Ebenezer Barisua-POST VIVA PHD THESIS - Redacted

Punching Shear Failure of Reinforced
concrete flat slabs supported on steel

edge column
Ngekpe, B. E.
Submitted version deposited in Coventry University’s Institutional Repository
Original citation:
Ngekpe, B. E. (2016) Punching Shear Failure of Reinforced concrete flat slabs supported on
steel edge column. Unpublished PhD Thesis. Coventry: Coventry University
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University.
Punching Shear Failure of Reinforced
concrete flat slabs supported on steel
edge column
Barisua Ebenezer Ngekpe
A Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the University's

requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
2016
i
ABSTRACT
This study examines punching shear failure at edge supported flat slab. Due to the
significant dearth of research on punching shear at edge steel column, this study
focuses on the design and performance of a novel shearhead system proposed for
edge connection. By considering multi-stage processes and parameters that
influence punching shear failure, both numerical and experimental studies were
adopted. Firstly linear finite element analysis was employed to study the relationship
between the continuous structure and the representative specimen; in order to
support decisions on boundary conditions that create the similitude.
A nonlinear (NLFEA) model was proposed where various concrete material

constitutive models were compared and contrasted. The Total Strain crack model
was adopted on the ground that it accounts for the tensile strength of cracked
concrete which was ignored in previous theoretical model that lead to poor prediction
of punching shear. By considering the appropriate material constitutive model for
concrete and steel, material parameters, appropriate modelling scheme capable of
predicting punching shear was formulated. The adopted modelling scheme was
validated using previous research work. Numerical results reveal that punching
shear is influenced most significantly by concrete tensile strength, fracture energy.
The shearhead assembly was design with using ACI318-05 and Newzealand codes
recommendations with some modifications. These are only codes that provide
design guidance on shearhead. Experimental and numerical results show that the
shearhead contributes appreciably to punching shear capacity of the edge
connection.
Various design codes on punching shear were compared; Eurocode 2 provides a

good prediction of punching shear at edge support; which correlate well with
experimental result. Hence, it was adopted to propose an equation for punching
shear for edge connection with shearheads.
Most importantly, appropriate design guidance and analytical equation have been
proposed for shearhead connection. The design guidance and equation would
enable practising Engineers to design shearheads without going through the rigor of
experimental or numerical investigation. This study has contributed appreciably to
the applicability of steel column in flat slab construction.
ii
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to express deep gratitude to everyone who has contributed to the
success of this study. First and foremost, my Director of studies: success to this
doctoral thesis Dr Adegoke Olubanwo, I am very grateful to you for leading me to a
successful completion. Your technical advice and support is invaluable.
In similar vein, my two experience supervisors: Dr Neil Tsang and Dr John Karadelis
are gratefully acknowledged for their technical inputs and swift response to my
research needs.
I am also very thankful to Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC) Nigeria for
awarding me a doctoral scholarship and members of staff Civil Engineering
Department, Rivers State University of Science and Technology Port Harcourt
Nigeria for their support during my academic sojourn in the United Kingdom.
I am highly indebted to my love ones who supported me emotionally and financially

and fervent prayers few amongst them are listed below: Syvian Akpobari Mbaedee,
Baridor Ebenezer, Lemea Ebenezer, Abolobari Ebenezer, Pastor Comfort Mbaedee,
Samuel Jonah Abbey, Babatunde Famuyiwa and Bishop Vincent Mbaedee.
Above all, the Lord Almighty, the author and dispenser of Knowledge and wisdom,
may your holy name be glorified for the blessing of humanity, I am forever grateful
for your afflatus, exceeding grace and unfathomable love for me.
iii
List of Abbreviations and definitions
𝑉𝑐 = Punching shear capacity of the connection
C = column width or diameter
𝑏𝑜 = Critical shear perimeter
d = effective depth
𝜌 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑓𝑡 ′ = Tensile strength of concrete.
𝑓𝑐 ′ = specified cylinder concrete (MPa)
𝑓𝑐𝑘 = characteristic cylinder strength.
𝑣𝑐 = shear stress
𝛽𝑐 = ratio of long edge to short edge of column section
LFEA = Linear elastic finite element
𝐶𝐴𝐴 𝛾𝑣 = distance of the centroid of the critical section
𝑉𝑔 = Direct shear stress developed by gravity load.
𝛾𝑣 = ratio of moment transferred by eccentric shear to total unbalanced which is
defined according to each design method.
K = size effect factor
da = maximum aggregate size.
ℓ𝑥 = dimension of the assumed critical section in the x- direction.
ℓ𝑦 = dimension of the assumed critical section in the y- direction.
𝑀𝑥𝑥 = bending moment distribution in the x- direction
𝛽 = shear retention factor
𝐺𝑓 = fracture energy in tension
𝐺𝑐 = fracture energy in compression.
NLFEA = Nonlinear finite element analysis.
EC 2 = Eurocode 2
𝜙 = Shear reduction factor
iv
ℓ𝑣 = shearhead minimum length
𝑀𝑝 = shearhead minimum length
𝛼𝑣 = bending stiffness ratio between the shearhead and cracked concrete.
𝑇𝑠 = Thickness of slab
𝐼𝐶𝑅 = second moment of area of concrete
𝐼𝑠 = second moment of area of steel.
Slab 1= slab without shear reinforcement
Slab 2 = slab with shearhead
𝑓𝑦 = yield strength of steel
𝜀𝑥 = strain in the x- direction
𝜀𝑦 = strain in the y- direction
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = shear strain
𝛽 = shear retention factor
𝑉𝑠ℎ = punching shear capacity of shearhead
𝑣𝑔 = Direct shear stress developed by gravity load;
𝑏0 =perimeter of the critical section.
𝛾𝑣 = ratio of moment transferred by eccentric shear to total unbalanced moment,

which is differently defined according to each design method.
v
Table of contents
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................ii
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................... iii
List of Abbreviations and definitions ...........................................................................iv
Table of contents ........................................................................................................vi
List of Figures ............................................................................................................. x
List of Tables ............................................................................................................ xiv
Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 1
1.1 A Historical Reassessment.......................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Research Significance .................................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Problem Statement ....................................................................................................................... 6
1.4 Aim and Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 7
1.5 Scope of Research ......................................................................................................................... 8
1.6 Layout of Thesis ............................................................................................................................ 8
Chapter 2: Review of theoretical and experimental studies...................................... 10
2.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 10
2.1 Failure Mechanisms .................................................................................................................... 11
2. 2 Current design methods for punching shear resistance. ........................................................... 11
2.2.1 ACI Code, ACI318-05 ............................................................................................................ 13
2.2.3 BS8110 code......................................................................................................................... 15
2.3 Concentric Punching shear failure mode .................................................................................... 18
2.3.1 Model based on cracked segment by (Kinnunen and Nylander 1960) ..................... 18
2.3.2 Modified mechanical model by Hallgren (1996) .................................................................. 19
2.3.3 Fracture mechanics model by Bazant and Cao .................................................................... 20
2.3.4 Model of Yankdevshy and Leibowitz ................................................................................... 23
2.3.5 Plasticity model of Bortolotti ............................................................................................... 23
2.3.6 Truss model (Alexander and Simmonds 1986) .................................................................... 23
2.3.7 Analytical model of Menetrey ............................................................................................. 24
2.3.8 Model of Theodorakopoulus and Swamy ............................................................................ 25
2.4 .0 Eccentric punching shear .................................................................................................... 26
2.4.1 Moment Transfer ................................................................................................................. 26
2.4.2 Combined shear and moment transfer................................................................................ 28
2.4.3 Effect of connection proportions. ........................................................................................ 29
vi
2.4.4 Shear Transfer ...................................................................................................................... 30
2.4.5 Effect of connection yield .................................................................................................... 30
2.4.6 Effects of gravity loads ......................................................................................................... 30
2.5.7 Park and Choi Model for unbalanced moment .................................................................... 31
2.5 Review on experimental studies on edge supported flat slab.................................................... 31
2.5.1 Isolated slab ......................................................................................................................... 31
2.5.2 Effect of Boundary conditions.............................................................................................. 32
2. 5. 3 Punching Shear Capacity of Real Slab ................................................................................ 35
2.5.4 Effects of compressive membrane action............................................................................ 36
2.6 Review on shearhead systems .................................................................................................... 36
2.8 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 40
Chapter 3: Review of Numerical Modelling .............................................................. 43
3.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 43
3.1 Review of Previous numerical models on Punching shear failure .............................................. 43
3.2 Linear Finite element Analysis (LFEA) ......................................................................................... 49
3.3 Nonlinear Finite element Analysis (NLFEA)................................................................................. 50
3.3.1 General ................................................................................................................................. 50
3.3.2 Review on concrete NLFEA models...................................................................................... 50
3.3.3 Rankine model ..................................................................................................................... 50
3.3.4 Mohr- Coulomb Model (Non-associative Plasticity model) ................................................. 51
3.4.0 Concrete crack models ......................................................................................................... 54
3.4.1 Total Strain Crack Model ...................................................................................................... 55
3.5.0 Comparison between MC-model and TS-model .................................................................. 58
3.6.0 Material Characterization ........................................................................................................ 59
3.6.1 Concrete Compressive Strength .......................................................................................... 59
3.6.2 Concrete Tensile Strength .................................................................................................... 59
3.6.3 Fracture energy – Tension ................................................................................................... 61
3.6.4 Fracture Energy-Compression (𝑮𝒄)...................................................................................... 61
3.6.5 Ultimate Compressive Strain ............................................................................................... 62
3.6.6 Ultimate tensile strain.......................................................................................................... 62
3.6.7 Elastic Modulus formulation for the TS model. ................................................................... 62
3.7 Recommendation........................................................................................................................ 63
Chapter 5: Validation of adopted modelling scheme ................................................ 70
5.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 70
vii
5.1 Linear Elastic analysis .................................................................................................................. 70
5.2 Analytical solution ....................................................................................................................... 71
5.3 NLFEA Validation ......................................................................................................................... 72
5.3.1 Modelling Procedure............................................................................................................ 72
5.3.2 Solution Procedure .............................................................................................................. 74
5.4 Comparison of Result .................................................................................................................. 75
Chapter 6: NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS ................................................................. 77
6.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 77
6.1 Elastic Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 77
6.1.1 Extraction of representative slab from Prototype ............................................................... 77
6.1.2 Description of Prototype Structure...................................................................................... 78
6.1.2 Procedure for obtaining representative slab from Prototype ............................................. 78
6.1.3 Drawbacks of the adopted Boundary conditions. ............................................................... 79
6.1.4 Linear Elastic Analysis modelling procedure ........................................................................ 79
6.1.5 Results of Elastic Analysis..................................................................................................... 82
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 84
6.20 NLFEA modelling of Slab 1 (Slab without shear reinforcement)............................................... 85
6.21 Restraints adopted ................................................................................................................ 85
6. 2.2 Material models adopted.................................................................................................... 86
6.2.3 Material properties .............................................................................................................. 86
6.2.4 Reinforcement Modelling .................................................................................................... 87
6.2.5 Modelling Procedure............................................................................................................ 89
6.2.7 Solution Procedure .............................................................................................................. 90
6.2.8 Numerical Results ................................................................................................................ 91
6.2.9 Theoretical assumption adopted ......................................................................................... 93
6.2.10. SENSITIVITY STUDIES ......................................................................................................... 93
6.30 NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF SLAB WITH SHEARHEAD (SLAB 2) .......................................... 101
6.3.1 Modelling Procedures ........................................................................................................ 101
6.3. 2 RESTRAIN ADOPTED .......................................................................................................... 102
6.3. 3 Interface ............................................................................................................................ 104
6.3. 4 Solution Phase ................................................................................................................... 105
6.3. 5 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 108
Chapter 7: Experimental studies ............................................................................ 109
7.0 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 109
viii
7.2 Objectives of the experimental Programme............................................................................. 109
7.3.0 Experiment on Slab 1 (slab without shear reinforcement) .................................................... 110
7.3.1 Experimental set up ........................................................................................................... 110
7.3.2 Restrains adopted .............................................................................................................. 111
7.3.3 Material properties ............................................................................................................ 111
7.3.4 Control Specimen connection and reinforcement detail................................................... 113
7.3.5 Instrumentation of specimen ............................................................................................ 114
7.3.6 Calibration of LVDTs, Load cell and Strain gauges ............................................................. 115
7.3.7 Self Weight Measurement ................................................................................................. 117
7.3.8 Test Procedures and Observation ...................................................................................... 117
7.3.9 Test results and Discussion ................................................................................................ 118
7.4.0 Design and experimentation of specimen with shearheads (Slab 2) .................................... 124
7.4.1 Design Procedures for the Shearhead Assembly. .............................................................. 124
7.4.2 Construction of shearheard ............................................................................................... 129
7.4.3 Materials and properties ................................................................................................... 131
7.4.4 Test Set up and Instrumentation ....................................................................................... 135
7.4.5 Sources of Error in the experiments .................................................................................. 137
7.4.6 Result ................................................................................................................................. 138
Summary ......................................................................................................................................... 143
Chapter 8: Analysis of Results and Discussion ...................................................... 146
8.0 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 146
8.1 Comparison of Numerical and Experimental results on slab 1 ................................................. 146
8.20 Discussion on Experimental and Numerical results for Slab 2................................................ 148
8.2.1 Strains on Shear arms ........................................................................................................ 149
8.2.2 Effect of Bending Stiffness ratio between shearhead and concrete ................................. 150
8.2.3 Effect of Shear arm Length ................................................................................................ 151
8.2.4 Effect of Shearhead Cross section...................................................................................... 151
8.2.5 Shear Force on Shearheads................................................................................................ 151
8.2.6 The Effect of Concrete Elastic Modulus on slab 2 .............................................................. 152
8.2.7 Effect of Geometric Nonlinearity ....................................................................................... 153
8.3.0 Comparison between Experimental and Code Equations for slab 1 ..................................... 154
8.3.1 ACI 318-05 Code Prediction ............................................................................................... 154
8.3.2 Eurocode 2 Code Prediction............................................................................................... 156
8.4 Design Recommendation for shearhead connection ............................................................... 156
ix
Chapter 9: Conclusion and Recommendation ........................................................ 158
9.1 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 158
9.2 Findings ..................................................................................................................................... 160
9.3 Contribution to Knowledge ....................................................................................................... 161
9.4 Recommendations .................................................................................................................... 161
9.4.1 Design Recommendations ..................................................................................................... 161
9.4.2 Recommendations for future work ....................................................................................... 162
9.5 Limitation of Research .............................................................................................................. 162
List of References .................................................................................................. 163
APPENDIX ............................................................................................................. 169
APPENDIX 1: Equivalent Frame analysis on prototype structure. .................................................. 169
5.2.1 Extraction of Specimen from Prototype structure ................................................................ 169
APPENDIX 2: Concrete mix design .................................................................................................. 172
APPENDIX 3: COMPUTATION OF CONCRETE TENSILE STRENGTH .................................................. 173
APPENDIX 4: COMPUTATION OF CONCRETE FRACTURE PARAMETER ........................................... 174
List of Figures
Fig 1.1 before collapse (Park 2012) 2
Fig 1.2: After collapse (Park 2012) 3
Fig1.3 Punching shear failure of Piper’ Row Park in Wolverhampton, U.K 4
Fig 2.1 Critical sections for edge columns reinforced with shearheads 14
Fig 2 .2. Pressure distribution on shear arms 14
Fig.2.3 BS 8110 guide on shear reinforcement (CEN 2002) 16
Fig.2.4. Mechanical model of Kinnunen/Nylander 1960 (FIB Bulletin 2001) 19
Fig.2.5. Slab-column connection subject to triaxial stress (Hallgren 1996). 20
Fig.2.6. size effect law (Bazant and Cao 1987). 21
Fig 2.7 a,b,c Load deflection curve for slab specimens (Bazant and CaO 1987) 22
Fig .2.8 Truss model (Alexander and Simmonds 1986). 24
Fig. 2.9 showing inclined tensile crack of concrete in the vicinity of the column 25
Fig.2.10. Critical section for edge connection (ACI318-05) 27
Fig 2.11.Critical section for edge connection and eccentric shear stress 28
Fig. 2.12. Structural layout of the prototype and the specimen extracted 33
Fig 2.13a boundary condition adopted (Alendar and Marinkovic 2008). 33
x
Fig 2.13b: Elevation of test set up 33
Fig 2.14: various shearhead systems (Eder et.al 2010) 38
Fig 2.15.shearhead system (Cheol-Ho Lee, Jim-won and Song 2008) 39
Fig 2.16.Experimental set up (Cheol-Ho Lee, Jim-won and Song 2008) 39
Fig.3.1: Deformed shape of shearhead after punching test (Eder et.al 2010). 44
Fig 3.2: Effects of tensile strength of concrete (Eder et.al 2010). 45
Fig 3.3 Novel shearhead proposed by (Eder et.al 2011). 45
Fig 3.4: Load displacement curve for the two specimens (Eder et.al.2011) 46
Fig 3.5: Connection detail of robust shearhead (Eder et.al 2012) 47
Fig 3.6: Tensile damage of concrete. 48
Fig 3.7: Experimental and numerical response of the slab 49
Fig 3.8 (a) Mohr-Coulomb Yield behaviour 51
Fig.3.9 Mohr-coulomb yield surface (Midas FEA analysis manual) 52
Fig 3.10a: Fixed crack model (Midas FEA 1989) 56
Fig.3.11: Parabola curve adopted in the TS-model. 57
Fig 3.12: Exponential softening curve (Midas FEA 1989) 58
Fig 4.1: Flow chart showing sequential application of methods 68
Fig 4.2: Flow chart showing sequential application of methods 69
Fig 5.1 deflection contour of the slab with UDL 71
Fig 5.2 a Plan view (quarter section) 72
Fig 5.2b Reinforcement detail 72
Fig 5.3: Finite elements model of the slab specimen 73
Fig 5.4: deformation contour of the slab at failure load 74
Fig 5.5a: Load- displacement response 75
Fig 5.6: Load-displacement curves for the numerical and (Eder et.al 2010) 75
Fig 6.1a: Prototype structural layout 78
Fig.6.2 finite element discretisation of prototype slab 80
Fig 6.3 Vertical displacement of prototype slab 82
Fig 6.4 Bending moment distribution (𝑀𝑥𝑥 ) of the prototype slab 83
Fig 6.5 Vertical displacement of the representative slab. 83
Fig 6.6 Bending moment distribution (𝑀𝑥𝑥 ) of Representative slab. 84
Fig 6.7:Slab model showing restraints adopted 85
Fig 6.8: Slab model showing restraints adopted 88
xi
Fig 6.9 embedded reinforcement in solid element 89
Fig 6.10 model showing reinforcement grid embedded in the slab 90
Fig.6.11. Full scale discretization of slab specimen into finite elements. 91
Fig.6.12: Deformation of specimen under self-weight. 92
Fig.6.13 slab deformation at failure load 92
Fig.6.14 crack propagation in the slab specimen 94
Fig 6.15: Variation of concrete tensile strength 95
Fig 6.16: Variation of shear retention factor (𝛽) 97
Fig 6.17: Variation of Fracture energy of concrete 98
Fig 6.18: Variation various Tension softening model 99
Fig 6.19: Variation of Elastic modulus of concrete 100
Fig 6.20: Variation of Reinforcement ratio 101
Fig 6.21: strain on reinforcement at failure load 103
Fig 6.22 finite element model of slab2 showing restraints adopted 103
Fig 6.23 finite element model of shearheads assembly 105
Fig 6.24 discrete interface model for shearheads to concrete interface 106
Fig 6.25: displacement contour under self-weight 106
Fig 6.26: displacement contour for slab 2 107
Fig 6.27: Load displacement curve for slab 2 107
Fig 6.28: cracks on concrete at the tension bottom of the slab 108
Fig 6.29: Strain 𝜀𝑥𝑥 on the shearheads. 109
Fig 7.1: Photo of Test set up for slab 1 110
Fig 7.2: Diagrammatic elevation view of test set up 111
Fig 7.3 Cube under compression in Avery- Denison machine. 112
Fig 7.4: Splitting tensile test 113
Fig 7.5 section detail of control specimen 114
Fig 7.6: Reinforcement detail 114
Fig 7.7: LVDTs and DEMEC positions on specimen 115
Fig 7.8: ERGs strain gauges connection to data logger 116
Fig 7.9 a: Punching shear of the connection 118
Fig 7.10: Load -displacement curve for LVDT1 119
Fig 7.11: Load -displacement curve for LVDT2 120
Fig 7.12: Tensile strain on embedded reinforcement 121
xii
Fig 7.13: Compressive strain on embedded reinforcement 122
Fig 7.14 a and b: compressive strain across concrete of concrete 123
Fig 7.15 (a) strain at D3 123
Fig 7.16 strain at D5 124
Fig 7.17: shearhead inserted between reinforcement grids 130
Fig 7.18: photo of shearhead inserted between reinforcement grids 130
Fig 7.19: Sectional view of the shearhead assembly 131
Fig 7.21: Elastic modulus for control specimen 1 133
Fig 7.22: Elastic modulus for control specimen 2. 133
Fig 7.23: Elastic modulus for control specimen 3. 134
Fig 7.24: Plan view of test set up 135
Fig 7.25: shearhead assembly instrumented with strain gauges 136
Fig 7.26: LVDTs Positions and DEMEC position on specimen 137
Fig 7.27: Load-displacement curve for LVDT1 138
Fig 7.30: Tensile strain across concrete depth 140
Fig 7.31: compressive strain across concrete depth 140
Fig 7.32: Load -strain graph for Top flange of shear arm1 142
Fig 7.33: Load -strain graph for Top flange of shear arm2 142
Fig.8.1 Load-displacement curve for experimental and numerical for Slab 1. 147
Fig.8.2: Load- strain curve for tensile reinforcements for slab 1. 147
Fig.8.3: Load displacement curve for experimental and numerical models. 148
Fig.8.4a: strain on tensile reinforcement 149
Fig.8.5: strain on compressive flange of shear arm 2 150
Fig.8.6a: strain on tensile flange of shear arm 1 150
Fig.8.7: increase in shearhead section thickness 151
Fig.8.8: shear Force along shear arm 1 152
Fig.8.9: Variation of Elastic of Elastic Modulus of concrete on slab 2 153
Fig.8.10: Effect of Geometric nonlinearity 154
Fig 8.11 ACI 318-05 control perimeter around edge column 155
Fig 8.12.control perimeter for edge column (Eurocode 2). 156
xiii
List of Tables
Table 2.1 control perimeters defined by various codes 12
Table 2.2 Existing design methods for exterior columns 17
Table 2:3. critical section for edge connection 18
Table: 3.1 Fracture energy and Aggregate 61
Table 5.1 Comparison of results. 71
Table 5.2 Material properties used in the model 73
Table 5.3 Material models for adopted 74
Table 6.1 Boundary condition adopted 82
Table 6.2 Elastic properties 82
Table.6.3 Material models adopted for the slab to column NLFEA 86
Table.6.4 Concrete material properties adopted for the Midas FEA model 87
Table 6.5: Numerical simulation data 89
Table 6.6: Material model implemented in numerical analysis 90
Table.6:7a Material model implemented in NLFEA. 104
Table 7.1 Strain gauge properties 115
Table 7.2: Concrete mix proportion (kilogram per cubic metres 131
Table 7.3: Result of tensile test on control specimens 134
Table 7.4: Tabular summary on how section 7.2 was achieved 145
xiv
Chapter 1 Introduction
(Setting the research into framework and perspective)
1.1 A Historical Reassessment

Flat slabs are beamless reinforced concrete slabs supported directly by columns
without the use of intermediary beams. They may be of uniform thickness throughout
or have deeper thickness (called drop or capital) around the vicinity of the supported
columns (Oyenuga 2005) .The use of column capital is no longer pleasant from
Architectural point of view. Therefore, current convention ignores use of column capital
in flat slab design. Flat slab structural systems have a wide range of application due to
their multi-functional and economic advantages, for instance the absence of beams
facilitates erection time compared to the normal frame system. It is also very useful in
multi-storey residential buildings, car parks and office complex due to reduced storey
height which is achieve by the absence of beams and the ease of partition location
(Koppitz et al, 2013). The use of reinforced concrete columns is very popular in flat
slab construction but the applicability of steel column will present an attractive
alternative especially in regions vulnerable to seismic activity. In addition, steel
columns have many practical advantages in construction of flat slabs such as quick
erection time and ease of construction (Eder et.al, 2011).
Despite these numerous advantages, the most significant structural deficiency of flat
slab system is their vulnerability to punching shear failure. This has made punching
shear failure a subject of intense experimental and theoretical investigations since
1960s (Muttoni, 2008). Although flat slabs system has a simple appearance, it
develops a complex behaviour in flexure and in shear. This behaviour has triggered a
lot of theoretical and experimental research on the analysis of the bending moments
and on the safe design for punching with and without moment transfer between slab
and column. According to (CEB 1990) punching is a shear failure within the
Discontinuity region (D-region) of the highly stressed slab at the column. It is a brittle
type of failure where the flexural reinforcement may not yield. From structural point of
view, a thin slab directly supported by a column may cause serious weakness; it is like
supporting a thin plate on pin supports. In this D-region of the flat slabs very high
1
moments occur and the three-dimensional state of stress is extremely complicated
(Fib bulletin, 2001). The problems are even aggravated if columns are placed directly
at edges or corners or if openings are placed near the columns. An edge slab-column
connection with an asymmetrical critical section is subjected to an unbalanced
moment developed by the gravity load as well as lateral load. This makes edge
supported flat slab more vulnerable to punching shear failure than interior column (Fib
bulletin, 2001). By considering this effect, Eurocode 2 recommends the shear force be
increased by 40 percent at the edge column and 50 percent for corner column but
could lead to conservative result. For flat slabs supported at the edge and corner
columns, even under gravity loads only, both concentrated loads cause shear stresses
in the slab. In addition, the unbalanced moments transferred from slab to column leads
to the development a complicated non-symmetrical stresses in the slab around the
edges and corners (Euro code 2).
Design errors in the computation of punching shear capacity of flat slabs system have
caused severe catastrophic failures resulting in great loss of life and property across
the world. A portfolio of failure scenarios in various part of the world is obvious as
such. For Instance, a departmental store building collapse due to punching shear in
Seoul Korea 1995.The apparent catastrophic scene is depicted
This item has been removed due to 3rd

Party Copyright. The unabridged version of
the thesis can be found in the Lancester
Library, Coventry University.
Fig 1.1 before collapse (Park 2012)
2
This item has been removed due to 3rd Party
Copyright. The unabridged version of the thesis can
be found in the Lancester Library, Coventry
University.
Fig 1.2: After collapse (Park 2012)
Record available shows that the disaster that occurred under service condition,
claimed 498 persons. The failure occurred due to erroneous computation of punching
shear (Park, 2012)
Similarly, a partial collapse due to punching shear occurred in the Piper's row car park
in Wolverhampton United Kingdom 1997. Though this misfortune did not claim any life
because it occurred at night under gravity load only, but the closure and subsequent
pulling down of the whole 400-space park caused extensive disruption in the pattern of
daily life and huge waste of financial resources. It was also reported that the structural
design is based on CP114, which gave a poor pessimistic estimation of punching
shear capacity of the connection (Wood 2003).The scene is shown in figure1. 3. Many
cases of punching shear have occurred across the World.
3
This item has been removed due to 3rd Party Copyright. The unabridged
version of the thesis can be found in the Lancester Library, Coventry
University.
Fig1.3. Punching shear failure of Piper’ Row Park in Wolverhampton, U.K in 1997
(Wood 2003)
1.2 Research Significance

