Functional Art

Praise for The Functional Art
“Welcome to Alberto’s world. Cairo has done it all in The Functional Art: Theory, Practice,
Examples. And he’s done it brilliantly. It is the most comprehensive and sensible book
yet on real-world information graphics. We won’t need another one for a long time.”
—Nigel Holmes
“If graphic designer Nigel Holmes and data visualizer Edward Tufte had a child, his
name would be Alberto Cairo. In The Functional Art, accomplished graphics journalist
Cairo injects the chaotic world of infographics with a mature, thoughtful, and sci-
entifically grounded perspective that it sorely needs. With extraordinary grace and
clarity, Cairo seamlessly unites infographic form and function in a design philosophy
that should endure for generations.”
—Stephen Few, Author of Show Me the Numbers
“This book is long overdue. Whether you’re just getting started visualizing information
or have been doing it all your life, whether your topic is business, science, politics,
sports or even your personal finances, and whether you’re looking for a basic under-
standing of visualization or a detailed how-to reference, this is the book you were
looking for. Alberto Cairo, a professional journalist, information designer and artist,
shows how to visualize anything in a simple, straightforward, and intelligent way.”
—Karl Gude, former infographics director at Newsweek and graphics editor in
residence at the School of Journalism, Michigan State University
“The Functional Art is brilliant, didactic, and entertaining. I own dozens of books on
visual information, but Cairo’s is already on the shortlist of five that I recommend to
anybody that wishes to have a career in information graphics, along with those by
Edward Tufte, Nigel Holmes, and Richard Saul Wurman. Cairo is one of those rare
professionals who have been able to combine real-world experience with the academia.”
—Mario Tascón, director of the Spanish consulting firm Prodigioso Volcán
“Using his enormous professional and academic experience, Alberto Cairo offers a
first-hand look at the revolution in visual communication. This book is key to under-
standing the current situation of print and online information design.”
—Javier Zarracina, graphics director at The Boston Globe
“The Functional Art is the perfect starting point for a career in information graphics and
visualization, and also an excellent guide for those who already have some experience
in the area. This is the first real textbook on infographics.”
—Chiqui Esteban, director of new media narratives at lainformacion.com, and
blogger at InfographicsNews
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functional
art
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The Functional Art
An introduction to information graphics and visualization
Alberto Cairo
New Riders
1249 Eighth Street
Berkeley, CA 94710
510/524-2178
510/524-2221 (fax)
Find us on the Web at: www.newriders.com
To report errors, please send a note to [email protected]
New Riders is an imprint of Peachpit, a division of Pearson Education.
Copyright © 2013 by Alberto Cairo
Acquisitions Editor: Nikki Echler McDonald
Production Editor: Tracey Croom
Development Editor: Cathy Lane
Proofer: Liz Welch
Composition: Kim Scott, Bumpy Design
Indexer: FireCrystal Communications
Interior Designer: Mimi Heft
Cover Designer: Mimi Heft, with Alberto Cairo
Media Producer: Eric Geoffroy
Video Producers: Amy Van Vechten, Andrew Wallace
Notice of Rights
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the publisher. For information on getting permission for reprints and excerpts, contact
[email protected].
Notice of Liability
The information in this book is distributed on an “As Is” basis without warranty. While every precau-
tion has been taken in the preparation of the book, neither the author nor Peachpit shall have any
liability to any person or entity with respect to any loss or damage caused or alleged to be caused
directly or indirectly by the instructions contained in this book or by the computer software and
hardware products described in it.
Trademarks
Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed
as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and Peachpit was aware of a trademark
claim, the designations appear as requested by the owner of the trademark. All other product names
and services identified throughout this book are used in editorial fashion only and for the benefit of
such companies with no intention of infringement of the trademark. No such use, or the use of any
trade name, is intended to convey endorsement or other affiliation with this book.
ISBN 13: 978-0-321-83473-7
ISBN 10: 0-321-83473-9
987654321
Printed and bound in the United States of America
This book is for Alice, Elena, and Julio.
And for Erica, of course.
Acknowledgements
Experience teaches you that the archetype of the self-made man is a myth with
roots in humankind’s relish for delusion. Life’s meanderings are determined
by chance and luck, and the only thing we can do to funnel those factors is to
ready ourselves to identify and seize opportunities when they pass by. We are
the product of effort as much as we are shaped by the people who surround us.
In this sense, I feel I am one of the luckiest individuals on Earth: I will start this
book saying that curiosity is the most important trait any communicator should
have. Therefore, I have to thank those who have ignited my curiosity throughout
the years and have helped me focus it.
This book is, first, for my parents. When I was a kid, my dad prompted me to love
books and good stories, both fictional and real, and to develop an insatiable hunger
for new knowledge. Inadvertently, he also revealed to me how to summarize and
convey information with images and how to be precise, concise, clear, and fun (or
so I hope) when teaching others. In addition to being a medical doctor, my father
is also an artist. He used to lecture on anatomy at a local university in Spain, and
one of his former students once told me that, many years after graduating, the
only classes he remembered from college were my father’s. He told me it was
because of the beautiful diagrams and cutaways Professor Cairo used to sketch
out on the blackboard while he talked.
From my mother, I treasure a most relevant lesson: Don’t give up pursuing and
defending what you have been able to prove to be true, no matter what.
Thanks to my editors, Nikki McDonald and Cathy Lane, at Peachpit Press. They
believed in this project from the very first day, and they encouraged me to keep
writing in times of fatigue.
To Luis G. Prado, my editor and publisher in Spain, Óscar Fernández, from El País,
and Ferrán Giménez and Laia Blasco, two colleagues at the Universitat Oberta de
Catalunya: Years ago, they prompted me to put what I knew about information
graphics and visualization into writing, and they aided me in making sense of it.
I wish to thank several students of mine. First, Patricia Borns, who read almost
the entirety of The Functional Art and gave me valuable advice on how to improve
its style. This book is much more readable because of her. Eileen Mignoni and
Sophia Dengo read and edited very preliminary chapters, years ago. I also got
suggestions from Lex Alexander, Mel Umbarger, and Lauren Flowers, and from
many other of my undergraduate and graduate students at the University of
North Carolina-Chapel Hill and at the University of Miami.
To Nigel Holmes, Stephen Few, and Karl Gude for their kind comments about
the content of The Functional Art: Coming from them, their words mean a lot to
me. They were three of my main sources when I was learning how to visually
display information. They are giants with broad shoulders; I’ve taken advantage
of that. Thanks also to Chiqui Esteban and Javier Zarracina, Spanish infographics
masterminds.
Many of the examples in The Functional Art come from my two years as director
of infographics and multimedia at Época magazine, in São Paulo, Brazil. I wish to
thank the wonderful people I had the honor to work with. First, the infograph-
ics department: Marco Vergotti, David Michelsohn, Rodrigo Cunha, Rodrigo
Fortes, Gerson Mora, Luiz Salomão, Gerardo Rodríguez, Erik Scaranello, and
Pedro Schimidt. Also, Época’s art director, Marcos Marques, author of some of
the most impressive covers I’ve ever seen in a news magazine. Thanks also to
Helio Gurovitz and his deputy, David Cohen, two managers with a background
in computer science and engineering who understand what visualization and
data journalism are about.
To my colleagues at the University of Miami and at UNC-Chapel Hill: Rich B eckman,
Laura Ruel, Don Wittekind, Pat Davison, Charles Floyd, Kim Grinfeder, Michelle
Seelig, and Jim Virga. Also, to the deans who, since 2005, have supported me in the
teaching of graphics and visualization: Richard Cole, Tom Bowers, Jean Folkerts,
and Gregory Shepherd.
To the people who, every year, organize and participate in the Malofiej Interna-
tional Infographics Summit (www.malofiej20.com): Javier Errea, Álvaro Gil, John
Grimwade, Geoff McGhee, Juan Velasco, and so many others.
To Mario Tascón and Gumersindo Lafuente, makers of www.elmundo.es, where I
was graphics director between 2000 and 2005. They both trusted a certain rookie
more than a decade ago.
To all my colleagues at La Voz de Galicia, Diario 16, El Mundo, DPI Comunicación,
and all the other newspapers and magazines I have worked for, both as a full-time
employee and as a consultant. I wish to also thank all the organizations, compa-
nies, and friends who graciously gave me permission to use their infographics
and visualizations in this book.
Finally, The Functional Art is, above all, for my wife and kids. In the past several
months, they had to endure long hours of silence and deep concentration on my
part. Patience has never failed them. Writing is the most solitary activity I know.
I could not have survived without their support. I love you.
About the author
Alberto Cairo teaches information graphics and visualization at the University
of Miami’s School of Communication and serves as an advisor for the Master
of Arts in Technology and Communication program at the University of North
Carolina (UNC)-Chapel Hill.
In 2000, Cairo led the creation of the Interactive Infographics Department at
El Mundo, the second largest printed and the largest digital daily newspaper
in Spain. Between 2001 and 2005, Cairo’s team won more Malofiej and Society
for News Design (SND) infographics international awards than any other news
organization worldwide.
Cairo was a professor at UNC-Chapel Hill between 2005 and 2009, and has been
an invited lecturer and keynote speaker at all of the most influential international
conferences on visual journalism and design. He has taught in the U.S., Mexico,
El Salvador, Costa Rica, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Chile, Argentina, Spain,
Portugal, France, Switzerland, Ukraine, Singapore, and South Korea. He has also
been a consultant with many top news publications in those countries. Since 2006,
he has been a lecturer at the Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, the first public
university in Spain to offer online accredited degrees.
About the DVD
The video course in the DVD that accompanies The Functional Art expands on
the contents of this book. The course is similar to the materials I’ve used in the
past in my classes at UNC-Chapel Hill and at the University of Miami so, in case
you are an instructor, they may be a good starting point to develop your own
presentation slides. If you are a professional or a student, please be aware that
many of the examples showcased in the video course are different than the ones
included in the book.
The DVD is divided into three video lessons: First, there is an introduction to ba-
sic visualization concepts, followed by a discussion on the principles of graphic
design, and finally, a section on how to plan for infographics projects.
In the first video lesson, I delve into the ideas outlined in the first section of The
Functional Art. You will learn, for instance, why infographics should be “functional
as hammers, multilayered as onions, and beautiful as equations.” I also discuss
what strategies you can follow to choose the most appropriate graphic forms to
display your information.
In the second lesson, I explain the main principles of graphic design, such as unity,
variety, and hierarchy, and how to apply them to create better layouts. I also give
you some basic tips on how to better use type and color.
In the third lesson, I discuss an impressive visualization made by the British
newspaper The Guardian. I also explain how I developed the chart on the front
cover of The Functional Art. You will see how I use Microsoft Excel and Adobe
Illustrator, and why I call my approach “low-tech visualization.” This lesson is
not a tutorial on software tools, but it may give you a clue or two about how to
start a career in information graphics. If you work in this field already, this video
may reveal a few tricks that you can apply in your own projects.
Contents
Introduction xiv
part i foundations
1 Why Visualize: From Information to Wisdom 5
Rational Optimism 6
Low-Tech Visualization to the Rescue 8
Drowning in Data? Only If You Don’t Know How
to Swim 14
From Information to Wisdom 15
Making Reality Visible 17
Visualization as a Technology 19
2 Forms and Functions: Visualization as a Technology 25
An Information Graphic on Defense 26
What Shape Should My Data Have? 28
The Origins of “Form Follows Function” 32
More about Functions in Nature 33
Functions Constrain Forms 36
The Bubble Plague 39
More Flexible Than It Seems 43
3 The Beauty Paradox: Art and Communication 45
Building a Narrative Structure 46
An Unexpectedly Controversial Chart 47
The Visualization Wheel 50
Abstraction-Figuration 52
Functionality-Decoration 53
Density-Lightness 54
Multidimensionality-Unidimensionality 54
Originality-Familiarity 54
Novelty-Redundancy 57
Identifying your audience 59
Engineers vs. Designers: Edward Tufte and
Nigel Holmes 61
Minimalism and Efficiency 63
contents xi
Is All “Chartjunk” Junk? 64

