Toxicology

Organophosphate and Carbamate Poisoning: Review of the Current

Literature and Summary of Clinical and Laboratory Experience
in Southern Israel
Tom Leibson MD1,2 and Matitiahu Lifshitz MD1,2
1
Department of Pediatrics D, Soroka University Medical Center and 2Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev,
Beer Sheva, Israel

Key words: insecticides, organophosphates, carbamates, poisoning, cholinesterase

to acetylcholinesterase inhibition [1]. These compounds are

Abstract chemically defined by a P atom surrounded by four groups or
Organophosphate and carbamate are mainly used to kill insects,
thereby protecting livestock, crops, homes and communities. Yet,
chains of atoms; most of them are O atoms, but S, F, C and N
these compounds also convey great danger. OP and CRB poisoning may be found as well. The central P atom is always involved in
is an important clinical problem, often life-threatening, especially in P=O or P=S bonds; two more side chains, R1 and R2, may be
the pediatric population in rural areas where reaching a physician or aromatic or aliphatic groups. The fourth group is referred to as
hospital on time is difficult. We present a summary of accumulated “X” or the "leaving group," which determines many of the charac-
toxicological knowledge as well as clinical and laboratory experience
from a medical center serving a relatively vast rural area and
teristics of the compound and serves as a basis for classification
pediatric population. We stress the importance of knowing how to of these materials [4].
recognize the classic signs of OP and CRB poisoning and when it is Diagnosis is made on the basis of clinical suspicion, the
appropriate to investigate for such poisoning even in the absence of characteristic clinical signs, and reduced activity in the blood
those signs. Like any medical emergency, OP and CRB poisoning of butyrylcholinesterase (also known as pseudocholinesterase
requires prompt resuscitation and use of antidotes. Atropine,
oxygen and fluids are the mainstay of therapy. Oximes, which were
– PchE, or plasma cholinesterase due to its presence in the
found useful in some cases of OP poisoning and useless in some plasma) or AChE (also known as true cholinesterase, or red
cases of CRB poisoning, are absolutely safe as empiric treatment, blood cell cholinesterase due to its presence in red blood cells).
which is often needed since the major differential diagnosis of OP Patients with severe OP poisoning typically present with signs of
poisoning is CRB poisoning, which is clinically indistinguishable. muscarinic and nicotinic stimulation and central nervous system
We hope that continuing research will offer further insights into the
management of such events, and we are confident that improved
toxicity.
medical management of OP and CRB poisoning will result in a The major differential diagnosis is carbamate poisoning, which
reduction of morbidity and other complications associated with is clinically indistinguishable [3]. Carbamates are derivatives of
intensive care procedures and hospitalization. carbamic acid. They have the same mechanism of action as OP,
IMAJ 2008;10:767–770 but the chemical bond is completely reversible; therefore, when
considering non-lethal doses, the assumed duration of the toxic
effect is expected to be significantly shorter than that of OP.
Organophosphate and carbamate are insecticides used against
insects in all developmental forms, but mainly to kill mature Pathophysiology
insects. Common OP compounds used in agriculture are para- The primary mechanism of action of OP and CRB is inhibition of
thion, malathion, chlorpyrofos and dichlorvos. They are used ester hydrolases, particularly AChE and PChE. AChE is an enzyme
to protect livestock, crops, homes and communities from the that degrades the neurotransmitter acetylcholine into choline and
direct and indirect effects of insects and the diseases they carry acetic acid. ACh is found in the central and peripheral nervous
[1,2]. But these compounds convey also great danger. Each year, system, neuromuscular junctions, and red blood cells. OP inacti-
500,000 deaths occur in rural Asia due to suicide. It is estimated vates AChE by phosphorylating the serine hydroxyl group located
that 200,000 of these deaths are due to self-OP poisoning [3]. at the active site of AChE. The phosphorylation occurs by loss
Unintentional exposure is much more common, but almost never of an OP leaving group and establishment of a covalent bond
lethal [1,2]. with AChE. Once AChE has been inactivated, ACh accumulates
Organophosphonate compounds exist in a military setting throughout the nervous system, resulting in overstimulation of
as well. OP-based nerve gas was introduced in several military muscarinic and nicotinic receptors. Clinical effects are manifested
conflicts and acts of terror in the last few decades [1,2]; com-
mon names are sarin, tabun, soman and VX. Discussion of these
OP = organophosphonate
compounds is beyond the scope of this review. CRB = carbamate
Organic phosphorus compounds are irreversible cholinesterase ACHe = acetylcholinesterase
inhibitors that are frequently associated with human toxicity due ACh = acetylcholine

