unexplored before him.
This transformation in the attitude of the scientist toward nature
may perhaps be better understood when we consider that, to some
Christian thought of the period, God in heaven seemed so far re
moved from earth that it became meaningful to view the earth apart
from God. Thus there may even be justification in speaking of a
specifically Christian form of godlessness in connection with modem
science. This would explain why such a development has not taken
place in other cultures. It is certainly no coincidence that precisely
in that period, nature becomes the object of representation in the
arts independent of religious themes. The same tendency comes to
expression in science when nature is considered not only independent
of God, but also independent of man, so that there is formed the
ideal of an " objective " description or explanation of nature. Never
theless, it must be emphasized that for Newton the sea shell is
significant only because it comes from the great ocean of truth.
Observing it is not yet an end in itself; rather, its study receives
meaning through its relation to the whole.
In the subsequent era, the method of Newton's mechanics was
 Nature and Contemporary Physics 97
successfully applied to ever wider realms of nature. This period
attempted to separate out details of nature by means of experiments,
to observe them objectively, and to understand the laws underlying
them. It attempted to formulate interrelationsmathematically and
thus to arrive at " laws " that hold without qualification throughout
the cosmos. By this path it finally succeeded inmaking the forces of
nature serve our purposes through technology. The magnificent
development of mechanics in the eighteenth century and of optics,
heat theory, and heat technology in the nineteenth century bears
witness to the power of this innovation.
In proportion to the success of this kind of science, it spread beyond
the realm of daily experience into remote regions of nature that could
only be disclosed with the aid of technology, which developed in
conjunction with science. Newton's decisive realizationwas that the
lawswhich govern the fall of a stone also determine the orbit of the
moon around the earth and thus are applicable in cosmic dimensions
also. In the years that followed, natural science began its victory
march on a broad front into those remote regions of nature about
which we may obtain information only by the detour of technology
that is, by using more or less complicated apparatus. Astronomy
used the improved telescope to master ever more remote cosmic
regions. Chemistry attempted to understand processes at the atomic
level from the behavior of substances in chemical reactions. Experi
ments with the inductionmachine and the Voltaic pile gave the first
insight into electrical phenomena that were still hidden from the
daily life of that era. Thus the meaning of the word "nature " as
an object of scientific research slowly changed; it became a collective
concept for all those areas of experience intowhich man can pene
trate through science and technology, whether or not they are given
to him "naturally" in direct experience. The term description of
nature also progressively lost its original significance as a representa
tion intended to convey the most alive and imaginable picture
possible of nature; instead, in increasing measure a mathematical
description of nature was implied-that is, a collection of data con
cerning interrelations according to law in nature, precise and brief
yet also as comprehensive as possible.
The expansion of the concept of nature that had half unconsciously
been completed in this development did not yet have to be con
sidered as a fundamental departure from the original aims of
science; the decisive basic concepts were still the same for the ex
 98 Dxacllus
panded area of experience and for the original direct experience of
nature. To the nineteenth century, nature appeared as a lawful
process in space and time, in whose description it was possible to
ignore as far as axioms were concerned, even if not in practice,
both man and his interference in nature.
The permanent in the flux of phenomena was taken to be matter
unchangeable inmass and capable of being moved by forces. Since
chemical phenomena from the eighteenth century on had been
successfully organized and interpreted through the atomistic hy
pothesis taken over from antiquity, it seemed plausible to consider
the atoms, in the sense of classical natural philosophy, as the truly
real, as the unchangeable building stones of matter. As in the
philosophy of Democritus, sensual qualities of matter were taken
as appearance; smell and color, temperature and toughness were
not intrinsic properties of matter, but originated as interactions
between matter and our senses and thus had to be explained through
the arrangement and motion of the atoms and the effects of this
arrangement on our senses. In this way the all-too-simple world
view of nineteenth century materialism was formed: the atoms, as
intrinsically unchangeable beings, move in space and time and,
through theirmutual arrangement and motion, call forth the colorful
phenomena of our sense world.