Fun and Functionality 68
Otto Neurath and the Visual Education of the Masses 70
4 The Complexity Challenge:
Presentation and Exploration 73
It’s Not the Style, It’s the Content 74
Seek Depth 76
Graphics Don’t “Simplify” Information 78
Finding Balance: Density and Multidimensionality 80
Functionality and Abstraction 81
Fun-tionality 85
The “Boom” Effect 86
part II cognition
5 The Eye and the Visual Brain 97
The Unexplained Eye 98
Let There Be Light 99
Light and Photoreceptors 100
Foveal, Peripheral Vision, and Animated Infographics 102
The Lying Brain 105
The Efficient Brain 108
A New Diagram For Vision 110
6 Visualizing for the Mind 111
The Brain Loves a Difference 111
The Gestalt School of Thought and Pattern Recognition 114
Choosing Graphic Forms Based on How Vision Works 118
The Perceptual Tasks Scale as a Guide for Graphics 123
Other Preattentive Features: Seeing in Depth 128
7 Images in the Head 133
How to Open an Airplane Door 134
Recognizing by Remembering 136
The Comparing Brain 139
The Mental Imagery Debate 141
How Do We Really Know that a Face is a Face? 142
Applying Object Recognition to Information Graphics 144
Looking Ahead 146
xii the functional art
part iII practice

8 Creating Information Graphics 153
Brazilian Saints 154
The Changing Face of Brazil’s Population 160
Inequality and the Economy 167
A Word on Structure, Color, and Type 171
9 The Rise of Interactive Graphics 185
Early Lessons on Interaction Design 188
Visibility 189
Feedback 190
Constraints 192
Consistency 192
Structuring Interactive and Animated Infographics 195
Different Kinds of Interaction 200
Instruction 200
Conversation 200
Manipulation 203
Exploration 204
How to Plan For Interactive Infographics 204
part iv profiles
1 The Infographics Gentleman 212
John Grimwade (Condé Nast Traveler magazine)
2 Information Art 231
Juan Velasco and Fernando Baptista
(National Geographic magazine)
3 All the Infographics That Are Fit to Print 250
Steve Duenes and Xaquín G.V. (The New York Times)
4 Capital Infographics 264
Hannah Fairfield (The Washington Post)
5 Germanic Precision 279
Jan Schwochow (Golden Section Graphics)
contents xiii
6 Visualization in Academia 293

Geoff McGhee (Stanford University)
7 Quantitative Humanism 306
Hans Rosling (Gapminder Foundation)
8 Truth and Beauty Operator 314
Moritz Stefaner (http://moritz.stefaner.eu)
9 The Rising Stars 326
Gregor Aisch (driven-by-data.net) and
Jan Willem Tulp (TULP interactive)
10 Visualizing Literature 342
Stefanie Posavec (itsbeenreal.co.uk)
Bibliography 351
Index 354
Introduction
Infographics and
Visualization
The remarkable mechanisms by which the senses understand the environ-
ment are all but identical with the operations described by the psychology
of thinking.
—Rudolf Arnheim, from Visual Thinking
introduction: infographics and visualization xv
The partnership of presentation

and exploration
If you asked me to choose one mystery that has fascinated me through the years,
it would be our brain’s ability to create and understand visual representations
with different degrees of abstraction: graphics that encode data, concepts, con-
nections, and geographical locations. How is it possible that the brain, a wrinkled
chunk of meat and fat squeezed into a cavity too small for its size, can accomplish
such challenging tasks? This book is my personal attempt to answer that question.
The human brain has dozens of regions related to visual perception: densely inter-
connected groups of neurons devoted to the processing and filtering of informa-
tion that we collect through our eyes. Evolution designed us such that no other
activity demands more mental resources than visual perception and cognition.
This fact permeates everything we do, and impacts the way we express ourselves.
Go ahead and explain a difficult concept to a friend. In the moment she gets what
you mean, she will exclaim, with a sparkle of relief and happiness in her eyes:
“I see!”
Her expression makes complete sense, because deep inside our minds, to see and
to understand are intertwined processes. We understand because we see. This
causal relationship is also true the other way around. As I will explain later, we
see because we have previous understanding of certain things. Seeing precedes
understanding, and this understanding precedes a better, deeper seeing down
the road.
We are a visual species. We are also a symbolic species, if we follow Terrence W.
Deacon’s famous definition.1 Everything our senses gather is transformed, deep
inside our minds, into simple, manageable representations, or symbols. Some of
those symbols are verbal or textual, encoded with one of the thousands of lan-
guages and dialects humanity has devised. They can also be expressed through
what Harvard psychologist Steven Pinker called mentalese, the inner language
the mind uses to talk to itself.2
1 Terence W. Deacon, The Symbolic Species: The Co-Evolution of Language and the Brain (New York:
W.W. Norton & Company, 1998).
2 Steven Pinker, The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language (New York: Harper Collins
Publishers, Inc., 1994). Pinker builds on Noam Chomsky’s hypothesis of an innate universal grammar.
xvi the functional art
But not all symbols are verbal. The brain doesn’t just process information that
comes though the eyes. It also creates mental visual images that allow us
to reason and plan actions that facilitate survival. Imagine a bus. Picture it
in your head. Now, examine it: Is it yellow, or blue, or red? Does it have a license
plate? Is it a plate of the state you live in? That’s it. That’s a mental image. Under-
standing the mechanisms involved in these brain processes can help you become
a better communicator, visual or otherwise.
This is the first theme of the book you have in your hands.
The second theme is the common nature of infographics and information visu-
alization. Some professionals and academics have erected a sharp distinction
between the two disciplines. According to them, infographics present information
by means of statistical charts, maps, and diagrams, while information visualiza-
tion offers visual tools that an audience can use to explore and analyze data sets.
That is, where infographics tell stories designed by communicators, information
visualization helps readers discover stories by themselves.
In the following pages, I take an unorthodox approach. Infographics and visu-

alization exist on a continuum. Let me explain.
Imagine two straight, black parallel lines. On the top line, put the word “Info-
graphics” on the left tip and ‘”Visualization” on the right. On the line at the bot-
tom, write “presentation” on the left, and “exploration” on the right. All graphics
present data and allow a certain degree of exploration of those same data. Some
graphics are almost all presentation, so they allow just a limited amount of
exploration; hence we can say they are more infographics than visualization
(Figure 1), whereas others are mostly about letting readers play with what is
being shown (Figure 2), tilting more to the visualization side of our linear scale.
But every infographic and every visualization has a presentation and an explora-
tion component: they present, but they also facilitate the analysis of what they
show, to different degrees.
An excellent example: The beauty of Stefanie Posavec’s Literary Organism is based