• Vol 10 • November 2008 Organophosphate and Carbamate Poisoning in Israel 767

Toxicology

via activation of the autonomic and central nervous systems and chorrhea, bronchospasm, diarrhea, hypotension, lacrymation,
at nicotinic receptors on skeletal muscle. miosis, salivation, urination and vomiting.
Although OP are usually considered irreversible cholinesterase • Expression of nicotinic overstimulation in the sympathetic
inhibitors, the OP-AChE bond becomes irreversible only after a system: hypertension, mydriasis, sweating and tachycardia.
second side reaction called “aging” [5], in which one of the R • Expression of nicotinic overstimulation in the central nervous
groups leaves the phosphate molecule at a characteristic rate. system: agitation, coma, confusion and respiratory failure.
Different OP compounds have various aging times ranging from • Expression of nicotinic overstimulation at the neuromuscular
2 minutes for the nerve agent soman to 72 hours for certain junction: fasciculations, muscle weakness and paralysis.
insecticides [1,6].
Organophosphates and carbamates can be absorbed cutane- Principles of therapy
ously, ingested, inhaled, or injected. Although most patients As in any medical emergency, airways must be secured, respira-
rapidly become symptomatic, the onset and severity of symptoms tory function is assisted according to the severity of the intoxica-
depend on the specific compound, amount, route of exposure, tion, and cardiovascular monitoring and support are warranted.
and rate of metabolic degradation. Possible neurological com- Clothes should be removed as part of the primary survey, and
plications are: eyes and skin should be irrigated if they were exposed to the
• Intermediate syndrome – proximal muscle weakness, respi- toxic material.
ratory muscle weakness and facial muscle weakness, which Basic life support treatments include suction of oral secre-
usually occurs days to a few weeks after the poisoning. tions, intubation, and positive pressure mechanical ventilation.
• Delayed neuropathy – distal muscle weakness, usually oc- Intravenous fluids are usually given as soon as there is venous
curs weeks to months after the poisoning. access and blood is drawn for laboratory investigation.
Control of excessive neurostimulation is accomplished by
Carbamates inhibit AChE by depositing a carbamyl group on the administration of atropine sulfate – an ACh muscarinic recep-
enzyme, which is then completely inactivated; thus the clinical tor antagonist. Reactivation of AChE is sometimes possible
effect is exactly like OP toxicity. Unlike OP, though, carbamyl by administration of oxime; these compounds can reactivate
groups are weakly bound to AChE, which is believed to sponta- acetylcholinesterate by attaching to the phosphorus atom and
neously reactivate rapidly, accounting for the short duration of forming an oxime-phosphonate which then splits away from the
intoxication [7]. acetylcholinesterase molecule. Having mentioned the suggested
molecular mechanism of CBM intoxication, it seems quite sen-
Cholinesterase assays sible not to treat a known CRB poisoning with oximes, as the
Diagnosis of suspected OP or carbamate poisoning is usually carbamyl residue should dislodge itself spontaneously, with or
confirmed by an assay to measure cholinesterase activity (both without additional pharmacotherapy. Interestingly, the same was
AChE and PChE may be used) in plasma. Currently, most of the concluded by other investigators [9].
laboratories in Israeli hospitals are equipped to reliably measure
PChE level in about one hour. However, except for three hos- Efficacy of treatment and outcome
pitals, the results of AChE assays are not available in time to It is not yet possible to establish the efficacy of all the differ-
assist the diagnostic plan or the choice of medication. Yet, the ent treatments for organophospate poisoning due to the lack
PChE assay is far from serving as a gold standard, and the AChE of evidence-based data [3]. Some of the mainstay treatments
assay is not error proof. An understanding of their limitations is were introduced long before it became mandatory to conduct a
essential for monitoring a patient’s cholinesterase status after controlled trial, and what is known about these treatments comes
OP or carbamate poisoning [3]. Some compounds inhibit PChE from animal studies [1-3].
more effectively than they inhibit AChE. It should be stressed Atropine is considered the most acceptable and widely used
that PChE activity does not always relate to the severity of the treatment for OP and CRB poisoning. It is a competitive inhibitor
poisoning, but it can be used as a sensitive marker of exposure of the muscarinic Ach receptor; therefore, it diminishes some
to OP or CRB [8]. of the pathological cholinergic effect but has no effect on the
Activity between the cholinesterase-toxin complex and the AchE-OP complex. Other muscarinic antagonists are available,
oximes continues if the sample is left at room temperature for but none has been evaluated by high quality randomized clinical
even a few minutes, and a sample taken from patients treated trials [3].
with oximes may yield a false negative result (normal level of Oximes, such as pralidoxime and obidoxime chloride (tox-
cholinesterase activity in the laboratory, while plasma level is ogonin), can reactivate AchE, thus attempting a reversal of the
significantly low). To obtain reliable results, the reaction must pathological biochemical mechanism in addition to symptomatic
be stopped immediately by cooling and dilution of the sample as relief in the poisoned patients. The most widely used oxime is
soon as it is taken from the patient. pralidoxime [3], and in Israel, obidoxime chloride (toxogonin)
and other oxime salts are available but a thorough comparison
Clinical features of OP and CRB poisoning between the different materials in terms of clinical effect and
• Expression of muscarinic overstimulation: bradycardia, bron- outcome was never performed. The World Health Organization