Copious experimental, analytical and numerical works are available on punching shear
failure of interior connection subject to no unbalanced moment based on these
available data. Current design codes such as ACI 318-05 adopted results obtained
from interior connection and calibrated it to exterior connection which underestimates
punching shear significantly. Current design codes such as Eurocode 2, BS8110, and
Model Code 90 adopted similar design principles in their prediction of punching shear
except ACI318-05 that ignores the contribution of flexural reinforcement to punching
shear. Considering the variation of punching shear in the various codes, further
comparison on the one that provides best approximation for punching shear shall be
reviewed in this study. According to the available results, the dominant parameters
influencing punching shear strength of the slab-column connection are the tensile
strength of the concrete (𝑓𝑡 ), tension reinforcement ratio (𝜌𝑡 ), edge length of the
column section (𝑐1), and effective depth of the slab (d). The effects of these
parameters have generated a lot of divergent views amongst researchers which need
further investigations.
In order to provide an in-depth theoretical background for punching shear strengths of

slab-column connections, numerous theoretical strength models have been
4
developed. For instance, Nielsen (1999) and David and Orit (1999) have proposed
strength models based on the theory of plasticity. Johansen (1962) and Bazant and
Cao (1987) have proposed design equations based on the yield line method and
Fracture mechanics. Alexander and Simmonds (1987) have also proposed the strut-
and-tie model for slab-column connections. Eder (2010) carried out experimental and
numerical studies on the contribution of shearheads to punching resistance of a hybrid
flat slab supported on steel interior column subjected to both gravity and cyclic
loading. It was concluded that shearheads have significant influence on the punching
shear capacity of the connection.
Menetrey (2002) developed an analytical model that includes the contributions of

tensile strength of concrete, dowel action of reinforcement, tension in case of
prestressed and shear reinforcement.
Punching shear failure becomes complicated to evaluate for edge slab- column with
asymmetrical critical section subject to unbalanced moment developed by gravity load
plus lateral load. Based on this, there is a significant dearth of data on edge
connections. To account for unbalanced moment that aggravates punching shear at
edge connection, the ACI 318-05 provisions (ACI 2005) implemented the use of
eccentric shear stress model for the design of edge column. Although, ACI model was
developed from experimental data of interior column and extended to edge supported
column. In the ACI model, the unbalanced moment carrying capacity of the edge
supported connection is defined as the summation of the flexural moment capacity
and the moment induced by the eccentricity of shear stresses developing at the
connection. In a similar fashion, CEB-FIP MC 90 and BS 8110 have also defined the
unbalanced moment carrying capacity as the summation of the flexural moment
capacity of the critical section and the moment transfer by eccentric shear. But these
vary from the ACI 318-05 provisions due to a variation in the ratio of flexural moment
capacity and moment transferred by eccentric shear connection. A few researchers
have examined the capability of ACI model in the prediction of strength of edge
connection. For instance, Moehle et al. (1988) developed an improved strength model
based on the results of tests performed on edge connection. By comparison, they
observed that the strength of the exterior connection was significantly underestimated
for connection subject to high punching shear (Park and Choi, 2006). Moehle’s model
5
considers only the flexural moment capacity, therefore, ignores the moment due to
eccentric shear.
Bompa and Elghazouli (2016) carried out an experimental investigation on the

punching shear behaviour of hybrid flat slabs system embedded with shearhead
connected to a steel column. Their result revealed that the behaviour of the
connection was influenced by the shearhead properties. Furthermore, they suggested
that the main function of the shearhead is to shift the critical sections away from the
column vicinity; in term of bending moment and punching shear therefore, delay the
failure load.
Eder et al. (2011) investigated the behaviour of a partially integrated shearhead
system connected to interior tubular steel column subject to cyclic loading. They
reported that shearhead increases the ductility of the connection under cyclic loading.
In addition, the behaviour of the connection is governed by the strength and stiffness
of the shearhead.
Almeida et al. (2016) conducted an experimental investigation on RC flat slabs
reinforced with shearheards supported on interior connection subject to punching
shear failure. The slab was tested under both vertical and lateral loading. They
observed that lateral loading leads to significant reduction of the slab-column
connection stiffness.
1.3 Problem Statement
 The analytical model of Menetrey, when compared to design codes

equations gives a poor prediction of punching shear which could be
attributed to the assumption of a uniform tensile stress across the
inclined crack profile. This was perceived as a drastic simplification of the
model (Menetrey, 2002)
 The assumption of a uniform shear stress distribution across the
asymmetrical critical section is seen as a limitation of ACI eccentric
shear stress model (Fib bulletin, 2001)
 To improve on ACI model, Park and Choi (2007) developed a model
using nonlinear finite element method based on the observation that
ACI318-05 assumption of unbalanced moment transfer by both flexure
6
and shear using different critical sections in which the critical section for
shear is located in that of flexure induces torsional moment which
contradicts this assumption. In order to enhance it; a single critical
section for both flexure and shear with a critical section of 0.5d from the
column face was used. But their results underestimate the strength of
edge connection due to low flexural capacity of the assumed critical
section.
Based on this limitation, a higher critical section from the column face for both
flexure and shear is suggested.
 From literature available the use of steel column connected with
shearhead is still very unpopular. There is a significant dearth of
experimental data for edge steel column supporting flat slab. The two
dissimilar materials (concrete flat slab and steel column) would require a
shear head system for their connection. Eder (2010) research work is
limited to interior column without unbalanced moment.
 Another important parameter that is almost completely lacking is the
boundary conditions of isolated specimen that does not represent the
real continuous slab. Although many researchers have always mimic
ends fixity that correspond to the real slab which is very difficult to
achieve (Alender and Markonvic, 2008). If assumed, what about the
effects of compressive membrane and moment redistribution. To
reconcile the difference between the real slab and isolated specimen is
dealt with in this research work.
Based on the inherent limitations and gap identified in available literature, the research
objectives are drawn.
1.4 Aim and Objectives

This research aims at studying the punching shear failure of RC flat slabs supported
on steel edge column. The study was undertaken by employing state-of –the- art
computational technique and experimental investigations. The finding was used to
make design recommendations that would enhance the applicability of steel columns
in flat slabs construction.
This aim was achieved through the following objectives:
7
 Reviews of existing studies to identify research gaps.
 Apply nonlinear finite element analysis to investigate punching shear capacity

of the proposed shearhead assembly subject to static loading.
 Investigate punching shear failure of edge connection without shear
reinforcement and compare to design codes equations.
 Modify ACI shearhead system for its applicability to steel edge column
connection and propose a design procedure.
 Apply nonlinear finite element analysis (NLFEA) to undertake parametric study

of governing parameters influencing punching shear failure.
 Validate and calibrate results of NLFEA via experimental investigations.
1.5 Scope of Research

Taking cognisance of the research materials available, firstly, specific focus is given to
unrestrained boundary conditions by ignoring the effects of compressive membrane
and moment redistribution that increase punching shear strength in real slab. Firstly,
slab column supported at the edge without shear reinforcement is tested for
comparison with design codes prediction. Secondly, innovative shearheard that
enhances punching shear capacity at the edge was designed and tested in punching
shear. Lastly detail parametric study on all governing parameters affecting punching
shear was investigated. The effects of lateral load have been studied by previous
investigators, therefore, not considered in this study.
1.6 Layout of Thesis

Chapter 1 sets the research into perspectives by exploring the phenomenon of
punching shear failure. Catastrophic structural failure due to punching shear was
reviewed. For the research significance, copious research works on both concentric
and eccentric punching shear have been examined. Various strength models on edge
supported flat slabs subjected to unbalanced moment by previous investigators have
been examined. Based on the gaps and limitations identified, the research aim and
objectives were drawn.
Chapter 2: Provides adequate theoretical background for this study by a rigorous

exploration of various theoretical and analytical models that have been developed by
previous researchers and design codes. A thorough review was carried out by tracing,
8
commenting, criticizing and recommending the work of previous investigators. This
enhanced the development of sound theoretical understanding for this research. A
grand summary was provided to synthesise valuable information drawn from the
review.
Chapter 3 provides a theoretical numerical review and numerical models adopted by

previous investigators on punching shear. These include nonlinear finite element
method and experimental method. Brief review of the use of NLFEA in modelling
punching shear problem is provided; this gives further understanding the type of
elements, concrete failure criterion to be adopted. Comparison of various concrete
failure criteria was carried out and the most appropriate was recommended.
Chapter 4 provides the research methodology. It provides the sequence in which each
method was logically implemented.
Chapter 5: Provides the validation of adopted modelling scheme for the numerical
modelling. Analytical solution of plate and experimental investigation of previous
research work were validated using TS-Model implemented in Midas FEA (Finite
element software used)
Chapter 6 provides thorough detail of the numerical procedure use in validating all
experimental specimens and exhaustive parametric study of all governing parameters
influencing punching shear failure.
Chapter 7 provides a comprehensive detail of the experimental programme performed

at Structural Laboratory of Coventry University. It provides the rationale for performing
tests and reports all procedures, observations and measurable quantities in the testing
regime.
Chapter 8 presents the analysis of Results: results obtained from experimental,

numerical and analytical studies are compared and analysed in line with the research
objectives.
Chapter 9 provide the conclusion and recommendations for design guidance of flat
slab supported on edge steel column.
9
Chapter 2: Review of theoretical and experimental studies
2.0 Introduction
This chapter provides in-depth theoretical and experimental studies on punching
shear. Extensive review of relevant research works of previous investigators on both
concentric and eccentric punching shear failure of flat slab to column connections
were carried out by reporting, tracing, criticizing, commenting and identifying gaps for
further investigation.
Since 1960, Punching shear failure has been a subject of intense experimental and
theoretical investigations. Until now, there are still divergent views on the various
design parameters and failure mechanisms of punching shear. This is discernible in
the various design principles adopted in current codes of practice. According to (CEB
1990), punching shear failure occurs within the discontinuity region (D-region) of the
highly stressed areas, usually within the vicinity of the slab-column connection.
Punching shear is a brittle type of failure, which may occur before flexural yielding of
the steel reinforcement. This reveals that the D-region is not adequately ductile to gain
capacity from redistribution of forces. It also indicates that safety level cannot be
increase up to certain point by provision of additional flexural reinforcement. According
to (Elsanadedy et.al, 2013) significant higher stresses developed at flat slabs to
column connection, which causes a catastrophic and brittle punching shear failure.
This failure usually occurs as a result of the transfer of vertical shearing force due to
gravity loads; in addition to unbalanced bending moment due to non-uniform gravity
load or lateral loads due to wind. The possibility of progressive collapse requires a
higher safety class in structural design.
For flat slabs design, the flexural and punching shear capacity need to be properly
addressed. The intersection between the column and the slab is critical as
concentrated forces can induce a cone shaped perforation through the slab thickness
as depicted in figure 2.4. The perforation is developed as the cracks on the top
surface caused by hogging moments extend downwards to the perimeter of the
column. A ductile flexural failure occurs by a gradual decrease in load-carrying ability
with increasing displacements. While a sudden loss in strength of the connection
indicates a brittle failure known as punching shear failure which is very risky.
10
2.1 Failure Mechanisms
According to Menetrey (2002) (Cited in FIB Bulletin 2001) identified three possible
types of failure for reinforced concrete flat slabs supported on columns as thus
 Flexural failure due to the formation of a yield line mechanism.

 Punching failure with a conical plug perforating the slab above the column.
 Bond failure, which is characterized by a slip of reinforcement.
2. 2 Current design methods for punching shear resistance.

Proven experimental works on punching shear failure by (Kinnunen and Nylander
1960 ) and others, have led to the development of some current design codes such as
ACI 318-08, Canadian code (CSA), BS8110 and Euro code 2. The design resistance to
punching shear is, generally in building codes, an empirically derived formulations
based on various test results. The resistance is determined along a control perimeter
where the nominal shear force per unit width is compared to the shear resistance per
unit width of the control section. The definition of the critical perimeter differs in the
various design methods. Code comparison is carried out to understand the one that
provide the best approximation for punching shear. Detail account of punching shear
provided in these codes is presented as such.
11
Table 2.1 control perimeters defined by various codes
CODE CRITICAL PERIMETER NORMINAL SHEAR CAPACITY

(Unit: N and mm)
1
ACI 318-08 𝑉𝐶 = √𝑓𝑐 ′ 𝑏0 d
3
𝑏0 = 0.5d
BS8110
𝟏⁄
𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝟒 𝟏⁄
𝑉𝐶 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟗 ( ) (𝟏𝟎𝟎𝝆) 𝟑 𝑏0 d
𝒅
The value of 𝑉𝐶 shall be multiplied
3 𝑓𝑐𝑢⁄
by √ 25 for 𝑓𝑐𝑢 > 25 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑏0 = 1.5d
4 𝟒𝟎𝟎
The value of √( ) shall not be
𝒅
less than 1.0
The upper limit of 𝑓𝑐𝑢 = 40 MPa

has been ignored
Eurocode 2 𝑏0 = 2d 0.18 200 𝟏⁄

𝑽𝒄 = [1 + √ ] (𝟏𝟎𝟎𝝆) 𝟑 𝑏0 𝑑
𝛾 𝑑
𝛾 𝑐 = partial safety factor = 1.5

(taken as 1.0)
12
2.2.1 ACI Code, ACI318-05
In this design principle, a simple equation for punching shear capacity of flat slabs
system is proposed. The equation is based on classical shear strength equation. In
ACI 318-08, the control perimeter is only 0.5d from the loaded area as depicted in
table 2.1. The ACI code ignores the significant contribution of flexural steel
reinforcement and the effective depth of the slab in its limiting shear stress. The code
requires that the ultimate punching shear resistance for slabs without shear
reinforcement, 𝑣𝑐, be governed by the expression below.
𝑉𝐶 =0.33 √𝑓𝑐 ′ ................................................................................ (2.1)
From these current design codes, there are significant variations in the approaches
used to assess punching shear resistance of reinforced slab-column connections.
Generally, all design codes adopt a simple punching shear on certain critical
perimeter. The critical section for checking punching shear is usually situated a
distance between 0.5 to 2.0 times the effective depth (d) from the edge of the loaded
area. Another significant variation amongst codes is in the way they represent the
effect of concrete compressive strength (𝑓𝑐 ′ ) on punching shear capacity, generally
1 1
these codes expressed this effect in terms of (𝑓𝑐 ′ )𝑛 where (n) varies from (2) to (3) in
the European codes.
2.2.1.1 ACI318-05 recommendation for shearheads
ACI318 is the only code that provided design guidance for punching shear resistance
using shearhead, but is only applicable to reinforced concrete column. The critical slab
sections applicable to edge columns are depicted in fig2.1.
13
This item has been removed due to 3rd Party Copyright. The unabridged version
of the thesis can be found in the Lancester Library, Coventry University.
Fig.2 .1. Critical sections for edge columns reinforced with shearheads. (ACI318-05)
The plastic moment strength, 𝑀𝑝 required for each arm of the shearhead shall be
computed by
𝑉𝑢 𝐶1
𝑀𝑝 = [ℎ𝑣 + 𝛼𝑣 (ℓ𝑣 − )] ..................................................... (2.2)
2𝜙𝑛 2
where 𝜙 is for tension-controlled members, n is number of shear arms. ℎ𝑣 = the
overall depth of the slab. ℓ𝑣 = the minimum length of the shear arm. 𝛼𝑣 = the flexural
stiffness ratio between structural steel section and concrete.
ACI 318-05 further recommended that the ratio 𝛼𝑣 between the flexural stiffness of
each shearhead arm and that of the surrounding composite cracked slab section of
width (𝐶2 + 𝑑) shall not be less than 0.15
This item has been removed due to 3rd Party Copyright. The
unabridged version of the thesis can be found in the Lancester
Fig 2.2. Pressure distribution on shear arms (ACI 31-05 design guide)
The code also recommended that, the critical slab section for shear shall be
perpendicular to the plane of the slab and shall cross each shearhead arm at three-
14
𝑐1
quarters the distance (ℓ𝑣 − ) from the column face to the end of the shear arm. But
2
the assumed critical section need not be less than 𝑑⁄2 to the column.
2.2.2 EUROCODE 2 Design code
The recommendations provided in EC2 (2004) with respect to punching shear

resistance are largely based on section 6.4.3 in the CEB-FIP Model- code (CEB 1990)
both codes consider the following parameters
 Flexural reinforcement in the tensile zone (𝜌𝑙 )

 Concrete cylinders strength
 Size effect
Eurocode design principle assumed the conventional formulation similar to the uni-
directional (one-way shear) case of a beam although a control perimeter is defined as
the assumed crack periphery on the top surface of the slab. The punching shear
strength is assumed constant for the entire control perimeter (𝑏0), around internal
columns with balanced moments. EC2 equation in table 2.1, relates punching shear
1
strength in direct proportion to the bending reinforcement (100𝜌𝑙 )3 where 𝜌𝑙 is an
average reinforcement ratio obtained from 𝜌𝑥 and 𝜌𝑦 EC2 limit 𝜌𝑙 to a maximum value
𝜌
of 2% and 3% whereas no restriction is given explicitly to ( 𝑥⁄𝜌𝑦 ).
2.2.3 BS8110 code
The use of shear reinforcement other than links is not treated particularly in BS8110.
The design procedure is as thus: the shear capacity of unreinforced slab is checked
first (see Table 2.1 for control perimeter). If the computed shear stress does not
exceed the design shear stress 𝑣𝑐, then shear reinforcement is no longer required.
If the shear stress exceeds 𝑣𝑐, then shear reinforcement should be provided on at least
two perimeters according to figure 2.3.
 The first perimeter of reinforcement should be located @ approximately 0.5d

from the face of the loaded area and should contain not less than 40% of the
computed area of the shear reinforcement added.
15
 The spacing of perimeters of reinforcement should not exceed 0.75d and the
spacing of the shear reinforcement around any perimeter should not exceed
1.5d.
 The shear reinforcement should be anchored around at least one layer of

tension reinforcement.
The shear stress should be verified on perimeters @ 0.75d intervals until the shear
strength is not less than the design concrete shear stress
University.
Fig.2.3. BS 8110 guide on shear reinforcement (CEN 2002)
16
Table 2.2 Existing design methods for exterior columns (Park and Choi 2007)
Design Shear strength (Mpa) Unbalanced moment-

codes carrying capacity
ACI318- 0.33 𝑀𝐴𝐶𝐼 is the smallest of (a)

𝑣𝑐,𝐴𝐶𝐼 = (0.167 + )√𝑓𝑐 ′ ...........(a)
𝛽𝐶
05 (REF) and (b)
Eccentric 2.48𝑑
𝑣𝑐,𝐴𝐶𝐼 = ( + 0.167)√𝑓𝑐 ′ .........(b)
𝑏0
shear 𝐽
𝑀𝐴𝐶𝐼 = (𝑣𝑐,𝐴𝐶𝐼 − 𝑣𝑔 )
model 𝑣𝑐,𝐴𝐶𝐼 = (0.33)√𝑓𝑐 ′ ................... (c) 𝐶𝐴𝐴𝛾𝑣
𝐽
𝛽𝐶 = ratio of long edge to short edge of column 𝑀𝐴𝐶𝐼 = (𝑣𝑐,𝐴𝐶𝐼 + 𝑣𝑔 )
𝐶𝐴𝐴𝛾𝑣
section.
J = polar moment of inertia
𝑣𝑐,𝐴𝐶𝐼 is the smallest of a, b and c
of the critical section. 𝐶𝐴𝐴𝛾𝑣
is the distance of the
centriod of the critical
section to edge A-A.
𝑊1 𝑑
𝑀𝐶𝐸𝐵 = (𝜏,𝐶𝐸𝐵 − 𝑣𝑔 )
𝛾𝛾𝑣
1⁄ 2⁄
CEB-FIP 𝜏,𝐶𝐸𝐵 = 0.18𝑘(100𝜌𝑙 𝑓𝑐 ′ ) 3 ≥ 0.35𝑘 3 √𝑓𝑐
′
MC 90 𝐶1 2⁄
𝑊1 = 2 + 𝐶1 𝐶2 + 4𝐶1 𝑑
(REF) 200
𝑘 =1+ √ 𝑑
≤ 2.0 where d is in mm 𝜌𝑙 =
+ 8𝑑 2 + 𝜋𝑑𝐶2
reinforcement ratio for slab width 𝐶2 + 3𝑑
𝜏,𝐶𝐸𝐵 = 0.18𝑘(100𝜌𝑙 𝑓𝑐 ′ )
1⁄ 1⁄
3 𝑓𝑐 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 3 𝑏0 𝑑. 𝑥
𝑀𝐵𝑆 = (𝜏,𝐵𝑆 − 1.25𝑣𝑔 )
1.5
BS8110
𝑘 = √400⁄𝑑 .
4
𝜌𝑙 ≤ 0.03 𝑓𝑐 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 = x = width of critical section
compressive cube strength of concrete. = 𝐶2 +3d.
17
2.3 Concentric Punching shear failure mode
In this section, selected models on punching shear failure of slab-column connection
from available literature are presented. These models can be categorized as thus:
 Models based on Cracked slab segment ( Kinnunen/Nylander approach)

 Models based on fracture mechanics
 Models based on plasticity theory
 Strut and Tie Model
 Numerical models
 Analytical models.
2.3.1 Model based on cracked segment by (Kinnunen and Nylander 1960)
Kinnunen and Nylander (1960) experimentally examined the punching shear capacity
of a reinforced concrete flat slab supported on interior columns. The model was
proposed based on the results of 61 tests; based on equilibrium considerations of a
circular slab with radial cracked segments around a circular column. Test was
conducted on specimens made up of circular slab supported on a circular reinforced
concrete columns positioned centrally and loaded along the circumference. They
observed the following punching failure mode.
 Firstly, tangential cracks developed on the top surface of the slab above the
column. These were flexural crack due to hogging moments.
 As the load increases, radial cracks were formed after tangential crack
initiation.
 After further loading, the tangential cracks departed from their original vertical
direction into an inclined path towards the column face on the bottom surface
of the slab.
 Bond failure of flexural reinforcement.
 Failure of the compressive cone shell.
This was the first mechanical model developed for punching shear; however, it does
not yield good result when compared to test results. But the model visualized
adequately the flow of forces which provides very useful hint for other researchers.
The Kinnunen/Nylander approach could be characterized as a failure mechanism
approach where rigid bodies separate at defined failure surfaces i.e. the radial cracks
18
and inclined shear crack surfaces. The basic idea was to create equilibrium of forces
acting on the sector element as shown in Fig 2.4.
This item has been removed due to 3rd Party Copyright. The unabridged version of
the thesis can be found in the Lancester Library, Coventry University.
Fig.2.4. Mechanical model of Kinnunen/Nylander 1960 (FIB Bulletin 2001)
2.3.2 Modified mechanical model by Hallgren (1996)

The mechanical model proposed by (Kinunnen and Nylander 1960) provides a realistic
description of the punching shear mechanisms. However, the failure criterion is given
as a set of semi-empirical expressions which are based on strains measured in
punching shear tests. But this model does not account for the size effect on the
punching strength. A failure criterion was developed based on the finite element
analysis of (Hallgren 1996) which revealed that the concrete between the tip of the
shear crack and the slab-column root was in a triaxial state of compressive stress as
shown in fig2.5. When crack appears, the confinement given to the tri-axial state of
compressive stress at the slab-column root is lost and the shear crack can break
through the radial compression zone, causing a sudden loss of load carrying capacity.
This is believed to be the cause of punching shear failure. This formed the basis of the
failure criterion adopted in the modified mechanical model. The proposed punching
model, suggests that just before failure, the strain is equal to the vertical tensile strain,
Based on this, and by adopting the fictitious crack model by (Hillerborg et al. 1996);the
ultimate tangential strain is equated to the average strain across the compression
19
zone when the critical crack width 𝑊𝑐 is reached. Based on the previous finite element
analysis and on test observation, a modified mechanical model of punching of RC
slabs without shear reinforcement was proposed.
But the proposed model is limited to the analysis of symmetric punching of RC slabs
without shear reinforcement. Based on this limitation, there is a need to modify the
model to include forces from shear reinforcement and forces from prestressing
tendons.
Fig.2.5. Slab-column connection subject to triaxial stress (Hallgren 1996).
2.3.3 Fracture mechanics model by Bazant and Cao

Bazant and Cao (1987) adopted fracture mechanics approach. They developed this
model based on the concept that punching failure does not occur concurrently along
the failure surface; instead the failure zone propagates across the structure with the
energy dissipation localized into the cracking front. On this basis, fracture mechanics
should be adopted in the prediction of punching load instead of plastic limit analysis.
That is, it should be based on energy and stability criteria instead of strength criteria.
They further argued that the basic difference between plastic analysis and fracture
mechanics is the size effect .Fig 2.6 illustrates that the nominal shear stress at failure
in equ. 2.3 of geometrically similar structure for plastic analysis is size independent,
whereas for fracture mechanics it decreases as the structure size increases
20
𝑃𝑢
𝜎𝑁 = …………………………………………………………………………...... 2.3
𝑏𝑑
Where b presents punching diameter and d is slab thickness
Fig.2.6. size effect law (Bazant and Cao 1987).
. According to their investigation, it was observed that linear fracture mechanics

always overestimates the size effect of RC structures. Therefore, nonlinear fracture
mechanics is deemed suitable for application because it represents a gradual
transition from the failure criterion of limit analysis to the nonlinear elastic fracture
mechanics as depicted in fig 2.6.
Bazant and Cao (1987) performed an experimental investigation on specimens for

size effect on punching shear. The thicknesses were 25.4mm, 50.8mm and 101.6mm
thick. The load-deflection curve in fig 2.7 shows that the failure was caused by brittle
cracking and not by plasticity of the concrete. It was also observed that the larger the
specimen size the steeper is the decline of load after the peak point. The test results
𝑃𝑢
confirmed that significant decrease of the nominal shear at failure 𝜎𝑁 = occurred
𝑏𝑑
with an increase of the slab thickness.
21
Copyright. The unabridged version of the thesis can be
found in the Lancester Library, Coventry University.

Fig 2.7 a,b,c Load deflection curve for slab specimens (Bazant and CaO 1987)
From their findings, equation 2.4 below was proposed for the computation of
punching load
𝑑
𝑉𝑐 = 𝐶. (1 + 𝜆 )0.5 ……………………………………………………………… (2.4)
0 .𝑑𝑠
Where 𝑉𝑐 is the nominal shear stress C = value of the nominal shear stress according
𝑑
to plastic limit analysis = 𝑘1 𝑓𝑐 ( 1 + 𝑘2 . 𝑏 )
d = slab thickness. b = diameter of the punching cone.
𝑘1 𝑘2 = empirical constants.
𝜆0 = Empirical parameter characterizing the fracture energy of the material and
𝑑𝑎 = maximum aggregate size.
22
2.3.4 Model of Yankdevshy and Leibowitz
Yankelevshy and Leibowitz (1995) proposed a model for concentric punching based
on a rigid-post-fractured behaviour. This model considers equilibrium and kinetic
conditions, which makes it capable of also computing the load displacement
behaviour. The model disregards the significant contribution of reinforcement but
considers strain based on aggregate interlock mechanisms. Their model is capable of
 Computing the normal and shear stress distribution along the failure surface.
 Computing the variation of these stresses relating to the axial displacement.
 Predicting the ultimate punching force.
2.3.5 Plasticity model of Bortolotti

Bortolotti (1990) applied plasticity theory based on modified coulomb yield criterion for
concrete. Bortolotti model considers strain softening in concrete. He applied the upper
bound solution to determine the punching load by virtual work method. But the model
underestimates punching shear strength of interior connection.
2.3.6 Truss model (Alexander and Simmonds 1986)

Alexander and Simmonds (1986) proposed a space truss model composed of steel
ties and concrete compression struts as depicted in the shaded area in fig 2.8 The
concrete compression strut is inclined at an angle 𝛼 to the slab plane.
Some basic assumptions of the model are:
 The steel bars at the vicinity of the column behaves as tension ties and yield
before failure.
 Punching shear occurs when the concrete cover spalls due to a vertical
component of the compression strut at the intersection of compression struts
and tension ties.
 The angle of inclination 𝛼 was assumed to be a function of various variables
such as: tension bar spacing, concrete strength bar area and yield strength,
column size and effective depth.
23
This item has been removed due to 3rd Party Copyright. The unabridged version
of the thesis can be found in the Lancester Library, Coventry University.
Fig .2.8 Truss model (Alexander and Simmonds 1986).
Alexander and Simmonds (1992) suggested that a curve compression strut with
varying 𝛼 along the slab depth correlated more with test results.
2.3.7 Analytical model of Menetrey
Menetrey (2002) proposed an equation (2.5) connecting punching and flexural failure
based on tests on circular slabs. In the case of pure punching, 𝛼0 in equation 2.5
represents the inclination of the shear crack. The flexural failure load could be
obtained from yield line analysis around the column where 𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑠 the radius of the
circular slab .The main assumption of this model is that the punching failure is
significantly influenced by the tensile stress in the concrete along inclined punching
crack. The novelty in this approach is the addition of all parameters contributing to the
enhancement of shear resistance of the connection as depicted in equation 2.6, where
𝐹𝑐𝑡 represents the contribution of the tensile strength and can be obtained by the
integration of all the vertical component of the tensile stress along the conical failure
surface
𝜋
𝐹𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙 = 𝐹𝑝𝑢𝑛 + (𝐹𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑥 − 𝐹𝑝𝑢𝑛 ) {sin [𝜋−2𝛼 − (𝛼 − 𝛼0 ) ]} ................................ (2.5)
0
𝐹𝑝𝑢𝑛 = 𝐹𝑐𝑡 + 𝐹𝑑𝑜𝑤 + 𝐹𝑠𝑤 + 𝐹𝑝 ................................. (2.6)
24
University.
Fig. 2.9 showing inclined tensile crack of concrete in the vicinity of the column
(Menetrey 2002)
The fundamental idea of the model is the assumption that punching shear failure
corresponds to the failure of the concrete tie, so that the tie strength is equivalent to
the punching strength.
The assumption of zero tensile strength across crack resulted to a drastic

simplification of the model. Because nonlinear fracture mechanics has proven that
tensile stresses can still be transmitted across the inclined cracked as depicted in fig
2.9 which underestimates the punching shear strength.
2.3.8 Model of Theodorakopoulus and Swamy

Theodorakopoulus and Swamy (2002) have developed analytical punching shear
model which is based on the physical behaviour of the connection under load. From
their findings, it was observed that punching shear is influenced by the following
parameters
 Ratio of the column size to the effective slab depth.