on its organic appearance and careful selection of typefaces and colors, and also
introduction: infographics and visualization xvii
6%
4%
2%
0%
2007 2008 2009 2010
Figure 1 Unemployment rate in an imaginary country.
on the multiple readings you can extract from it. Each subdivision of this tree-
like graphic represents a deeper, more granular level of organization in the book:
chapters, paragraphs, sentences, and words. Colors correspond to the most com-
mon themes of the novel: travel, music, parties, sex, and so on.
After spending some time fathoming it, patterns emerge and convey a different
message to each viewer. While the uninitiated in Kerouac’s oeuvre will identify
a big picture of the main topics the book discusses, the specialist or literary critic
will be able to use this work of art as a tool to test hypotheses and intuitions. Is
sex a prevalent theme in On the Road, for instance? What about the chapters that
combine paragraphs about sex with paragraphs about work and survival?
A chart of mine in Figure 3 also illustrates the complementarity between present-

ing and exploring. Each point of the color line represents a year between 1981
and 2010 in the history of Brazil. The position of a point on the horizontal axis
is equivalent to the Gross Domestic Product, measured in billions of dollars. The
position on the vertical axis is equivalent to the inequality level measured with
the GINI index, developed by the UN. The farther to the right a point is, the big-
ger the GDP (adjusted for inflation and for purchase power parity); the higher
the point is on the vertical scale, the higher the inequality in that particular year.
In other words, the graphic represents the covariation of economic development
and social justice. The headline summarizes its central message: When the GDP
xviii the functional art
Figure 2 Stefanie Posavec Literary Organism: a Visualization of Part I of “On the Road,” by Jack
Kerouac (www.itsbeenreal.co.uk). Reproduced with permission.
introduction: infographics and visualization xix
When the Brazilian Economy Improves, Inequality Doesn’t Drop

The graphic below shows the correlation between Brazilian GDP (horizontal axis) and inequality (vertical axis)
between 1981 and 2010. The position of the points, each representing a year, depends on how high GDP and
inequality were. You can notice, for instance, that the economy grew between 1986 and 1989 because the
line tends to move to the right, but inequality also grew, as the point representing 1989 is much higher than
the ones before. You can also see that, during Lula da Silva’s government, the economy expanded almost as much
as during the terms of the other presidents who preceded him combined.
GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT, BILLIONS OF DOLLARS

500 750 1,000 1,250 1,500 1,750 2,000 2,225
64 64
1989 Each color on the line The 1980s are known as the “Lost Decade” in
represents a presidency Brazil for a reason: the GDP was stagnant and
inequality reached its highest point in 1989,
SARNEY
under José Sarney’s presidency. It was a time
62 62
of hyperinflation that affected mostly the
poorest, who didn’t have access to investments
and bank accounts. Fernando Collor’s and
1988
Itamar Franco’s presidencies registered
1990 modest GDP improvements, but inequality
60 ITAMAR varied widely: sometimes it dropped and the
60
1993 next year, for no apparent reason, it increased
1997 again. Only during Fernando Henrique
1985 1987 1994 1998 Cardoso’s (FHC) and Lula da Silva’s
1991 1995 1996 2001 FHC
governments does the curve tend to stabilize:
1983 the economy starts growing at a steady pace
1999 2000
1982 1984 COLLOR 2002 and inequality decreases with no interruption.
58 1986
58
2003
FIGUEIREDO 1992 2004

1981
2005
56 2006 56
LULA
GINI INEQUALITY INDEX 2007
The higher the value, the higher the inequality
2008
54 2010 54
2009
53 53
500 750 1,000 1,250 1,500 1,750 2,000 2,225
Sources: World Bank, IMF, IBGE Graphic by Alberto Cairo
Figure 3 Época magazine. The co-variation of inequality and economic growth (Translated from Portuguese.)
Reproduced with permission.
grows, inequality does not necessarily drop. It’s one of the disgraces of recent
Brazilian history that improvements in the economy don’t always lead to a better
living standard for everybody. In some years, particularly on the first half of the
line, the opposite is true.
When I finished designing this project, I showed it to some middle-aged colleagues
at Época, a weekly news magazine I worked for between 2010 and 2011. Their
response was unanimous and encouraging. Although they were writers rather
than designers or artists, all of them understood the graphic with a minimum of
xx the functional art
effort. It confirmed for them facts that every Brazilian older than 40 remembers:
the constant and stable economic growth the country went through during Lula’s
administration (2003–2011), when the government promoted several income dis-
tribution programs; the instability of José Sarney’s and Fernando Collor’s years,
when the GDP barely improved but inequality varied erratically; the stabilization
forced by Fernando Henrique Cardoso (FHC), who took Brazil out of the black
hole of inflation; and so on.
Some of them even told me that the multicolored line was history-making, be-
cause it revealed the correlation between the two variables, which had never
been shown before. The line looks wildly erratic between 1981 and 1992 (the chaos
years); it smooths between 1993 and 2002 (the stabilization period); and it becomes
perfectly straight after 2003, revealing an almost perfect relationship between
better economic output and more equality in Brazil. To see self-proclaimed non-
visual people in the process of unraveling such an uncommon graphic form, and
getting satisfactory messages from it, was eye-opening for me.
The surprise reaction of my “text” colleagues as they read the graphic, rather than
merely looked at it, has deep roots. This is the third theme of The Functional Art:
Graphics, charts, and maps aren’t just tools to be seen, but to be read and
scrutinized. The first goal of an infographic is not to be beautiful just for the
sake of eye appeal, but, above all, to be understandable first, and beautiful after
that; or to be beautiful thanks to its exquisite functionality.
If you are among those journalists, designers, and artists who think that info-
graphics and visualization consist of a bunch of data shaped into a spectacular
and innovative form, keep reading. I hope I will be able to make you forget that
simplistic idea. As Ben Shneiderman wrote once, “The purpose of visualization is
insight, not pictures.”3 Images are the vocabulary of a language. They are means,
not ends. You will never hear a writing journalist say that her goal is to strive
for a good literary style by using elegant sentences and sophisticated structures.
Her style is just a tool to facilitate comprehension and to wake up emotions in
readers’ minds so they’ll absorb difficult ideas with ease. Aesthetics do matter,
but aesthetics without a solid backbone made of good content is just artifice.
3 Stuart Card, Jock Mackinlay and Ben Shneiderman, Readings in Information Visualization: Using
Vision to Think (London: Academic Press, 1999).
introduction: infographics and visualization xxi
In this book, you will see that I write quite a bit about visual journalism. That’s
because I am a journalist, and I am convinced that many of the challenges news
media face in using graphics are common to other professions that also use them
on a regular basis, such as marketing, advertising, business intelligence, data
analysis, and so on.
In newspapers and magazines, infographics have traditionally been created
within art departments. In all of those I’m familiar with, the infographics direc-
tor is subordinate to the art director, who is usually a graphic designer. This is
not a mistake per se, but it can lead to damaging misunderstandings. In Brazil,
the country where I lived while writing part of this book, journalists and design-
ers call graphics “art.” They would say, with that charming musicality of South
American Portuguese, “Vamos fazer uma arte!” (“Let’s make a piece of art!”)
Thinking of graphics as art leads many to put bells and whistles over substance
and to confound infographics with mere illustrations.
This error is at least in part the result of a centuries-long tradition in which visual
communication has not been as intellectually elevated as writing. For too many
traditional journalists, infographics are mere ornaments to make the page look
lighter and more attractive for audiences who grow more impatient with long-form
stories every day. Infographics are treated not as devices that expand the scope of
our perception and cognition, but as decoration. As Rudolf Arnheim wrote, this
tradition goes back to ancient Western philosophy, whose Greek thinkers such
as Parmenides and Plato mistrusted the senses deeply.4 Unfortunately today, 40
years after Arnheim’s masterful Visual Thinking was published, the philosophy
is still in very good health.
The fourth theme of the book, therefore, is the relationship between visualiza-
tion and art, which is similar to the linkage of journalism and literature.
A journalist can borrow tools and techniques from literature, and be inspired
by great fiction writing, but she will never allow her stories to become literature.
That notion applies to visualization, which is, above all, a functional art.
Let’s get started.
Miami, Florida. June 2012
4 Rudolf Arnheim, Visual Thinking (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969).