768 T. Leibson and M. Lifshitz • Vol 10 • November 2008

 Toxicology

has published a recommendation to use oximes to treat all it is the most potent agent and its median lethal dose is 6–10
symptomatic patients who need atropine [3]. mg [1,2].
Benzodiazepine (diazepam) is considered the drug of choice The pathophysiology of these nerve agents is the same as was
to treat OP and CRB poisoning-induced convulsion or agitation. described for OP and CRB. These compounds are much more
Although most patients will not need this treatment, it is some- toxic than insecticides, yet there seems to be no relation between
times recommended to administer prophylactic diazepam in cases the aging half-life and the lethal dose. It appears that nerve
of severe OP and CRB poisoning because of its documented agents have an extraordinary affinity for the AChE molecule, and
synergism with other antidotes to improve survival and prevent so, hours or even days before the chemical aging takes place, a
CNS complications [2]. Attempts to enhance elimination of toxic relatively small amount of toxin achieves maximal binding of the
material by hemoperfusion, hemodialysis or exchange transfusion AChE, facilitating respiratory failure and sometimes even death
have not proved effective so far [2]. [11].
Glycopyrrolate is a medication of the muscarinic anticholin- Therapy is a combination of atropine, oximes and benzodiaz-
ergic group. It is a synthetic quaternary amine with no central epines (especially diazepam), which some authors recommend
effects and can be used to reduce salivary, tracheobronchial and for all victims of nerve agent toxicity, regardless of whether or
pharyngeal secretions, as well as decreasing the acidity of gastric not they have seizures. Most of these combination therapies are
secretion and even preventing bradycardia especially in patients available as auto-injectors and can be given to victims before
who had an adverse reaction to atropine [10]. However, its use they reach the hospital. Hospital treatment includes all of the
as a symptomatic treatment for OP and CRB poisoning has not above as well as decontamination and intravenous therapy, usu-
been extensively evaluated [2]. ally in the intensive care unit [1,2].
With regard to management, patients with OP and CRB poi-
soning must be kept under continuous observation even after OP and CRB poisoning in southern Israel
atropinization. Levels of cholinesterase should be measured every During the past two to three decades, more than 100 infants
12–24 hours and less frequently later on. An exception to this and children were admitted to Soroka Medical Center and later
is poisoning by a lipophilic OP, mainly in extremely high doses, diagnosed as suffering from either OP or CRB poisoning. The
which results in a vast distribution to the fatty tissue and a long experience gathered by the pediatric emergency department and
duration of clinical effect, or abrupt recurrence after cessation of intensive care unit staff was published in three different reports
therapy due to redistribution of the poison. The discharge criteria [9,12,13].
are: an asymptomatic patient in whom atropine or oxime was not
required for 1–2 days and whose AChE or PChE levels in plasma Clinical presentation of OP or CRB poisoning in young children
are stable [1]. Sofer et al. [12] described 25 infants and children aged 3 months
to 7 years admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit with
OP as chemical warfare nerve agents moderate to severe OP or CRB poisoning. The most common pre-
Although dozens of chemical OP-based compounds were pro- sentation (occurring in 96% of the children) was stupor or coma;
duced as nerve agents, four agents (tabun, sarin, VX and soman) 92% presented with muscle weakness and dyspnea. Bradycardia,
are at the core of this field – having been used in wars and in fasciculations and gastrointestinal manifestations were the three
acts of terror [1,2]. least common presentations in those children.
Tabun, sarin and soman are considered volatile agents, hence Lifshitz and colleagues [13] described 52 children aged 2–8
after the release of these agents, with or without an explosive years with OP (16 children) or CRB (36 children) poisoning, all
mechanism, they are vaporized and remain so for hours to days. of whom were admitted to the pediatric ICU. Among those who
Their main toxicity is via inhalation, as was the case in 1994 suffered CRB poisoning, 100% presented with stupor or coma
when the Japanese terrorist cult, Aum Shinrikyo, synthesized and hypotonia; fasciculations was the least common sign (5.5%).
and then deployed sarin against civilians in Matsumoto, Japan, Among those with OP poisoning, 100% presented with stupor
killing eight people. The following year, the same terrorist group or coma and hypotonia, and bradycardia was the least common
released sarin again – in the infamous Tokyo Subway attack, sign (25%).
killing 13 and sending 5500 persons to local hospitals. After
intoxication, the average aging half-life is extremely short for Oxime treatment for CRB poisoning
soman (2 minutes) and longer (8.5 hours and 46 hours) for sarin Lifshitz et al. [9] described 26 children aged 1–8 years with
and tabun respectively. severe CRB poisoning. All were admitted with CNS depression
VX is a non-volatile agent; it has the consistency of motor and hypotonia and received both atropine and oximes. Later on,
oil and is designed to be released via explosion as droplets. the poison was identified as CRB – either methomyl or aldicarb.
Exposure is mainly through exposed skin, but inhalation is pos- All children fully recovered within 24 hours, and it was concluded
sible as well. It has an aging half-live of more than 2 days but that contrary to common practice and belief (at the time) there
is no danger of clinical deterioration when victims of CRB poi-
CNS = central nervous system soning are treated with oximes. Another interesting finding was
ICU = intensive care unit that oxime therapy does not contribute to the recovery of CRB-