 Ratio of shear resistance to flexural resistance
 Concrete compressive strength
 The column shape and lateral constraints
25
The model presumes that punching is a form of combined shearing and splitting,
occurring without concrete crushing under complex three dimensional stresses.
Failure is assumed to occur in the compression zone above the inclined cracking
when the limiting shear stress equals the tensile splitting strength of concrete.
2.4 .0 Eccentric punching shear

Punching shear failure becomes more significant at the edge connection, due to the
presence of unbalanced moment induced by gravity and lateral loads. ACI –code
provides appropriate design guidance especially when a shearhead is used in the
slab-column connection. The ACI 318-05 code assumes a linear elastic shear stress
distribution along the defined control perimeter around the shearhead as depicted in
fig.2.11.
Adel and Ghali (1996) performed a linear finite element analysis on external and
internal slab to column connection. They observed that the shear stress distribution
along the control perimeter is not linear as documented in the ACI-code. They
believed that code assumptions are practical and conservative. It was observed that
rotational stiffness of the connection decrease continuously with increasing load.
Krueger et al. (1998) performed tests on 2.7m × 2.7m square reinforced concrete
slabs with 300mm × 300mm reinforced concrete columns. A rigid frame was formed
around the perimeter to support the slabs. Lateral and vertical loads were applied
concurrently with three different eccentricities of e = 0, e = 160 mm and e = 320 mm.
They observed a decreased in punching strength when unbalanced moments were
present. The decrease could be in excess of 30% for large eccentricities of column
load. It was also observed that the flexural reinforcement significantly increase the
ductility of the punching mechanism, by inducing much larger rotations of the column
at failure.
2.4.1 Moment Transfer

Elgabry and Ghali (1993) investigated the moment transferred by shear in slab-column
connections in accordance to ACI 318-89. According to ACI provision on slab-column
connection transferring unbalanced moment, it was recommended that the
unbalanced moment transferred from the slab-column connection should be resisted
by both flexural moment of the slab and the eccentricity of shear stress. The ACI
26
model assumes that shear stress varies linearly over the critical section. ACI code
provides for the following equations for the proportion of moment resisted by shear.
1
𝛾𝑣𝑥 = 1 − 2 .............................................................. (2.7 a)
1+( )√ℓ𝑥 ℓ𝑦
3
1
𝛾𝑣𝑦 = 1 − 2 ................................................................. (2.7b)
1+( )√ℓ𝑥 /ℓ𝑦
3
Where ℓ𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℓ𝑦 side are dimensions of the assumed critical section in the x and y
directions as depicted in equation Fig.2.10
This item has been removed due to 3rd Party Copyright.

The unabridged version of the thesis can be found in the
Lancester Library, Coventry University.
Fig 2.10. Critical section for edge connection (ACI318-05)
They observed that these equations were formulated by ACI based on tests on
interior slab-column connections without shear reinforcement. Therefore, they
developed an equation that can be applied to edge column by employing linear finite
element analysis as thus.
1
𝛾𝑣𝑦 = 1 − 2
(when ℓ𝑥 /ℓ𝑦 ≥ 0.2) ............................... (2.8)
1+( )√ℓ𝑥 ℓ𝑦 −0.2
3
𝛾𝑣𝑥 The same as equation 2.8
But this equation does not correlate well with experimental results .Their finite element
was further reduced by 0.15 which shows that it over estimated the eccentric shear
stress.
Moehle (1986) reviewed some selected experimental data on strength of slab-column

edge connections transferring moment perpendicular to the edge. These data were
27
compared with ACI 318-83 eccentric shear stress model and were found not
correlating. Therefore, an analytical model based on moment transferred by flexure
was developed; neglecting moment transfer by eccentricity of shear stress. This
negligence of the eccentric shear is based on the assumption that no significant
interaction between shear and flexural moment occurred at the edge column at failure.
He concluded that either the connection fails at its pure shear strength or at its pure
flexural strength, whichever first occurred. He recommended that the ratio of moment
due to eccentric shear of ACI eccentric shear model should be reduced in order to
achieve better correlation with experimental data.
2.4.2 Combined shear and moment transfer

According to ACI 318-05 code, shear and a portion of the transfer moment computed
at the centroid of the slab critical section are assumed to produce shear stresses that
are distributed linearly on the slab critical section
Fig 2.11.Critical section for edge connection and eccentric shear stress (ACI318-05)
The proportion 𝛾𝑣 of the transfer moment assumed to be carried by eccentric shear

stress is given by Equation 2.9 as thus
1
𝛾𝑣𝑥 = 1 − 2 ............................................................................... (2.9)
1+( )√𝛽𝑐𝑟
3
Where 𝛽𝑐𝑟 = ratio of the slab critical section dimension measured parallel and
transverse to the direction of moment transfer. Under combined shear and uni-axial
28
moment transfer, nominal shear stresses acting on the slab critical section are
computed according to Equation 2.10
𝑽𝒖 𝑀𝑠 𝐶𝑣
𝒗𝒄 = ± 𝛾𝑣 ..................................................................................... (2.10)
𝑨𝒄𝒔 𝐽𝑐
In which 𝒗𝒄 = the factored concrete shear stress, 𝑽𝒖 = the factored design transfer
shear, 𝑀𝑠 = The factored design transfer moment computed at the geometric centroid
of the slab critical section to the point where the shear stress is computed parallel to
the direction of moment transfer. 𝐽𝑐 = polar moment of inertia of the slab critical section
about its geometric centriod. According to the Eccentric shear model, a proportion of
moment not transferred by eccentric shear stresses is to be resisted in flexure by slab
reinforcement placed within a width extending 1.5 slab thicknesses on both sides of
the column. The reinforcement should be positioned as either top or bottom
reinforcement, or both as required in order to resist the tensile stresses due to
moment. This flexural reinforcement is not included in the reinforcement bars already
provided for non-transfer. According to the eccentric shear model, strength is reached
when the computed shear stress in equation 2.10 reaches a critical value equal to 𝒗𝒐
or when the moment transferred by flexure reaches the flexural strength of
reinforcement within the effective transfer width 𝒄𝟐 + 𝟑𝒉
2.4.3 Effect of connection proportions.

According to Moehle, Leon and Kreger (1988) suggested that for a typical small value
of the ratio of the perimeter of the slab critical section to slab effective depth for
𝑏0
instance ( = 8), shear failure involves a complex three-dimensional failure surface
𝑑
𝑏0
that is confined by in-plane stresses within the slab. As the ratio of increases, there
𝑑
is a likelihood of the confinement to be reduced, which may result to a decrease in

shear strength.
This observation was also substantiated by the data presented by Dilger and Ghali
𝑏0
(1981) in which the variation of shear strength as a function of the ratio was
𝑑
𝑏0
observed. Been satisfied with the evidence that shear strength varies with ratio, it
𝑑
𝑏0
is recommended that the shear strength be taken as 0.75𝑉0 if is in the range 20
𝑑
𝑏0
and 40 and as 0.5𝑉0 if exceeds 40, where 𝑉0 is defined by equation 2.11.
𝑑
29
2.4.4 Shear Transfer
For connection having no moment transfer, the basic shear strength equation
according to ACI 352-88 is given as
𝑉0 = 0.17 (1 + 2⁄𝛽 ) √𝑓 ′ 𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑠 ≤ 0.33 √𝑓 ′ 𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑠 ........................................... (2.11)

𝑐
Where 𝑉0 is the strength in Mpa
𝐴𝑐𝑠 = critical section area in 𝑚𝑚2 which is defined as the slab cross-sectional area
cut by planes perpendicular to the slab surface at a distance 𝑑⁄2 from the column
face. 𝛽𝑐 = ratio of long to short dimensions of the supporting column.
2.4.5 Effect of connection yield

The connection strength provided in equation 2.11 was obtained from experiments in
which the connection failed in shear at a load approximately equal to the flexural yield.
According to Hawkins and Mitchell (1979), the connection strength in equation 2.11
was proposed from experiments in which shear failure occurred preceding or
approximately coinciding with the flexural yield. They suggested that if significant
yielding of flexural reinforcements occurs before the shear strength is reached, the
shear strength is reduced. Hawkins and Mitchell (1979) have attributed the loss of
strength to loss of membrane action around slab to column connection as a result of
yielding. Based on this it is recommended that the shear strength of a connection be
reduced to three-quarters of equation 2.11 if significant yielding is expected.
2.4.6 Effects of gravity loads

Pan and Moehle (1992) performed an experimental study of Slab-Column connections
and the results show that the level of gravity load on flat slab is one of the most critical
factors in determining the lateral behaviour of reinforced concrete flat slabs. Similar
observation was made by the experimental studies on flat plates by (Akiyama and
Hawkins 1984). They concluded that the predominant cause of failure of flat plate
connections is attributed to excessive vertical shear stresses that are induced by the
combined action of the applied gravity load and moment transfer. Pan and Moehle
(1992) observed that when gravity load is increased, there is a significant reduction of
the shear capacity of the connection to resist moment transfer due to lateral loads.
30
2.5.7 Park and Choi Model for unbalanced moment
Park and Choi (2007) carried out a nonlinear finite element analysis to develop a
strength model for exterior slab to column connections subject to unbalanced moment
developed by gravity and lateral loads. Based on the observation that current design
codes do not properly estimate the punching shear strength of exterior slab-column
connections specifically ACI318-05 model. The limitation of ACI318-05 was traceable
to the use of different critical sections for both shear and flexure in the prediction of
punching shear strengths of edge slab-column connections. In the eccentric shear
stress model of ACI 318-05 provisions, the total resisting moment is the summation of
both moment transfer by the eccentricity of shear and the flexural moment of the slab.
Park and Choi (2007) observed that the use of the critical section of 𝑐2 + 3ℎ for
flexural moment and the inscription of another critical section of 𝑐2 + 𝑑 for eccentricity
of shear stress induces severe torsional moment by the eccentric shear. This would
significantly influence the flexural moment capacity of the slab width 𝑐2 + 3ℎ. This
observation seems to contradict the design principle that the unbalanced moment of
the slab-column connection are resisted by both flexure and shear, since torsional
moment due to eccentric shear is transmitted to the flexural moment section. In order
to overcome this inadequacy in the ACI318-05 design principle, they adopted the
same critical section of 0.5d for both flexural moment and eccentric shear. In order
estimate the total resisting moment at the connection, they splitted the moments into
various components: moments transmitted at the front and back and at the side
(Torsional moment was assume at the side as shown in table 2.2.
2.5 Review on experimental studies on edge supported flat slab

This section examines experimental procedures that have been adopted by previous
investigators. It also focuses on the type of boundary conditions and its effects on
punching shear capacity of isolated slabs. Difference between isolated slab and the
continuous slab was investigated.
2.5.1 Isolated slab

From literature available, most analytical and numerical models on punching shear
have relied on experimental results. Very little attention has been given to the
deviation of the isolated slab from the real slab, therefore the effects of test set up and
boundary conditions need further investigations. The isolated specimen that is
31
traditionally obtained from the points of moment contra flexure of the real structure has
a major disadvantage; it does realistically model the behaviour of a slab-column
connection in real structure. According to Alexander (1986), a major advantage of the
isolated specimen is that it gives the slab some freedom in determining its own force
distribution along the boundary.
2.5.2 Effect of Boundary conditions

Elstner and Hognestad (1956) punching shear test have revealed that the types of
boundary conditions adopted could have a significant influence on the punching shear
load. According to their report, four square edges were simply supported, two opposite
edges are simply supported, and the four corners are simply supported. It was
observed that the distribution of shear stresses around column at 𝑑⁄2 from for the
column face obtained from linear finite element; are roughly identical for the three
cases. The tests revealed that shear strength was significantly reduced at the edges
there were continuously supported. The moment to shear ratio for the slab supported
on its four corners was higher than the simply supported along its four edges
therefore, the later experiences higher punching shear strength.
Alendar and Marinkovic (2008) performed experimental studies on punching shear

strength of post-tensioned lift slab at edge column. The specimens were obtained from
a prototype edge panel at full scale at the points of contra flexure. The boundary
conditions that replicate the prototype structure were implemented. The isolated
specimens that represent a portion of the prototype edge panel were loaded to failure.
The prototype slab was designed based on its spans of 7.5m in both directions with a
superimposed dead load of 1.0 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2 and live load of 2.5𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2 . Based on this load
configuration, structural analysis was carried out to obtained points of contra flexure
and maximum bending moment.
On the lateral sides of the prototype slab where negative bending moments (parallel to
the free edge) in a prototype slab are equal to zero, a free edge of the specimen has
been adopted. Where the positive bending moments (perpendicular to the free edge of
the slab are maximum in the prototype, restraint was adopted. All the three specimens
were of the same dimensions (3.5 ×2.8× 0.18m).The layout is depicted in fig 2.12.
32
Fig. 2.12. Structural layout of the prototype and the specimen extracted (Alendar and
Marinkovic 2008).
A test frame made of closely spaced rigid steel girders was used to achieve boundary
conditions
This corresponds to the end fixity of the prototype as depicted on figure 2.13
Fig 2.13a boundary condition adopted. Fig 2.13b: Elevation of test set up
(Alendar and Marinkovic 2008)
It is definitely impossible to create fixity in the laboratory as they intended to. These
boundary conditions are erroneously adopted because a hogging moment may be
created close to the mid-span as opposed to the maximum bending moment they
intended to create. Elastic analysis would have been conducted to investigate the
boundary conditions that create the similitude they intended to achieve.
33
Moehle and Pan (1992) conducted an experimental study of slab-column connections.
The failure of the connection subject to biaxial moment was considered. The core
objectives of the experiment were to:
 investigate the effects of biaxial lateral loading

 effects of gravity load on lateral behaviour
In the prototype structure, the column was used as a secondary load transferring
mechanism. The shear wall was the primary load transferring mechanism. The
specimen was obtained from the points of contra flexure of the prototype. But the
boundary condition does not represent the end fixity in the prototype which they aimed
to achieve. In addition, no account was given for the in-plane forces (membrane
action) and moment redistribution that have unavoidably induced because of the
restrained boundary conditions. Sufficient flexural reinforcement was used in the
column region. They did not specify the critical or control perimeter for punching shear.
Their experimental results show that the gravity load dominated and influences the
lateral load behaviour, which agrees with the report of Akiyama and Hawkins (1984)
that majority of punching shear failure of flat-slab connections is due to excessive
vertical shear stresses that are induced by the apply gravity load and moment transfer.
Based on their findings, it was concluded that ACI eccentric shear stress model yields
conservative results for both uniaxial and biaxial cases.
Ghali and Dilger (1976) conducted experimental investigation on flat plate subject to
static and horizontal forces. The specimen was obtained from the contraflexure bound
of a prototype interior column under the effect of uniformly distributed gravity load. The
content axial force (V) applied on the specimen is assumed to simulate the effect of
distributed gravity load on the slab in the prototype. The test specimens were simply
supported on the slab edges. According Criswell (1970) suggested this type of set up
does not represent the prototype structure, but the result of their Elastic Finite
Element Analysis shows that the stress resultants due to induced load and moment
dies out quickly from the column faces and are not affected by the degree of fixity of
the slab edges. This claim is theoretical not appropriate because in the prototype, fixity
activates membrane actions and redistribution of moment between mid-span sagging
moment and support hogging moment.
34
Vanderbilt (1972) also performed punching shear test to investigate the variation of
shear strength with aspect ratio (𝑐 ⁄𝑑 ) column size to depth of the slab, therefore,
various column types and sizes were used. He acknowledges the shortfall of the
isolated slab-column connections from the real structure as thus;
 In-plane forces which may be present in the real structure are absent in the
isolated model.
 Redistribution of forces which can take place in the real structure with
progressive increase in load is largely absent in the model.
Following the conventional method, the specimens were obtained from the locations of
lines of contraflexure around the column in the prototype structure.
Test results revealed the following;
 The shear strength was a function of column shape, as well as size with higher
strength than square columns of equal periphery. This difference is attributed to
stress concentrations present at the corners of square columns.
 The available equations for predicting shear strength do not correlate well with
test data.
2. 5. 3 Punching Shear Capacity of Real Slab

Evidence from experimental investigations has shown that punching shear capacity of
a real slab is significantly higher than that of an isolated specimen. For instance,
Ockleston (1955) conducted an experiment on a portion of real continuous slab in a
building in South Africa in 1952; and observed that the punching shear failure load
was significantly higher than value predicted on an isolated specimen. However, the
numerical value was not reported. Chana and Desai (1992) also conducted tests on a
full scale shear reinforced slabs supported by a central column and a significant higher
punching failure load was reported. Similarly, Choi and Kim (2012) tested a square
slab with restrained rotation of the edges, and reported that the reinforcement ratio for
sagging moment at the edges of the slab equally influences punching strength as the
hogging moment over the support (Choi and Kim 2012)
Based on this significant deviation of the real slab from an isolated specimen as
proven by previous investigators, Einpaul et.al (2015) performed a through
35
comparative study to understand the factors influencing higher punching shear in real
slab. Their observations were summarised as thus:
 In a real slab, moment redistribution could occur between sagging moments in

mid-span and hogging moments around the column which could lead to shifting
of the line of contra flexure of the slab and influences its shear slenderness.
 Lateral expansion occurs in the isolated specimens after flexural cracking on
the supports. This expansion is constrained in a real slab, which induces axial
compression within the hogging moment region and increases the stiffness of
the slab in bending.
 Compressive membrane action that may result from restraint against lateral
expansion of the slab provided by stiffer support at the corners or edges of the
slab, causes expansion of the hogging moment area due to the in-plane
stiffness provided by the sagging moment area.
2.5.4 Effects of compressive membrane action

The phenomenon of compressive membrane action is normally considered as a
secondary effect, which occurs after cracking of concrete or yielding of flexural
reinforcement. Results of tests have confirmed the enhancement of load capacity of
continuous slab by compressive membrane action (FIB Bulletin 2001).Attempt to
account for the contribution of compressive membrane to punching shear has been
investigated by Masterson and Long (1974) in which a rational method was
developed. The method considers the portion of the slab inside the nominal line of
contra flexure to be laterally restrained by the surrounding zone of the slab inside the
nominal line of contra flexure to be laterally restrained by the surrounding zone of the
slab and therefore compressive membrane action is induced as the slab
Similarly, Trapani et.al (2015) evaluated the effect of compressive membrane action
on punching shear of flat slab and observed that membrane action increases both the
bending and punching shear capacities of flat slab.
2.6 Review on shearhead systems

It is necessary to review some existing shearhead systems in order to understand their
performance. The following shearhead systems are currently in practice.
1. American type cruciforms

2. German type composite cruciform verbundkreuz
36
3. Swiss type Geilinger
4. Swiss type Tobler-Walm
5. Solid cruciform with staples
A shearhead is designed to transfer forces of the neighbouring concrete slab through

shear arms to the column.
The American type shearheads as shown in Fig.2.14a and 2.14b bare made of hot
rolled 𝛪-section or channel sections. It is usually cast between the flexural
reinforcement layers of the concrete slab and connected to the column. Channel
section can also be used for RC columns. The closed shearhead type depicted in fig
2.14c is made by connecting a hot rolled steel sections to the ends of the shear arms
(This forms a frame). This is analogous to a beam in a frame structure. The close
shearhead could have higher stiffness compared to other types of shearheads. The
Swiss system Tobler walm depicted in fig 2.14e is popularly applied in Tandem with
steel composite columns. From its design, the slab will only sit on the flanges of the
tee sections. The T-shapes on the top are connected to a flat steel bar which passes
via the column and is meant to resist tensile force, but to achieve equilibrium, it may
require concrete compressive struts and tie model but in case where unbalanced
moment is present, it would not be suitable because adequate strut and tie model may
not developed.
The German system verbundkreuz in fig 2.14g was designed by (Piel and Hanswille,
2006). This shearhead was designed basically for gravity load dominated condition.
From this review, the ACI shearhead system is would be modified and adopted to
suite the purpose of this research. Shearheads are welded the column section in form
of shear reinforcement. It is made of structural steel sections across the column
section, also known as shear arm. It was first develop by (Corley and Hawkins 1968).
Fig. 2.14f depicts the details of a shearhead system developed by Corley and Hawkins
in 1968. It can also be applicable to flats slab system supported on steel tubular
columns via shearhead connection.
37
version of the thesis can be found in the Lancester Library, Coventry University.
Fig 2.14. Various shearhead systems (Eder et.al 2010)
Corley and Hawkins (1968) have determined the shear force distribution in a cruciform
type shearhead which agrees with the specifications made in the ACI-code. From their
results, it was revealed that the shear distribution is constant along the shearhead and
it depends on the ratio of the flexural stiffness of the steel section to that of the
cracked steel- concrete composite section. However, they assumed that the shear
force is transferred from the slab to the column by the tip of the shear arms only.
Cheol-Ho Lee, Jim-won and Song (2008) performed a full scale test on concrete filled
tube (CFT) column to RC flat slab connections subject to gravity loading. For shear
transfer from slabs, to columns, two types of shear key were used namely; a Tee
section and a wide flange section. The wide flange section was designed in
accordance to (Corley-Hawkins 1968) and (Wang and Salmon 1979). A wide flange
section of H-100𝑚𝑚 ×100𝑚𝑚 ×6𝑚𝑚 with 320mm long was used to ensure punching
shear strength was achieved which can be compared to that of Reinforced concrete
flat slab structure. The connection detail is depicted in fig 2.15
38
version of the thesis can be found in the Lancester Library, Coventry University.
Fig 2.15.shearhead system (Cheol-Ho Lee, Jim-won and Song 2008)
In order to simulate gravity load on the slab, the slab-column specimens were placed
upside down followed by the application of an incremental vertical loading on the
column. The edges of the specimen were simply supported and lateral movement of
the edges was restrained to mimic the inflection lines as depicted in fig 2.16

Fig 2.16.Experimental set up (Cheol-Ho Lee, Jim-won and Song 2008)
They ACI 318-05 recommendation on shearhead design was not adopted, therefore
there is no guarantee that the connection would satisfy the requirements for punching
shear. Attempt to create inflection lines by restraining the edges may not satisfy less
accurate instead it induces compressive membrane in the slab which was not
accounted for.
2.7 identified gaps
From the available literature reviewed, there is a significant dearth of research work on
edge connection. Especially edge connection reinforced with shearhead. Few
available research works on shearhead ignored the significant effect of bending
39
stiffness between the shearhead and cracked concrete as recommended by ACI318-
05. The use of steel column as alternative to RC column for edge connection is
relatively scarce. Furthermore, there is a significant dearth of data on edge
connection.ACI 318-05 used the data obtained from interior connection to proposed
equation for edge connection; which significantly underestimates the punching shear.
Therefore, test for edge slab-column connection without shear reinforcement was
carried out to investigate its punching shear capacity for comparison with existing
design codes equations. In addition, this study is focused on the development of a
novel shearhead assembly for connecting edge supported steel column to flat slab.
2.8 Summary
The general criteria any model must consider first is equilibrium, followed by assumed
constitutive laws, material strengths and failure criteria, most notably the influence of
concrete tensile strength. Most empirical models met some of these criteria but ignore
the significant aspect of equilibrium. Only the strength criterion for failure loads or
shear force is satisfied within the range of experimental verifications.
Drastic simplifications were adopted in various empirical equations to make them easy
for codes implementation. Equilibrium could be accounted for in global analysis using
linear finite element. However, this cannot completely describe punching shear
behaviour. Even though this does not completely undermine empirical equations; they
are still invaluable in design codes for other type of shear problems.
Mechanical models could be so complicated therefore; empirical models are

preferable in design (Fib Bulletin 2001). Most empirical model ignores the residual
tensile strength of cracked concrete.
In order to overcome the shortcomings of empirical model, Fracture mechanics has

been used to study the behaviour of the residual tensile strength across crack.
Nonlinear Finite element analysis (NLFEA) accounted more on the residual strength of
cracked concrete. For this reason, NLFEA was adopted as the dominant methodology.
A comprehensive literature review was carried out to examine theoretical and

experimental research conducted on both concentric and eccentric punching shear by
previous investigators. Firstly, the relationship between flexural and punching failure
was examined, which revealed that flexural failure is preceded by the formation of
40
yield line mechanism while punching is characterised by an abrupt decline in load
value at failure. Based on proven experimental works of previous investigators, design
principles on punching shear was provided in the various codes such as BS8110,EC2,
CSA, ACI. These codes were compared to examine the one that provides the best
approximation for punching shear without partial factor of safety. Comparison shows
that ACI318-05 is the only code that provide design guide on the application of
shearhead at slab-column connection. However, ACI shearhead systems are limited to
Reinforced concrete column; therefore, further modification for its applicability was
considered. Various sheadhead systems were compared and contrast. I-section
adopted for the experiment was deemed most suitable based on its advantages.
Numerous theoretical models developed on concentric punching shear were

examined. These were reviewed to understand punching shear parameters use to
formulate analytical equations. Various theoretical models were reviewed such as
models based on Fracture mechanics, plasticity, mechanical, strut and tie and
empirical.
Eccentric punching shear is the core focus of this research. Punching shear becomes
more complicated for edge-supported connections due the presence of unbalanced
moment resulting from gravity and lateral load. Because of this, data for edge
connections are relatively very limited. In order to deal with the effect of unbalanced
moment, ACI 318-05 developed an eccentric shear stress model from data of interior
connections. However, ACI model underestimate the strength of edge connections
reported by (Moehle 1988) and other investigators. This was traceable to assumption
of a uniform shear stress distribution along the asymmetrical critical section, which
remains a fundamental shortcoming of ACI model. ACI eccentric shear model is based
on the principal that the unbalanced moment is transferred by both flexure and shear
in a ratio of 0.6 and 0.4 respectively.
For both concentric and eccentric punching shear, both design codes and previous
investigators had neglected the contribution of compressive membrane to punching
shear. Due to experimental limitation, test on full-scale prototype is relatively scarce.
This is attributed to its cost intensive nature and experimental difficulty. To overcome
this difficulty, investigators always use the conventional procedure of obtaining an
isolated slab from a prototype structure at the contra flexure bound region. However,
41
test on isolated slab does not reflect the behaviour of real continuous slab. Therefore,
comparison was carried out to sort their difference. It was revealed that the difference
is due to contribution of compressive membrane action and redistribution of moment
between the hogging and sagging moments lead to higher punching shear capacity in
the real continuous slab.
Most investigators reviewed in literature have intended to replicate the boundary

conditions of the real slab, which is relatively difficult to implement in the laboratory.
Despite the restraints, they failed to account for compressive membrane effect.
From this research, therefore, an unrestrained boundary condition was adopted to

avoid the inducement of compressive membrane and moment redistribution on the
primary variables under consideration. This solution was envisaged to provide a lower
bound solution, which was bench marked for investigating restrained slab. Numerical
model is the dominant methodology employed for this study. After validation of the
numerical model with experimental results for unrestrained slab, further investigations
was carried out to study the effects on the parameters that contribute to punching
shear at edge connection.
There is also significant dearth of literature on shearhead system for edge connection,
therefore, this study proposed a novel shear head system for connecting flat slab to
steel edge column.
42
Chapter 3: Review of Numerical Modelling
3.0 Introduction
This chapter provides review of previous numerical models, theoretical basis and
comparison of various material properties and constitutive models of concrete to
support decision on the adopted modelling scheme. Numerical analysis was employed
to investigate existing test results in the available literature and the proposed tests that
would be carried out as an integral part of this research work. In order to reduced cost
intensive laboratory experiments, finite element analysis (FEA) was employed to
perform parametric study by using a commercially available finite element programme
Midas FEA. This programme was chosen based on the reliability and consistency of
the implemented elements and material models in addition to the efficiency of
simulating concrete nonlinear properties.
3.1 Review of Previous numerical models on Punching shear failure
Finite element method has been extensively applied to investigate punching shear
failure of flat slabs system. Among these, (de Borst and Nauta, 1985), (Menetrey,
1994) and (Hallgren, 1996) have applied two-dimensionally rotationally symmetric
elements modelled punching shear failure. Furthermore, numerical studies using three
dimension systems were investigated by (Ozbolt and Bazant 1996) and (Staller,
2000). Success in numerical modelling for punching shear cannot be achieved without
adequate understanding of material behaviour and failure criteria for concrete as well
as steel. The type of failure criterion adopted has a significant effect on the punching
shear behaviour. The type of finite element analysis used also plays a significant role.
Few researchers such as (Moehle 1996) and (Elgabry and Ghali 1993) have used
linear elastic finite element method to study moment transfer between slab and
column but did not justify the assumed elastic behaviour of concrete. Linear finite
element analysis cannot completely describe the behaviour of concrete, because
concrete (as a quasi-brittle material) does not obey elastic law. Linear elastic finite
element analysis can be used to study the prescribed boundary conditions.
Eder et.al (2010) conducted numerical and experimental investigations on punching
shear of a hybrid flats slab with shearheads. The study focuses on the contribution of
shearhead to punching shear capacity of the interior slab-column connection not
43
transferring unbalanced moment. The shearhead was designed based on the ACI
318-05 recommendation. But ACI 318-05 guidance was not strictly applied because
the bending stiffness ratio between the shearhead and cracked concrete is less than
0.15. The shearhead was welded to the tubular steel column and inserted between the
layers of the reinforcement. It was observed that the shearhead deformed plastically
before punching failure occurred. The deformed shape of the shearhead after the test
is shown in fig 3.1.
Copyright. The unabridged version of the thesis
can be found in the Lancester Library, Coventry
University.
Fig.3.1: Deformed shape of shearhead after punching test (Eder et.al 2010).
A quarter of the specimen was model in DIANA commercially available finite element
software. A nonlinear finite analysis was performed. Concrete was defined with the
'Total strain crack model' which is based on the modified compression field theory of
(Vecchio and Collins 1986).The shearhead was modeled with six-noded triangular and
eight-nodded quadrilateral mindlin-Reissner isoparametric shell elements and the
mesh was refined around the shearhead. They also investigated governing parameter
influencing punching shear of the connection. It was observed that the tensile strength
of concrete affects the displacement than the failure load as shown in fig.3. 2.
44
Fig 3.2: Effects of tensile strength of concrete (Eder et.al 2010).
The results, suggest that loads are principally transferred into the shearhead at the
tips of the arms if the failure surface lies outside the failure surface.
Eder, Vollum and Elghazouli (2011) investigated the behaviour of ductile shearheads
for connecting reinforced concrete flat slabs to interior tubular steel columns. The
structural response of the proposed shearheads was compared to the conventional
ACI-type shearheads that is fully embedded in the slab. The proposed shearhead was
designed as a dissipative element which yields in shear before punching failure occurs
in the slab. The configuration of the shearhead is depicted in fig 3.3.
Fig 3.3 Novel shearhead proposed by (Eder et.al 2011).
45
In the conventional ACI shearhead system, a punching failure load of 450kN was
recorded while in the proposed shearhead system, a punching failure load of 385kN
was recorded. The early failure is attributed to the localised concrete failure at the
intersection of the shear arms with edges of the opening near the column.
The load -displacement response curve for both specimens is shown in fig .3.4