1
Why Visualize: From
Information to Wisdom
My expertise has always been my ignorance, my admission and acceptance
of not knowing…. When you can admit that you don’t know, you are more
likely to ask the questions that will enable you to learn.
—Richard Saul Wurman, from Information Anxiety 2
Recently someone asked me what personality trait best characterizes those in-
terested in a career in visualization and infographics. My answer: “An insatiable,
childish curiosity.”
Curiosity, combined with a tendency to try to explain everything using reason,
led me to a career in journalism and, later, to specialize in information graphics.
It is not possible to be a good communicator if you have not developed a keen
interest in almost everything as well as an urge to learn as much as you can about
the strangest, most varied, unrelated topics. The life of a visual communicator
should be one of systematic and exciting intellectual chaos. In my case, it
consists of regular shifts between journalism, cognitive psychology, international
6 the functional art
politics, and history. In your case, it might be sports, music, architecture, or just
about anything else.
Let me give you an example of how far healthy curiosity can take you.
Rational Optimism
My original plan for this chapter was to open it with a few formal definitions for
information visualization, information design, and infographics. But something
changed my mind. While randomly navigating The New York Times website, I
stumbled on a review of a book called The Rational Optimist: How Prosperity Evolves,
by British science essayist Matt Ridley (2010).
The review1 was mostly critical, but the hypotheses Ridley proposed sounded in-
triguing. The book honored its title, making a case for optimism about our future
as a species. I had read other Ridley books in the past and had loved his Genome:
The Autobiography of a Species in 23 Chapters (2006), so I was positively biased.
My curiosity ignited, I grabbed my Kindle and purchased the book. One minute
later, it had finished downloading. For the rest of the day, I traded book writing
for reading. (Note to my editor: I did it to make this chapter better, I promise!)
The book is so well written that it was difficult to put down before the end.
One chapter about the fertility rate, or the average number of children born to
women in each country, caught my eye. You may have heard or read the stories
of Malthusian doomsayers who claim that rising fertility in poor regions is the
reason the Earth has to support 7 billion people, with a forecast of 9 billion two
decades from now, and even more in the far future.
Other doomsayers focus on the aging populations of developed countries where
fertility rates are below 2.1 children per woman, a number that is known as the
“replacement rate.” If the replacement rate in a country is significantly below 2.1,
the population will shrink over time. If it’s much higher than 2.1, you’ll have a
much younger population down the road, which can cause problems. Younger
populations, for example, show greater rates of violence and crime.
Ridley contradicts both kinds of apocalyptic thinking by discussing two interest-
ing trends. On average, fertility in rich countries is very low, but in the past few
years it has trended slightly upward. On the other hand, poor countries show a
decrease in average fertility. Contrary to conventional wisdom, in many countries
1 William Easterly, “A High-Five for the Invisible Hand,” The New York Times, June 11, 2010.
1 · why visualize: from information to wisdom 7
that verge on becoming first-world economies, such as Brazil, the drop is dra-
matic: the fertility rate has trended from more than six children per woman in
1950 to less than two in 2010.
Ridley suggests that, due to these two complementary trends, fertility rates ev-
erywhere will converge around 2.1 in a few decades, and the world population
will stabilize at 9 billion people. It’s counterintuitive, isn’t it?
Ridley’s case is compelling and supported by prospective data from reliable
sources, such as the United Nations (UN) and The World Bank.2 But something
made me uncomfortable as I read his arguments. It took me a while to figure out
what it was. Ridley writes about curves and lines and trends, but the chapter on
fertility and population includes just one graphic, similar to the one in Figure 1.1.
Percentage increase in world population

2.5%
2.0%
1.5%
1.0%
0.5%
0.0%
5
5
95
96
96
97
97
98
98
99
99
00
00
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-2
-2
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
00
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
Figure 1.1 How much world population increases compared with the previous year.
The graphic is simple and clear, but also insufficient to support the claims Ridley
makes. All it shows is that when you plot population change as a time-series chart,
the trend is negative. The closer we get to the present, the lower the worldwide
population growth. The fact that the graphic is an aggregate of the data of
all countries in the world impedes our ability to see the multiple patterns
2 Matt Ridley, The Rational Optimist: How Prosperity Evolves (New York: Harper Collins).
Ridley discusses. Where are those rich countries whose fertility rate is slowly
recovering? Where is the evidence for the assertion that developing countries
such as Brazil, China, and India are stabilizing their populations?
I told you before that I am curious. I didn’t just take a day off to read The Rational
Optimist. I also looked for the data Ridley used for the chapter on population. With
that data, would I be able to prove his hypotheses?
Low-Tech Visualization to the Rescue

The first thing I did was go to the United Nations website. If you search for “UN
data,” you will quickly find http://data.un.org/, which is a kind of paradise if you
like to dig into huge databases on population, education, economics, and social
development. Within the UN site, I searched for the fertility rate data. The UN’s
figures begin in 1950; the projections extend as far as 2100.
I decided to exclude the years after 2010, playing with actual data (at that time)
rather than forecasts. Using the filters the site offers, I asked for a table that
included the more than 150 countries on which the UN has complete research.
Figure 1.2 shows a screenshot of what I obtained.
Figure 1.2 UN data table.
I downloaded the table and decided to try a low-tech visualization exercise to

show my students—mostly journalists with no technology background—that
learning to create information graphics is not all that difficult.
Using OpenOffice (an open source software suite that includes a spreadsheet
program), I reorganized the data and cleaned up the table a little. Some cells were
missing, so the process involved a bit of manual tweaking—no big deal. Figure 1.3
shows an excerpt of the result.
Figure 1.3 My UN data table after tweaking.
Still with me? Now the fun begins. We have the table in the computer. Is it possible
to make sense of it? Hardly. Extracting meaning from a table is tough. Can you
see any interesting trends just by reading the figures? If you can, congratulations.
You have an extraordinary memory. Most of us mortals have brains that didn’t
evolve to deal with large amounts of data. Let me prove it to you: Look at Figure
1.3 again and tell me in what years between 1950 and 1975 did the difference be-
tween the fertility rates of Spain and Sweden grow, and in what years did it drop?
This apparently simple task forces you to do something extremely difficult: look
up a number, memorize it, read another one, memorize it and compare it with the
previous one, and so forth until you get to the end of the series. I wouldn’t bother.
But what if I designed a simple chart with the data in the spreadsheet? The re-
sult (Figure 1.4) is a visual tool that helps answer my question. The message in
that graphic is clear: Spain started 1950 with an average number of children per
woman higher than Sweden’s. But then fertility in Spain fell drastically after 1970
and only recovered partially in the last five years of the series. On the other hand,
Sweden’s fertility rate has remained pretty stable over the last 60 years, although
it is well below the replacement level of 2.1 children per woman.
By giving numbers a proper shape, by visually encoding them, the graphic has
saved you time and energy that you would otherwise waste if you had to use a
table that was not designed to aid your mind. The first and main goal of any
A Comparison of Spain’s and Sweden’s Fertility Rates

Average number of children per woman over her lifetime Source: UN
3
2.57 SPAIN
2.21
2
1.87
SWEDEN 1.43
Replacement
level: average of
1
2.1 children per woman
1950-55 1960-65 1970-75 1980-85 1990-95 2005-2010
Figure 1.4 So much for Spanish pride.
graphic and visualization is to be a tool for your eyes and brain to perceive
what lies beyond their natural reach.3
However, presenting data for two countries is far simpler than presenting data
for one hundred of them, which is what we may need to do in order to put some
of Matt Ridley’s ideas to the test. Once we represent the lines for all countries in
our data set, we get something similar to Figure 1.5. This colorful spaghetti dish
may look interesting, but it’s totally useless for our purposes. This is what you
get when you let a software program do the hard work for you.
Remember, what we want to reveal is the projected confluence of the lines of
rich countries (trending slightly up in recent years) and those of poor countries
(trending down) around the 2.1 children per woman line. If you look at Figure 1.5
long enough, you may be able to tell the lines apart, but it’s more likely you will
just give up.
The way to solve this problem is to add some visual hierarchy to the mix. Obviously
it makes no sense for all lines to be equally visible. In information graphics,
what you show can be as important as what you hide. I put the chart gener-
ated in OpenOffice into Adobe Illustrator, where I highlighted a few rich countries
and a few developing and poor countries.
I made other countries’ lines light gray, so they remain on the scene but don’t
obscure the message. Why not get rid of them? Because they provide context to
3 This idea has inspired some of the best books out there, including those of Edward Tufte, William
Cleveland, Stephen Few, and Stephen Kosslyn, among others. See the Bibliography for references.
Fertility Rate
Average number of children per woman over her lifetime
Showing all countries for which complete data is available
8
1950-1955 1960-1965 1970-1975 1980-1985 1990-1995 2005-2010
Figure 1.5 Too many lines obscure the message.
the cases that I highlight. While changing all the background lines to one color
makes it impossible to see them as independent entities, collectively they show an
overall downward trend in the data—you can see that many lines begin between
the 6.0 and 8.0 children per woman point in 1950, but just a handful of them re-
main at that height in the vertical axis when they reach 2010. The final sketch in
Figure 1.6 looks much more user-friendly than the previous one.
Excited by what I was revealing, I explored other assertions made in The Rational
Optimist. Ridley argues that a sudden drop in a country’s fertility rate is usually
precipitated by several factors: an increase in average per capita income, women
getting better access to education, and the shrinking of infant mortality figures.
The facts that more children survive their first years of life and that women are
spending more time in school are positively correlated to better family planning.
On the economic side, Ridley explains that in rich countries, leisure options are
everywhere, and they are cheap and accessible; the distractions of the modern
world free us, albeit partially, of our primary impulse to reproduce with no control.
We can explain this phenomenon in bogus academic jargon: the average number
1950-1955 1955-1960 1960-1965 1965-1970 1970-1975 1975-1980 1980-1985 1985-1990 1990-1995 1995-2000 2000-2005 2005-2010
Each line represents
8.5
the evolution of the
average number of children
per woman in a country
8.0
Fertility
rate (children
per woman)
Niger
7.0
6.0
Yemen
5.0
4.3
4.0
World
average
3.0
India
2.6
Brazil
Norway
2.0 France
Sweden
United
Kingdom
Spain
Replacement Italy
level: average of Germany
2.1 children per woman Japan
1.0 China
Figure 1.6 Highlighting the relevant, keeping the secondary in the background.
of children per couple is inversely proportional to the average amount of hours

each member of that couple spends in front of any kind of screen. No kidding.
To prove the correlation between fertility, income, and women’s schooling, I
designed two small scatter-plots in the same spreadsheet software I used before.
In Figure 1.7, each little circle represents a country. The position of each country
on the horizontal axis is proportional to its fertility rate. The position on the
vertical axis equals average income per person (first chart) and the percentage
of students in middle school who are female (second chart).
Per capita income Percentage of middle school students

and fertility rate who are women and fertility rate
Vertical axis: Vertical axis:
120 Income per capita Each dot % of women among Each dot
Luxembourg
(thousands represents 80% middle school students represents
of dollars a year, a country (2004-2009) a country
Norway 2008) US
Horizontal axis: Horizontal axis:

Fertility rate 60% Fertility rate
80
(2010) (2010)
40%
US Niger
40
20%
Afghanistan
Niger
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Figure 1.7 The more educated and rich you are, the fewer children you’ll have.
The black line running between the dots is called a trend line or regression line:
the closer the dots are to this line, the stronger the correlation between the two
variables represented. You can see that the dots are pretty close to the line, so the
variables are related. On average, the richer people are, the fewer children they
tend to have; and the fewer girls who attend middle school, the more children
on average they have in that particular country.
Here’s the lesson I learned from this exercise: In just three or four hours of work,
I completed a personal project that allowed me to see the evidence supporting
Matt Ridley’s discussion on the evolution of fertility. His hypotheses seem to have
some basis after all. But if you don’t present your data to readers so they can
see it, read it, explore it, and analyze it, why would they trust you? This is a
question many journalists, particularly those who write opinion columns, should
ask themselves more often.
Drowning in Data? Only If You Don’t Know How to Swim

The example I just gave you was not chosen randomly. It helps us delve into top-
ics that are essential to understanding the present state of graphics as a form of
communication. Isn’t it amazing that we can read graphics at all, and use them
to discover realities otherwise invisible to the bare eye? In the past two or three
decades, psychology has unveiled many of the brain mechanisms involved in this
kind of understanding. Another thought: Did you notice that the data I manipu-
lated is available on the Internet for free? And isn’t it wonderful that the tools I
used to prove Matt Ridley’s assertions are also broadly available to anyone and
can be learned in a matter of hours?
Those three trends have converged to put visualization in the mainstream. The
design of graphics is not just more democratic than it was a decade ago, when
data was sparse and software expensive and difficult to use. We also have the
potential to use graphics more intelligently because the principles informing
their design have never been clearer.
Embracing graphics and visualization is no trivial endeavor. Citing research by
International Data Corp (IDC), The Economist reported that the information gener-
ated in 2010 alone reached 1,200 exabytes,4 an amount equivalent to thousands of
billions of issues of the venerable British magazine. The story added that the total
amount of extant digital information totals several zettabytes. Here’s a simple
explanation to help you grasp the challenge we’re dealing with:
1 bit, or binary digit, is the basic unit of information in computing. It rep-
resents either 0 or 1.
1 byte (the amount of information necessary to encode a letter or a number)
= 8 bits
1 kilobyte = 1,000 bytes
1 megabyte = 1,000 kilobytes or 1,000,000 bytes (106)
1 gigabyte = 1,000 megabytes or 1,000,000,000 bytes (109)
1 terabyte = 1,000 gigabytes or 1,000,000,000,000 bytes (1012)
1 petabyte = 1,000 terabytes or 1,000,000,000,000,000 bytes (1015)
1 exabyte = 1,000 petabytes or 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes (1018)
1 zettabyte = 1,000 exabytes or 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes (1021)
1 yottabyte = 1,000 zettabytes or 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes
(1024)
4 “All too much: monstrous amounts of data.” The Economist, Feb. 25, 2010.
Confused? Don’t worry. You’re not alone. A yottabyte of information is such a huge
number that it is impossible to imagine. In August 2010, Erich Schmidt, former
CEO of Google, announced in a conference that between the beginning of time
and 2003, humanity generated roughly five exabytes of data, whereas we now
produce the same volume of bits every two days.
“The information explosion is so profoundly larger than anyone ever thought,”
said Schmidt. Five exabytes is more than 200,000 years of DVD-quality video.5
To be fair, not all that “information” is what you would call information in a col-
loquial conversation. Most of it is the product of automated processes and com-
munications between computers, mobile phones, and other devices—nothing
that a human brain can understand. But still.
Let’s catch our breath here and move on.
From Information to Wisdom

In the 1970s, years before access to the Internet was universal, Richard Saul
Wurman, then a professor of architecture in North Carolina, predicted that the
oncoming information explosion would require the intervention of a new breed
of professionals trained in organizing data and making sense of it. According to
Wurman, the biggest challenge our species was about to face was to learn how to
navigate the upcoming tsunami of bits that was cresting the horizon.
Wurman called these people information architects. Their discipline, information
architecture, has been defined by others as:
• The structural design of shared information environments;
• The combination of organization, labeling, search, and navigation systems
within websites and intranets;
• The art and science of shaping information products and experiences to
support usability and findability;
• An emerging discipline and community of practice focused on bringing
principles of design and architecture to the digital landscape.
Wurman suggests that one of the main goals of information architecture is to help
users avoid information anxiety, the “black hole between data and knowledge.”
People still have anxiety about how to assimilate a body of knowledge that
is expanding by the nanosecond…. Information anxiety is produced by the
5 Google Atmosphere 2010 conference.

ever-widening gap between what we understand and what we think we

should understand.6
The gap is better represented through the diagram in Figure 1.8, which shows
the steps separating the two extremes of Wurman’s maxim. It is based on several
models known as DIKW Hierarchies (Data, Information, Knowledge, Wisdom).
Although the models have been criticized as simplistic and vague,7 they are useful
for explaining what visualizations and graphics are about.
Communicators
Outer world Audience
Second level In-depth understanding

of encoding and memorization
Unstructured Data Structured Knowledge Wisdom

information information
Gathering and filtering Audiences decode
First level of encoding what is presented using
memories and experiences
Figure 1.8 From reality to people’s brains.
In the diagram, unstructured information means reality, the world out there
in all its glorious complexity. Every phenomenon that can be perceived or mea-
sured can be described as information.
Data are records of observations. Data can be encoded as symbols (numbers and
words) that describe and represent reality. In between unstructured information
and data, you can see a first level of encoding. Imagine a researcher studying the
fertility rate. The data would be the records the researcher makes in a spreadsheet,
for instance: 2, 5, 6, 2, 2, 2, 1, 1, 4, 3, 3 (and so on) children per woman.
The second level of encoding takes us from data to structured information.
This happens when a communicator (a researcher, a journalist, or whomever)
represents data in a meaningful way, using text, visuals, or other means. We
can also say that this communicator has given shape to data, so that relevant
patterns become visible.
6 Wurman, p. 14.
7 David Weinberg, “The Problem with the Data-Information-Knowledge-Wisdom Hierarchy,” Harvard
Business Review, February 2010.
Information consumption can lead to higher knowledge on the part of the audi-
ence, if its members are able to perceive the patterns or meaning of data. It is
not a passive process; our brains are not hard drives that store stuff uncritically.
When people see, read, or listen, they assimilate content by relating it to their
memories and experiences.
We reach wisdom when we achieve a deep understanding of acquired knowl-
edge, when we not only “get it,” but when new information blends with prior
experience so completely that it makes us better at knowing what to do in other
situations, even if they are only loosely related to the information from which
our original knowledge came. Just as not all the information we absorb leads to
knowledge, not all of the knowledge we acquire leads to wisdom.
Every step in our diagram implies higher order. When we see the world, we
unconsciously impose organization on the unstructured information that our
eyes gather and transmit to the brain. We create hierarchies. We don’t perceive
everything in front of us at once, as we’ll see later in this book. A moving entity,
for instance, attracts our attention more than a static one, because movement may
suggest an approaching threat. We therefore process the position and identity
of the moving object before paying attention to anything else. Our brain gives
meaning to the object, even if we are not aware of the reason why.
In the words of Kevin Kelly, a famous philosopher of technology, in his book What
Technology Wants (2010):
Minds are highly evolved ways of structuring the bits of information that
form reality. That is what we mean when we say a mind understands; it
generates order.
So, without conscious effort, the brain always tries to close the distance between
observed phenomena and knowledge or wisdom that can help us survive. This is
what cognition means. The role of an information architect is to anticipate this
process and generate order before people’s brains try to do it on their own.
Making Reality Visible

Today, information architect refers broadly to professions with very different sets
of tools and theoretical traditions. Outside academic circles, an information ar-
chitect can be someone who writes technical handbooks, a software engineer, a
web developer, a wayfinding designer (yes, that’s a profession; who do you think
creates public spaces that can be navigated with ease?), and that nerdy guy who
makes charts on fertility just for the fun of it.
All of those professions share the goal of making the world easier for audiences
and users, but that’s too broad a goal to put them all in the same bag. For my pur-
poses in this book, information graphics and visualization is a form of informa-
tion architecture. But how can we be more precise in describing the relationship
between the branch and the trunk?
Look at Figure 1.9 and imagine information architecture as a big circle. Inside
is the set of disciplines devoted to dealing with information. Among the most
relevant disciplines is information design, defined by Stanford University’s Robert
E. Horn as “the art and science of preparing information so that it can be used
by human beings with efficiency and effectiveness.”8 The goal of the information
designer is to prepare documents (both analog and digital) and spaces so they
can be navigated effortlessly.
Information
Architecture
Information
Design
Visualization
Information Graphics Figure 1.9 Information
graphics is a form of infor-
mation design. Information
design branches from infor-
mation architecture.
A significant part of information design is information graphics and visualization.