A first inroad into this simple world picture, though one not too
dangerous, occurred in the second half of the last century through
the development of electrical theory inwhich not matter but rather
the force field had to be taken as the intrinsically real. Interactions
between fields of force without a substance as carrier of the forces
were less easily understandable than thematerialistic conception of
reality in atomic physics. An element of abstraction and lack of
visualizability was brought into the otherwise apparently so obvious
world view. That iswhy there was no dearth of attempts to return
to the simple conception of matter in materialistic philosophy
through the detour of amaterial ether thatwould carry these fields
of force as elastic tensions. Such atttempts, however, never quite
managed to succeed. Nevertheless it was possible to be consoled
by the fact that changes in fields of force could be considered as
occurrences in space and time, describable objectively-that is,
without consideration of the means of observation. Thus they
corresponded to the generally accepted ideal of a process operating
according to law in space and time. It was further possible to think
 Nature and Contemporary Physics 99
of the force fields, since they can only be observed through their
interactionwith atoms, as called forth by the atoms, and thus to use
them in a certain sense only in explaining themotions of atoms. To
that extent, the atoms remained after all the intrinsically real;
between them was empty space, which at most possessed a certain
kind of reality as carrier of the force fields and of geometry.
For this world view it was not too significant that after the dis
covery of radioactivity near the end of the last century, the atoms
of chemistry could no longer be taken as the final indivisible building
blocks of matter but were themselves found to be composed of three
types of basic building blocks, which we today call protons, neutrons,
and electrons. This realization led in its practical consequences to
the transmutation of the elements and to nuclear technology, and
thus became tremendously important. As far as fundamental ques
tions are concerned, however, nothing has changed now that we
have recognized protons, neutrons, and electrons as the smallest
building blocks ofmatter and interpret these as the intrinsically real.
For the materialistic world view, it is important only that the
possibility remains of taking these smallest constituents of the atoms
as the final objective reality. On this foundation rested the coherent
world view of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Because
of its simplicity it preserved for several decades its full powers of
persuasion.
Precisely at this point profound changes in the foundations of
atomic physics occurred in our century which lead away from the
reality concept of classical atomism. It has turned out that the
hoped-for objective reality of the elementary particles represents too
rough a simplification of the true state of affairs and must yield to
much more abstract conceptions. When we wish to picture to our
selves the nature of the existence of the elementary particles, we
may no longer ignore the physical processes by which we obtain
information about them. When we are observing objects of our daily
experience, the physical process transmitting the observation of
course plays only a secondary role. However, for the smallest build
ing blocks of matter every process of observation causes a major
disturbance; it turns out that we can no longer talk of the behavior
of the particle apart from the process of observation. In consequence,
we are finally led to believe that the laws of nature which we formu
late mathematically in quantum theory deal no longer with the
particles themselves but with our knowledge of the elementary
100 Dxdalus
particles. The question whether these particles exist in space and
time "in themselves " can thus no longer be posed in this form. We
can only talk about the processes that occur when, through the
interaction of the particle with some other physical system such as
a measuring instrument, the behavior of the particle is to be dis
closed. The conception of the objective reality of the elementary
particles has thus evaporated in a curious way, not into the fog of
some new, obscure, or not yet understood reality concept, but into
the transparent clarity of a mathematics that represents no longer
the behavior of the elementary particles but rather our knowledge
of this behavior. The atomic physicist has had to come to terms
with the fact that his science is only a link in the endless chain of
discussions of man with nature, but that it cannot simply talk of
nature " as such." Natural science always presupposes man, and we
must become aware of the fact that, as Bohr has expressed it, we
are not only spectators but also always participants on the stage of
life.
II
Before we can speak of the general implications arising out of this
new situation inmodem physics, it is necessary to discuss a develop
ment which is more important for practical purposes, namely the
expansion of technology which has proceeded hand in hand with
the growth of science. This technology has carried natural science
from its origin in theWest over the face of the earth and helped it
to a central position in the thought of our time. In this process of
development during the last two hundred years technology has
always been both presupposition and consequence of natural science.
It is presupposition because an extension and deepening of science
often can take place only through a refinement of the means of
observation. The invention of the telescope and microscope and the
discovery of X-rays are examples. Technology, on the other hand,
is also a consequence of science, since the technical exploitation of
the forces of nature is in general only possible on the basis of a
thorough knowledge of the natural laws of that particular realm of
science.