Fig 3.4: Load displacement curve for the two specimens (Eder et.al.2011).
The curve revealed that the proposed shearhead exhibits significant ductility before
punching shear failure occurred which is desirable under seismic loading.
In order to eliminate the localised concrete failure around the opening, it was
recommended that the slab edge should be adequately reinforced around the
opening.
To achieve adequate ductility, the connection should have failed above the failure load
obtained in the conventional ACI shearhead system. This result suggests that creating
an opening near the column aggravates punching shear capacity of the connection
which is undesirable.
Based on the shortcomings of the previous test, Eder Vollum and Elgazouli (2012)
design a robust shearhead system for connecting reinforced concrete flat slabs to
tubular steel columns. In order to eliminate the early localised concrete failure around
the edges of the hole in the previous experiment, the hole was adequately reinforced
with steel collar. The detail of the connection is shown in fig 3.5.
46
This item has been removed due to 3rd Party Copyright.
The unabridged version of the thesis can be found in the
Fig 3.5: Connection detail of robust shearhead (Eder et.al 2012)
The authors also performed tests on several steel sections such as: hollow rectangular
section, PFC section, channel and I-section. Results of the tests revealed that I-
section is the most suitable due to reduced depth of shear cone punched out of the
concrete at failure. And also good composite action was achieved using 𝚰-section.
Both gravity and cyclic tests were carried failed on the connection, but punching shear
did not occurred due the ruggedness of the connection. The detail of the connection is
shown in fig 3.5. The load reached 570kN and there was no sign of punching
therefore, the test was truncated.
Despite the great effort, punching shear capacity of the proposed shearhead assembly
could not be ascertained because the connection did not fail in punching during the
test and hence; the contribution of the shear arms was indeterminate. The authors
suggested that the contribution of the shear arms could have been determined if the
shear arms acted as a cantilever like in the case of the fully embedded ACI shearhead
system.
It was concluded that 𝚰-section performs better as shear arms than any other sections
due to improved composite action with the concrete slab. It was impossible to
determine the contribution of the shear arms by using the collar, and as such the,
attempt to propose design guidance was not achieved.
47
Genikomsou and Polak (2015) conducted nonlinear finite element analyses of
reinforced concrete slab-column connections under static and pseudo-dynamic
loadings to investigate punching shear failure. The damage plasticity model
implemented in ABAQUS was adopted to define quasi-brittle concrete. Five interior
slab-column specimens without shear reinforcement were analyzed. Two specimens
of edge slab-column connections were also analyzed.
Damage was introduced in concrete damaged plasticity model in tension according to
fig.3.6

University.
Fig 3.6: Tensile damage of concrete (Genikomsou and Polak 2015)
The model was able to predict punching shear failure of tested slabs, but there was no
comparison to the predictions of the various design codes for its adequacy.
Furthermore, parametric studies on various governing parameters of punching shear
were not investigated therefore; the sensitivity of the adopted modelling scheme was
not examined.
Wosatko, Pamin and Polak (2015) applied damage-plasticity models in finite element
analysis of punching shear. An experimental investigation was carried out on interior
column tested in punching for the purpose of validation of numerical models. Two
inelastic constitutive models were adopted in the numerical simulations namely:
1. Gradient-enhanced damage plasticity model; and 2. Damaged plasticity model
implemented in ABAQUS.
Concrete plasticity model in Abacus incorporates the effect of moderate confining
pressure and irreversible plastic damage. In ABAQUS, failure mechanism
characteristics for quasi-brittle materials such as concrete is based on concrete
plasticity in which yielding and plastic potential functions are used to represent
material failure.
48
The numerical model was not able to capture the post -cracking behaviour of concrete
as depicted in fig 3.7

Copyright. The unabridged version of the thesis can
be found in the Lancester Library, Coventry
University.
Fig 3.7: Experimental and numerical response of the slab.

Wosatko, Pamin and Polak (2015)
Punching is preceded by tensile cracking. However, aggregate interlock, shear friction
due to dowel action of reinforcement withstands substantial amount of the load after
initial cracking. Also the numerical predictions suggested a sharp brittle failure after
initial cracking; which indicates that the post crack regime was not captured.
3.2 Linear Finite element Analysis (LFEA)
According to Segaseta et.al (2014), LFEA could be used to study the shear fields of
concrete and the stiffness in torsion due to cracking (in this case the shear modulus is
taken as one-eighth of its elastic value as adopted in practice). They adopted Elastic
shearfield analysis to study the load carrying mechanism of reinforced concrete flat
plate to obtain the shear resisting control perimeter. In this study, linear finite element
is employed to investigate the similitude relationship between the continuous slab and
the isolated specimen. This would provide sufficient information on the boundary
conditions to be adopted.
49
3.3 Nonlinear Finite element Analysis (NLFEA)
3.3.1 General
Nonlinear finite element analysis was conducted to validate and compare previous
investigations in the available literature. This validation and comparison would
enhance the selections of material models and element types. The parametric study
was used to support decisions on the material parameters that would guarantee an
appropriate NLFEA model. The NLFEA model results will also facilitate the validation
and calibration of the intended test that was conducted on edge column connections.
3.3.2 Review on concrete NLFEA models
A combination of linear elasticity in compression with a Rankine tension cut off was
adopted in the initial stages of Reinforced concrete modelling. Afterwards, elasto-
plastic formulations in compression such as Mohr-coulomb, Drucker-Prager and Von
mises etc have also been applied in concrete NLFEA. Great efforts have been made
on modelling the tension softening behaviour of concrete, which principally led to the
smeared crack concept. In the smeared crack concept, the solid (concrete) is
imagined as a continuum. The smeared crack concept based on the Rankine failure
criterion could be combined with available elasto-plastic constitutive models. The total
strain crack model which provides a better description of concrete quasi-brittle
behaviour has been introduced. These models were examined and the one that
accurately predicted punching shear failure was recommended.
3.3.3 Rankine model
In the Rankine model, the maximum principal stress(𝜎1 ) is used to define the yielding
of a material. The tensile behaviour of concrete (tension cut off) is normally modelled
with the Rankine failure criterion. According to Rankine criterion, failure occurs in a
material if the maximum principal stress 𝜎1 reaches the uniaxial tensile strength(𝑓𝑡 ).
𝜎𝑣 = 𝜎1 = 𝑓𝑡 ............................................................. (3.1) 𝜎1 > 0
In Midas FEA, the tension cut off is modelled with the exponential, constant and linear
functions. If the stress point reaches, the Rankine failure surface cracking is initiated
and the tension softening procedure begins. As concrete exhibits a quasi-brittle
behaviour, the stress does not suddenly drop to zero, but gradually approaches zero
during crack propagation. Material tests revealed that concrete displays different
50
tension softening behaviour for plain and for reinforced concrete due to the obstruction
of cracks propagation by the presence steel reinforcement.
3.3.4 Mohr- Coulomb Model (Non-associative Plasticity model)
Mohr-Coulomb model is mostly applicable to materials that have significant frictional

and dilatational effects such as soils and rock. In the Mohr-coulomb model, the yield
functions have been established to capture the behaviour of frictional materials. In
these materials, the plastic behaviour depends on pressure as opposed to von Mises
which is independent on pressure. Mohr-coulomb is a typical example of non-
associative plasticity because the direction of plastic flow not normal to the yield
surface (Belytschko and Moran 2000). The Mohr-coulomb criterion is established on
the principle that yielding in the material occurs when a critical combination of shear
stress and mean normal stress is reached on any plane which is expressed as
𝜏 = 𝑐 − 𝜇𝜎 ……………………………………….……………………………….. (2).
𝜏 Is the magnitude of the shear stress 𝜎 is the normal stress on the plane and c is the
cohesion.

University.
Fig 3.8 (a) Mohr-Coulomb Yield behaviour; (b) Drucker-Prager and Mohr-Coulomb
yield surfaces. (Belytschko and Moran 2000).
From fig.3.8 it is shown that if all three Mohr’s circles associated with the principal
stresses lie between the failures envelopes, no yielding occur. But when the yield
surface is tangential to one of the Mohr’s circles, yield takes place
The material yield criterion of the Mohr (1990) model is expressed as
|𝜏| = F (𝜎) ............................................................................................. (3.3)
51
The peak strength, 𝜏 on a plane is assumed as a function of the normal stress on the
same plane. Equation 3.3 relates the yield surface of a Mohr circle and the yield
function, F (𝜎) is determined by experiments. The Mohr criterion assumes that a failure
occurs in a material at the instant when the largest Mohr circle meets the coulomb
yield surface. This tacitly implies that the middle principal stress 𝜎2 (𝜎1 = ≥ 𝜎2 ≥ 𝜎3
does not affect the yield criterion.
According to Potts and Zdravkovic (1999), the Mohr-Coulomb failure model is a linear
elastic perfect plastic criterion and is formulated as
𝜏 𝑓 = 𝑐 + 𝜎𝑛𝑓. tan 𝜑 ................................................................................. (3.4)
Where c, 𝜑 are shear strength parameters of materials
c = cohesion 𝜑 = internal friction angle.
Equation (3.4) is broadly used for materials, which display the property of changing
shear strengths with change in compressive stresses. The failure envelop based on
Mohr’s circle can be express in terms of principal stresses as thus:
1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑
𝜎(max) = 𝜎(max) − 𝜎3 (min) = 1 .............................................. (3.5)
2𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
University.
Fig.3.9 Mohr-coulomb yield surface (Midas FEA analysis manual)

Failure occurs due to shear if one of the largest of the three stress circles for the
corresponding to the three-dimensional stress state touches the failure envelope. The
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion requires just two parameters and allows good
approximation of brittle materials such as concrete. The reliance on the hydrostatic
pressure p, which takes account of the hydrostatic effect, which is the increase of
shear strength when (p) is increased, is a major advantage of this model. In the
compressive regime, the failure envelope has a square shape and underestimates the
52
true compressive strength on the whole, the MC-criterion employed for concrete
fundamentally experience 2 major drawbacks
 The MC-criterion ignores the effect of the intermediate principal stress. This
suggests that the intermediate stress 𝜎2 has no influence on the failure. Tests
have revealed that 𝜎2 significantly affects the compressive strength of
concrete, concrete strength increases with respect to the increase in 𝜎2
 The compressive meridians are straight lines whereas tests have shown that
the compressive meridians of concrete are curved.
3.3.4.1 Angle of friction

Mohr-coulomb model adopted two parameters namely: angle of friction (ɸ) and
cohesion c which are obtained from test data. Based on the unconfined uniaxial
compression and uniaxial tension parameters ɸ and c can be estimated from the
following formulae;
2𝑐.𝑐𝑜𝑠ɸ
𝑓𝑡 = ............................................................................. (3.6)
1+𝑠𝑖𝑛ɸ
2𝑐.𝑐𝑜𝑠ɸ
𝑓𝑡 = ............................................................................... (3.7)
1−𝑠𝑖𝑛ɸ
Where(𝑓𝑡 ), represents the uniaxial tension and ( 𝑓𝑐 ) the uniaxial compression

strength. The internal angle of friction for plain concrete lies within the range of 30° ≤
ɸ ≤ 35° . Li et al. (2003) employed the following empirical formula for ɸ which consists
𝑓
of a default value of ɸ = 36° + 1° (35𝑐 ) ≤ 45°
3.3.4.2 Cohesion
The cohesion can be determined as a tangent on the Mohr's circle based on the
uniaxial compressive strength as follows.
1+𝑠𝑖𝑛ɸ
𝑐 = 𝑓𝑐 ................................................................................... (3.8)
2𝑐𝑜𝑠ɸ
The uniaxial tensile value corresponding to c can be calculated using equation 3.8
obviously; this is a theoretical tensile strength which usually exceeds the true tensile
strength of concrete. Therefore, applying Mohr-coulomb plasticity model for concrete.
𝑐
𝑓𝑡 = .............................................................................. (3.9)
𝑡𝑎𝑛ɸ
A tension cut-off should be applied. In order to apply this, a constant tension cut-off
criterion such as the Rankine failure criterion.
53
3.3.4.3 Dilation
The dilation fundamentally an account for the volume change after plastically has
been reached. (De Borst and Vermeer 1984) suggested that dilation is caused by
frictional sliding, either along particles or along micro cracks.
Dilation occurred when two layers of loose granular material have to undergo both a
vertical and a horizontal displacement if these layers slide along each other. This
vertical uplift causes the volume increase under plastic deformation. The rate of
dilation is found to be constant and can be expressed as thus,
𝜖𝑣 𝑝
sin 𝛹 = ....................................................................................... (3.10)
−2𝜖1 𝑝 +𝜖𝑣 𝑝
𝜖𝑣 𝑝 = 𝜖1 𝑝 + 𝜖2 𝑝 + 𝜖3 𝑝 ................................................................................ (3.11)
Where 𝛹 is the dilation angle, (which is constant if 𝛹 = 0 is the plastic potential

function is 'associated'). Associative because the vector of plastic strain is always
perpendicular to the plastic potential function which means the plastic strains are
perpendicular to the Mc-failure surface. For hydrostatic condition, the horizontal
component of this vector is the volume change and the vertical component is the
deviatoric or distortional strain. If 𝛹 = 0 is assumed, then the plastic potential is non
associative and 'nondilatant'. This indicates that no volume change has occurred as
the meridian is horizontal and the strain vector is getting closer to the deviatoric strain
axis.
3.4.0 Concrete crack models
Concrete crack models can be categorized into discrete crack model (discontinuum
model) and the smeared crack model (continuum model). The discrete crack model
adopts finite elements at which concrete cracks are separately represented as
boundaries. The discrete crack model has the advantage of being able to specifically
represent cracks behaviour as physical discontinuity at failure. Nevertheless, it has
some demerits in the sense that the accuracy of the analysis greatly depends on the
material properties required and the FE modelling can be very complex. The method is
computationally intensive since large numbers of degree of freedom are involved
(Surendra, Stuart and Chengsheng 1995).
54
The smeared crack model assumes that cracks generated locally are uniformly
scattered over a wide surface. This model is particularly suitable for RC structures with
moderate amount of reinforcement and its finite element modelling is comparatively
simple. Few advantages of smeared crack concept are
 There is computational convenience and remeshing is not required.
 Cracks generally are not straight but tortuous. Such tortousity can be modelled
more readily using the smeared crack concept.
The smeared crack can be further categorized into various models such as the
decomposed strain model and a total strain model. The decomposed-strain model
computes the total strain in terms of material strain and crack strain. The material
strain is further decomposed into other strain components such as: elastic strain,
plastic strain, creep strain, thermal strain. The crack strain is further decomposed into
non-orthogonal multi-directional crack model. This series of decomposition makes the
algorithm very complex and difficult to achieve convergence (Midas FEA, 1989).
The total strain model in the smeared crack model is formulated based on total strain
without going through a rigorous method of decomposition into strain components. In
addition, its algorithm is quite easy to understand (Midas FEA, 1989). In the total strain
model adopts only one stress- strain relationship for tensile behaviour including cracks
and one for compressive behaviour. It is also more practical since the input for
material properties for defining nonlinear behaviour is relatively simple.
3.4.1 Total Strain Crack Model
MIDAS FEA (1989) adopts the total strain crack model categorized under the smeared
crack model. The smeared crack is further classified into fixed crack and rotating crack
models. Fixed crack model assumes that the axes of cracks remain fixed once crack
axes are defined. It has been observed that fixed crack accurately reflex the physical
characteristics of the crack phenomena. The fixed crack model is capable to simulate
the physical behaviour of concrete cracks more accurately than rotating crack model
because it evaluates both the normal stresses and shear stresses on the crack
surface at depicted in figures 3.2a and b. It is also particularly suitable for modelling
shear behaviour of concrete. Rotating crack model assumes the direction of cracks
rotates continuously depending on the changes in the axes of principle strains when
cracks are initiated. In both cases of the fixed and rotating models, the first crack at
the integral points always initiates in the direction of the principal strains. Concrete
55
materials display isotropic properties prior to cracking and anisotropic properties after
cracking. MIDAS considers the properties of concrete as orthotropic materials after
cracking as well as the normal stresses and shear stresses.
University.
Fig 3.10a: Fixed crack model (Midas FEA 1989) Fig 3.10 b: Rotating
crack model (Midas FEA 1989).
A constitutive model based on the total strain expresses the stress as a function of the
strain. This phenomenon is known as hypo elasticity, when loading and unloading
behaviour is along the same stress-strain path
The basic concept of the Total strain model is that stresses are computed with respect
to the crack directions. In Midas FEA, loading and unloading takes place on separate
stress-strain paths, especially unloading is modelled with a secant slope. For secant
implementation, for both compression and tension, the secant modulus always passes
through the origin. This elastic damage approach is dissimilar to elastic-plasticity
where the stiffness is fixed, independent of loading and unloading. The tensile
behaviour of concrete is considered linear elastic until the peak strength is attained.
The constitutive model of total strain is established on the modified compression field
theory of (Vecchio and Collins 1986). MIDAS implemented it with a three 3D models
based on the theory proposed by (Selby and Vecchio 1993).
56
3.4.1.2 The Parabolic Compression Model adopted in TS-model
(Feenstra 1993) derived the fracture energy equation of the parabolic model
implemented in Midas FEA. The parabolic curve depicted in fig 3.2 accounts for the
compressive strength, 𝑓𝑐 compressive fracture energy and characteristic element
length (h).
The strain ( 𝛼𝑐/3 ) at which one-third of the maximum compressive strength 𝑓𝑐 is
1 𝑓𝑐
reached is given as 𝛼𝑐/3 = ..................................................................... (3.12)
3 𝐸
The strain 𝛼𝑐 at which the maximum compressive strength is reached is

4 𝑓𝑐
𝛼𝑐 = − = 4 𝛼𝑐/3 ......................................................... .............. (3.13)
3𝐸
It should be noteworthy that 𝛼𝑐/3 and 𝛼𝑐 are obtained without consideration of the
element size or compressive fracture energy. The ultimate strain 𝛼𝑢 at which the
Material is completely softened in compression is expressed as thus
3 𝐺𝑐
𝛼𝑢 = 𝛼𝑐 − .......................................................................... .. (3.14)
2 ℎ𝑓𝑐
Fig.3.11: Parabola curve adopted in the TS-model (Midas FEA 1989)
3.4.1.3. Exponential model (Tension softening)

The exponential softening model assumes that exponential softening occurs when
tensile stress exceeds the tensile strength of the material. The slope of the softening is
obtained based on the fracture energy, 𝐺𝑓 and crack band width, h. The exponential
curve is depicted in fig.3.4 as thus
57
Copyright. The unabridged version of the
thesis can be found in the Lancester Library,
Coventry University.
Fig 3.12: Exponential softening curve (Midas FEA 1989).
3.4.1.3 Shear Model
As implemented in MIDAS FEA, in the fixed crack model, the shear stiffness is
reduced after cracking as a percentage of the initial elastic shear modulus. The
corresponding reduction factor is referred to as the shear stiffness reduction or shear
retention factor (𝛽) 0 ≤ 𝛽 ≤ 1. The reduced constant shear stiffness is calculated as
thus
𝐺 𝑐𝑟 = 𝛽 𝐺 ................................................................................................ (3.15)
Apparently, 𝛽 depends on the aggregate size and aggregate type amongst other
factors of influence. Numerical analysis has revealed that a constant shear retention
factor gives a rather good approximation and beta ranges between 0.1≤ 𝛽 ≤ 0.3.
According to Hinton and Owen (1984), the shear moduli can be assumed to degrade
linearly with increase in the principal tensile strains.
3.5.0 Comparison between MC-model and TS-model
Mohr -Coulomb-model cannot be apply to concrete modelling because concrete as

quasi-brittle material is characterized by its compressive strength and not internal
cohesion and angle of friction. Therefore Mohr-coulomb is particularly suitable when
friction shear is significant. The total strain model is envisaged to be most efficient in
modelling punching shear based on the following justifications.
 It displays the true material behaviour better. Any two different stress-strain
curves in compression and tension can be considered, which gives much more
flexibility and different elastic moduli in compression and tension are possible.
 It considers the reduction of strength in compression due to lateral cracking.
58
 It materializes the tension softening behaviour of concrete based on the fracture
energy therefore crack initiation and propagation is accurately captured.
 It models the reduction of shear modulus due to the progressive damage of
concrete in the post damage regime. This is more accurate because the
damage concrete does not have the shear modulus as the original concrete.
3.6.0 Material Characterization
This section examines material parameter that would be suitable for modelling
punching shear behaviour. Comes and Regan (1999) carried out tests on material
parameters for the total strain model. According to their parametric study, the most
influential parameters for modelling punching shear failure are concrete tensile
strength (𝑓𝑡 ) and shear retention factor (𝛽) other parameters such as compressive
strength (𝑓𝑐 ) and fracture energy (𝐺𝑓 ) also have appreciable effects. Accurate test data
must be available if not it could pose some difficulty to compute the tensile strength
accurately which governs the initial cracking.
3.6.1 Concrete Compressive Strength
In recent time, prominence is given to the cylinder strength more than the cube
strength. Eurocode 2 and ACI adopted the cylinder strength, although BS8110 still
retains the cube strength. Therefore, the cylinder strength is considered for this
investigation. The cube strength is related to the cylinder strength as thus
𝑓𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 0.8 𝑓𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 .......................................................................................... (3.16)
The cylinder strength is used in the parabolic compression model.
The characteristic strength is obtained from the mean strength as thus
𝑓𝑐𝑘 = 𝑓𝑚 − 1.64𝜎 .......................................................................................... (3.17)
Where 𝜎 is the standard deviation
3.6.2 Concrete Tensile Strength

It has been revealed from sensitivity analysis that the tensile strength of concrete
significantly affects the response of the load displacement Curve. Tensile strength can
be obtained directly with the compressive strength as provided by CEB (1990)
implemented in Midas FEA as thus.
2⁄
𝑓𝑐𝑘 3
The mean tensile strength 𝑓𝑐𝑡,𝑚 = 𝑓𝑐𝑡,𝑘0,𝑚 [𝑓 ] .......................................... (3.18)
𝑐𝑘0
59
Where𝑓𝑐𝑘0 = 1.40 N/𝑚𝑚2 and 𝑓𝑐𝑘0 = 10 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
The ACI 209 model code recommends an equation relating tensile strength and
concrete unit weight w (kg/𝑚3 ) as thus
𝑓𝑡 = 0.0069 √𝑤𝑓𝑐 .................................................................................... (3.19)
Lee et.al (2008) have carried out a direct tensile tests on large plain normal weight
concrete specimen, According to their test data, the tensile strength varied between
𝑓𝑡 = 0.27 √𝑓𝑐 𝑓𝑡 = 0.37 √𝑓0
Assuming 𝑓𝑐 = 35 N/𝑚𝑚2 with w = 2400 kg/𝑚3 the tensile strength varies between
3.23 to 1.6 N/𝑚𝑚2
3.6.2.1 Brazilian Split-Cylinder Test
By comparing all indirect tensile test methods, the split cylinder test is the most
popular method. It was introduced by (Carneiro and Barcellos 1953).To conduct the
test a compressive line or strip load is applied to a cylinder diametrically along two
opposite generators. This condition is sets up by a uniform tensile stress over the
vertical diametrical plane and fracture (splitting of the material occurs along this
predetermined plane as shown.
The theoretical basis of the formula for estimating the tensile strength of a slit-cylinder
test has been derived from the theory of linear elasticity.
The splitting tensile stress is computed with equation 3.20
2𝑃
𝜎𝑡 = .................................................................................................. (3.20)
𝜋𝑑𝑙
Where 𝜎𝑡 = tensile strength from split cylinder test.

P = applied load
t = length of specimen
d = diameter of specimen
Basic assumptions of split cylinder indirect tensile Test
 The theory of split-cylinder indirect tensile test assumes that the test material is
elastic, homogeneous and isotropic.
 The tensile stress along the centreline is of paramount interest.
 The moduli in tension and compression are equal.
60
Because of the effect of bearing strips on the cylindrical specimen, the maximum
tensile stress 𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙 (𝜷) was reduced by (Tang 1994) as thus
3⁄
2𝑃
𝝈𝑐𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑃, 𝜷) = 𝜋𝐵𝐷 [1 − 𝜷2 ] 2
............................................................................................. (3.21)
Where 𝜷 = 𝐷𝑏 , ratio of bearing strips to Diameter of cylindrical specimen.
3.6.3 Fracture energy – Tension
The fracture energy 𝐺𝑓 (𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) or(𝐽⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) is a material constant and the amount of
energy required to create one unit area of crack surface. It can be obtained by
integrating the stress-strain softening diagram as follows.
𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐺𝑓 = ∫0 𝑓𝑡 𝛿 𝑑 𝛿𝑡 ........................................................................... (3.22)
Where 𝑓𝑡𝛿 denotes crack as a function of crack opening. 𝐺𝑓 Depends on the concrete
strength 𝑓𝑐 and the maximum aggregates size 𝑑0 , According to CEB (1990), the
fracture energy 𝐺𝑓 can be obtain as follows
0.95
0.0053 𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐺𝑓0 = 0.024 + ……………………………………………………… (3.23)
8
𝑓 0.7
𝐺𝑓 = 𝐺𝑓0 [𝑓 𝑐𝑚 ] ........................................................................................ (3.24)
𝑐𝑚0
Where 𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum aggregate size.