• Vol 10 • November 2008 Organophosphate and Carbamate Poisoning in Israel 769

Toxicology

poisoned pediatric patients – proven in vitro: AChE inhibited with 2. Erdman AR. Insecticides. In: Dart RC, ed. Medical Toxicology. 3rd
CRB was not reactivated by pralidoxime and obidoxime, even in edn. Philadelphia: Lippincot Williams & Wilkins, 2004:1475–96.
3. Eddelston M, Buckley NA, Eyer P, Dawson AH. Management of
extremely high concentrations, while the AChE inhibited with OP acute organophosphorus pesticide poisoning. Lancet 2008;371:
compound (paraoxon) regained up to 95% of its activity [9]. 597–607.
4. Costa LG. Current issues in organophosphate toxicology. Clin
Conclusions Chim Acta 2006;366(1-2):1–13.
OP and CRB poisoning is a common health problem in the 5. Li H, Schopfer LM, Nachon F, et al. Aging pathways for organo-
phosphate-inhibited human butyrylcholinesterase, including novel
developing world. OP poisoning and CRB poisoning are clinically pathways for isomalathion, resolved by mass spectrometry. Toxicol
indistinguishable, and when there is doubt as to the identity of Sci 2007;100(1):136–45.
the toxic compound the initial treatment is intended to cover 6. Hurst CG, Newmark J, Romano JA. Chemical bioterrorism. In:
OP poisoning. A recent molecular study further illuminated the Kasper DL, ed. Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine. 16th
nature of “aging” of the chemical bond between OP and AChE edn. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005:1288–94.
7. Eddleston M, Dawson A, Karalliedde L, et al. Early management
[5], a characteristic that does not exist in CRB poisoning due to after self-poisoning with an organophosphorus or carbamate
the relative weakness of the chemical bond. pesticide – a treatment protocol for junior doctors. Crit Care
Analysis of more than 100 cases of OP and CRB poisoning 2004;8(6):391–7.
treated at the Soroka Medical Center has given us insight into 8. Chatonnet A, Lockridge O. Comparison of butyrylcholinesterase
the different clinical presentations of pediatric toxicity compared and acetylcholinesterase [Review]. Biochem J 1989;260(3):625–34.
9. Lifshitz M, Rotenberg M, Sofer S, et al. Carbamate poisoning
to the classic descriptions of cholinesterase inhibitor toxicity and oxime treatment in children: a clinical and laboratory study.
that was documented in adults. Lack of history of exposure and Pediatrics 1994;93(4):652–5.
absence of classical signs do not exclude the possibility of OP 10. Robenshtok E, Luria S, Tashma Z, Hourvitz A. Adverse reaction