Thus in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries there first
developed a technology based on the utilization of mechanical
processes. The machine at that stage often only imitated the actions
of man's hand, whether in spinning and weaving or in the lifting
 Nature and Contemporary Physics 101
of loads or the forging of large pieces of iron. Hence this form of
technology was initially seen as an extension of the old crafts. It
was understandable and obvious to the onlooker in the same way
as the work of the craftsman, whose fundamental principles every
one knew even if the detailed techniques could not be copied by all.
Even the introduction of the steam engine did not fundamentally
change this character of technology; however, from this time on the
expansion of technology could progress at a formerly unknown rate,
for it now became possible to place the natural forces stored in coal
in the service of man to perform his manual work for him.
A decisive transformation in the character of technology probably
began with the technical utilization of electricity in the second half
of the last century. It was hardly possible to speak any longer of a
direct connection with the earlier crafts. Natural forces were now
exploited that were almost unknown to people in direct experience
of nature. For many people, even today, electricity has something
uncanny about it; at the least it is often considered incomprehensible,
though it is all around us. The high-voltage lines which one must
not approach admittedly give us a kind of conceptual lesson con
cerning the force field employed by science, but basically this realm
of nature remains foreign to us. Viewing the interior of a compli
cated electrical apparatus is sometimes unpleasant in the same way
as watching a surgical operation.
Chemical technology also might be seen as a continuation of old
crafts such as dyeing, tanning, and pharmacy. But here also the
extent of the newly developed chemical technology from about the
turn of the century no longer permits comparison with the earlier
circumstances. Nuclear technology, finally, is concerned with the
exploitation of natural forces towhich every approach from theworld
of natural experience is lacking. Perhaps this technology, too, in
the end will become as familiar tomodem man as electricity, with
out which man can no longer conceive his environment. But the
things that are daily around us do not for that reason become a part
of nature in the original sense of the word. Perhaps, in the future,
themany pieces of technical apparatus will as inescapably belong to
man as the snail's house to the snail or theweb to the spider. Even
then, however, these machines would be more parts of our human
organism than parts of surrounding nature.
Technology thus fundamentally interferes with the relation of
nature toman, in that it transformshis environment in largemeasure
102 Dxa&lus
and thereby incessantly and inescapably holds the scientific aspect of
the world before his eyes. The claim of science to be capable of
reaching out into the whole cosmos with a method that always
separates and clarifies individual phenomena, and thus goes forward
from relationship to relationship, is mirrored in technology which
step by step penetrates new realms, transforms our environment
before our eyes, and impresses our image upon it. In the same sense
in which every detailed question in science is subordinate to the
major task of understanding nature as a whole, so also does the
smallest technical advance serve the general goal, that of enlarging
thematerial power of man. The value of this goal is as little ques
tioned as the value of natural knowledge in science, and the two
aims coalesce in the banal slogan "Knowledge is Power." Probably
it is possible to demonstrate in the case of every technical process
its subservience to this common goal; it is, on the other hand,
characteristic for thewhole development that the individual technical
process is bound to the common goal in such an indirect way that
one can hardly view it as part of a conscious plan for the accomplish
ment of this goal. Technology almost ceases to appear at such times
as the product of conscious human effort for the spreading of
material power. Instead it appears as a biological process on a large
scale, in which the structures that are part of the human organism
are transferred in ever largermeasure to man's environment. Such
a biological process would be outside man's control, for man can
indeed do what he wills, but he cannot will what he wills.

III
It has often been said that the profound changes in our environ
ment and our way of life in the technical age have also transformed
our thinking in a dangerous way. Here, we are told, is the root of
the crises by which our era is shaken-and by which modem art is
shaped. But this objection is older than the technology and science
of our time; technology and machines in amore primitive form have
existed inmuch earlier times, so thatmen were forced to think about
such questions in periods long past. Two and a half thousand years
ago, the Chinese sage Chang Tsi spoke of the dangers to man of
using machines. I would like to quote a section from his writings
that is important for our subject:
When Tsi Gung came into the region north of the river Han, he saw an
old man busy in his vegetable garden. He had dug ditches for watering.