Academic literature sometimes separates infographics from visualization and
defines the latter as “the use of computer-supported, interactive, visual repre-
sentations of data to amplify cognition,”9 but I prefer the more straightforward
take of Joan Costa, a famous Spanish professor of design: To visualize is “to make
certain phenomena and portions of reality visible and understandable; many of
these phenomena are not naturally accessible to the bare eye, and many of them
are not even of visual nature.”10
8 Robert Jacobson, ed. Information Design, (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2000).

9 Card, Stuart, Jock, Mackinlay, and Ben Shneiderman. 1999. Readings Information Visualization: Using
Vision to Think. San Francisco: Morgan Kauffmann.
10 Joan Costa, La esquemática: visualizar la información (Barcelona: Editorial Paidós, Colección Paidós
Estética 26, 1998). One of the best books I’ve read on the visual representation of information. No
English version available, unfortunately.
Why does Costa add that second part about not being necessarily of visual na-
ture? Because graphical displays can be either figurative or non-figurative. To
understand figurative displays, think of a map as a scaled portrait of a geographi-
cal area, or a manual that explains through illustrations how to use your new
washing machine, or a news infographic on a catastrophic plane crash, like the
one in Figure 1.10 (pages 20 and 21), a superb project by Público, a medium-sized
Spanish newspaper with a small but extremely talented graphics desk.
Other graphics that display abstract phenomena are non-figurative. In these,
there is no mimetic correspondence between what is being represented and its
representation. The relationship between those two entities is conventional, not
natural (see Figure 1.11). The unemployment rate doesn’t really resemble a grid
of multicolored rectangles, does it?
Figure 1.11 The Wall Street Journal. Web chart U.S. Unemployment: A Historical View.
(Reprinted with permission of The Wall Street Journal, Copyright © 2010 Dow Jones &
Company, Inc. All Rights Reserved Worldwide.)
Visualization as a Technology
Let me introduce an idea crucial to the premise of this book: Visualization should
be seen as a technology. That may sound odd. When someone mentions technol-
ogy in a routine conversation, we usually think of machines: MP3 players, cars,
refrigerators, electric toothbrushes, lawn mowers, computers. But what do all
those devices have in common? I don’t mean physically, but in their very essence:
Figure 1.10 Público (Spain). Plane crash in Barajas airport, Madrid, August 21, 2008.
Infographic by Chiqui Esteban, Mónica Serrano, Álvaro Valiño.
1. They are extensions of ourselves. Canadian media thinker Marshall

McLuhan was the first to advance this notion half a century ago. A lawn
mower helps us keep our garden neat without having to use our bare hands.
An electric toothbrush reaches small spaces in between our teeth that would
be impossible to reach with a toothpick—which is also a technology, by
the way. An MP3 player is not just a player, but also a device that helps us
remember the songs that define the best and worst moments of our lives.
2. They are means to reach goals. Sometimes it’s just one goal—a freezer
keeps food fresh—but it can be several. Think of a computer, whose func-
tionality depends on other technologies such as software that we install.
Technologies can harbor other technologies.
Visualization as technology has these same traits. Also, the word technology has
various meanings and is potentially open to interpretation. I use it here with
the sense given by W. Brian Arthur in his foundational The Nature of Technology
(2009). According to Arthur, we can use the word technology in three different
senses, illustrated in Figure 1.12: Technologies-singular, technologies-plural,
and technology-general.
Technology-general Technologies-plural Technologies-singular
Figure 1.12 The three kinds of technology: general, plural, and singular.
What Arthur means is that technology can be, first, any object, process, or method
devised to aid in a task, “a means to fulfill a human purpose.” This can be called
technology-singular. The refrigerator and other devices described above are examples.
The algorithms that run a software program as well as the letters, sentences, and
paragraphs that help me communicate with you are also technologies-singular.

Even a humble nail is a technology.
Technologies-plural describe “assemblages of practices and components.” In other
words, they are groups of technology-singular items that, when put together,
make something new emerge. Electronics, biochemistry, and the varieties of
engineering are all technologies-plural. Arthur also refers to technology-plural
groups as “bodies of technology.”
The third meaning of technology is “the entire collection of devices and engineer-
ing practices available to a culture,” or technology-general.
How is this relevant for information graphics and visualization? First, as emerg-
ing disciplines, they are still a formative hodge-podges of concepts, methods,
and procedures borrowed from many areas: the principles of map design (from
cartography); guidelines on how to better display data on a chart (from statistics);
rules on best practices for the use of type, layout, and color palettes (from graphic
design); principles of writing style (from journalism); and more, including a wide
array of software tools.
Second, and more important, individual information graphics are also tech-
nologies, means to fulfill purposes, devices whose aim is to help an audience
complete certain tasks. This apparent no-brainer will have consequences later on.
If you accept that a visualization is, above all, a tool, you are implicitly accepting
that the discipline it belongs to is not just art, but functional art, something that
achieves beauty not through the subjective, freely wandering self-expression
of the painter or sculptor, but through the careful and restrained tinkering of
the engineer.
Profile 1
John Grimwade
(Condé Nast Traveler magazine)
The Infographics Gentleman

John Grimwade is graphics director of Condé Nast Traveler magazine
(based in New York) and has his own information graphics business (www.
johngrimwade.com). He has produced infographics for more than 30 ma-
jor magazines and several books. Before moving to the United States, he
worked for 14 years in newspapers in London (including six years as head
of graphics at The Times). He co-hosts the annual Malofiej “Show Don’t Tell”
infographics workshop in Pamplona, Spain, and teaches information graphics
at the School of Visual Arts in Manhattan.
The first time I crossed paths with John Grimwade’s work was when I was about
to finish my B.A. in Journalism, in the summer of 1997. I had been offered an in-
ternship in the information graphics desk of La Voz de Galicia, the biggest regional
newspaper in northwestern Spain. As my knowledge of the discipline was minimal,
Manuela Mariño and Xoan González (father of Xaquín G.V. [González Veira], who
you will meet in Profile 3), who led the department at the time, recommended
that I take a look at some Malofiej publications. Malofiej1 is the International
1 Visit http://www.malofiej20.com.
Profile 1 · the infographics gentleman 213
Infographics Summit, organized every year by the Spanish chapter of the Society
for News Design. The event includes the most important competition in this field,
which receives submissions from newspapers and magazines from all over the
world. The winners are showcased in a series of large-format books.
While browsing several of these books, one graphic caught my eye. It was titled
“The Transatlantic Superhighway,” and it explained the busy flow of flights over
the Northern Atlantic (Figure 10.1). I was enthralled by its elegance and decep-
tive simplicity. My colleagues told me that the piece—which had won a Silver
Medal at Malofiej—had been designed by a certain British maestro named John
Grimwade. “Along with Nigel Holmes, Grimwade is the best in this business,”
they added with a tone of reverence.
Years later, John and I became friends. He is a true gentleman, one of those pro-
fessionals who are always willing to help rookies (as I was when I met him) with
inexhaustible patience. He has also been a constant source of inspiration for me
and for many others in this industry. In the current era of big data, complex pro-
gramming, and information overload, his visual style—stripped down, precise, and
graceful—is a reminder that good design is not about mastering technology, but
about facilitating clear communication and the understanding of relevant issues.
QQ Is it true that the way you produce graphics has not changed much in
the 40 years that you have worked as an information graphics designer?
John Grimwade It is. I started doing information graphics many years before
computers entered newsrooms. When they did, many colleagues said it was a
huge change, but not for me. Maybe our methods of work have shifted a bit but
the core principles are exactly the same.
QQ What are those core principles?