Where 𝑓𝑐𝑚0 is 10 N/𝑚𝑚2 . Table 3.1 shows the value of 𝐺𝑓0 corresponding to the
maximum aggregate size.
Table: 3.1 Fracture energy and Aggregate size
𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑚𝑚) 𝐺𝑓0 (J/𝑚2 )
8 25
16 30
32 58
3.6.4 Fracture Energy-Compression (𝑮𝒄 )
𝐺𝑐 is roughly approximated to value of 100. 𝐺𝑓 is used in the parabolic compression

model. Although sensitivity studies signified that, this parameter does not influence the
punching shear behaviour.
61
3.6.5 Ultimate Compressive Strain
The peak compressive strain of a constant value 𝜖𝑐 = 0.0035 has been used. In the
parabolic compression model, concrete completely softens in compression when the
peak compressive strain is reached.
3.6.6 Ultimate tensile strain
The ultimate tensile strain at which the tensile stress reaches zero is computed as
follows
𝑐𝑟 𝐺𝑓
𝜀𝑛𝑛,𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 𝛼ℎ𝑓𝑡
............................................................................................... (3.25)
The coefficient 𝛼 in equation is defined as follows:

𝑥=∞
𝛼 = ∫𝑥=0 𝑦 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ......................................................................................... (3.26)
Where 𝑦 (𝑥) is the assumed tension softening function.
3.6.7 Elastic Modulus formulation for the TS model.
Midas FEA (1989) defined the elastic modulus as a function of the mean compressive
strength of concrete.
The mean compressive strength is expressed by
𝑓𝑐𝑚 = 𝑓𝑐𝑘 + ∆𝑓 ................................................................................. (3.27)
Where, ∆𝑓 = 8 N⁄mm2
The Elastic modulus is expressed as

1⁄
𝑓𝑐𝑚 3
𝐸𝑐 = 𝐸𝑐0 (𝑓 ) ................................................................................ (3.28)
𝑐𝑚0
Where, 𝐸𝑐0 = 2.15 × 104 (N⁄mm2 ), and the reference mean compressive strength,
𝑓𝑐𝑚0 is 10N⁄mm2 . This formulation is based on the (CEB-FIP 1990) for material
properties.
62
3.7 Recommendation
Various material constitutive models implemented in Midas FEA have been examined
for their applicability and capability to predict behaviour of concrete subject to
punching shear failure. Mohr -Coulomb is specifically designed for materials that have
significant frictional and dilatational effects (granular materials) and friction shear for
concrete. Mohr- Coulomb would be applied to model friction shear induced in concrete
due to compressive membrane action.
From this comparison, TS-model was found to be the most appropriate because it
provides explicit account of how crack initiation and propagation can be captured
using the smeared crack approach. Concrete fracturing is associated with complex
mechanism such as: aggregate interlocks, crack branching, crack face friction etc.
these mechanisms can be adequately captured using energy approach. More so, T-S
model materializes the tension softening behaviour of concrete in terms of fracture
energy. The pre-damage and post damage regimes of concrete subject to shear
failure can be adequately predicted when combine the tension, compression and
shear model implemented in the TS-model. Therefore, TS-model is adopted as the
constitutive model for quasi-brittle concrete throughout this study.
63
Chapter 4: Research Methodology
4.1 Overview of Research Approach
This chapter presents methods employed to accomplish the outline objectives. Based
on the available literature reviewed, experimental and numerical studies were deemed
appropriate. These methods would be applied strategically in order to achieve the set
objectives. The overall aim of this research is to provide an analytical equation for
edge connection reinforced with shearhead.
In line with the objectives, the following research questions are formulated as thus:
 Does ACI 318-05 design code significantly underestimates punching shear

capacity of edge connection?
 Can the novel shearhead assembly enhance punching shear significantly
beyond the theoretical shear strength of edge connection?
 Does local yielding of the shearhead occur prior to punching shear or punching
shear occurs when concrete shear strength is reached?
 Does bending stiffness ratio between the shearhead and the cracked concrete
significantly affect the connection behaviour to punching shear?
The research hypotheses that were investigated based the available literature reviews
are:
 That the shearhead acts like a cantilever by transferring shear force from the
tip into the edge connection.
 Various parameters governing punching shear such as: the effects of
reinforcement, fracture energy, tensile strength, and elastic modulus.
 Flexural failure occurs prior to punching shear or both occur simultaneously.
 Punching shear occurs when concrete shear strength is reached or when
yielding of shearhead is reached.
To answer research question 1, punching shear test was conducted on slab 1.The
result was used for comparison with ACI318-05 and Euro code 2 design codes. The
code that provides the best prediction was used in the formulation of the analytical
equation for edge connection reinforced with shearhead.
64
To investigate the fourth hypothesis, Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges (ERGs)
were installed on the reinforcement bars embedded in slab 1. ERGs were installed on
bars located within the critical section where significant deformation occurred. The
load evolution was plotted against the measured strains to capture when
reinforcement bars yielded.
To accomplish hypothesis 1 and question 3, the mechanism of load transfer from the
shearhead to the connection was investigated. In the experiment on slab 2, ERGs
were installed on the top and bottom flanges of the shearhead at 20mm from the
intersection between plate and shear arm; to measure the axial strains. Similarly to a
beam, the web of the shear arm is resisting shear, therefore, rosette strain gauges
were installed on the web of the shear arms. The aim of strain measurements on the
shearhead was to investigate if plastic deformation occurs prior to punching shear.
To read strains at every location of the shear arm may be too cumbersome, in addition
to the limited channels to the data logger; therefore, numerical analysis was conducted
to determine strains and other related parameters such as: shear strains, shear force.
The graph of shear force variation along the arm was plotted to clarify hypothesis 1.
The load transfer mechanism was used to support decision on the proposed analytical
equation.
To deal with question 2, the contribution of the novel shearhead to punching shear
capacity of the connection was examined by comparing result with the predictions of
design codes without shearheard. And also, compared to previous suggestion that
shearhead could contribute up to 75% of the punching shear capacity of the
connection.
To provide solution to the fourth question, the effect of bending stiffness ratio between
the shearheard and the cracked concrete was examined using numerical analysis.
The deformation that occurred at the connection was determined by using discrete
interface implemented in Midas FEA. However, ACI 318-05 recommended that
bending stiffness ratio should not be less than 0.15. This shows its significance to
punching shear capacity of the connection.
The methods employed to accomplish research objectives, questions and hypotheses

are described as thus:
65
4.2 Linear Elastic Analysis
Elastic analysis was employed to study the boundary conditions that produced the
closest similitude with the prototype structure. Since it is relative too cumbersome to
carry out full scale test on the prototype in the laboratory; a general or common
approach of obtaining the representative laboratory specimen from the contra flexure
bound region of the prototype slab is adopted. It is a prime requirement that the
representative slab should replicate the prototype in flexure and shear; therefore,
linear elastic analysis was conducted to create the required similitude between the
representative specimen and the prototype especially in terms of bending moments,
distribution and deflection. The effect of compressive membrane was ignored to create
a lower bound solution. The prescribed boundary conditions were implemented in both
the numerical models of the slabs and the experimental set up. Because, elastic
theory cannot completely model the behaviour of quasi-brittle concrete; nonlinear finite
element analysis was adopted.
4.3 NLFEA analysis
To accomplish objectives I, II and IV, nonlinear finite element analysis was

undertaken on slab 1 and slab 2. For slab 1, the aim of the numerical analysis was to
investigate the punching shear capacity of the edge slab-column connection without
shear reinforcement; in order to compare the results with codes equations. Results
obtained from control specimens tests such as: compressive strength, tensile strength
and elastic modulus were implemented in the numerical model. Embedded
reinforcement concept was used to model reinforcement in the slab.
To accomplish objective IV and hypothesis 2, intensive parametric study was carried

out to investigate the influential parameters of punching shear such as: reinforcement
ratios, tensile strength, fracture energy elastic modulus on the punching shear
capacity of the edge connection. The aim of this parametric study was to examine
various divergent views on these influential parameters on punching shear strength.
Sensitivity study was also carried out to investigate the influence of various concrete
tension softening models implemented in Midas FEA. From this study, the most
appropriate models were implemented in the numerical simulation of the tested slabs.
Due to the dissimilar materials (concrete and steel section) at the connection,
interfacial model was used to capture structural deformation. Discrete crack interface
66
model was used because it models discrete cracking of concrete when the tensile
strength is reached. NLFEA was adopted because it models the softening behaviour
and residual strength of cracked concrete.
4.4 Experimental investigation
The experimental work consists of test on both slabs with and without shearheads.
The prime rational for the experimental work is to investigate the punching shear
capacity of the slab-column connection. The aim of slab 1 is to investigate the
punching shear capacity and compare to the design codes equations. This was used
to make decision on the code equation adopted in the formulation of punching shear
capacity for slab 2.
The aim of experimental investigation on slab 2 is to investigate the contribution of the

novel shearhead assembly to the punching shear capacity of the edge connection
subject to vertical static loading. The novel shearhead connection developed using the
recommendations of ACI 318-05 and New Zealand codes. In order to control the
concrete characteristics and quality, specimens were cast for compressive strength,
tensile strength and Elastic Modulus test. The specimens were air-cured for 28 days.
The experimental results were also used to validate numerical results as proposed in
the fifth objective. Experimental method was used because it measured the real
behaviour of structural deformation of the edge connections. The test set up was
based on the boundary conditions adopted from the elastic analysis. The experiments
were also based on the availability of materials and measuring devices.
4.3 Validation
The commercial finite element software Midas FEA was used for the numerical
analysis. Prior to implementation, various material constitutive models available in
Midas FEA were examined. In addition to material parameters such as: compressive
strength, Elastic modulus, tensile strength and fracture energy. The TS-model was
adopted based on its merit in modelling shear failure. For instance, it considers the
residual tensile stress of cracked concrete after cracking. And also, it models the
degradation of shear stiffness due to the progressive damage of concrete. Midas FEA
software was validated by Elastic analysis of a square plate which was compared to its
analytical solution. The adopted modelling scheme was validated using previous
experimental work on punching shear failure of slab-column connection without shear
67
reinforcement by Eder et.al, (2010). The validation procedure is depicted in a flow-
chart in fig 4.1
Comparisons of various material constitutive models
Material Parameters
Validation of Midas FEA Software by Elastic analysis
Validation using previous experimental work
TS-model was adopted
Fig 4.1 Flow chart of the adopted model.
68
The flow chart provided in figure 4.2 shows the nexus of the methods.
Validation of adopted LFEA for boundary NLFEA model for Slab 1

modelling scheme conditions
Experimental investigation for Slab Refinement of NLFEA model for Slab 1

1
Preliminary NLFEA model of Slab 2
Experimental investigation for Slab 2 Refinement of NLFEA model for Slab 2
NLFEA model to undertake parametric study
Comparisons of
numerical/experimental and design
codes
Proposed Analytical Equation for
Punching shear capacity of shearhead
reinforced edge column
Comparison of results of numerical/

experimental of slab 2
Fig 4.2: Flow chart showing sequential application of methods
69
Chapter 5: Validation of adopted modelling scheme
5.0 Introduction
For assurance and reliability on the commercial finite element software (Midas FEA)
and the adopted modelling scheme provided in chapter 3; validation is carried out.
First and foremost, linear elastic analysis is conducted on a simply supported slab
subject to uniformly distributed load (UDL) and validated with the analytical solution of
Timoshenko plate theory (Timoshenko and Krieger, 1970).
Secondly, the nonlinear finite element analysis (NLFEA) is validated by an

experimental investigation of a slab without shear reinforcement subjected to punching
shear failure by (Eder et al.2010). Softening behaviour and material parameters of
concrete are fully examined and implemented.
5.1 Linear Elastic analysis

Elastic analysis was conducted on a square plate of 4m × 4m by 130mm thick. The
plate was characterised with elastic constants such as Elastic modulus of
32800 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 and Poisson's ratio of 0.2. Linear elastic constitutive model was
adopted to define concrete. The slab was modelled as a plate element in Midas FEA.
The plate was discretised into 2500 elements and 2601 nodes using element size of
80mm.
All translational degrees of freedom (D.O.F) at supports were restrained but all
rotational (D.O.F) was allowed to model a simply supported condition used in the
analytical solution.
The self weight of the plate and a uniformly distributed load of 10 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2 were
applied. The result of the analysis is shown in fig 5.1
70
Fig 5.1 deflection contour of the slab with UDL
5.2 Analytical solution

A simply supported square plate supported around the edges subject to UDL was
used. It has the dimension and elastic constants of the plate used in the linear elastic
analysis. The analytical equation for the deflection function according to Timoshenko
and Krieger (1970) is expressed as:
16𝑞0
𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ∑∞ ∞
𝑚=1,3 ∑𝑛=1,3 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚𝜋𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚𝜋𝑥 ............... (5.1)
𝑚2 𝑛2 𝑎 𝑏
𝐷𝜋6 𝑚𝑛 ( 2 + 2)
𝑎 𝑏
𝐸ℎ𝑐 3
𝐷= ...................................................... (5.2)
12(1−𝑣 2 )
For a square plate 𝑚 = 1 and 𝑛 = 1
By substituting the geometric and material parameters of the plate into equation 5.1
the maximum deflection was obtained.
Table 5.1: Comparison of results.
Method Load (𝑘 𝑁⁄𝑚2 ) Deflection
Analytical solution 10 1.89
Midas FEA 10 1.897
71
Comparison of both results shows that the maximum deflection was the same. Hence
Midas FEA completely satisfied the theoretical equation of plate.
5.3 NLFEA Validation

The slab without shear reinforcement tested by (Eder et al.2010) at Structural
laboratory, Imperial College was implemented in the NLFEA for validation purpose.
The experimental procedure is described as thus,
The slab is made up of 3m × 3m by 220mm thick, and loaded at the centre through a
270mm square plate. 16 ties located around its perimeter were used to restrain the
slab in a vertical position as shown in the one quarter view in fig 5.2. The bottom
tensile reinforcement was spaced at 90mm centres and were used for tensile
reinforcement at each orthogonal direction. The 10mm diameter bars were spaced at
180mm centres and used for compressive reinforcement at each orthogonal direction.
Mean cylinder strength of 24Mpa was used.
Fig 5.2 Plan view (quarter section) Fig 5.2b Reinforcement detail
5.3.1 Modelling Procedure

Due to symmetry and for computational efficiency, only a quarter of the specimen was
modelled as shown in fig 5.2a. The mesh was refined around the column region where
structural damages are significant. In order to ensure that the quarter slab replicates
the exact flexural behaviour of the full scale slab, horizontal displacements were
72
restrained in the X and Y directions along the axis of symmetry as depicted in fig 5.3.
Vertical displacement was allowed for vertical deflection of the slab. The slab was
vertically restrained at the positions of the tie down bars along its perimeter. The
concrete and the element representing the steel column were modelled with 8-noded
3D solid element. The steel plate was assumed as linear elastic material. Concrete
was defined with the Total strain cracked model. Also, the reinforcement was modelled
as elastic-plastic with the Von mises yield criterion. Embedded reinforcement concept
was used. The slab was discretised into 19108 elements and 20942 nodes. A full
integration scheme was adopted in the solution phase.
Fig 5.3: Finite elements model of the slab specimen.
Table 5.2 Material properties used in the model
Concrete (𝑀𝑃𝑎) 𝑓𝑡 = 1.5 𝐸𝑐 = 29500
Steel ( 𝑀𝑃𝑎) 𝑓𝑦𝑘 = 500 𝐸𝑠 = 210000
73
Table 5.3 Material models adopted.
Softening 𝐺𝑓 (𝑁𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑚2 ) 𝐺𝑐 (𝑁𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑚2 ) 𝛽
Concrete in Tension Exponential 0.074 0.3
Concrete in compression Parabolic 7.4 0.3
𝐺𝑓 is the fracture energy in tension. 𝐺𝑐 is fracture energy in compression.
𝛽 is the shear retention factor.
5.3.2 Solution Procedure

In the first phase of the analysis the self - weight was activated to mimic the real life
condition. In the second phase of the analysis, an incremental displacement load was
applied from the bottom of the steel plate representing the column until punching
shear failure occurred. Structural damages are concentrated around the slab-column
connection as shown in Fig 5.4. The load displacement evolution is plotted in Fig5.5a.
Fig 5.4: Deformation contour of the slab at failure load.
74
Load displacement
curve
700
700
600
600
500 500
Load (kN)
Load (kN)
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Displacement (mm) microstrains
Fig 5.5a: Load- displacement response. Fig 5.5b: Load- strains on

at slab-column connection reinforcement
5.4 Comparison of Result
Fig 5.6: Load-displacement curves for the numerical and Eder et.al (2010) model
75
The experimental failure load occurred at 614kN (Eder et.al 2010) while the numerical
failure load occurred at 629.08kN.This shows a slight deviation of 2.46% from the
experimental failure load. The numerical result in the present study was further
compared with previous numerical result of Eder et.al. (2010) on the same slab
specimen as shown fig 5.6. This numerical failure load deviated from that of Eder et.al
2010 by 2.0% but shows higher deviation in displacements. Fig 5.5b shows that
reinforcement yields at a load of 542kN prior to punching shear failure.
From these comparisons, it can be concluded that the software (Midas FEA) and
adopted modelling scheme is capable of predicting punching shear failure. Therefore,
it is adopted as the dominant methodology in this study. Comprehensive numerical
simulations are conducted on the tested slabs in chapter 6.
76
Chapter 6: NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS
6.0 Introduction
Based on the successful validation of adopted modelling scheme presented in chapter
5, intensive numerical simulation is carried out in this chapter. First and foremost,
Elastic analysis is conducted to investigate the relationship between the continuous
structure (Prototype) and isolated representative specimen. This investigation
evaluates the type of boundary conditions of the representative slab that creates the
closest similitude with the prototype slab; in terms of their bending moment distribution
and deflections. The prescribed boundary conditions are implemented in the
experimental and nonlinear finite element models.
In the second phase, nonlinear finite analysis (NLFEA) is performed to investigate

punching shear failure of slab-column connection without shearhead connection. In
order to reduce cost intensive laboratory experiments, NLFEA is employed to perform
sensitive parameters governing punching shear failure. These numerical results are
further validation with experimental results.
In the third phase, numerical simulations were carried out to investigate the structural
performance of the shearheads assembly to punching shear capacity of the slab. The
main purpose of simulation is to investigate the contribution of the shearhead to the
punching capacity of the edge connection; which has been carefully designed. The
detail of the shearhead assembly is presented in chapter 7.The results are compared
with the measured (experimental) and discussed in detail in chapter 8.
6.1 Elastic Analysis

6.1.1 Extraction of representative slab from Prototype
Elastic analysis is conducted on the full scale continuous slab (prototype) and
representative laboratory specimen which is extracted from the prototype slab. As
reviewed in the literature, a common approach for selecting a representative specimen
size for laboratory test is to determine the location of the line of moment contra flexure
by assuming a linear elastic material response of uncracked concrete behaviour.
However, the actual response of reinforced concrete is nonlinear.
77
6.1.2 Description of Prototype Structure
The prototype structure is a multi-story office building hypothesized to be located in a
region of moderate seismicity, therefore the columns are designed to resist gravity
load only and the lateral load will be resisted by a shear wall. A portion of the
prototype that contains the edge slab-column connection to be investigated is
extracted from the prototype building as depicted in figure 6.1.Steel columns are used
in lieu of concrete column. The dimension of the column is 200mm × 200mm which is
scale down to 50 percent in the experiment. The slab is directly supported by steel
column without shear capitals or drop panels; instead structural steel shearheads are
used to connect the column and the concrete slab. The shearheads connection is
advantageous when there is restriction on slab depth and also to achieve an economic
design of the slab. But shearhead connection is not considered in the elastic analysis.
Fig 6.1a: Prototype structural layout Fig 6.1b: representive slab
6.1.2 Procedure for obtaining representative slab from Prototype

The laboratory specimen was extracted from a portion of the prototype structure.
Equivalent frame method was used to obtain the points of zero moments along the
free edge and maximum bending moment at the mid-span of the prototype structure.
The detail of the structural analysis is presented in appendix 1.
78
In order to obtain a representative slab from prototype, the following boundary
conditions were adopted.
According to Einpaul, Ruiz and Muttoni (2015), it's recommended that for a continuous
slab, the radius of the model 𝑟𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏 corresponds to the distance between the column
and the symmetry line in the mid-span. Furthermore, the radius of the slab is selected
so that in the elastic uncracked phase, the axis symmetric model has to yield the same
radius of moment contra flexure of 𝑟𝑠 = 0.22L as it is in a regular slab. They also
recommended a zero rotation at the edge of the slab as the first boundary condition
(at mid-span symmetry). Based on these recommendations, the slab was extracted at
the symmetry line at mid-span where maximum bending moment occurs and also
maximum deflection occurs because of uniformly distributed load on the prototype.
Secondly, where zero bending moment occurs along the free edge of the prototype,
the representative slab was extracted along that line as depicted in Fig 6.1 (a and b)
6.1.3 Drawbacks of the adopted Boundary conditions.

 In the continuous slab (prototype) at mid-span where maximum bending
moments occurred and deflection are maximum but for the representative slab,
boundary conditions that replicate these behaviour is impossible to achieve in
the laboratory, except a full scale test of the prototype is performed.
 At points of zero bending moment along the free edge, from which the slab was
extracted, bending moment is assumed zero on perpendicular lines to these
point. However, in the continuous structure, bending moment increases linearly
to a maximum value at the mid-span.
These assumptions are principally responsible for the 5.85% deviation of the
representative slab from the prototype.
6.1.4 Linear Elastic Analysis modelling procedure
Firstly, an equivalent portion of the representative specimen was obtained from the
prototype. The extracted specimen with a dimension of 2500mm × 2120mm by
260mm thick was scaled down to 50 percent. The reduced scaled model now has a
dimension of 1250mm × 1060mm by 130mm thick. This was done in order to achieve
an equivalent manageable laboratory size specimen based on the crane capacity.
79
Fig 6.2 shows the finite element of the prototype used for the baseline analysis. The
edge LO was considered as the free edge of the slab; so that the free edge of the
prototype also becomes the free edge of the representative slab. Due to the difference
in stiffness between the steel column and the uncracked concrete slab, the stiffness
ratio was computed to model the connection.
6.1.4.1 Prototype Slab

An equivalent portion of dimension 1250mm × 1060mm by 130mm thick was
considered for elastic analysis on the prototype slab.
All horizontal displacements were restrained along the slab edges LM and ON of zero
moment lines but vertical displacement were allowed in fig 6.2. In reality, deflection will
continue to increase linearly along LM and ON until it becomes maximum at Mid-span
at M and N respectively. Rotational restraints were adopted along the slab edge (MN)
at mid-span (symmetry line) in compliance to the first boundary condition
recommended for continuous slab. However, vertical displacement (dz) was allowed
because deflection is maximum at mid-span (MN) due to uniformly distributed load on
the slab.
Fig.6.2 finite element discretisation of prototype slab
Both translational and rotational degrees of freedom in all directions were restrained at
the base of the column. The detail of the various restraints is provided in Table 6.1
80
Table 6.1 Boundary conditions adopted.
EDGES Dx Dy Dz Rotation
LM Restrained Restrained Allowed Allowed
ON Restrained Restrained Allowed Allowed
MN Restrained restrained allowed Restrained
LO Free Free Free Free
Elastic properties assigned for concrete and steel is depicted in Table 6.2
Table 6.2 Elastic properties.
Materials Elastic Modulus (𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) Poisson's ratio
Concrete 32800 0.2
Steel 210000 0.3
The load applied on the prototype slab is provided as thus,
Unit weight of concrete = 24𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚3
Overall thickness of slab = 130mm 280mm
Slab own weight = 24𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚3 × 0.13m = 3.12𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2
Live load on slab = 2.25𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2
Design Load on slab (F) = 1.35 𝐺𝑘 + 1.55 𝑄𝑘 to EC2
1.35 × 3.12 + 1.55 × 2.25 = 7.7𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2
This design load was applied on the continuous slab. Elastic analysis was carried out
and the shear force transmitted to the edge column was recorded. This shear force
was applied at the bottom of the column of representative slab. Since it is difficult to
apply uniformly distributed load (UDL) in the experiment, the shear Force roughly
represent it. The shear force represents the vertical static load that causes punching
shear in the experiment.
81
6.1.4.2 Representative Slab (Laboratory specimen)
The type of restraints and loading to be adopted in the experiment was examined in
the elastic analysis. Firstly, the maximum shear force at the column obtained from the
prototype slab was applied as vertical static load from the bottom of the slab, as
opposed to the real world upright position .Four vertical supports representing roller
supports were applied near the corners of slab by trial and error method until suitable
positions that give the closest value of the bending moment distribution as obtained in
the prototype. The position is 150mm away from each corner. Excessive rotation was
prevented along the mid-span edge (MN) by application of two clamps near the roller
supports. The clamps were modelled by restraining the nodes adjacent the supports;
in order to reflect similar restraint adopted for the prototype. But this cannot totally
eliminate rotation in reality as modelled in the elastic analysis of the prototype.
6.1.5 Results of Elastic Analysis
Fig 6.3 Vertical displacement of prototype slab.
82
Fig 6.4 Bending moment distribution (𝑀𝑥𝑥 ) of the prototype slab.
Fig 6.5. Vertical displacement of the representative slab.
83
Fig 6.6. Bending moment distribution (𝑀𝑥𝑥 ) of Representative slab.
Conclusion
The flexural behaviour of the slabs is compared and contrast. Firstly, resultant
maximum vertical displacement on the prototype gives 21.06mm which the
representative specimen gives 28.11mm. But the values of local deflections at the
slab-column connection in both cases are very close. The resultant maximum
deflection of the prototype occurs within the mid-span region indicated by the red zone
in fig 6.3. This models the real life deflection of the prototype structure, because
deflection is maximum at mid-span. Therefore, boundary conditions adopted is very
satisfactory.
For the representative slab, maximum displacement occurred at the edge strip of the
slab within the vicinity of the slab-column connection due to the vertical load applied
from the bottom of the column as shown in fig 6.5
The maximum bending moment that occurred at the slab-column connection of the
prototype gives 1.249 × 105 𝑁𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑚 while that of the representative specimen
gives 1.322 × 105 𝑁𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑚. This shows a deviation of 5.85% from the prototype. It
is noteworthy that a closer replication was obtained because of the boundary
conditions that was designed to eliminate in-plane forces (axial forces) also known as
membrane actions. In addition, the effect of moment redistribution that occurs in the
prototype structure was ignored in the elastic analysis. Furthermore, it can be
concluded that representative slab replicates the flexural behaviour of the prototype
structure.
84
The prescribed boundary conditions used in the representative slab is deemed
adequate therefore, it fully implemented in the preceding nonlinear numerical and
experimental models.
6.20 NLFEA modelling of Slab 1 (Slab without shear reinforcement)

This section provides detail of the nonlinear numerical procedure of slab-column
connection without shear reinforcement and sensitivity study on parameters that
influence punching shear failure.
6.21 Restraints adopted

The exact slab size tested in the experiment was replicated in this numerical model.
The exact restrained adopted in the experimental model was replicated in the
numerical model. At 150mm away from each corner, a vertical restrain was applied.
Translation in the horizontal direction (dx) was allowed and that of dy and dz were
restrained; and rotational restraints were allowed in order to replicate the roller
supports. Clamps were modelled by restraining the nodes adjacent the supports as
shown in fig 6.8
Fig 6.7: Slab model showing restraints adopted.
85
6. 2.2 Material models adopted
Based on the available literature reviewed in chapter 3 it was deemed suitable to
implement material models provided in Table 6.3
Table.6.3 Material models adopted for the slab to column NLFEA
S/N Materials Models

1 Plain concrete in Compression TS-fixed crack model (Parabola)
2 Plain concrete in Tension TS-fixed crack model (Exponential)
3 Reinforced concrete TS-fixed crack model (Exponential and
parabola)
4 Reinforcement Von mises (perfect plastic)
5 Steel column Linear Elastic
6.2.3 Material properties

The material properties obtained from experiment on control specimens and other
material parameters computed according to formulae provided in chapter 3 are
implemented in Midas FEA as shown in table 6.4
86
Table.6.4 Concrete material properties adopted for the Midas FEA model are
given below
S/N Properties Values

1 Elastic Modulus in Compression
32.82𝑘𝑁⁄
𝑚𝑚2
2 Elastic Modulus in Tension 16.41𝑘𝑁⁄
𝑚𝑚2
3 Shear Modulus (G) 12.5𝑘𝑁⁄
𝑚𝑚2
4 Poisson’s ratio (𝜗) 0.2
5 Weight Density (𝜌) 2.4 × 10−5 𝑘𝑁⁄
𝑚3
6 Compressive strength (𝑓𝑐𝑢 ) 30𝑁⁄