 Nature and Contemporary Physics 103
He himself climbed into thewell, brought up a container full of water in
his arms, and emptied it. He exertedhimself to the utmost, but achieved
very little.
Tsi Gung spoke: "There is an arrangement with which it is possible to
fill a hundred ditches with water every day. With little effort much is
accomplished.Wouldn't you like to use it?"The gardener roseup, looked
at him and said, "What would that be?"
Tsi Gung said, "A lever is used, weighted at one end and light at the
other. In this way water can be drawn, so that it gushes out. It is known
as a draw-well."
At that, anger rose up in the face of the old man and he laughed,
saying, " I have heard my teacher say: 'When a man uses a machine he
carries on all his business in a machine-like manner. Whoever does his
business in the manner of a machine develops a machine heart. Whoever
has a machine heart in his breast loses his simplicity. Whoever loses his
simplicity becomes uncertain in the impulses of his spirit. Uncertainty
in the impulses of the spirit is something that is incompatible with truth.'
Not that I am unfamiliar with such devices; I am ashamed to use them."

That this ancient tale contains a considerable amount of truth,

everyone of us will agree; "uncertainty in the impulses of the spirit "
is perhaps one of the most telling descriptions we can give to the
condition of man in the present crisis. Nevertheless, although tech
nology, themachine, has spread over theworld to an extent that the
Chinese sage could not have imagined, two thousand years later the
world's finest works of art are still being created and the simplicity
of the soul of which the philosopher spoke has never been completely
lost. Instead, in the course of the centuries it has shown itself, some
timesweakly, sometimes powerfully, and it has borne fruit again and
again. Finally, the ascent of man has, after all, occurred through the
development of tools; thus technology cannot carry thewhole blame
for the fact that the consciousness of this interconnection has inmany
places been lost.
Perhaps we will come nearer the truth if the sudden and-measured
by earlier changes-unusually swift diffusion of technology in the
last fifty years isheld responsible for themany difficulties. The speed
of technological transformation, in contrast to that of earlier centuries,
leaves no time tomankind inwhich to adjust to the new conditions
of life. But even this is probably not the correct or the complete
explanation of why our time seems to face a new situation, hardly
without analogy in history.
We have already mentioned that the changes in the foundations
of modem science may perhaps be viewed as symptoms of shifts in
 104 Dxdalus
the fundamentals of our existence which then express themselves
simultaneously inmany places, be it in changes in our way of life
or our usual thought forms, be it in external catastrophes, wars, or
revolutions. When one attempts to grope one'sway from the situation
inmodern science to the fundamentals that have begun to shift, one
has the impression that it is not too crude a simplification of the state
of affairs to assert that for the first time in the course of history man
on earth faces only himself, that he finds no longer any other partner
or foe. This observation applies first of all in a commonplace way
i the battle of man against outward dangers. In earlier times he
was endangered by wild animals, disease, hunger, cold, and other
forces of nature, and in this strife every extension of technology
represented a strengthening of his position and therefore progress.
In our time,when the earth is becoming ever more densely settled,
the narrowing of the possibilities of life and thus the threat toman's
existence originates above all from other people, who also assert
their claim to the goods of the earth. In such a confrontation, the
extension of technology need no longer be an indication of progress.
The statement that in our timeman confronts only himself is valid
in the age of technology in a still wider sense. In earlier epochs man
saw himself opposite nature. Nature, in which dwelt all sorts of
living beings, was a realm existing according to its own laws, and into
itman somehow had to fit himself. We, on the other hand, live in a
world so completely transformed by man that,whether we are using
the machines of our daily life, taking food prepared by machines,
or striding through landscapes transformed by man, we invariably
encounter structures created by man, so that in a sense we always
meet only ourselves. Certainly there are parts of the earth where
this process is nowhere near completion, but sooner or later the
dominion of man in this respect will be complete.
