Indian Institute of Technology,Jodhpur

Design of Thermal Insulation Layer for

Power Plant Applications.

Authors :
Supervisor :
Sachin Beejawat
Dr Sudipto Mukhopadya
Shiv Kumar Mudgal
Contents

Introduction iii

Temperature Measuring Devices v

Advanced Temperature Measuring Techniques xi

Temperature Measurement in Different Layers of Insulation- xiii

Data Acquisition System xv

Properties of Hot Insulating Materials xix

Measurement of Insulation Layer Material Required on Various Geometriesxxiii

MATLAB Code for Temperature Distribution in Insulation Layers xxv

Bibilography xxvii

i
Introduction

Temperature is a measure of “hotness” or “coldness.” Several properties of

materials change with temperature, and this forms the basis for temperature
measurement.The zeroth law of thermodynamics, which states that if
two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body they are in thermal
equilibrium with each other, If third body can be replaced by thermome-
ters then it serves as a basis for the validity of temperature measurement.All
temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible states, such as the
freezing and boiling points of water. On the Celsius scale, the ice and steam
points are assigned values 0C and the 100C, respectively.
The absolute temperature scale in SI system is the Kelvin scale. The rela-
tion between the Celsius scale and Kelvin scale is
T (K) = T (C) + 273.15.
In the English system, the absolute temperature scale is the Rankin scale. It
is related to the Fahrenheit scale by
T(R) = T (F) + 459.67.
The temperature scales in the above two systems are related by
T(R) = 1.8T (K) and T(F) = 1.8T(C) + 32.
In practical situations, temperatures much lower than the melting point of
pure ice and much higher than the boiling point of pure water are commonly
encountered. Therefore, the fixed point scale becomes inadequate for the
measurement of low or high temperatures. An extension of the thermometric
scale is therefore made by introducing further fixed points, using substances
other than water. The fixed points are laid down in what is known as the
International Practical Temperature Scale(IPTS). In the International
Practical Temperature Scale of 1968, the practical Kelvin temperature is given

iii
iv Chapter 0. Introduction

the symbol T68. The international practical Celsius temperature is given the
symbol t68. The relationship between them is t68 = T68 - 273.15 K.
The standard instrument used for measurement of temperature from 13.8 K
to 630.74C is the Platinum Resistance Thermometer.
The standard instrument used for measurement from 630.74C to 1064.43C is
the platinum–10 percent rhodium/platinum thermocouple.

Above 1337.58 K, the International Practical Temperature of 1968 is de-

fined by the Plank law of radiation with 1337.58 K as the reference tem-
perature.

A substance used for the measurement of temperature must experience

some recognizable change when its temperature is changed. The changes that
have been commonly used for temperature measurement are the following.
• Increase or decrease in size, that is, expansion or contraction
• Increase in pressure if enclosed
• Change of color
• Change of state
• Change of electrical resistance
• Generation of electromotive force
• Change in degree of surface radiation
Temperature Measuring Devices

Thermometer is the general name given to the temperature measuring devices.

Mercury-In-Glass Thermometer-
1) Temperature is measured by seeing the contraction and expansion of mer-
cury in the glass tube.
2) Glass does not expand/contract and its expansion can be easily offset dur-
ing calibration.
3) Operating range -38.86C to 356.7C.Below this temperature range low boil-
ing point substance like alcohol is used.
Beckmann Thermometer-
1) Measure Temperature difference not absolute temperature.
2) Upto only 6C.
3) Quite Accurate uses mercury as a fluid for measuring temperatures.
Gas Thermometer-
1)Fundamental Temperature measuring device to establish the various tem-
peratures given by the International Temperature Scale in relationship to the
originally conceived fixed points of the freezing point and boiling point of pure
water.
2) The change of pressure as a result of the change of temperature of the fluid
is made use of for temperature measurement.
Thermometer based on Thermal Expansion of materials-
Bimetallic Thermometers-
1)Used as combined sensing and control elements in temperature-control sys-
tems, mainly of the on–off type.
2) Utilizes the differential expansion of bonded strips of two metals.
Thermometer based on Electrical Effect-