𝑚𝑚2
7 Fracture energy in tension (𝐺𝑓 ) 0.074 (𝐽⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
8 Fracture energy in Compression (𝐺𝑐 ) 7.4 (𝐽⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
9 Shear retention for Plain concrete (𝛽) 0.3
10 Shear retention for reinforced concrete 0.3
11 Tensile strength (𝑓𝑡 )

2.49𝑁⁄
𝑚𝑚2
.
6.2.4 Reinforcement Modelling

Embedded reinforcement concept was adopted, in this approach; the stiffness of the
reinforcements is added to the stiffness of the continuum elements (concrete) in which
the reinforcements are located. Embedded reinforcement in 3D solid element is
represented in Midas FEA as depicted in fig 6.8.
87
Fig 6.8 embedded reinforcement in solid element
The reinforcements were inserted along the edges of the continuum elements and
divided into segment in which the nodes correspond to the nodes of the continuum
elements. The reinforcement does not have a separate degree of freedom; its strains
are obtained from the displacements of concrete. Reinforcement and concrete were
assumed to be perfectly bonded. The reinforcement bars were represented a line, its
material property and cross-sectional area were defined. The Auto mesh function was
used to assign material properties and division of the reinforcement bars into
segments. The material properties and reinforcement ratio is shown in Table 6.5.
88
Table 6.5: Numerical simulation data
Elastic constants Young modulus (𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) Poisson’s ratio
Concrete 32.82 0.2
Steel 205 0.3
Concrete strength (𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
Tensile (𝑓𝑡 ) = 2.49 Compressive(𝑓𝑐𝑢 ) = 30
Rebars Spacing (mm) Cover (mm) Sectional Yield strength

area (𝑚𝑚2 ) (𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
In Slab
Tensile 102 (long) 20 50.27 500
110 (Trans) 20 50.27 500
Compressive 204 (long) 20 50.27 500
220 (Trans) 20 50.27 500
Fig 6.9 model showing reinforcement grid embedded in the slab.
6.2.5 Modelling Procedure

The full scale of the slab specimen was modelled. The slab specimen was discretised
into 19771 elements and 21981 nodes as shown in fig.6.10. The mesh was refined in
89
plane within the vicinity of the column and included five layers of elements through the
slab depth. A full integration was used throughout to avoid convergence problems.
Embedded reinforcement was used. Perfect bond between reinforcement and
concrete was assumed. The Von Mises yield criterion with isotropic hardening was
adopted for reinforcement. Clamps were simulated by supporting nodes near the
corners of the slab.
Fig.6.10. Full scale discretization of slab specimen into finite elements.
Table 6.6: Material model implemented in numerical analysis
Model 𝐺𝑓 (𝑁𝑚𝑚⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) 𝐺𝑐 (𝑁𝑚𝑚⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) (𝛽) (Tensile softening) (compr softening)
Slab 0.074 7.4 0.3 exponential parabolic
Since there is no recommended relationship between elastic modulus in tension and

compressive, elastic modulus in tension was assumed half of the value in
compression.
6.2.7 Solution Procedure

Regular Newton-Raphson iteration scheme was adopted. In the regular Newton-
Raphson method, the stiffness matrix represents the tangential stiffness of the
90
structure. The stiffness matrix is evaluated each iteration. The method yields a
quadratic convergence characteristic, which means that the method converges to the
final solution within little iteration. Despite the time consuming nature of its
convergence, the quadratic convergence is guaranteed if a correct stiffness matrix is
used and if the prediction is already in the neighbourhood of the final solution. It needs
little iteration as opposed to the modified Newton-Raphson method that requires more
iterations (midas FEA 1989).full integration scheme was adopted, results are
evaluated at the integration points. The solution is carried out in an incremental step-
by-step analysis with the total applied load divided into a number of load steps.
According to Davison and Owens (2012) when the stiffness matrix approach is used in
the method, there are no significant limitations on its applicability.
6.2.8 Numerical Results

In order to mimic the experimental procedure, the loads were applied in two phases as
thus.
1. The self-weight was activated in the first phase of the analysis. A maximum
deflection of 0.0058mm occurred at the centre of the slab, as shown in fig 6.11.
Fig.6.11: Deformation of specimen under self-weight.
2. In the second phase of analysis, a nonlinear displacement-controlled Quasi-

static load was applied from the bottom of the column. Effect of material
nonlinearity was accounted for by activating Second Piola-Kircchoff stress,
91
Lagrangian strain, and cracks stresses. The displacement was applied from the
bottom of the column; although in laboratory experiment, incremental step load
was applied. Incremental step load was avoided in this numerical modelling
because it provides very large unacceptable displacement evolution. In all
iterations, force and energy norms were used for convergence criteria, and a
maximum tolerance of 2.0% was set for the out-of-balance forces. The
deformation profile of the slab-column connection at failure load is depicted in fig
6.12.
Fig.6.12 slab deformation at failure load.
Fig.6.13 crack propagation in the slab specimen.
92
6.2.9 Theoretical assumption adopted
 One way shear failure was assumed. According to Kupfer (1969), the
compressive strength under biaxial compression is not greater than 15% of the
uni-axial compressive strength. In addition, the tensile strength of concrete
under biaxial compression-tension may deviate very slightly from that of the uni-
axial compression. Based on this, one way shear was assumed
Moreover, research has shown that shear strength two-way exceeds one-way
by 15 percent.
 The same rotation was assumed for the slab - column connection. The same
rotation was assumed for the slab-column connection in order to achieve
uniform displacement at the joint.
 Membrane effect (in-plane forces) is considered absent.
Compressive membrane action was neglected in various design codes. It is
relatively difficult to investigate in the laboratory. A lower bound solution is
proposed. Compressive membrane contributes significantly to punching shear.
 Redistribution of mid-span sagging moment and hogging moment over the
support is avoidably absent. Moment redistribution contributes to punching
shear strength. Moment redistribution occurs when the slab is restrained
laterally which contributes to punching shear strength of the connection
6.2.10. SENSITIVITY STUDIES

Concrete material properties such as compressive strength, tensile strength and
fracture energy are interdependent; however, parametric analysis is undertaken by
considering each parameter independently in order to investigate their effects on
punching shear failure process.
6.2.10.1 Effect of concrete Tensile strength

Concrete tensile strength was varied between 1.0 to 2.49 MPa. The tensile strength of
2.49 was used for the baseline analysis. The effect of concrete tensile strength is
investigated by varying the tensile strength as depicted in Fig 6.14
93
Tensile strength
120
100
80
Load (kN)
60 T.S1.0
T.S 1.5
40
T.S 2.49
20
0
0 2 4 6 8
Displacement (mm)
Fig 6.14. Variation of concrete tensile strength.
The graph presented in fig 6.14, shows that increasing the concrete tensile strength
increases the punching shear strength. It could also be observed that increasing
concrete tensile strength affects both displacement and to the failure load slightly. The
most appropriate equation for predicting concrete tensile strength is still not provided.
However, empirical an equation has been provided by (Bresler and Scordelis,1963)
which relate tensile strength to the square root of cylinder compressive strength of
1⁄
concrete as thus ; 𝑓𝑡 = 0.33 𝑓𝑐 2 which has been applied by (Vecchio and Shim,2004)
and many others. The tensile strength used for the baseline analysis was measured
from experiments on control specimens. Detail is provided in chapter 7.
It can be concluded that punching shear failure is principally due to tensile failure of
concrete along the inclined punching crack as observed in the experiment and not due
to compressive failure of concrete. This observation agrees with the observation of
(Moe 1961) that suggested that punching shear failure is usually a splitting type of
failure which is comparable to the type of failure observed in specimens subject to
94
tension. This significant influence of tensile strength was adopted as the basis for the
analytical equation of punching shear capacity of an interior connection by (Menetrey,
1996). However, Menetrey assumed a uniform tensile stress distribution across the
inclined crack profile which was seen as a drastic simplification of his model.
Hallgren (1996) has also shown that tensile strength has a major effect on punching
shear capacity of a slab-column connection than compressive strength. He also
observed that increase brittleness of higher concrete grades reduces the punching
shear strength.
2. Shear Retention Factor (𝜷)
Shear retention factor (beta)

120
100
80 beta = 0.125
beta = 0.2
Load (kN)
beta = 0.3
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15
Displacement (mm)
Fig 6.15. Variation of shear retention factor (𝛽).
In order to account for the degradation of shear stiffness due to the progressive
damage of concrete in the post-damage regime, the shear retention factor was used.
Vaz Rodrique (2007) recommended that one-eighth of the value of shear modulus of
the uncracked concrete should be used. Rot (1988) suggested that a low value of
95
shear retention factors should be used in fixed crack models to eliminate stress
locking. In this study, the value of 𝛽 was varied between 0.125 and 1.0 on the
response of slab 1 tested without shearheads. The choice of 𝛽 could also depend on
the structural type and concrete properties. Fig 6.15 shows that increasing 𝛽 could
lead to an increase in failure load because it delays the fracture process and thereby
alleviating shear stresses in the uncracked concrete. For this study, 𝛽 = 0.3 correlate
very well with experimental measurement of load and displacement.
3 Effect of Mesh Density

For the baseline study a coarse mesh was used in the vicinity of the column with a
size of 10 × 10 mm and 10mm thick and 150 ×150 mm and 10mm thick was used on
the remaining area. A less coarse mesh sizes of 20 × 20 mm and 20 thick in the
vicinity of the column was used.
From comparative study, the result shows that decreasing mesh density increases the
punching shear capacity of the connection. The coarse mesh used for the baseline
study provides the best fit when compared with the experimental result. However, it
involved too many elements and nodes, which becomes too cumbersome to deal it
and also required great computational time.
4. Effect of Fracture Energy of concrete.

From Equation 3.21 it shows that fracture energy depends on the aggregate size
96
140
120
100
Load (kN)
80
FE 0.5
60 FE 0.08
40 FE 2.0
20
0
0 5 10 15
Displacement (mm)
Fig 6.16: Variation of Fracture energy of concrete.
The influence of the concrete fracture energy is investigated. The graph in fig 6.16
shows it influences the failure load and the ductility of the response as it increases
with increasing fracture energy.
Concrete Tension Softening Behaviour

Various tensions softening response implemented in Midas FEA were examined using
slab 1. The Brittle, Hordijk and exponential softening response functions were
compared as shown in fig 6.17
97
120
100
80
Load (kN)
60 HORDIJK
BRITTLE
40
EXPONENTIAL
20
0
0 5 10 15
Displacement (mm)
Fig 6.17: Variation various Tension softening model.
The Exponential softening response is represented as thus.
𝑓𝑡 (𝜀) = 𝑓𝑡 𝑒 −𝜀⁄𝑘 ..................................................................................... (6.1)

𝐺𝑓
𝑘= .................................................................................................... (6.2)
ℎ𝑓𝑡
Where 𝜀 represents the tensile crack strain
Cracking occurred when the maximum tensile stress is reached and exponential
𝐺𝑓
softening begins. The area under the tension softening diagram is calculated as in
ℎ
the exponential Hordijk model. In the brittle model (𝐺𝑓 = 0) because once the tensile
strength is reached, the stress drops abruptly to zero.
Effects of Concrete Elastic Modulus

From fig 6.18, it could be observed that increasing the elastic modulus slightly
increase the punching shear failure Load. Moreover, elastic modulus is directly
influenced by compressive strength. As compressive strength increases, the elastic
modulus increases. The influence by compressive strength is included in the EC2
equation; which indicates the punching shear capacity as a function of the cube root of
concrete compressive strength.
98
Variation of Elastic modulus
120
100
80
Load (kN)
60 EM25000
EM2800
40
EM baseline
20
0
0 5 10 15
Displacement (mm)
Fig 6.18: Variation of Elastic modulus of concrete.
Effects of Reinforcement Ratio

As provided by EC2 and BS8110, the reinforcement ratio has a significant influence
on the punching loads. But ACI 318-05 ignore this significant influence of
Reinforcement ratio in its punching shear capacity equation. In EC2, punching shear
capacity increases approximately as the cube root function of reinforcement ratio.
According to Ozbolt et al. (1986) suggested that increase in reinforcement ratio lead to
a higher height of the compression zone which increasing the punching failure load
associated by more brittle failure. In furtherance, reinforcement ratio may increase the
shear strength due to the dowelling action.
Increase in tensile reinforcement ratio also increasing the height of the compression
zone leading to higher punching shear failure loads which is accompanied by more
brittle failure.
99
reinforcement ratio
120
100
80
Load (kN)
60 Ratio3
Ratio2
40
Ratio1
20
0
0 2 4 6 8
Displacement (mm)
Fig 6.19: Variation of Reinforcement ratio
The effect of the reinforcement was investigated by varying three ratios, 0.02, 0.04,
and 0.06. A similar cracking mechanism was observed in all the variation. Fig 6.19
shows the influence of ratio on the Load- deflection response. It could be observed
that increasing the reinforcement ratio increases the failure load. However, there is no
significant influence on the displacement even though the ductility decreases. It is
noteworthy to mention that the numerical model could not capture the dowelling
actions of the reinforcement which remains one of the shortcomings of the numerical
simulation. Provided the reinforcement ratio is sufficient to delay flexural failure
(yielding of reinforcement), the compressive strength does not lead to significant
increase in the peak load. This is due to the fact that the shear capacity of the
compression zone grows with the compressive strength. However, it does not
contribute to more stable growth of the cracks of the tensile zone. Fig 6.20 shows that
reinforcement yielded prior to punching shear failure of the connection. Yielding is
significant in the vicinity of the connection.
100
Reinforcement
120
100
80
Load(kN)
60
40
20
0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000
Strain μ
Fig 6.20: strain on reinforcement at failure load.
6.30 NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF SLAB WITH SHEARHEAD (SLAB 2)

6.3.1 Modelling Procedures
.
The concrete slab is model with the 'Total strain crack model' which is based on the
modified compression field theory of (Vecchio and Collin, 1986) and its 3D extension
by (Selby and Vecchio,1993) to account for the effect of lateral cracking. The original
compression field theory ignores the tensile strength of cracked concrete, which the
modified compression field accounted for. The concrete compressive behaviour is
modelled with the parabolic softening model proposed by (Feenstra ,1993). In order to
account for the degradation of shear modulus due to progressive damage of concrete
in the post damage regime, a shear retention factor of 0.3 was adopted. But Vaz
Rodrigues (2007) suggested that shear stiffness should be reduced to one-eight of its
original value to account for stiffness degradation in the post crack regime. The
fracture energy in compression was taken as 𝐺𝑐 = 100 𝐺𝑓 where 𝐺𝑓 is equal to
fracture energy in tension computed based on equation 4.20
The tensile behaviour of concrete was modelled with the exponential softening model
𝐺𝑓
in which the area of the softening zone equals ⁄ , where h is the crack bandwidth
ℎ
101
3
which is taken as √𝑉 (V = volume of element). The concrete tensile strength was
taken as 𝑓𝑐 = 0.8 𝑓𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 in accordance with EC 2.
The structural steel (shearhead) was modelled with four nodded isoparametric shell
elements. Discrete embedded reinforcement concept was used to model the
reinforcement. The steel was defined as perfectly elastic-plastic with the Von mises
yield criterion. A perfect bond was assumed between the reinforcement, embedded
shearheads and concrete.
6.3. 2 RESTRAIN ADOPTED
For computational efficiency only half of the slab was modelled. The restraints capture
the flexural behaviour of the isolated slab 2. Horizontal displacements were restrained
in the X and Y directions on the axis of symmetry which is perpendicular to the free
edge of the slab (BD) and (CE). Vertical displacement was allowed because the slab
is expected to undergo a vertical deformation under the static load. Horizontal
displacements were also restrained in the X and Y directions along the edge of the
slab parallel to the free edge; which represents line of symmetry where maximum
deflection occurred in the prototype slab (DE). Vertical displacement (Dz) was also
allowed. The clamped was modelled by restraining the s nodes near the supports. The
restrained adopted is depicted in fig 6.21.
Rotational displacement was also applied on top of the column above the slab. At
150mm away from the right edge of the slab, a horizontal restrain in the Y-direction
and vertical restrain were applied. Horizontal displacement in the X direction was
allowed to replicate the behaviour of a roller support implemented in the experiment.
102
Fig 6.21 finite element model of slab2 showing restraints adopted.
Fig 6.22 finite element model of shearheads assembly
The specimen was discretised into 16386 elements with 17693 nodes. The mesh was
refined in the plan around the column and shearheads and included seven layers of
elements through the slab depth.
The material model properties and shearheads section geometry are presented in
Table 6.7a and b.
103
Table.6:7a Material model implemented in NLFEA.
Model 𝐺𝑓 (𝑁𝑚𝑚⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) 𝐺𝑐 (𝑁𝑚𝑚⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) (𝛽) (Tensile softening) (comp softening)
Slab 0.074 7.4 0.3 exponential parabolic
Table 6.7b Section dimensions used for Shear arms in NLFEA

Section h (mm) w (mm) 𝑡𝑓 (mm) 𝑡𝑤 (mm)
𝐼 76 3 3 3
6.3. 3 Interface
In order to capture the interfacial mechanism of the shearheads and concrete,
interface concept was adopted. The interface element was introduced to account for
discrete cracking of concrete and loss of bond between the steel shear arm and
concrete. The thickness of the interface was assumed zero. In order to overcome
numerical instability associated with zero thickness interfaces, penalty stiffness is
assigned to the interface element. To ensure that the penalty stiffness does not
caused numerical instability, Midas FEA recommended the following formula.
𝐾 = 1000 × 𝐸 × 𝑑 ......................................................................................... (6.3)
Where K = penalty stiffness. E =Elastic modulus of the most stiff element used in the
model, in this case steel was used.
d = representative element size.
104
The interface element was assigned material properties, and then point interface type
was adopted as shown in fig 6.23
Fig 6.23. discrete interface model for shearheads to concrete interface.
discrete crack interface was adopted to model the interfacial mechanism between the
shear arm and the concrete; because discrete cracking of concrete could occur
around the shearheard. Both secondary transverse and longitudinal cracks could
occur within the vicinity of the sheararm, this behaviour is best modelled using discrete
crack model..The interface was characterised with the tensile strength of concrete.
normal and shear modulus of steel section.Mode II failure mode was adopted to
capture the shear failure. The secant unloading type was also applied at the interface.
6.3. 4 Solution Phase

1. The self-weight was activated in the first phase of the analysis to check the
deflection induced by self weight. Fig 6.24 shows the deflection was maximum
around the centre of the slab.
105
Fig 6.24: displacement contour under self weight.
2. I n the second phase of analysis, an incremental displacement load was applied

from the base of the steel column, until punching shear failure of the slab occurred.
Local deformation was very significant at the slab-column connection as depicted in fig
6.25.The slab-column connection shows a stiffer response than Slab1 without
shearheads. The shearheads deformed plastically prior to punching shear failure.
Fig 6.25: displacement contour for slab 2
106
120
100
80
Load (kN)
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15
Displacement (mm)
Fig 6.26: Load displacement curve for slab 2.

Fig 6.26 shows the load evolutions and the vertical displacement at the support. The
summation of the self weight and peak supports reaction equal to the punching shear
failure load.
Fig 6.27: cracks on concrete at the tension bottom of the slab.
107
As shown in fig 6.27, the red zone indicates the region where cracks have fully
opened. This is consistent with the experimental observation. The dark blue region
indicates where cracks are partially opened during loading. The pink region shows
where cracks are partially opened during unloading. The red region shows where
cracks are opened during loading and unloading.
Fig 6.28: Strain 𝜀𝑥𝑥 on the shearheads.
6.3. 5 Conclusion
The outcome of these numerical models show that the modelling scheme adopted is
an appropriate approach for modelling punching shear failure of connection with and
without shearheads. Slab 2 shows a stiffer response and higher failure load than slab
due to the contribution of the shearheads. Comparisons for all measured parameters
(experimental) and their corresponding numerical values are carried out in chapter
8.Detail parametric study on the shearheads is also presented.
108
Chapter 7: Experimental studies
7.0 Introduction
This chapter presents test procedures and results of experimental investigations of
punching shear behaviour of flat slab to steel column connection with and without
shearhead. This investigation focuses on punching shear failure of the slab-column
connection subject to vertical static load only. The slab-column is design as a
secondary load resisting mechanism, based on the assumption that location of the
structure is subjected to high seismic activity in line with ACI design guideline. The
lateral load is resisted by the shear wall which is the primary load resisting
mechanism. The gravity load is investigated because it dominates the unbalanced
moment transfer at the slab-column connection in the direction perpendicular to the
free edge of the slab within the critical section. This experiment does not impose any
lateral restraints on the slab in order to minimise compressive membrane action.
These experiments are performed in line with the outline objectives.
The test is conducted in two phases, firstly slab-column connection without shear
reinforcement and secondly slab-column connection reinforced with shearheads.
The material components and other specimens required in the experimental

programme were prepared and tested at the Structures Laboratory, department of
Civil Engineering, Building and Architecture, Coventry University.
7.2 Objectives of the experimental Programme.

The core objectives of experimental investigations are:
 To study the deformation behaviour of the slab-column connection subject to

punching shear.
 To investigate punching shear capacity of the steel edge supported slab without
shear reinforcement for comparison with design codes equation. This
comparison would be used to support decisions on the slab2 tested with the
proposed shearhead assembly.
109
 To measure critical influential parameters governing punching shear failure at
the connection such as: strains on concrete and reinforcement and shearheads
at locations where stresses could be significant
 To obtain the punching shear capacity of the proposed novel shearhead
assembly.
 To use these measurements to calibrate and validate numerical models.
7.3.0 Experiment on Slab 1 (slab without shear reinforcement)

7.3.1 Experimental set up
The control specimen that was cast on the laboratory floor (subject to 28 days of air
curing) was lifted by means of crane to a test rig with a self resistant system built in the
structural laboratory as shown in fig 7.1. The hydraulic jack was attached tightly to the
top cross beam that connects the column, followed by the installation of the plate and
load cell. Four roller supports were inserted on the top of bottom beams supporting the
specimen. The rollers were placed exactly 150mm away from the slab corners. After
completion of the test set-up, instrumentation of the specimen was carried out at
locations where significant deformations were expected.
Fig 7.1: Photo of Test set up for slab 1. .
110
Fig 7.2: Diagrammatic elevation view of test set up.
7.3.2 Restrains adopted

To ensure that slab edges are not restrained, four roller supports were inserted at
150mm away from the slab edges. Horizontal movement was allowed, in order to
prevent possible membrane action (in-plane forces) prior to the formation of full yield
line mechanism. The unconstrained shear strength is the most critical to punching
shear failure.
The edge parallel to the free edge was clamp at points near the roller supports to
maintain equilibrium with the applied vertical load and to prevent excessive rotation at
the mid-span edge as described in elastic analysis in chapter 6. The rationale for the
boundary conditions has been provided in chapter 6.
7.3.3 Material properties
7.3.3.1 Compressive strength test

Concrete strength of C30/37 was targeted. Trial mixes were made of Portland cement,
sand and coarse aggregate (granite) of maximum size of 20mm. 3 cubes of dimension
100mm were cast from the same batch used for casting of specimen. The wet
concrete has a slump value of 41mm showing good workability. The cubes were air
cured for 28 days. The detail of the mix design and cube test result is presented in
111
appendix II. Compressive strength test was carried out on the cubes on the day of
testing; using the Avery-Denison 2000kN machine as shown in fig 5.6
Fig 7.3 Cube under compression in Avery- Denison machine.
7.3.3.2 Splitting Tensile Test

Three cylindrical specimens of dimension 100mm × 200mm were made from the
same batch used for casting the slab specimen. They were also air cured for 28 days,
followed by a splitting tensile test. The Brazilian tensile test apparatus was used; the
specimens were inserted in mould and a metallic rectangular strip of breadth 26mm
was inserted for the load distribution and was tested in the Avery-Denison 2000kN
machine on the day of punching shear test. At failure the specimens fail in
compression along the centre line. The test arrangement is shown in fig7.4.
Fig 7.4: Splitting tensile test
112
The failure load (P) obtained from test was substituted in equation 3.20 to obtained the
tensile stress. The tensile strength was further reduced due to the strip effect by
equation 3.21
The detail results and calculation of the splitting tensile test is presented in appendix
III,
7.3.4 Control Specimen connection and reinforcement detail

The specimen is made of 1250mm × 1060mm ×130mm thick slab supported at the
edge by a 100mm × 100mm ×4.5mm square hollow section (SHS) representing the
steel column. Tensile reinforcements consisted of 11T8 bars at 102mm centres in the
orthogonal direction and 11T8 bars at 110mm centres in the longitudinal direction.
Compression reinforcements consisted of 6T8 bars at 204mm centres in the
orthogonal direction and 6T8 bars at 220mm centres in the longitudinal direction. The
minimum 20mm cover for the reinforcement was used in compliance to minimum
design requirements (EC2).in order to connect the steel column to concrete, 12 shear
studs of 10mm diameter, 80mm long and 22.5mm spacing were welded to the interior
of the hollow steel column and inserted vertically. It was propped to ensure verticality
during and after casting.
The sectional view and reinforcement detail is provided in figure 7.5 and 7.6
respectively.
113
Fig 7.5 section detail of control specimen
Fig 7.6: Reinforcement detail
7.3.5 Instrumentation of specimen
Fig 7.7: LVDTs and DEMEC positions on specimen.
114
7.3.6 Calibration of LVDTs, Load cell and Strain gauges
7.3.6.1 Strain gauges

The electrical resistance strain gauges (ERS) is simply a length of wire formed into the
shape of a continuous grid sealed to a non-conductive backing. The ERS gauges
were bonded to the surface of the bars using araldite adhesive. The strain gauges
have the properties listed in table 7.1.
Table 7.1 Strain gauge properties
Strain gauge type Electrical resistance
Gauge Length (L) 60mm
Gauge Resistance 120 ±0.3mm
Gauge Factor (G.F) 2.13
The ERGs is very sensitive to any change in length or cross-sectional area of the
reinforcement, any slight change in these bars gives a corresponding change of
resistance. The ERS gauges were connected to a Data logger system. This received
electrical data from these instruments, which is automatically recorded. A gauge factor
of 2.13 was provided by the manufacturers. The gauge factor value was adjusted to
2.13 and the shunt resistor set to 59k𝛺 on the data logger; the logging system was
used for the calibration of strain gauges and reported in micro strains. The strain
gauges from the specimen were installed to strain gauge cards (quarter bridges) and
subsequently connected to the data logger as shown in figure 5.12.
115
Fig 7.8: ERGs strain gauges connection to data logger.
The strain gauges were labelled as thus
SG1: strain gauge on embedded bottom rebar in the longitudinal direction
SG2: strain gauge on embedded bottom rebar in the orthogonal direction
SG3: strain gauge on the embedded top rebar in the longitudinal direction
SG4: strain gauge on embedded top rebar in the orthogonal direction
SG5: strain gauge on the compression face of concrete.
The ERGs were calibrated with the formula given in equation 7.1.
The strain reading changes according to the following formula.