JG Our main goal should be to tell a story clearly by achieving order and having
some sort of narrative through each graphic. Any project should start by analyz-
ing what your story is about and then finding the best way to tell it by splitting
it up into easily digestible chunks, without losing depth.
When I design a graphic, I try to establish a hierarchy, too. In the planning
stage, one of the first things I do is to identify the main components of the story
and define how they are going to be sequenced on the page or on screen.
The Transatlantic Superhighway

EVERY DAY, ABOUT 900 AIRCRAFT FLY
INSIDE THE NORTH ATLANTIC
ORGANIZED TRACK SYSTEM
s
mile
60 m 80
iles
60 m
iles
min.)
( 10
2,0 miles
00 80
feet
2,0
00
feet
FL
I
LE GHT ORGANIZED TRACK SYSTEM
VE
(FE LS
Figure 10.1 “The Trans 39 ET)
,00
37 0
atlantic Superhighway.” Condé ,00
35 0
Nast Traveler, 1996, by John ,0
33 00
Grimwade, who explains 31
,00
0
T
,0
the graphics: “This is an 29 00 U
,00
0 2 SAFETY ENVELOPE
explanation of the system
V Aircraft must keep minimum
that controls flights over distances from one another
the Northern Atlantic. A W in the track system, while
maintaining constant altitude
reporter had a map of air- X and speed.
traffic control [see Figure
10.2], but it was difficult to
read. I wanted to understand
the system more thoroughly,
so I made contact with the 1 GETTING IN LINE
head of Oceanic Control Taking into account airlines’
preferred routes, oceanic
in Gander, Newfoundland. controllers at Gander,
Newfoundland, organize aircraft
Amazingly, there were no approaching from different
visualizations available of the directions into position for the
Atlantic crossing. This flight is
system as a dimensional dia entering the system on track V
gram. So I thought, why not at 35,000 feet.
make one? Rough versions
Graphics by
went back and forth until we John Grimwade
232 GRAPHICS by JOHN GRIMWADE
were both happy with the
graphic.”
The Concorde flies between 50,000 and 60,000 feet, 4 HALFWAY POINT
far above the main traffic flow. At 30°W, responsibility for the
flight is transferred from
Gander to Prestwick Oceanic
Air Traffic Control in Scotland.
Some flight levels are

reserved for aircraft flying
360 M in the direction opposite
ILES the peak flow.
3 POSITION CHECK Aircraft crossing the main

Aircraft in oceanic airspace are out of traffic flow (for example,
radar contact for about four hours. Madrid to Los Angeles) are
Position reports are made by radio at routed above or below the
every 10 degrees of longitude, and the track system.
information is used to update displays
at the oceanic control centers.
UNITED KINGDOM
SHANWICK OCEANIC Prestwick
CONTROL AREA
ICELAND Shannon
IRELAND
)
Y
A
(D
GREENLAND
D
N
U
O
B
T
S
E
W
T)
H
IG
(N
GANDER OCEANIC
D
N
CONTROL AREA
U
EAST INTO THE NIGHT

O
B
ST
As a result of passenger demand, time

EA
A B
C D zone differences, and airport noise
E restrictions, North Atlantic air traffic
T has two peak flows: eastbound, leaving
N
U
A
V North America in the evening, and

W
E
X
C
westbound, leaving Europe in the

O
CANADA
morning. Every 12 hours a new track
IC
M
system is prepared, to allow as many

T
Gander
A
aircraft as possible to follow the most

E
LA
R
economical flight paths. Because of

T
S
NEWFOUNDLAND changing weather conditions, the track

A
T
E
positions are rarely identical.

J
T
R
de
O
DE 233
N
Figure 10.2 One of the source materials for the “The Transatlantic Superhighway.”
An air-traffic control map.
QQ That sounds like Journalism 101 to me. When you write a story, the best
thing to start with is a structure for your writing.
JG That’s because it is! The only difference between a traditional journalist and
us is the language. Journalists use words; we use pictures, charts, graphs, maps,
diagrams, and illustrations.
I think one of the reasons why some people of my generation were very
successful is because we were designers, but we got embedded in journalistic
environments. We worked with reporters and editors. That taught us that we
should strive for clarity because we are an interface between a chaotic world of
information and the user who wants to understand something. If we can’t bring
users clarity, I think we have kind of failed, actually.
When I see a graphic I am interested in, I try to read it critically, and one ques-
tion I ask over and over again is “What’s the point? What’s the story?” That’s what
you have to do when you work on a project. It’s not enough to do good research
Figure 10.3 One of the sketches for “The Transatlantic Superhighway” infographic, shown in Figure 10.1.
and then present your information to your readers. You have to edit that informa-
tion. We, infographics designers, must work as reporters but, above all, as editors.
QQ Is that why you have expressed reservations about the emerging field
of data visualization? Many infographics designers in newspapers and
magazines seem to be embracing it with enthusiasm, but you have said that
sometimes it feels that visualization designers seem to just throw data at
their users, without worrying about presenting coherent stories.
JG Embracing a new technique or a new technology is great. Data visualization
can be really powerful and useful. I can see a lot of potential in it. Nonetheless, I
also feel that many visualization designers try to transform the user into an editor.
They create these amazing interactive tools with tons of bubbles, lines, bars, filters,
and scrubber bars, and expect readers to figure the story out by themselves, and
draw conclusions from the data. That’s not an approach to information graphics
I like. Not all readers are data analysts!
Maybe I am old-school, but I don’t believe I am alone in that concern. Think of

Hans Rosling2 and the way he interacts with his wonderful bubble visualizations.
He doesn’t just show stuff; he explains the main points, focusing the reader’s
attention on the most interesting parts of the information. After that, if readers
want to navigate deeper into other possible stories, they can do it. But first, they
are exposed to a traditional, linear narrative that lays out the basic facts.
QQ Is it possible to find a synthesis between what information graphics

designers have been doing for the past 30 or 40 years and what data visual-
izers are trying to achieve nowadays?
JG I am convinced that we will see that in the future. The New York Times3 is
exploring that path at this point. For instance, in many of their interactive
graphics, they present complex sets of data, and they let you go really deep into
the figures and their connections. But beforehand, they give you some context,
some pointers as to what you can do with those data. If you don’t do this, if you
don’t include this layer of information, which the designers call the “annotation
layer,” you will end up with a visualization that may look really beautiful and
intricate, but that will leave readers wondering, “What has this thing really told
me? What is this useful for?”
It’s like a visualization I saw the other day that plotted the flow of taxis in
New York City, as well as their positions at every time of the day and night. It
looked really cool but, after a minute, I asked myself: What is this about? What
am I supposed to see here? Is it really that surprising that the flow of taxis is re-
ally heavy between La Guardia and JFK, or that there are fewer taxis during the
night than during the day? That’s not a very revealing insight, is it?
Or take some gorgeous recent maps that show people tweeting all over Europe
in the languages of the countries they live in. All right, that’s really interesting
[said tongue-in-cheek]: The Germans are tweeting in German! The map certainly
looks beautiful with all those little color dots shining here and there, but it’s not
that enlightening. It doesn’t convey much, and that’s a problem. You need to ori-
ent readers into the story before they can navigate your graphics on their own.
QQ Let’s talk a bit about your own design process. How do you get started?
JG When we do a story for Condé Nast Traveler magazine, I try to be involved
in it as early as possible. Sometimes it happens that reporters don’t realize they
2 See Profile 8: Hans Rosling.