This new situation becomes most obvious to us in science, inwhich
it turns out, as I have described earlier, that we can no longer view
" in themselves " the building blocks of matter which were originally
thought of as the last objective reality; that they refuse to be fixed in
any way in space and time; and that basically we can only make our
knowledge of these particles the object of science. The aim of
research is thus no longer knowledge of the atoms and theirmotion
"in themselves," separated from our experimental questioning;
rather, right from the beginning, we stand in the center of the con
frontation between nature and man, of which science, of course, is
only a part. The familiar classification of theworld into subject and
 Nature and Contemporary Physics 105
object, inner and outer world, body and soul, somehow no longer
quite applies, and indeed leads to difficulties. In science, also, the
object of research is no longer nature in itself but rather nature
exposed toman's questioning, and to this extent man here alsomeets
himself.
Our time has clearly been given the task of coming to termswith
this new situation in all aspects of life, and only when this is accom
plished will man be able to regain that " certainty in the impulses of
the spirit" talked of by the Chinese sage. The way to this goal will
be long and arduous, and we do not know what stations of the cross
are still ahead. But if indications are sought as to the nature of the
way, itmay be permissible to consider once more the example of the
exact sciences.
In quantum theory, we accepted the described situation when it
became possible to represent itmathematically and when, therefore,
in every case we could say clearly and without danger of logical
contradiction how the result of an experiment would turn out. We
thus resigned ourselves to the new situation the moment the
ambiguities were removed. The mathematical formulas indeed no
longer portray nature, but rather our knowledge of nature. Thus we
have renounced a form of natural description that was familiar for
centuries and still was taken as the obvious goal of all exact science
even a few decades ago. It could also be said for the present thatwe
have accepted the situation in the realm of modern atomic physics
only because our experience can in fact be correctly represented in
that area. As soon as we look at the philosophical interpretations of
quantum theory, we find that opinions still differ widely; the view
is occasionally heard that this new form of natural description is not
yet satisfying since it does not correspond to the earlier ideal of
scientific truth, and hence is to be taken only as another symptom of
the crisis of our time, and in any case is not the final formulation.
Itwill be useful to discuss in this connection the concept of scien
tific truth in somewhat more general terms and to ask for criteria as
towhen an item of scientific knowledge can be called consistent and
final. For the moment, a more external criterion: As long as any
realm of the intellectual life is developing steadily and without inner
break, specific detailed questions are presented to the individual
working in this area, questions that are in a sense problems of
technique, whose solution is certainly not an end in itself but appears
valuable in the interest of the larger relationship that alone is
important. These detailed problems are presented to us, they do not
106 Dxdalus
have to be sought, and working on them is the presupposition for
collaborating at the larger relationship. In the same sense, medieval
stone masons endeavored to copy as accurately as possible the folds
of garments, and the solution of their special problem was necessary
because the folds of the garments of the saintswere part of the large
religious relationship thatwas the real aim. In a similarway, special
problems have always presented themselves inmodern science, and
work on these is the presupposition for the understanding of the large
relationship. These questions presented themselves, also, in the
development of the last fifty years; they did not have to be sought.
And the aim was always the same: the large interrelatedness of the
laws of nature. In this sense, purely from the outside, there seems
to be no basis for any break in the continuity of exact science.
With respect to the finality of the results, however, we should
remember that in the realm of exact science final solutions are con
tinually being found for certain delimited areas of experience. The
problems, for instance,which could be studied with the concepts of
Newtonian mechanics found their final answer for all time through
Newton's laws and the mathematical deductions drawn from them.
These solutions, to be sure, do not extend beyond the concepts and
questions of Newtonian mechanics. Thus electrical theory, for
instance, was not accessible to analysis by these concepts. New
systems of concepts emerged in the exploration of this new realm
of experience with whose help the laws of electricity could be mathe
matically formulated in their final form. The word " final " in
connection with exact science evidently means that we will always
find closed, mathematically describable systems of concepts and laws
that fit certain areas of experience, are valid in them anywhere in
the universe, and are incapable of modification or improvement. It
cannot, however, be expected that these concepts and lawswill later
be suitable for the representation of new realms of experience. Only
in this limited sense, therefore, can the concepts and laws of quantum
theory be designated as final, and only in this limited sense can it
ever happen that scientific knowledge finds its final fixation inmathe
matical or any other language.
Similarly, certain philosophies of justice assume that justice always
exists but that, in general, in every new legal case justice must be
found anew, that at all events the written law always covers only
limited areas of life and therefore cannot be everywhere binding.