𝑅𝑔
𝜀= ..................................................................................... .... (7.1)
𝐺.𝐹 × (𝑅𝑔 +𝑅𝑆 )
Where 𝑅𝑔 = gauge resistance, 𝑅𝑆 = resistance of the shunt (59k𝛺)
By substituting the strain gauge properties into equation 7.1 the strain reading of 953
micro strains was obtained.
This value was used to calibrate all the channels. A strain gauge was installed on a flat
steel bar at its centre and connected to each channel followed by the application of a
116
compressive or tensile load until a reading of or very close to ±953 micro strains for
tension and compression were obtained.
7.3.6.2 Linear Variable Displacement Transducers (LVDTs)

To obtain utmost accuracy, the LVDTs used in the test were calibrated with slip
gauges from a block-set. The calibration procedure provided in the data-logger
instruction manual was adopted. Three measurements were taken. The first was a
LVDT reading on a 10mm invar slip gauge. A reading of 0.01 which is very close to
zero was recorded on the data-logger. The second measurement was taken on a
50mm invar slip gauge and a final reading was taken on a 30mm Invar slip gauge. The
Data-logger automatically calibrated the LVDTs to a plus or minus in mm. The load
cell used was already calibrated but it was still checked for accuracy.
7.3.7 Self Weight Measurement

In order to account for the self weight imposed on the connection, the mass of the
column, hydraulic jack, Load cell and the reaction plate were recorded. The total
combined self weight gives1.21kN and added to the self weight of the slab. This initial
load was used as starting point for all the load measurements).
7.3.8 Test Procedures and Observation
A load cell of 500kN capacity was attached centrally on top of the hydraulic jack to
simulate vertical static load on the slab-column connection. The load was applied
through the column in an upside down position. Prior to load application, the number
of repeats was multiply by the time lapse between consecutive readings. The load was
applied incrementally at the rate of 10kN per minute. At intervals, strains across the
slab depth were read using DEMEC strain gauge. The first vertical flexural crack
occurred at a load of 80kN. The cracks become wider with increasing load until the
slab-column connection fails in punching. A diagonal shear failure was observed on
both sides of the column. When the load reaches 93.2kN, there was a rapid
propagation of radial, tangential cracks until the slab failed in punching at a load of
106.33kN (fig 7.9a). Cracks periphery formed at a distance of 320mm away from the
free edge of the slab as depicted in fig 7.9b.
117
Fig 7.9 a: Punching shear of the connection Fig 7.9b: crack periphery (bottom)
7.3.9 Test results and Discussion
7.3.9.1 Displacements
Figure 7.10 and 7.11 shows the load displacement evolution measured from the
experiment .Load- displacement response for LVDT 1 is presented in Fig 7.10 .The
Load-displacement response between loads zero and 10kN shows a slightly linear
behaviour. At load levels less than 80kN, there was no visible crack. However, micro
cracks might have developed.
118
Fig 7.10: Load -displacement curve for LVDT1
After the appearance of the first incipient flexural crack at a load of 85.0kN, there was
a slight increase in displacement up to a load of 93.6kN this indicates a region of rapid
initiation and propagation of micro cracks spreading outward from the region of load
application. Within a load of 93.6kN, large cracks were observed which indicates that
rapid spreading micro cracks begin to localise into major cracks. At a load of 102kN
large crack opening were observed, at this stage, very complex mechanisms such as
aggregate bridging, crack face friction, micro cracking and crack branching have
occurred. At the peak load of 106.3.kN which is the load at which the tensile stress
exceeded the tensile strength of the concrete, a sharp drop in the load to 79.65kN
which indicates brittle punching.
119
Fig 7.11: Load -displacement curve for LVDT2
Fig 7.11 provides a stiffer response compared to LDVT 1 although similar load-
displacement evolution occurred. The stiffer response indicates that deformation was
more significant at the slab-column connection at the compression face of the
concrete than the tension bottom.
7.3.9.2 Strain measured on the reinforcement
2. 1 Strain measured on flexural reinforcement (Tension)

Electrical resistance strain gauges were attached to the flexural reinforcement located
in the critical section. SG1 was attached to the longitudinal tension reinforcement at
the bottom of the slab. And SG2 was attached to the orthogonal reinforcement on the
tension bottom of the slab. Their response with respect to load increments is depicted
in fig 5.15 .The strains on SG1 were significantly higher than those of SG2, this
indicates that the longitudinal reinforcement dominate bending (the shorter span).
Strains on SG1 very small and gave a haphazard response, therefore, was
disregarded. Large increase in strain was observed between loads of 65.74kNand
82.3kN. This indicates points where severe flexural cracks have caused loss of bond.
At this point there was a sharp switch from tensile to compressive strains without any
increase in load level as depicted in fig 7.12
120
Maximum values recorded were 𝑆𝐺1𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 989𝜇𝜀 and 𝑆𝐺2𝑚𝑎𝑥 =468 𝜇𝜀. The modulus
of elasticity for steel is 𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 210𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 and yield strength of 450𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒
assumed. From the graph, it could be observed that the reinforcement yields before
punching failure occurs. Reinforcement yields approximately 82.33kN after the first
visible crack occurred. The strain remains constant at -17842 𝜇𝜀 until the connection
fails in punching.
Fig 7.12: Tensile strain on embedded reinforcement.
2.2 Strain Measured at the compression reinforcement

Electrical resistance strain gauges (ERSGs) were also attached to the flexural
reinforcement located in the compression zone of the critical section. SG3 was
attached to the longitudinal reinforcement located in the compression zone of the
critical section and SG4 to the orthogonal reinforcement. Strains' reading on SG4
were very haphazard and was disregarded. The reading is plotted in fig 5.16.
121
Fig 7.13: Compressive strain on embedded reinforcement.
7.3.9.3 Strain across the depth of slab (DEMEC)

by membrane action which contributes significantly to higher punching shear DEMEC
strain gauge was used to measure strains across the depth of the concrete slab. The
variation of strains with increase in strain in load measured across these points is
plotted in fig7.14. Tensile strain recorded by the D4 shows that concrete yielded locally
before punching failure occurs. The D2 also recorded higher values of strains after the
tensile zone has sustained severe flexural cracks. Demec (D3) which was located
close to the neutral axis (axis of zero strain) reads more of tensile strain from the
beginning and switch to compressive strain as shown in fig 7.15. This could be
attributed to the fact that under the gradually increasing load, the formation and
propagation of flexural cracks in the slab sections in addition to the yielding of the
longitudinal reinforcing bars reduce the depth of the compression zone. As a result,
the section axis of zero strain shifted to the tensile zone which Lead to the formation of
compressive strain at that point. Because the slab is simply supported, horizontal
elongation occurred. In real slab this tendency to elongate is constrained strength.
122
Fig 7.14 a and b: compressive strain across concrete of concrete.
Fig 7.15 (a) strain at D3 Fig 7.15 (b) strain at D4
123
Fig 7.16 strain at D5
7.4.0 Design and experimentation of specimen with shearheads (Slab 2)

This section provides detail procedures of the design of the shearhead assembly and
reports experiment conducted on it.
The slab-column connection was connected with a shearhead. The steel column
assembly consist of a steel column fabricated from a square hollow section (SHS) of
size 100 × 5mm. and the shear arms were made of steel I-sections.
The shearheads were fillet welded to an end square plate of 10mm × 10mm and 5mm
thick. The end plate was then welded to the steel column. The detail of the
shearheads assembly is depicted in fig 5. The sections were filled welded to the
column. The most influential factor that governs the dimensions of shearhead is the
bending stiffness of each shearhead arm and that of the surrounding composite.
Based on this recommendation, computation of the flexural stiffness ratio between
shearheads and cracked concrete was undertaken
7.4.1 Design Procedures for the Shearhead Assembly.

In order to enhance punching shear capacity of the edge connection that is more
vulnerable to punching shear failure; the design guidance was carried out in strict
compliance to design recommendations of ACI318-02 and standards of New Zealand
for concrete structure.
124
The structural design is premised on the following principles.
 The moment capacity of the shearhead must be greater than the moment
applied to the shearhead.
 The shearhead must extend to the critical shear perimeter to avoid any need for
conventional shear reinforcement.
 To calculate the flexural stiffness ratio between the shearhead and the
neighbouring concrete, it should be assumed that the concrete is partially
cracked.
 Each shearhead shall consist of steel shapes fabricated by welding with full
penetration welds.
Other commentaries relating to the design principles are provided in the sequential
design procedure as thus;
7.4.1.1 Section adopted

In the shearheard assembly, the I-section is used based on the recommendation that
only PFC, I and H sections should be used for structural shearheads which is hinged
on the observation that good composite action is easily achieved with the concrete.
The concrete will fill around the sections and hold the members in place.
7.4.1.2 Shearhead Section Properties and input data
d
D = 76mm
B = 60mm
t = 3mm
𝐼𝑥−𝑥 = 5325684𝑚𝑚4
𝑍𝑥−𝑥 = 14014.95𝑚𝑚3
𝑆𝑥𝑥 = 16248𝑚𝑚3
𝐶𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎
𝐶𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎
h = 130mm
Concrete cover = 20mm
125
𝑓𝒄𝒖 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟕𝟐 𝑵⁄𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝑓𝒚 = 𝟐𝟕𝟓 𝑵⁄𝒎𝒎𝟐
Detail is shown in figure 7.25
7.4.1.3 Maximum Shear Force at slab-column connection.
𝑉𝒖 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐. 𝟑𝟖 = 𝟏𝟏𝟕. 𝟕𝟑𝒌𝑵
ACI 318-02 recommends that the maximum shear Force to be factorised. Therefore, a
factor of 1.15 was used. The maximum shear force of 102.38kN was computed using
theoretical shear strength equation of ACI318-05.
7.4.1.4 Computation of Basic Shearhead Perimeter

Concrete shear strength should be computed and substitute into equation 7.3 as thus.
(a) Concrete Shear Strength

𝑉𝒄 = 𝒗𝒄 𝝓 ..................................................................................................... (7.2)
𝝓 = shear reduction factor 𝝓 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓

𝒇, 𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝒇𝒄𝒖 = 0.8× 40.17 =32.14𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 .
𝑣𝑐 = 0.33 √32.14 = 1.87 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝝓𝒗𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓 × 1.87 = 1.59 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝝓𝒗𝒄 = 1.59 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
(b)Shear Perimeter Required

𝑽𝒖
𝒃𝟎 = ................................................................................................. (7.3)
𝝓𝑉𝒏 𝒅
𝟏𝟑𝟏.𝟏× 103
𝒃𝟎 = = 777.85𝑚𝑚
𝟏.𝟓𝟗 ×𝟏𝟎𝟔
This shear resulting from moment transfer by eccentric shear shall be assumed to vary
linearly about the perimeter for connection without shear reinforcement.
7.4.1.5 Computation of Shearhead minimum length

Assuming the shearhead is centrally placed.
Computation of the perimeter is based on the configuration of fig 2.11
𝑑 = 130 − 8⁄2 − 20 = 106
126
2 3 𝐶 𝑑
3 𝐶2 𝑑 2 100 2 (𝑙𝑣 − 1 ) −
𝑏0 = 2 [ ( (𝑙𝑣 − ) − ) + ( ) ] + 2𝑑 + 2 [ 4 2 2]
4 2 2 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠45
2 3 100 106
3 100 106 2 100 2 (𝑙𝑣 − 2 ) − 2
777.5 = 2 [ ( (𝑙𝑣 − )− ) +( ) ] + 2 × 106 + 2 [ 4 ]
4 2 2 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠45
By solving this quadratic equation,
𝑙𝑣 = 123.73𝑚𝑚
Having computed the minimum length of 𝑙𝑣 = 185𝑚𝑚 was adopted
7.4.1.6 shearhead moment required

𝑉 𝑐
𝜙𝑀𝑝 = (2𝜂𝑢 ) [ℎ𝑣 + 𝛼𝑣 (ℓ𝑣 − 2)] ................................................ .... (7.4)
𝑬𝒔 ×𝑰𝒔
𝛼𝑣 = ................................................................................... (7.5)
𝑰𝑪𝑹 ×𝑬𝑪
𝛼𝑣 ≤ 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓
𝜙 = 0.9 2𝜂 = 6
Second moment of area of the shearhead I-section is calculated as thus,
60 mm
3mm
3mm
3mm
68 mm
3 mm
60 mm
127
1. Position of plastic neutral axis 𝑍𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐
𝐴 = [2(60 × 3) + 68 × 3] = 564 𝑚𝑚2
𝐴
For equal area = 282 𝑚𝑚2
2
For equal area axis
(𝑍𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 − 3)3 + (60 × 3) = 282
𝑍𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 = 37𝑚𝑚
It is concentric with the elastic neutral axis at the mid-height for a symmetrical section.
Plastic section modulus (𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑥𝑥 )
𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑥𝑥 = 2[(60 × 3 × 3.5) + 34 × 3 × 17] = 16248 𝑚𝑚3
Elastic Section Modulus
60 × 33 3 × 683
𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 2 ( + 60 × 3 × 35.52 ) + = 532568𝑚𝑚4
12 12
𝐼𝑦𝑦
𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑥𝑥 = ( )
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑒
532568
𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑥𝑥 = ( ) = 14014.95𝑚𝑚3
76⁄
2
𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑦𝑦 16248
𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑝𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (Ѵ ) = ( ) = = 1.16
𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑦𝑦 14014.95
The concrete is assumed to be half cracked
When concrete is assumed to be half-cracked, the value of 𝐼𝐶𝑅 is exactly half between
the maximum and minimum cracking values. The empirical derivation according to
New Zealand code is given as thus.
Fully cracked > half cracked >Uncracked
(𝐶2 +𝑑)𝑇𝑠 3 (𝐶2 +𝑑)𝑇𝑠 3 (𝐶2 +𝑑)𝑇𝑠 3

24
≥ 18
≥ 12
(Newzealand code)
128
(𝐶2 +𝑑)𝑇𝑠 3
𝐼𝐶𝑅 = ........................................................................ (7.6)
18
(100+106)1303
𝐼𝐶𝑅 = = 2.51 × 107 𝑚𝑚4
18
𝐼𝑠 Of steel
210000 ×532568
𝛼𝑣 = = 0.151
2.51 × 107 ×29500
𝛼𝑣 = 0.151 ≤ 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓
Hence, section is adequate.
117.73 100
𝜙𝑀𝑝 = ( ) [130 + 0.151 (185 − )]
6 2
𝜙𝑀𝑝 = 2.95𝑘𝑁𝑚
7.4.1.7 Shearhead Moment Capacity

𝜙𝑀𝑝 = 𝜙 𝑠𝑥𝑥 𝑓𝑦 ................................................................. (7.7)
𝑠𝑥𝑥 = plastic section modulus of the section.
𝜙 = 0.9 For tension controlled section
𝜙𝑀𝑝 = 0.9 × 16248 × 275 = 4.02𝑘𝑁𝑚
The moment capacity is greater than the moment due to applied load;
Therefore, the section used for the shearhead is satisfactory.
7.4.2 Construction of shearheard

By considering the stated design recommendations, the shearhead was constructed
as thus, 5mm thick end plate was fillet-welded to the top and bottom flanges of the Ι-
section as shown in fig 5. The end plate was designed to transfer forces uniformly
from the flanges of the shearhead to the steel column. The shearhead was embedded
in the slab between the top and bottom reinforcement grids as shown in fig 7.17 the
bars that intersected with the shear arms and steel column were discontinued.
129
Fig 7.17: shearhead inserted between reinforcement grids
Fig 7.18: photo of shearhead inserted between reinforcement grids
130
Fig 7.19: Sectional view of the shearhead assembly.
7.4.3 Materials and properties
Normal concrete was made from Portland cement, sand and granite with a maximum
aggregate size of 𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 20𝑚𝑚. The mix proportion is shown in fig7. Detail
calculation of the mix design is presented in appendix 5. Three cubes of dimension
100𝑚𝑚 × 100𝑚𝑚 × 100𝑚𝑚 were cast from the same batch used for the slab
specimen with slump value of 48mm .The cubes were subjected to 28 days of air cure
along side with the slab specimen; Compressive strength test was carried out on the
day of the punching shear test as shown in fig 6.
The mean cylinder compressive strength value of 𝒇, 𝒄 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟏𝟕 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 computed from
80 percent of the cube compressive strength.
In the absence of the coupon test to determine the elastic modulus and yield strength
of steel reinforcement and shearhead; values were assumed according to BS EN
10002. The elastic modulus of steel was assumed as 210 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 and a yield
strength of 500 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 for reinforcement.
Table 7.2: Concrete mix proportion (kilogram per cubic metres).
Slab 2 Proportion
Cement 327
Fine sand (0/2) 673.62
Coarse aggregate (10/20) 1249.14
Water 170.04
131
7.4.3.1 Concrete Elastic Modulus Test
Elastic modulus test was performed according to BS1881: part 121:19831.

Three identical control cylindrical specimens were cast from same batch of the
concrete mix for the tested slab. The specimens were aired cured for 28 days before
testing; in order to maintain consistency the air cured slab. Prior to testing, DEMEC
points were attached to the specimens by means of araldite adhesives for strains
measurement using DEMEC. Six DEMEC points were attached at equal distance
around the circumference of the cylindrical specimens. Two DEMEC points were
placed at a vertical spacing of 200mm that will accommodate the strain gauge. Then
the specimen was capped with steel plate and placed centrally in the compression-
testing machine.
Before the compressive load was applied on the specimen, for each specimen the
initial strain was measured using DEMEC strain gauge. One third of the value of
cylinder compressive strength was used as the upper loading stress. The strains was
read using DEMEC strain gauge .Upon completion of the static elastic modulus, the
specimen was loaded to failure, to confirm if the failure load is eighty percent of the
cube strength. From the results, the mean value of Elastic modulus was calculated for
the control cylinder specimens.
The calibrated electronic DEMEC has a scale of 0.403  100000
DEMEC strain reading was taken as thus,
Reading at zero Loads was taken.
Strain = (reading at point 1 - reading at zero)* Scale value
The mean Elastic modulus calculated gives 29500
132
Fig 7.21: Elastic modulus for control specimen 1.
133
7.4.3.2 Concrete Tensile Strength

The same procedure described section 7.3.3.2 was adopted.
Table 7.3: Result of tensile test on control specimens
S/N Failure load (P) in kN Tensile stress (𝜎𝑡 ) in Corrected

𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 value
1 73.78 2.35 2.12
2 83.43 2.66 2.39
3 74.06 2.36 2.12
Average Tensile strength = 2.21𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
The tensile stress is calculated using equation 3 as thus
2𝑃 2×73.78 ×1000
𝜎𝑡1 = = = 2.35𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝜋𝑑𝑙 3.142 ×100×200
2×83.43×1000
𝜎𝑡2 = = 2.66𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
3.142 ×100×200
134
2×74.06×1000
𝜎𝑡3 = = 2.36𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
3.142 ×0.1×0.2
Because of the effect of strip, the tensile strength is reduce as thus
𝒃 𝟐𝟔
𝜷 = 𝑫 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 0.26
2𝑃 3⁄
𝝈𝑐𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑃, 𝜷) = 𝜋𝐵𝐷 [1 − 𝜷2 ] 2 = 0.9
By substitution 𝝈𝑐𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑃, 𝜷) = 0.9
This is used to reduce the original tensile stress in column 3.
7.4.4 Test Set up and Instrumentation

The test was set using the same boundary conditions used in Test1 based on its
rationale provided in the elastic analysis.
Fig 7.24: Plan view of test set up.

The slab specimen was cast in an oily plywood formwork and demoulded after 3 days.
The slab was subjected to 28 days of air cure and lifted to the test frame.
Strains were measured in the longitudinal direction of the shear arm using electrical
resistance strain gauges (ESG). Axial strains were measured in the top and bottom
flange with gauges positioned at 20mm away from the intersection of the plate and
shear arms. Shear strains were measured with strain gauge Rosettes positioned in the
135
web of the shear arm. Concrete surface strains were measured with a Demec strain
gauge. Strain across the concrete depth was also measured using Demec strain
gauge as shown in fig 7.25
Fig 7.25: shearhead assembly instrumented with strain gauges
As shown in fig 7.26 the piston of the jack was aligned with the centre of the steel
column. A circular plate of diameter 150mm and thickness of 20mm was positioned
between the jack and the steel column to ensure uniform distribution of load to the
slab-column connection. The slab specimen was tested in the upside down position as
opposed to the normal position in reality.
Loads, displacements and strains were the measurable quantities from the
experiment. The Load cell inserted under the hydraulic jack, LVDTs and ERGs strain
gauges from the specimen were connected to an electronic data acquisition device
which is synchronized with a computer for their measurements respectively. As shown
in the first experiment. The applied load was measured with a load cell (capacity
500kN) positioned between the hydraulic jack and the steel plate. It was a load control
experiment. Prior to load application, the number of repeats was multiply by the time
lapse between consecutive readings. The load was applied incrementally at the rate of
136
10kN per minute. At the intervals strains across the slab depth were read using
DEMEC strain gauge.
Three linear displacement transducers (LVDTs) were used to measure vertical
displacements at critical locations as shown in figure 7.26.
Fig 7.26: LVDTs Positions and DEMEC position on specimen
LVDT1 was placed directly underneath the plate that distributes the load uniformly
from the hydraulic jack to the column which is indicted as position 1 in fig 7.26. And
two others were placed at the bottom of the slab indicted as 2 and 3 respectively. They
are positioned exactly 80mm from the column edge. These are positions where
deformation could be significant.
7.4.5 Sources of Error in the experiments
Before presenting the results, some errors that may limit the accuracy of experimental
results are examined. The most significant source of error resulting was observed
during the unloading and reloading of the slab specimen. Unloading and reloading
may influence the deformation behaviour and thus the punching shear resistance of
the connection. Additional deformations emanating from the fluctuating loading pattern
137
may reduce the punching shear resistance of the connection. Koppitz, Kenel and
Keller (2014) suggested unloading and reloading cycles influence the deformation
behaviour by affecting the bond properties between the reinforcing steel and
surrounding concrete. The initial deflection due to the specimen's self-weight was
assumed as zero due of the relative difficulty in measuring during calibration of
LVDTs. In reality, this initial deflection contributes specimen to the overall deflection of
the specimen. Material defects such as residue stresses in steel and void present in
concrete, initial micro cracking due to shrinkage may also limit the accuracy of the
result. The result was also affected by the effective in situ tensile concrete, which is
reduced by tensile stresses induced by restrained shrinkage.
7.4.6 Result
7.4.6 .1 Load – Displacement curves

The Load displacement evolution measured by means of the LVDTs is presented in fig
7.27
Load-displacement response becomes stiffer prior to the initiation of flexural cracks.
It was observed that there was an abrupt increase in strain value for a load level
corresponding roughly to the initiation of flexural cracks.
Fig 7.27: Load-displacement curve for LVDT1
138
139
Fig 7.30: Tensile strain across concrete depth
Fig 7.31: compressive strain across concrete depth
7.4.6 .2 Strain Readings on the Shear arms
7.4.6.2.1 Shear Strain on Web for shear arm 1 at Failure Load of 111.08kN
As a result of the shear being principally resisted in the web, therefore, the shear
strain is computed with the following equations
Rosette readings on shear arm 1 are: ℇ0 = 49 𝑚𝑠 , ℇ45 = 0 𝑚𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℇ90 = 0
140
ℇ𝜃 = ℇ𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + ℇ𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ..................................................... (7.8)
For 𝜃 = 0 ℇ𝑥 = ℇ0 = 49 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
For 𝜃 = 450 ℇ45 = 0
ℇ45 = ℇ𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 45 + ℇ𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 45 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 sin 45 𝑐𝑜𝑠45
0 = 0.5 × 49 + 0.5 × 0 + 0.5𝛾𝑥𝑦 .................................................................. (7.9)
0 = 24.5 + 0.5𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = −49 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
For 𝜃 = 90
ℇ90 = ℇ𝑦 = 0
Substitute into equation 5.2 to obtain the shear strain.
Calculate the principle strain as thus.
Rosette readings on shear arm 2 are: ℇ0 = −39 𝑚𝑠 , ℇ45 = −12 𝑚𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℇ90 = 70 𝑚𝑠
Using similar approach, the strain strain in the web of sheararm 2 is calculated as
ℇ𝜃 = ℇ𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + ℇ𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ..................................................... (7.10)
−39 = ℇ𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 0 + ℇ𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 0 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛0𝑐𝑜𝑠0
For 𝜃 = 0 ℇ𝑥 = ℇ0 = −39 𝑚𝑠
For 𝜃 = 450
−12 = 0.5 × −39 + 0.5 × 70 + 0.5𝛾𝑥𝑦
ℇ𝑥 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 15
For 𝜃 = 90
70 = −39 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 90 + ℇ𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 90 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 sin 90 𝑐𝑜𝑠90
70 = −39 × 0 + ℇ𝑦 × 1 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 × 0
ℇ𝑦 = 70𝑚𝑠
By substituting into equation
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = −55𝑚𝑠
The readings show that very small deformation occurred on the shearhead due to the
high moment of resistance of the shear arms.
141
7.4.6.2.2 Tensile strain at the bottom flange of the shear arm 1
The reading of tensile strain becomes very haphazard due to fluctuation of the loading
rate on shear arms.
7.4.6.2.3 Compressive strain at the Top flange of the sheararm 1
Fig 7.32: Load -strain graph for Top flange of shear arm1
7.4.6.2.4 Compressive strain at the Top flange of the sheararm 2

The axial compressive strain in the top flanges of the shear arms reached a strain of
approximately, 0.003 at a load of 8.25kN; the strain remains approximately steady with
increase in load until failure occurred.
Fig 7.33: Load -strain graph for Top flange of shear arm2
142
The failure perimeter was difficult to measure in test because crack propagated
towards the column edges .The compressive face of the slab was almost intact; there
was no significant crack propagation. The values obtain for both axial and shear
strains on the shear arms reveal that plastic deformation occurrred. For instance, the
measured axial compressive strain ( ℇ𝑥 ) -0.003 exceeded the theoretical yield strain of
-0.015. This indicates that the shearheads only deformed plastically before punching
shear occurred which is desirable.
From the test observation, it could be tacitly assumed that punching shear failure
occurs approximately when the shear strength of concrete is reached. This indicates
that, regardless of the connection rigidity, punching shear failure may occur
predominantly when the shear strength of concrete is reached.
Earlier tests for shearhead connected to interior column performed by Corley et at

(1968) revealed that shearhead increases punching capacity by enlarging the critical
shear perimeter in similar way as the enlarge column. In addition, shearheads was
defined as over-reinforcing if its flexural capacity is not reached when the connection
fails and under-reinforcing if the flexural capacity is reached before the end of the test.
Following these definitions, it means that previous design of shearheads was
probabilistic because it is relatively difficult to control the outcome of the design. But
the design procedure that combined the recommendations of ACI 318-05 and
Newzealand codes adopted herein enhances an authoritative of the exact type of
shearhead needed.
Summary
Two experiments that investigated the punching shear capacity of a slab with and
without shear reinforcement have been performed. Measured values of concrete
material properties such as: compressive strength, elastic modulus and tensile
strength have been implemented in the numerical analysis.
The design guidance gave a satisfactory performance of the shearheads. Measured
values of strains on the tensile bottom of the shear arms poorly captured are
complimented in the numerical analysis. Both experimental and numerical results are
143
compared in the next chapter. These results are further compared to design codes
predictions; leading to the formulation of an analytical equation for punching shear at
edge supported connection reinforced with shearhead.
Tabular summary of how 7.2 was achieved is needed here:
144
Table 7.4: Tabular summary on how section 7.2 was achieved
Objectives Outcomes
1. To study the deformation behaviour of Punching shear test was carried out on
the slab-column connection subject to slab1 and slab 2; in which load was
punching applied and the evolution of
displacements were measured at specific
locations as depicted in Figures 7.10,
7.11, 7.27, 7.28
2. Investigate punching shear capacity of As presented in chapter 8, the punching

the steel edge supported slab without shear capacity obtained from the
shear reinforcement for comparison with experiments Slab 1 was compared with
design codes equation. analytical equations of ACI 318-05 and
EC2; to support decision in the
formulation of New analytical equation for
punching shear capacity of edge slab-
column connection reinforced with
shearhead.
3. Some influential parameters governing Strains on embedded reinforcements

punching shear failure at the connection were measured to investigate if flexural
such as: strains on concrete and failure occurred before punching shear
reinforcement and shearheads at and the influence of reinforcement ratio as
locations where stresses could be depicted on figures 7.12 and 7.13. strains
significant on the shear arms at top, bottom flanges
and web were measured using strain
gauges and rosette as presented in
figures 7.4.6.2, 7.32 and 7.33.
4. The proposed novel shearhead Design guidance/procedure for shearhead

assembly was subjected to punching assembly has been proposed.
shear experiments. The design guidance was used to select
the structural steel sections that provided
adequate enhancement of punching
shear capacity of the connection
Tests on control specimens were Compressive strength, tensile strength
performed to measure compressive and Elastic Modulus tests were used
strength, tensile strength and Elastic calibrate concrete nonlinear properties
Modulus of concrete, which were used to implemented in the numerical model
calibrate, refine and validate numerical
models
145
Chapter 8: Analysis of Results and Discussion
8.0 Introduction
This chapter provides detail comparison of all the experimental and numerical results.
Firstly, the numerical results for slab 1 are compared with the experimental results for
further validation. The validation further confirms the adequacy of the adopted
modelling scheme. The results are used to evaluate the predictions of ACI 318-05 and
Eurocode codes for punching shear without shear reinforcement. The code that
provides the best correlation would be used to support decisions in the modification of
existing design code for shearhead reinforcement.
Secondly, numerical model of slab 2 (slab with shearhead) is validated with the
corresponding experimental results. Detail parametric study on factors that influence
the structural response of the sheadhead is conducted. This would provide useful
information for the formulation of an analytical equation for punching shear capacity of
the edge connection reinforced with shearheads.
8.1 Comparison of Numerical and Experimental results on slab 1

The Load –Displacement response of the experimental investigation and numerical
model are shown in fig.8.1.The measured experimental failure load occurred at
104.98kN including the self-weight of the slab specimen, while the numerical failure
load occurred at 106.79 kN. A slight deviation of 1.69% was obtained which could be
attributed to micro cracking due to shrinkage that degrades the original initial elastic
stiffness.
146
Fig.8.1 Load-displacement curve for experimental and numerical for Slab 1 (at slab-
column connection.
And also the variation in displacements between the measured and numerical is
caused by the loading rate and the effective in-situ concrete tensile strength, which
was affected by curing and restrained shrinkage.
Fig.8.2: Load- strain curve for tensile reinforcements for slab 1 (within the vicinity of
the slab-column connection)
147
Fig.8.2 shows the strain measurements on the tensile reinforcement at the bottom of
the slab. The appearance of the first incipient hair width crack occurred at a load of
60kN, which was visually inspected. The result shows that flexural yielding of
reinforcement occurred with a load of 80kN in the experiment. At this load, the cracks
widened which indicates that concrete has been severely damage by tensile cracking,
whereas in the numerical, 64.38kN was obtained.
8.20 Discussion on Experimental and Numerical results for Slab 2.