and CRB poisoning. These factors only stress the importance of to atropine and the treatment of organophosphate intoxication
a high index of suspicion required in endemic areas such as rural [Review]. IMAJ 2002;4(7):535–9.
11. Barthold CL, Schier JG. Organic phosphorus compounds – nerve
Asia and southern Israel. agents. Crit Care Clin 2005;21(4):673–89, v–vi.
It is important to bear in mind that OP and CRB poisoning is 12. Sofer S, Tal A, Shahak E. Carbamate and organophosphate poi-
a life-threatening event, and that prompt resuscitation and usage soning in early childhood. Pediatr Emerg Care 1989;5(4):222–5.
of antidotes is the mainstay of current therapy. We hope that 13. Lifshitz M, Shahak E, Sofer S. Carbamate and organophosphate
during the following decade continuing research and analysis will poisoning in young children. Pediatr Emerg Care 1999;15(2):102–3.
help improve the clinical outcome.

References Correspondence: Dr. T. Leibson, Dept. of Pediatrics D, Soroka

1. Clark RF. Insecticides: organic phosphorus compounds and car- University Medical Center, P.O. Box 151, Beer Sheva 84101, Israel.
bamates. In: Flomenbaum NE, Goldfrank LR, Hoffman RS, et al., Phone: (972-8) 640-0071
eds. Goldfrank’s Toxicologic Emergencies. 8th edn. New York: Fax: (972-8) 640-2736
McGraw-Hill, 2006:1497–512. email: [email protected]

People of small caliber like to sit on high horses

Magdalena Samozwaniec (1894-1972), Popular Polish writer

Capsule
High levels of endoglin in systemic sclerosis
Vascular endothelia growth factor (VEGF) is a potent substance Moreover, endoglin levels were associated in multivariate
implicated in angiogenesis. Patients with systemic sclerosis analysis with skin ulceration, positivity to anticentromere
have high levels and increased expression of this factor in antibody, and abnormal relation of diffusing capacity for
their serum and tissue. The vascular effects of VEGF are carbon monoxide per alveolar volume. This study showed
mediated by endoglin, a co-receptor of transforming growth that patients with systemic sclerosis and ischemic phenom-
factor-beta expressed on endothelial cells. In this line, Wipff ena (pulmonary and cutaneous) have increased levels of
and colleagues studied serum levels of endoglin, by ELISA, endoglin, and this mediator may play a role in scleroderma
in 187 systemic sclerosis patients compared with 48 controls. pathogenesis.
The authors found high serum levels of endoglin and basic Rheumatology 2008;47:972
epidermal growth factor in patients compared to controls. Jozélio Freire de Carvalho

770 T. Leibson and M. Lifshitz • Vol 10 • November 2008