Exact science also goes forward in the belief that itwill be possible
in every new realm of experience to understand nature, but what
 Nature and Contemporary Physics 107
the word "understand "might signify is not at all predetermined.
The natural knowledge of earlier epochs, fixed in mathematical
formulas,might be " final,"but not in any sense always applicable.
This state of affairsmakes it impossible to base articles of belief that
are to be binding for one's bearing in life on scientific knowledge
alone. The establishment of such articles of faith could only be based
on such " fixed " scientific knowledge, a knowledge only applicable
to limited realms of experience. The assertion often found at the
beginning of creeds originating in our time that they deal not with
belief but with scientifically based knowledge, thus contains an inner
contradiction and rests on a self-deception.
Nevertheless, this realization must not mislead us into under
estimating the firmness of the ground on which the edifice of exact
science has been built. The concept of scientific truth basic to natural
science can bear many kinds of natural understanding. Not only the
science of past centuries but also modem atomic physics is based
on it. Hence it follows that one can come to termswith a knowledge
situation in which an objectification of the process of nature is no
longer possible, and that one should be able to find our relation to
nature within it.
When we speak of a picture of nature provided by contemporary
exact science, we do not actually mean any longer a picture of nature,
but rather a picture of our relation to nature. The old compart
mentalization of the world into an objective process in space and
time, on the one hand, and the soul inwhich this process ismirrored,
on the other-that is, the Cartesian differentiation of res cogitans and
res extensa-is no longer suitable as the starting point for the under
standing of modem science. In the field of view of this science there
appears above all the network of relations between man and nature,
of the connections through which we as physical beings are
dependent parts of nature and at the same time, as human beings,
make them the object of our thought and actions. Science no longer
is in the position of observer of nature, but rather recognizes itself
as part of the interplay between man and nature. The scientific
method of separating, explaining, and arranging becomes conscious
of its limits, set by the fact that the employment of this procedure
changes and transforms its object; the procedure can no longer keep
its distance from the object. The world view of natural science thus
ceases to be a view of "natural " science in its proper sense.
The clarification of these paradoxes in a narrow segment of science
has certainly not achieved much for the general situation of our time,
108 Dxdalus
in which, to repeat a simplification used earlier, we suddenly and
above all confront ourselves. The hope that the extension of man's
material and spiritual power always represents progress thus finds
a limit, even though itmay not yet be clearly visible. The dangers
are the greater, themore violently the wave of optimism engendered
by the belief in progress surges against this limit. Perhaps the nature
of the danger here discussed can be made clearer by another
metaphor. With the seemingly unlimited expansion of his material
might, man finds himself in the position of a captain whose ship has
been so securely built of iron and steel that the needle of his compass
no longer points to the north, but only toward the ship's mass of
iron.With such a ship no destination can be reached; it will move
aimlessly and be subject in addition to winds and ocean currents.
But let us remember the state of affairs of modem physics: the danger
only exists so long as the captain is unaware that his compass does
not respond to the earth'smagnetic forces. The moment the situation
is recognized, the danger can be considered as half removed. For
the captain who does not want to travel in circles but desires to reach
a known-or unknown-destination will find ways and means for
determining the orientation of his ship. He may start using modem
types of compasses that are not affected by the iron of the ship, or
he may navigate, as in former times, by the stars. Of course we
cannot decree the visibility or lack of visibility of the stars, and in
our time perhaps they are only rarely visible. In any event, awareness
that the hopes engendered by the belief in progress will meet a limit
implies the wish not to travel in circles but to reach a goal. To the
extent that we reach clarity about this limit, the limit itself may
furnish the first firm hold by which we can orient ourselves anew.
Perhaps from this comparison with modem science we may draw
hope that we may here be dealing with a limit for certain forms of
expansion of human activity, not, however, with a limit to human
activity as such. The space in which man as spiritual being is
developing has more dimensions than the one within which he has
moved forward in the preceding centuries. It follows that in the
course of long stretches of time the conscious acceptance of this limit
will perhaps lead to a certain stabilization inwhich the thoughts of
men will again arrange themselves around a common center. Such
a development may perhaps also supply a new foundation for the
development of art; but to speak about that does not behoove the
scientist.