The experimental failure load gives .111.35kN while the numerical failure load gives
117.76kN as shown in fig 8.3. The numerical failure load deviated from the
experimental failure load by 5.76%. A deviation of 12.98% was observed for
displacement at failure load. These deviations may be attributed to the initial micro
cracking induced in the concrete as a result of restrained shrinkage during curing
could reduce the elastic modulus which reduces the stiffness of the concrete.
140
120
100
Load (kN)
80
60 Experimental
Numerical
40
20
0
0 5 10 15
displacement (mm)
Fig.8.3: Load displacement curve for experimental and numerical models.
148
Initial yielding of reinforcement occurred at a load of 90.62kN, in the numerical model
as shown in fig 8.4. Reinforcement yielded in the vicinity of the column and
Compressive Strain on
Tensile Strain on Rebars
Rebars
120
120
100
100
80
Load (kN)
80
Load (kN)
60
60
40
40
20
20
0 0
0 1000 2000 3000 -1000 -500 0 500 1000
MICROSTRAINS Microstrains
Fig.8.4a: strain on tensile reinforcement Fig 8.4b strain on compression rebars.
no other yielding zone was observed; which shows that structural deformations are
concentrated within the vicinity of the column. This is consistent with experimental
observation.
8.2.1 Strains on Shear arms

Based on the yield strength and elastic modulus of steel assumed for the shearhead,
an axial yield strain of -0.0017 was calculated; and compared the axial compressive
strain on the compressive flange of shear arms for both measured and numerical
models. The measured and numerical axial compressive strain gives approximately -
0.003 which is slightly above the calculated yield strain. This reveals that plastic
deformation of the shearhead occurred prior to punching shear failure which is
desirable. The measured tensile strain was very haphazard and was discarded.
It could be observed that a similar evolution of compressive strain occurred under

incremental loading for both experimental and numerical. The strain increases linearly
between a load value of zero to 20kN and becomes approximately steady until
punching shear failure occurred. The graph also shows that considerable bond was
maintained between the shearhead and the concrete since there was no divergence.
Moreover, perfect bond was assumed between the embedded shearhead and the
concrete.
149
Compressive strain on arm 2
120
100
80
Load (kN)
60
40
20
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0
Microstrain
Fig.8.5: strain on compressive flange of shear arm 2
Compressive strain on arm 1

Tensile strain on
120
shear arm 1
100
120
80
100
Load (kN)
60
80
40
60
40 20
20 0
-0.0001 -0.00005 0 0.00005
0
Strain
0 5000 10000 15000
Fig.8.6a: strain on tensile flange of shear arm 1 Fig.8.6b: compressive strain (arm 1).
8.2.2 Effect of Bending Stiffness ratio between shearhead and concrete

ACI 318-05 recommended that a bending stiffness ratio of 𝛼 ≥ 0.15 should be
maintained for shearhead design. Therefore, 𝛼 was varied between 0.075 and 0.3 to
investigate its influence on the punching shear strength of the connection. Results
revealed that 𝛼 = 0.075 slightly reduces the failure load. Mechanically, this means that
the stiffness of the shearhead is reduced to half of its original value. However, the
failure load increases significantly for 𝛼 = 0.3.This indicates that the stiffness of
sheadhead is double while that of the concrete is constant. This means that higher
value of 𝛼 may exaggerate the punching shear capacity of the connection.
150
8.2.3 Effect of Shear arm Length
Three values of shear arm length were investigated which are: 𝑙𝑣 = 60 𝑙𝑣 = 120,
and 𝑙𝑣 = 185. The failure load increase as the shear arm length increases but there
was no significant increase in displacement.
8.2.4 Effect of Shearhead Cross section

The 𝚰-section shear arm was increased to an overall depth of 80mm. The thickness of
its flanges and web were doubled to 6mm and that of the plate was increased to
10mm. This resulted to a significant increase in the failure load as depicted in fig 8.7.
This indicates that increase in shearheads increases the punching shear capacity.
Increase in section thickness

140
120
100
Load(kN)
80
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15
Displacement (mm)
Fig.8.7: increase in shearhead section thickness
8.2.5 Shear Force on Shearheads
The axial forces, shear forces and bending moments were determined by numerical
integration as thus:
𝑁 = ∫𝐴 𝜎 𝑑𝐴 where A represent the shear arm cross sectional area.
As shown in fig 8.8, it implies that the shear arms resisted the vertical load but not
completely uniform in distribution along the arm. The shear arms ideally acts like a
cantilever beam in which the bending moment becomes maximum at the column.
151
Shear Force on Shear arm1
1.2
1
Shear Force (kN)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 50 100 150 200
Distance of sheararm from end plate
Fig.8.8: shear Force along shear arm 1
8.2.6 The Effect of Concrete Elastic Modulus on slab 2

The model on slab 2 was investigated for its sensitivity to Elastic Modulus which is
related to concrete ultimate strain as depicted in equation 3.13.The elastic modulus of
obtained from control specimen was substituted into equation 3.13 gives an ultimate
strain of -0.00145.The Elastic modulus was reduced to its corresponding value of
ultimate compressive strain when the concrete completely softened in compression.
This occurs when a compressive strain of - 0.0035 is reached. The graph in fig 8.9
shows that the failure load was reduced slightly for the reduced value of elastic
modulus. This reveals that the ultimate compressive strain has considerable effects on
failure load as opposed to the earlier observation of Eder et.al (2010) that variation in
compressive strains does not have any significant effect on the failure load. Variation
in Elastic modulus directly affects the stiffness of the concrete.
152
120
100
80
Load (kN)
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15
Displacement (mm)
Fig.8.9: Variation of Elastic of Elastic Modulus of concrete on slab 2
The deflection obtained from numerical model is slightly higher than that of the
measured. This could be attributed to the reduction in concrete elastic modulus in the
slab which is caused by the effect of creep and loss of tension stiffening under
incremental loading. In addition to the fluctuation in the loading rate due to manual
hydraulic jack.
The value of shear retention (𝛽) was varied to examine its influence on the connection
punching shear capacity. It was observed that increased in(𝛽) increases the failure
load as previously observed in Slab 1. It was also observed that higher values of 𝛽
overestimates the punching shear strength of the connection.
8.2.7 Effect of Geometric Nonlinearity

As shown in fig 8.10, when geometric non-linearity was activated in the model, there
was a slight increase in failure load; which overestimated the measured failure load.
This increase may be attributed to the tensile membrane action developed by the
shearheads
153
140
120
100
Load (kN)
80
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15
Displacement (mm)
Fig.8.10: Effect of Geometric nonlinearity
8.3.0 Comparison between Experimental and Code Equations for slab 1

This section compares the experimental results with code predictions. Most codes
were formulated based on the mean values of the material properties such as: the
compressive and tensile strength. And ignore the partial safety coefficients.
8.3.1 ACI 318-05 Code Prediction

The ACI code ignores the significant contribution of reinforcement to punching shear
capacity of the connection. The punching shear capacity of the edge connection is
calculated as thus;
𝑉𝑐,𝐴𝐶𝐼 = 0.33 √𝑓 , 𝑐 𝑏𝑜 𝑑 ................................................................................ (8.1)
Where 𝑏𝑜 = control perimeter as shown in fig 8.11 𝑓 , 𝑐 is the cylinder compressive

strength.
154
Fig 8.11 ACI 318-05 control perimeter around edge column (Park and Choi 2007)
The punching capacity is calculated as thus,
𝑏𝑜 = 2 (𝐶1 + 0.5𝑑) + 𝐶2 + 𝑑
𝑑 = ℎ − 𝑐 − ∅⁄2 For square column 𝐶1 = 𝐶2
𝑑 = 130 − 20 − 8⁄2 = 106𝑚𝑚 .
𝑏𝑜 = 2 (100 + 0.5 × 106) + 100 + 106 = 512 𝑚𝑚
𝑉𝑐,𝐴𝐶𝐼 = 0.33 √27. 86 × 512 × 106 = 94.01𝑘𝑁
So far, this experimental investigation shows that ACI 318-05 equation underestimated
the punching shear capacity of the edge connection. Punching shear capacity
predicted by ACI 318-05 equation gives 94.01kN while the measured gives 104.98kN.
A significant deviation of 10.37% is obtained. Based on this deviation, it could be
suggested that the critical section for flexure provided by ACI 318-05 should be
increased. Youm, Kim and Moo (2014) also observed that ACI punching shear model
significantly underestimated punching shear capacity of the slab especially when the
flexural ratio is high. This is attributed to the negligence of the significant effect of
reinforcement ratio in ACI equation. This inadequacy observed in the ACI 318-05 has
indirectly affected the unbalanced moment induced at the edge connection due to the
interaction between unbalanced gravity and lateral load, although this aspect is not
dealt with in this investigation.
155
8.3.2 Eurocode 2 Code Prediction
The punching resistance of slabs was computed to EC2 using equation 8 .2
1⁄
𝑉𝑅 = 0.18 . 𝑘. (100. 𝜌. 𝑓𝑐 ) 3 . 𝑢. 𝑑 ............................................................ (8.2)
Where 𝜌 represents the reinforcement ratio. And 𝑑 represents the effective depth of
the slab. 𝑓𝑐 is the cylinder strength in MPa.
𝑘 is a factor accounting for size effect whose value can be obtained by equation 8.
200
𝑘 = (1 + √ ) ≤2 𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚 (8.3)
𝑑
According to reduced control perimeter for edge column depicted in fig 8.12
unabridged version of the thesis can be found in the
Fig 8.12.control perimeter for edge column (Eurocode 2).

1⁄
𝑉𝑅,𝐸𝐶 = 0.18 .2. (100. 0.06. 27.86. ) 3 × 533.052 × 106 = 112.03𝑘𝑁
8.4 Design Recommendation for shearhead connection

The punching shear strength of flat slab supported on edge column can be expressed
as
𝑉𝑢 = 𝛽𝝂𝑹,𝑫𝑪 + 𝑉𝑠ℎ (8.4)
𝛽 represents a reduction factor. 𝛽 was introduced because EC2 prediction slightly

overestimates the strength of the edge connection Therefore, 𝛽 should vary between 0
and 1 . The punching shear capacity of concrete (𝑉𝑅,𝑑𝑐 ) to EC2 is same as in equation
8.2. EC2 equation was adopted because it provides the best prediction when
compared with experimental results.
156
𝑉𝑅,𝑑𝑐 is the shear resistance provided by concrete without shear head.
𝑉𝑠ℎ is the contribution of the shearhead.

𝑀𝑝
𝑉𝑠ℎ = 𝜙 ......................................................................................... (8.5)
𝐿
Therefore, equation 8 can be written as thus,

𝑀𝑝
𝑉𝑐 = 𝛽𝑉𝑅,𝑑𝑐 + 𝑛 𝜙 .................................................................. (8.6)
𝐿
𝑀𝑃 represents the plastic moment of resistance of shearheads
n is the number of shear arms. Other parameters have been defined in chapter 7.
Equ 8.6 is the analytical equation formulated for punching shear capacity for edge
connection reinforced with shearheads.
157
Chapter 9: Conclusion and Recommendation
9.1 Conclusion
Flat slabs construction is gaining more popularity than the normal frame structure due to
its economical and construction merit. From available literature, the use of steel column
as alternative to reinforced concrete is relatively scarce. This research focuses on edge
connection because punching shear failure is aggravated by the presence of unbalanced
moments. Due to significant dearth of data on edge connection, the data interior
connection were used to calibrate the punching shear capacity of edge connection;
which significantly underestimates its punching shear capacity. This becomes one of the
hypotheses of this research.
Steel column was used to replace the conventional reinforced concrete column in the
slab-column connection. These dissimilar materials (steel column and concrete slab)
were connected using shearhead assembly. Therefore, this research work focused on
the design of a novel shearhead system for the edge connection.
Punching shear failure of edge connection without shear reinforcement was investigated
experimentally and numerically and compared to design codes equations. Comparison
revealed that ACI318-05 code significantly underestimates punching shear capacity of
edge connection, whereas Eurocode 2 equation shows a very good correlation with
experimental and numerical results. Therefore, it was adopted in the formulation of the
proposed analytical equation.
ACI 318-05 and New Zealand are design codes that provide design principles for
shearhead connection. But the principles were proposed for RC column supporting flat
slab. Therefore, the codes recommendation was modified for applicability to steel column
system as provided in the design guidance.
In order to apply the most appropriate methodologies for punching shear failure at edge
connection, various theoretical, experimental and numerical models were reviewed. It
was revealed that most theoretical and empirical models ignore the residual tensile
strength of cracked concrete, which lead to poor prediction of punching shear capacity of
slab-column connection. Therefore, most theoretical and empirical models were ignored.
158
Whereas, the TS-model which account for the residual tensile strength of cracked
concrete was adopted.
Various material constitutive models implemented in Midas FEA were compared which
revealed that the TS -model was the most appropriate for punching shear analysis;
because it accounts for the residual tensile strength of cracked concrete and also
provides explicit account of how crack initiation and propagation can be captured using
smeared crack approach. T.S model materialises the tension softening behaviour of
concrete in terms of fracture energy. Concrete fracturing is associated with complex
mechanism such as: aggregate interlocks, crack branching and crack face friction; these
mechanisms were adequately captured using energy approach.
Prior to implementation, the adopted modelling scheme was validated using analytical
solution of plate and previous experimental work .Comparison shows a good correlation
therefore, it was adopted.
Elastic analysis was conducted to investigate the boundary conditions that provide the
closest solitude between the prototype and the laboratory specimen. The prescribed
boundary conditions were implemented in the numerical simulations of both slabs.
NLFEA was conducted on both slabs which were validated by the experimental results.
Results of both numerical and experimental investigations reveal the following:
 Increase in tensile strength of concrete increases the punching shear capacity of

the connection.
 Results obtained from both experimental and numerical revealed that ACI318-05
significantly underestimate the punching shear capacity of edge connection.
Whereas Euro code 2 equation provides a better prediction, therefore, it was
adopted in the formulation of the analytical equation for edge connection reinforced
with shearhead.
 Both experimental and numerical results obtained for slab 2 indicates that the
sheadhead contributes about 5% to the punching shear capacity of the connection
when compared to ACI 318-05 equation. Whereas, no significant deviation was
observed when compared to Eurocode 2 equation.
 Based on these results, it can be deduced that punching shear failure of the
connection depends largely on concrete shear strength. The contribution of
shearhead is not too significant as suggested by previous researchers. Punching
159
shear would likely occur when concrete shear strength is reached, despite the
robustness of the shearhead connection.
 Bending stiffness ratio between the shearhead and cracked concrete significantly
influences punching shear capacity of the connection.
 The shearhead acts like a cantilever beam by transferring shear force from the tip
into the connection.
 Increase in concrete mechanical properties such as: tensile strength, fracture
energy, elastic modulus increase punching shear capacity of the connection.
 Yielding of reinforcement occurs prior to punching shear failure in both slabs
investigated experimentally and numerically.
9.2 Findings
The following are the useful findings:
 The adopted modelling scheme based on TS-model implemented in Midas FEA

is capable and reliable for predicting punching shear failure of RC flat slabs. It
could be seen in the Load-displacement diagrams that the post-crack regime of
concrete was adequately captured prior to failure.
 The degradation of shear stiffness due to the progressive damage of concrete
of concrete was modelled with shear retention factor (𝛽). Various values of 𝛽
were examined; it was revealed that 𝛽 = 0.3 correlated very well with the
experimental results. Therefore, 𝛽 = 0.3 is recommended.
 Parametric study revealed that shear retention factor ( 𝛽) and concrete tensile
strength are the most influential factors for punching shear.
 The experimental and numerical investigations confirmed that ACI318-05
significantly underestimate the punching shear strength at edge connection.
 In course of this research, the author has proposed a method for creating a
similitude between a continuous structure (prototype) and a representative slab
using linear elastic finite element analysis.
 Proposed comprehensive design guidance for design of shearheard
connection for edge connection. This design guidance can also be adopted for
design of interior connection.
160
 Because of the significant dearth of information on shearhead assembly,
previous investigators have not complied strictly some in any regard to ACI318-
05 recommendation; which is attributed to the insufficient design guidance
provided by ACI 318-05 code. To overcome this, the author combines both
design guidance. ACI 318-05 and New Zealand codes to proposed detail
design guidance for shearhead assembly. This study has provided sufficient
design recommendation for the shearhead connection. By following the detail
procedure provided in chapter 7 and equation 8.6, it will be quite easy for
designers to construct shearhead assembly and predict the punching shear
capacity adequately.
9.3 Contribution to Knowledge

 A new analytical equation for punching shear capacity reinforced with novel
shearhead has been proposed.
 A detail procedure for the design of shearhead assembly embedded in concrete
slab has been proposed by combining, the design codes of ACI318-05 and New
Zealand codes.
 The influence of bending stiffness ratio between the structural steel section and
the cracked concrete was investigated.
 Results obtained from parametric study reaffirmed and clarified some
contradictions on the influence of various governing parameters on punching
shear strength.
9.4 Recommendations
This section provides both recommendations for the design of shearhead assembly for
edge connection and future work.
9.4.1 Design Recommendations

For the purpose of achieving an effective shear head assembly for edge connection, a
sequential and logical design procedure is presented as thus:
1. For effective composite action with concrete, Ι- section should used for shearhead
2. The maximum shear force at the slab-column connection should be calculated,

using theoretical shear strength equation of ACI 318-05 and should be factorised by
1.15.
3. Compute the basic shearhead perimeter
a. calculate concrete shear strength
161
b. calculate shear perimeter required.
4. Compute the minimum length of the shearhead.
5. Compute the flexural stiffness ratio 𝛼𝑣 between the shearhead and the cracked
concrete. It should be assumed that the concrete is partially cracked. The stiffness
ratio must not be less than 0.15 as recommended by ACI 318-05.
6. If the ratio is less than 0.15 increase the shearhead section.
7. Calculate shearhead moment required.
8. Calculate shearhead moment capacity. If the moment capacity of the shearhead is

greater than the moment due to applied load then, the section used is satisfactory.
9.4.2 Recommendations for future work

The followings are recommended for future work
 Experimental model should be carried out to apply lateral load on the

connection, to investigate punching shear capacity of the connection under
cyclic loading.
 Numerical model of the shearhead connection subject to lateral load should be
simulated.
 Other concrete constitutive model such as damage plasticity model (DPM)
should be used to model the structural response of the edge connection.
 A scenario where service hole is located in the vicinity of the slab-column
connection should be investigated.
9.5 Limitation of Research
The proposed shearhead assembly is not applicable to region vulnerable to significant

seismicity, especially if a shear wall is not used to resist lateral loading. Furthermore,
the effect of lateral load was not considered. This may require a special type of
connection, in which a hole is opened in the vicinity of the column; to enhance amble
ductility of the shearhead. Due to the significant dearth of research works on steel
column supporting flat slabs, the results were compared to ACI 318-05 and EC2
design codes. There was a need for wider comparison.
162
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APPENDIX
APPENDIX 1: Equivalent Frame analysis on prototype structure.
5.2.1 Extraction of Specimen from Prototype structure

The test specimen was obtained from a prototype edge panel of a flat slab building
scaled down to 50 percent. The prototype slab was designed based on its spans of
5m in both directions with a superimposed dead load of 6𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2 and live load
of 1.5𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2.
By considering this loading on the prototype, structural analysis was carried out to
obtain points of contra flexure and maximum bending moment. In the direction where
lateral load was assumed to predominate, the free edge was assumed. At the
intermediate edge column B, points of zero bending moment (contra flexure) on both
sides were calculated. Considering Along edge (AD) where maximum bending
moment occurs perpendicular to the free edge in the prototype was calculated and the
slab was extracted along these lines.
Fig 5.1a Prototype structural Layout Fig 5.1b: Extracted specimen
The design load on the slab is computed as thus.
Unit weight of concrete = 24𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚3
169
Overall thickness of slab =250mm
Slab own weight = 24𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚3 × 0.250m = 6𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2
Live load on slab = 1.5𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2
Design Load on slab (F) = 1.4 𝐺𝑘 + 1.6 𝑄𝑘
1.4 × 6 + 1.6 × 1.5 = 10.8 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2
10.80 × 2.5 = 27𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
The slab is analysed as a continuous beam as thus
27𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚
Fig 5.2: continuous beam
The Claypeyon’s theorem is used to determine the fixed end moments as thus,
𝑤𝑙3
𝑀𝐴 × 𝐿1 + 2𝑀𝐵 (𝐿1 + 𝐿2 ) + 𝑀𝐶 × 𝐿2 = ................................................ (6.1)
4
Considering span 𝐴′ AB
10 𝑀𝐴 + 5𝑀𝐵 = 843.75............................................................................... (6.2)
Considering span ABC
5𝑀𝐴 + 20 𝑀𝐵 + 5𝑀𝐶 = 1687.5................................................................ (6.3)
Considering span BC𝐶 ′
5𝑀𝐵 + 10 𝑀𝐶 = 843.75 ............................................................... (6.3)
170
By solving the equations
𝑀𝐴 = 56.25 kNm, 𝑀𝐵 = 56.25 kNm,
Shearing Force
𝑤𝑙 𝑀𝐴 −𝑀𝐵
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = + [ ] But 𝑀𝐴 = 𝑀𝐵
2 𝐿
27 ×5
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = = 67.5 kN. m
2
27𝑥 2
𝑀 = 𝑉𝐴 𝑥 − - 56.25
2
𝑑𝑚
At Max bending moment =V=0
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 2.5𝑚
The points of zero bending moment along the slab is
27𝑥 2
𝑉𝐴 𝑥 − − 56.2 = 0
2
Solving the quadratic equation gives 𝑥 = 3.94𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 1.060𝑚
𝑤𝑙2 27 ×25
Span moments = = = 84.375kN.m
8 8
The Bending moment diagram is depicted as thus
171
Fig 5.3: Bending moment diagram
The contraflexure bound slab was extracted and prepared in the laboratory. The
specimen was scaled down to 50 percent resulting to the following dimension (1250 ×
1060 × 130mm)
APPENDIX 2: Concrete mix design

Mix design calculation for water/Cement ratio = 0.52
REF CALCULATION OUTPUT

Lydon F.D 1. Target strength = 50⁄𝑚𝑚2
2.For a maximum aggregate size of 20mm, the water

content could 170𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3
170
3. The cement content = = 327𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3
0.52
172
4. The average density relative density of 2.65, the fresh
concrete density is taken as 2420𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3
5. The aggregate content = 2420-327-170 = 1923𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3
1923
6. Aggregate/Cement ratio = = 5.88
327
7.With 35% sand the mix proportions are 1:2.06:3.82, 0.52
For a trial batch of 0.2𝑚3 the weights of the ingredient

are:
𝐶𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 65.4𝑘𝑔
𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 134.72𝑘𝑔
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 = 249.83𝑘𝑔
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 34.02𝑘𝑔
APPENDIX 3: COMPUTATION OF CONCRETE TENSILE STRENGTH

Failure load of specimens from the tensile test are presented as thus
S/N Failure load (P) in kN Tensile stress (𝜎𝑡 ) in

𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
1 91.27 2.91
2 87.10 2.77
3 81.99 2.61
S/N Failure load (P) in kN Tensile stress (𝜎𝑡 ) in Corrected

𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 value
1 91.27 2.91 2.62
2 87.10 2.77 2.49
3 81.99 2.61 2.39
Average Tensile strength = 2.49𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2
The tensile stress is calculated using equation 3 as thus
173
2𝑃 2×91.27
𝜎𝑡1 = = = 2.91
𝜋𝑑𝑙 3.142 ×0.1×0.2
2×87.10
𝜎𝑡2 = 3.142 ×0.1×0.2 = 2.77
2×81.10
𝜎𝑡3 = 3.142 ×0.1×0.2 = 2.61
Because of the effect of strip, the tensile strength is reduce as thus

𝒃 𝟐𝟔
𝜷 = 𝑫 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 0.26
3⁄
2𝑃
𝝈𝑐𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑃, 𝜷) = 𝜋𝐵𝐷 [1 − 𝜷2 ] 2
= 0.9
By substitution 𝝈𝑐𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑃, 𝜷) = 0.9
APPENDIX 4: COMPUTATION OF CONCRETE FRACTURE PARAMETER
REF CALCULATION OUTPUT

1.The elastic modulus is calculated as thus
1⁄
𝑓𝑐𝑚 3
𝐸𝑐 = 𝐸𝑐0 ( )
𝑓𝑐𝑚0
CEB-
FIP 90
𝐸𝑐0 = 2.15 × 104 (N⁄mm2 )
1⁄
4
35.82 3
𝐸𝑐 = 2.15 × 10 ( )
10
𝐸𝑐 = 32882(N⁄mm2 )
2. Fracture Energy
The fracture energy is calculated based on

aggregate size as
174
0.0053 200.95
𝐺𝑓0 = 0.024 + = 0.0354
8
Fracture energy in Tension =
𝑓𝑐𝑚 0.7
𝐺𝑓 = 𝐺𝑓0 [ ]
𝑓𝑐𝑚0
35.82 0.7
𝐺𝑓 = 0.0354 [ ]
10
𝐺𝑓 = 0.086
Fracture energy in compression = 8.6
175

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Punching Shear Failure of Reinforced

concrete flat slabs supported on steel

Barisua Ebenezer Ngekpe

A Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the University's

A nonlinear (NLFEA) model was proposed where various concrete material

Various design codes on punching shear were compared; Eurocode 2 provides a

I am highly indebted to my love ones who supported me emotionally and financially

C = column width or diameter

𝑏𝑜 = Critical shear perimeter

𝜌 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜

𝑓𝑡 ′ = Tensile strength of concrete.

𝑓𝑐 ′ = specified cylinder concrete (MPa)

𝑓𝑐𝑘 = characteristic cylinder strength.

𝛽𝑐 = ratio of long edge to short edge of column section

LFEA = Linear elastic finite element

𝐶𝐴𝐴 𝛾𝑣 = distance of the centroid of the critical section

𝑉𝑔 = Direct shear stress developed by gravity load.

𝛾𝑣 = ratio of moment transferred by eccentric shear to total unbalanced which is

defined according to each design method.

K = size effect factor

da = maximum aggregate size.

ℓ𝑥 = dimension of the assumed critical section in the x- direction.

ℓ𝑦 = dimension of the assumed critical section in the y- direction.

𝑀𝑥𝑥 = bending moment distribution in the x- direction

𝛽 = shear retention factor

𝐺𝑓 = fracture energy in tension

𝐺𝑐 = fracture energy in compression.

NLFEA = Nonlinear finite element analysis.

𝜙 = Shear reduction factor

𝑀𝑝 = shearhead minimum length

𝛼𝑣 = bending stiffness ratio between the shearhead and cracked concrete.

𝐼𝐶𝑅 = second moment of area of concrete

𝐼𝑠 = second moment of area of steel.

Slab 1= slab without shear reinforcement

Slab 2 = slab with shearhead

𝑓𝑦 = yield strength of steel

𝜀𝑥 = strain in the x- direction

𝜀𝑦 = strain in the y- direction

𝛾𝑥𝑦 = shear strain

𝛽 = shear retention factor

𝑉𝑠ℎ = punching shear capacity of shearhead

𝑣𝑔 = Direct shear stress developed by gravity load;

𝑏0 =perimeter of the critical section.

𝛾𝑣 = ratio of moment transferred by eccentric shear to total unbalanced moment,

(Setting the research into framework and perspective)

1.1 A Historical Reassessment

This item has been removed due to 3rd

Fig 1.1 before collapse (Park 2012)

Fig 1.2: After collapse (Park 2012)

1.2 Research Significance

In order to provide an in-depth theoretical background for punching shear strengths of

Menetrey (2002) developed an analytical model that includes the contributions of

Bompa and Elghazouli (2016) carried out an experimental investigation on the

1.3 Problem Statement

 The analytical model of Menetrey, when compared to design codes

1.4 Aim and Objectives

This aim was achieved through the following objectives:

 Apply nonlinear finite element analysis to investigate punching shear capacity

 Apply nonlinear finite element analysis (NLFEA) to undertake parametric study