v
vi Chapter 0. Temperature Measuring Devices

a) Thermocouple- Operating Principle- flow of current in a metal ac-

companies a flow of heat (known as Seeback effect).
2) Consists of two dissimilar metals joined together at two points, one point
being the place where the temperature is to be measured and the other point
being a place where the temperature is known, termed as the reference junc-
tion.
Popular Dissimilar metals-Copper-Constantan,Iron-Constantan,Nickel-Constantan,Platin
Rhodium.
3) Much more Rugged than RTD and Thermistors and most versatile tem-
perature measuring device available in the market.
Measurement of Thermocouple Voltage-
Software Compensation-
1) Most Versatile Technique available for thermocouple measurement.
2) Independent of the types of thermocouples chosen from a set of thermo-
couples connected on the same block.
3) Simple and Versatile but is slow because computer requires an additional
amount of time to calculate the Reference Junction Temperature.
Hardware Compensation-
1)Instead of using software, Battery is inserted to cancel the offset voltage of
the reference junction.
2) The combination of the hardware compensation voltage and the reference
junction voltage is equal to that of a 0C junction.
3) Circuit used is called electronic ice-point reference.
4) Fast but all the thermocouples in the block must be of same type.
Noise Rejection Methods in Thermocouple measurements-
1) Tree Switching
2) Analogue Filter.
3) Integration
4) Guarding
Conversion OF Voltage to Temperature-
The output voltage V of a simple thermocouple circuit is usually expressed as

V = AT + 0.5BT 2 + 0.33CT 3 (1)

 vii

Where V is the voltage based on a reference junction temperature of 0C, T is

the temperature in degree Celsius, and A, B, and C are constants dependent
on the thermocouple material.
The thermoelectric power or sensitivity of a thermocouple is given by

S = dV /dT = A + BT + CT 2 (2)
Sources Of Error In Thermocouples Measurements-
Thermocouple measurement errors may be due to the following.
• Poor junction connection
• Decalibration of thermocouple wire
• Shunt impedance and galvanic action
• Thermal shunting
• Noise and leakage currents
• Thermocouple specifications
• Documentation
Diagnostics-The diagnostic system for detecting a faulty thermocouple and
data channels consists of three components. They are the event record, the
zone box test, and the thermocouple resistance history.
Resistance Temperature Detector-
History-
C.H Meyers First Model -The classical resistance temperature detector
construction using platinum was proposed by C.H. Meyers .He wound a heli-
cal coil of platinum on a crossed mica bed, and mounted the assembly inside
a glass tube.
Bird Cage Element -Evans and Burns proposed a modification to Meyers’
design, which is called the birdcage element. The platinum element remains
largely unsupported, which allows it to move freely when expanded or con-
tracted due to temperature variations.

Working Principle -Metals possess marked temperature depen-

dence.
viii Chapter 0. Temperature Measuring Devices

The RTD devices are more suitable for measurements of the temperature of a
block of metal than for measurements in gases like air. This is due to the fact
that in a block of metal the temperature communication between the metal
and the RTD wire is good but the communication between the wire and air
is poor.
Problems with RTD-
Even though the RTD is considered to be a quite accurate device for temper-
ature measurement, it does have some disadvantages. They are the lead error
and relatively bulky size that sometimes give rise to poor transient response
and conduction error. Furthermore, because a current must be fed to the
RTD for bridge measurement, there is the possibility of self-heating that may
alter the temperature of the element.
The resistance temperature device is a more linear probe compared to the
thermocouple. But for measurement with reasonable accuracy, the RTD still
requires curve-fitting. It is somewhat more fragile than the thermocouple, due
to its construction. In measurements it has to be gently heated to protect it.
Thermistor-The thermistor is a semiconductor device that has a negative
temperature coefficient of resistance, in contrast to the positive coefficient
displayed by most metals
2) Like the RTD, the thermistor is also a temperature-sensitive resistor.
3) Thermistor is that it is a most sensitive temperature transducer. Of the
above three temperature sensors, the thermistor exhibits the largest parame-
ter change with temperature
Temperature Measurement using Pyrometers-
a) Optical Pyrometer-
Operating Principle-Some solids, such as metals, when hot begin to emit
light with a very dull red color and as the temperature increases the color
becomes a brighter red, orange, yellow, and so on. The particular color emis-
sion occurs at a particular temperature and hence can be used as a means of
measuring the temperature if suitable calibration is adopted.
2) Useful only for measuring high temperatures.
b) Infrared Thermography-
1) It is a technique, based on radiation, to assess energy losses by radiation.
 ix

2) An important energy radiation level is that of the infrared waveband. This

occurs at wavelengths between the appropriate limits of 103 to 106 meters.
This is below the visual limit of the red color.
3) Because it is not visible in the normal sense by eye detection, special de-
tectors are required to record its presence.
4) In the case of photography, infrared energy received from an object can
be translated into a photographic image and, thus, such cameras can be used
at night because no direct visual wavelengths are required from the energy
transmitting object.
c) Thermal Paints-These are special paints that are applied on surfaces
whose temperature distribution is required.
2)When the temperature of the surface increases, establishing a distribution
over the area, the color of the paint, being a property dictated by the temper-
ature level, changes. Thus, temperature distribution is determined by color
calibration against known surface temperatures.
d) Fusion Pyrometers-The variation of melting points of certain chemi-
cal substances is utilized for temperature measurements in fusion pyrometers.
Combining certain clays, metals, and salts, it is possible to obtain mixtures
of these substances that soften and melt at definite temperatures.
Advanced Temperature Measuring
Techniques

-
Measurement using Thermal Camera/Gun -
Working Principle-Based on Infrared Thermography
How it works -Infrared energy coming from an object is focused by the op-
tics onto an infrared detector. The detector sends the information to sensor
electronics for image processing. The electronics translate the data coming
from the detector into an image that can be viewed in the viewfinder or on a
standard video monitor or LCD screen.
Advantages of using Thermal Imaging-Provides Temperature Measure-
ment in places where contact cannot be ensured due to very high tempera-
tures,abrasives,hardness etc.
2)Fast and hence productive in industrial applications.
3)Helps in Reducing Risks of Hazards in Industries like fire etc.
Conclusion-Thermal imaging cameras are the perfect tool for predicting fail-
ures because they make the invisible visible. On a thermal image problems
seem to jump right out at you.
Measurement using High Speed Camera- Hot Objects above 800K emits
thermal radiations that are in visible spectrum which can be sensed by a high
speed camera.It can be assumed that the glowing body absolute temperature
T is proportional to the image gray level 0(black colour)<G<1(white colour)
provided that background illumination is negligible. Temperature Mea-
suring Algorithm used - Visible Light based Camera-

xi
Temperature Measurement in Different
Layers of Insulation-

Proposed Methods-
Method 1- By the use of Thermowells-
Thermowells-They are tubular fittings used to protect temperature sensors
installed in industrial processes.
1)We will drill 4 holes of around desired diameter on surface of insulation
layers and then we insert thermowells of required diameter in the drilled hole.
2)Then probe of Thermocouple (as it is more rugged in air atmosphere than
RTD) we insert it and then connect it with Data-Acquisition and Processing
System.
3)To get a better reach in our measurements we will drill four holes in a cir-
cular cross-section and repeat it after every 0.5 meters. In order to have high
accuracy in temperature measurement along insulation layer.
Method 2-By the use of Thermal gun -
1) Drill the hole in insulation till the different layer of insulation.
2) Measure the temperature using thermal gun
3) Measured temperature is the temperature at interface of insulation’s.

xiii
Data Acquisition System

Data Acquisition Principle

Sequence of operation in any data acquisition system
1. Generation of input signal by transducer
2. Signal conditioning
3. Multiplexing
4. Data conversion from analogue to digital
5. Data storage and display

Signal is generated by devices such as thermocouple or any other sensor

There is two type of sensors
1. Active sensor
2. Passive sensor

Signal Conditioning
Objective of signal conditioning is modify received signal for processing such
as Amplification and filtering .

Multiplexing
It is used when there is large number of input at a given time.
Methods of Multiplexing
1. Multichannel analogue multiplexed system
2. Simultaneously sampled multiplexer system
3. Multichannel digital multiplexer system
4. Low level multiplexing system
Multichannel analogue multiplexed system

xv
xvi Chapter 0. Data Acquisition System

The S/H device has two modes

1.The sample mode during which the data are transferred from the multi-
plexer to the S/H device
2.Hold mode during which A/D conversion takes place. During the hold mode,
the multiplexer is made to seek the input from the next channel for an efcient
utilization of time. This arrangement in a multiplexing makes it a low-cost
device due to sharing of the majority of the subsystems.

Simultaneously sampled multiplexer system

In this system, each channel of analogue input, after signal conditioning,

is assigned to an individual S/H device. Updating of the data during the
sample mode is carried out simultaneously for all the S/H devices with the
help of a clock. After the data are received and locked in the hold mode, the
multiplexer scans each S/H and feeds the output to the A/D converter
 xvii

Multichannel digital multiplexer system

Low level multiplexing system

Data conversion
1. Data have to be converted to digital form before fed to computer and out-
put from computer may have to be converted to analogue form
2. Conversion from analogue to digital gives noise immunity
3. Analogue to digital converter are available with 8,10,12,14 and 16 bit res-
olution

Data storage and display

After conversion from analogue to digital , data usually stored in floppies or
a Winchester drive in p.c based data acquisition system and in magnet tapes

Data processing The stored data needs to be processed to get the result of
interest.This is done by developing program for this purpose ,such programs
are called softwares.Now process involved in interfacing of these device with
xviii Chapter 0. Data Acquisition System

digital computer.

GPIB Interface
It Provides low cost interconnection for up to 15 digital instrument over a
limited distance of about 20 meters.It is capable of interfacing instruments
with varying data transfer rate 100 bytes/second to 1megabytes/second.

Digitalization error due to A/D conversion

In most circumstances , the signal from the probe is analogue and digitized
either in digital measuring instrument or with the help of ADC/DAC.On of
the major source of error during acquisition is A/D conversion process itself.

Personal computer hardware consist of

1. CPU
2. ROM
3. RAM
4. Digital clock
5. Winchester drive
6. Floopy drive
7. Input and output port
Properties of Hot Insulating Materials

Common insulating materials

CALCIUM SILICATE
CERAMIC FIBRE (BLANKET)
CELLULAR GLASS
GLASS MINERAL WOOL
GLASS MINERAL WOOL NEEDLE MAT (E-GLASS TEXTILE TYPE)
MELAMINE FOAM (FLEXIBLE)
PERLITE EXPANDED
ROCK MINERAL WOOL
ROCK MINERAL WOOL (HIGH DENSITY)
VERMICULITE
CALCIUM SILICATE
Service Temperature range 1000C

Density 240 kg/m3

Temperature Thermal conductivity
100 0.054
150 0.058
200 0.063
250 0.068
300 0.074
350 0.082

CERAMIC FIBRE (BLANKET)

Service Temperature range 1250C

xix
xx Chapter 0. Properties of Hot Insulating Materials

Density 96 kg/m3
Temperature Thermal conductivity
100 0.041
300 0.079
600 0.41
800 0.22
1000 0.36

GLASS MINERAL WOOL

Service Temperature range -200C TO 450C

Density 48 kg/m3
Temperature Thermal conductivity
-20 0.028
10 0.030
20 0.032
50 0.035
100 0.044

MELAMINE FOAM (FLEXIBLE)

Service Temperature range 10C TO 150C

Density 11 kg/m3
Temperature Thermal conductivity
10 0.034
20 0.035
40 0.039
50 0.040
80 0.046
 xxi

GLASS MINERAL WOOL NEEDLE MAT (E-GLASS TEXTILE TYPE)

Service Temperature range -200C TO 750C

Density 130 kg/m3

Temperature Thermal conductivity
0 0.035
50 0.45
100 0.056
250 0.73
350 0.096
500 0.141
Measurement of Insulation Layer
Material Required on Various
Geometries

Shell - Cylindrical-
The outside diameter of the vessel plus two times the insulation thickness
multiplied by 3.14 and by the length,tangent line to tangent line, Transition
sections (changes in diameter) shall be measured using the larger diameter,
times the length. There shall be no deductions for manholes and any other
interruption or projection, whether insulated or not.
Irregular Surfaces Any irregular shape shall be measured on the outside
of the insulation surface, using the largest diameter. The surface area for
irregular surfaces to be multiplied by a correction factor of 1.75 to obtain the
equivalent area of flat surface. For small pumps, turbines, etc. the minimum
equivalent area of measurement shall be 1 sq. meter.
Heads, Roofs, Ends Flat: The surface area with diameter outside of the
vessel insulation. Spherical: The surface area of the hemisphere with diameter
outside of the vessel insulation. Dished: The surface area of a flat circle with
a diameter outside of the vessel insulation, multiplied by a correctionfactor of
1.37.
Cones:
The geometrical surface area of the cone, measured outside the insulation thickness

xxiii
MATLAB Code for Temperature
Distribution in Insulation Layers

xxv
Bibilography

ERathakrishnan Instrumentation Measurements

Bizjanetal2015Temperaturemeasurementofmineralmeltbymeansofahigh-speedcamera
AlanSMorris]MeasurementandInstrumentation
http://www.thermon.co.za/catalogue/temperature-sensors/thermowells
http://www.flir.in/instruments/content/?id=64755
http://www.kflex.com/cd2web/CERTIF/English/K-FLEXhttp://tiac.ca/wp-
content/uploads/2015/12/TIACG uideEnglish2013 − Denis − F ormula −
M etric.pdf

xxvii