3 See Profile 3: Steve Duenes and Xaquín G.V.
will need infographics in their pieces until they get back from trips, so I prefer
to meet with them before they depart. It helps me get a clear idea of what shape
the story is going to take, of its focus, and it helps reporters understand how the
copy and the visual elements on the pages are going to complement each other.
I bring paper and pencils to those meetings. While we talk, I keep scribbling.
I do very rough sketches and take notes about the key elements. It’s in these meet-
ings when I decide what we need to show with the graphic so its content doesn’t
overlap too much with what the copy will tell or the photographs will show.
QQ It seems that you put a lot of work in the planning stage of your projects,
judging by the detailed sketches and roughs you produce. (See Figure 10.3
and Figure 10.5.)
JG They are part of my thinking process. After the preliminary meetings are
over, I go to my studio and work out the structure of the graphic in a rough form.
I find that in pencil I can just do a rough version, arrange the elements as I wish,
and throw away whatever I feel is not related to the points I want to get across.
There’s virtually nothing invested in those sketches.
If you try to do something like that in a computer, you will somehow feel
committed to your first ideas. Sketching out using design software requires a lot
of effort. Later, when you go over your plans with editors, everything may need
to change for some reason, maybe because the focus of the story has switched.
If you are enamored with your own computer graphics, those that took so much
time to develop, you may feel resistant to change them down the road.
In other words: at first, don’t just draw a box in Adobe Illustrator and start
working inside it. That’s a very bad way to start: You make a lot of art decisions
and then trap yourself into them. I constantly see graphics that have been done
like that. A big image or illustration was put in the middle first and then the
designer tried to make all the other elements in the composition work around
it, instead of coming up with a solid structure that would help tell the story you
need to tell. This doesn’t happen when you work with pen and paper before you
proceed to the artwork phase.
I try to encourage my students at the School of Visual Arts to draw as many
sketches as possible, due to this attachment factor that everybody experiences
every now and then. Sometimes they feel intimidated by hand drawing, but I tell
them that they don’t need to be Leonardo da Vinci. What they need to come up
with is not art; they don’t need to worry about aesthetics at this point, but about
the structure. In many cases, just a bunch of very simple, rough, and badly drawn
sketches made with cheap pencils or crayons will suffice to help you understand
GRAND CENTRAL REVSHIPPED 7/27 COPY EDITOR PHOTO EDITOR GRAND CENTRAL REVSHIPPED 7/27 COPY EDITOR PHOTO EDITOR
WA L K
THIS WAY
Your guide to navigating the
5 Sky Ceiling
M
new Grand Central
Patch
ore than just a gateway left uncleaned
to a great city, Grand
Central Terminal has
been reborn as a desti-
nation in its own right,
replete with upscale shopping, restau-
rants, and, soon, even a green market.
Don’t let the commuter crush deter you:
Begin your tour at 1 the entrance on Tennis courts 6
42nd Street at Park Avenue, checking
your train time on the 13-foot-tall, gilt-
edged clock beneath Coutan’s sculpture
group Transportation. Proceed down the Skywalks
entrance ramp, whose tilt is designed to 42ND
propel you, heart pounding, to 2 the STREET Chandeliers
Main Waiting Room, temporarily home to 8 Chandeliers Campbell
vendors of every stripe but soon to host Apartment
functions and public exhibitions. Directly One of three
ahead, over a short bridge with freshly
Oyster Bar planned balcony
ramp restaurants
quarried balustrades, lies the terminal’s Ticket West Balcony
pièce de résistance, 3 the Main Con- 7 windows
course—dubbed “the best big room in Bridge
America” by the architectural press. Its 1 Entrance over ramps Escalators to
West Staircase MetLife Building
ceiling, at 122 feet, is higher than the nave 4
of Notre-Dame Cathedral in Paris. At the
Information Upper train platforms
center of the concourse sits 4 the in- Ramp booth
formation booth with its four-sided brass 2 Main Waiting Room
clock, kept perpetually in sync with the Half-acre 3 Main Concourse East Balcony
atomic clock at the U.S. Naval Observa- Tennessee
marble floor New East Staircase
tory in Washington, D.C. Overhead is
5 the 2,500-star Sky Ceiling, whose au-
tumn-night constellations were originally
painted backward and never corrected.
Daylight brightens the concourse from To Lexington Passage To Grand Central To Graybar
6 four-story windows at either end. Market and Lexington Passage
Concealed between the windows’ inner Avenue entrance
and outer panes is a series of skywalks, or
glass-floored corridors, designed to access
a skyscraper that was never built; tours 9 Ramp
sponsored by the Grand Central Partner- Oyster Bar 10 Vaulted
ship permit access (212-818-1777). Head ceiling
for the Lower Concourse via the 7 new- Oyster Bar
11 Lower Concourse
ly excavated Oyster Bar ramps, open for ramp
the first time since 1927 and illuminated New restaurants
by 8 five gold-and-nickel-plated chan- and bars
deliers, with 144 lightbulbs each (an
identical set graces the terminal’s north
balcony). Pause here for a new view of
the Sky Ceiling through the concourse’s
massive piers. At the base of the ramps,
the 9 vaulted tile ceiling allows you to
face the wall in any corner and whisper Lower
to someone standing in the opposite cor- train platforms
ner. Reward your exertions at 10 the
Oyster Bar restaurant, whose classic oys-
ter stews and pan roasts are themselves
deserving of landmark status—or at
one of some 20 new restaurants on the
11 Lower Concourse. Return to the Main
Concourse level via the West Staircase. G R A P H I C S B Y
155
John Grimwade
CNP CNP
Figure 10.4 “Grand Central Terminal,” 1998. Condé Nast Traveler, by John Grimwade. “This
infographic is part of a feature that reported the completion of the Grand Central Terminal
restoration. At the time, I was walking through the building every day on my way to work, so
the reference was right in front of me. I used the simple approach of taking a cross-section
and manually projecting it backward. John Tomanio, who worked with me at Condé Nast
Traveler, solved my problems in getting the ceiling exactly right. He photographed it looking
straight up, and then projected the image onto the inside of a cylinder using a 3-D program.”
Figure 10.5 Sketches for the “Grand Central Terminal” infographic.

how to organize a story, how to create a good sequence of steps, and a good hi-
erarchy in your layout.
QQ Speaking of students, you are well known for your openness to give ad-
vice to beginners and help them develop their own styles. What would you
recommend to someone who is planning to pursue a career in information
graphics and visualization? What should that person study?
JG That’s very difficult question. I guess the challenge is that you are asking me
to think backward. I learned to design infographics by working in a newsroom.
Decades ago, I landed in a news publication and learned the craft on the job.
I would say, however, that the first skill you need to master is to look at
graphics with a critical eye. Read newspapers, magazines, and textbooks; visit
websites that showcase infographics and visualizations; and analyze if they help
you understand important matters. If they don’t, they are not good. The next thing
would be to reflect on the changes that would make those presentations tell clearer
messages. And, if you have the time, you can maybe even make those changes.
You also have to ponder if you have the passion to enter this field. Infograph-
ics is not the easiest task. It might look like it is but it sure as hell isn’t. You need
years of self-teaching and trial-and-error to master the techniques and tools. If
you don’t feel the drive to be absolutely meticulous about research and coming
to grips with the story, you just can’t produce a good information graphic. If you
think you are going to skim across the top and treat it like some kind of art job,
it’s very unlikely that you are going to be much of a success. I don’t know how to
find or fuel that kind of passion, though.
Figure 10.6 One of the discarded illustrations made for the “Seven Ages of the 747” project.
QQ I would say this passion you talk about reminds me of the passion good
educators nourish. It’s the need to be curious, to learn, and to tell others
about what you have learned. Journalists feel that kind of passion as well.
JG It’s really a journalistic passion, yes. In fact, some of the best people I have
worked with used to be traditional journalists until they realized the power of
visual storytelling. When you think about it, infographics and visualization are
really amazing tools for telling stories when used correctly, aren’t they?
Figure 10.7
A spreadsheet and
early sketches and
layouts for the “Medal
Exchange” infographic.
Figure 10.8 “Five Ages

of the 747.” Condé Nast
Traveler, 2011, by John
Grimwade. “Projects
often take big shifts
along the way. I was
originally thinking of a
fly-past of 747s to show
the history, but every
angle we tried did not
clearly show the key
features of the new 747
aircraft that had been
announced. The new
model is much longer
than the previous ones,
and it has dramatically
upswept wings. So
I moved to a more
conventional plan-like
display.”
ethioPia key
Medals: 7
G.D.P.: $8 billion G.D.P. of less than $100 billion
Podium Index: 87.5
G.D.P. of $100 billion to $1 trillion
G.D.P. of more than $1 trillion
GeorGia
Medals: 4 Number of medals
Podium index = x 100
G.D.P.: $5 billion G.D.P. in billions
Podium Index: 80
belaruS
Medals: 15
G.D.P.: $23 billion
Podium Index: 65.2
bulGaria
Medals: 12
G.D.P.: $24 billion
Podium Index: 50
ukraine
Medals: 23
Poland
G.D.P.: $65 billion
Medals: 10
Podium Index: 35.4
G.D.P.: $242 billion
Podium Index: 4.1
romania auStralia
Medals: 19 Medals: 49
G.D.P.: $73 billion G.D.P.: $631 billion
Podium Index: 26 Podium Index: 7.8
Figure 10.9 “Medal ruSSia new Zealand

Exchange.” Condé Nast G.D.P.: $582 billion G.D.P.: $100 billion
Podium Index: 5.0
Portfolio, 2008, by John Podium Index: 15.8
Grimwade: “This is an
interesting approach to
covering the Olympics hunGary
in a business magazine Medals: 17
G.D.P.: $100 billion
just before the Beijing Podium Index: 17
games. We’re all used to

the conventional medals
table, but what happens Slovakia
Medals: 6
if the Athens medals G.D.P.: $41 billion
Podium Index: 14.6
total is divided by the
GDP of the country? GreeCe thailand
Then we see who did G.D.P.: $203 billion G.D.P.: $163 billion
Podium Index: 7.9 Podium Index: 4.9
the most with the least
resources. Ethiopia is
netherlandS China
the winner. The U.S. and Medals: 22 Medals: 63
Japan are way down the G.D.P.: $577 billion G.D.P.: $1.7 trillion
Podium Index: 3.8 Podium Index: 3.7
list.” 5 8 Condé Nast Po r t f o l i o . A u g u s t . 0 8
d e my s t i f i e r
Medal Exchange
Sure, the world’s economic powerhouses dominate the Olympics. Or do they?
. . .
by Jessica Liebman
Do wealthier countries take home more tally by its gross domestic product, the numbers
Olympic medals? Conventional wisdom rearrange themselves dramatically. Ethiopia’s track-
suggests that they would. It’s no secret that and-field victories lift the poverty-stricken state to
having the financial resources to invest in human the top of the pile, while economic powerhouses
potential leads to success: The U.S. is the richest like Japan, France, and the U.S. finish near the bot-
country in the world and has won more Olympic tom. Here’s a look at our surprising results, based
medals than any other nation. But if you introduce on medal counts from the 2004 Summer Games in
some elementary math and divide a country’s medal Athens and G.D.P. data from the same year.
turkey Sweden FranCe

Medals: 10 Medals: 7 Medals: 33
G.D.P.: $302 billion G.D.P.: $346 billion G.D.P.: $2 trillion
Podium Index: 3.3 Podium Index: 2.0 Podium Index: 1.7
iran Germany braZil united StateS

Medals: 6 Medals: 49 Medals: 10 Medals: 102
G.D.P.: $163 billion G.D.P.: $2.7 trillion G.D.P.: $605 billion G.D.P.: $11.7 trillion
Podium Index: 3.7 Podium Index: 1.8 Podium Index: 1.7 Podium Index: 0.9
auStria SPain britain jaPan

Medals: 7 Medals: 19 Medals: 30 Medals: 37
G.D.P.: $290 billion G.D.P.: $991 billion G.D.P.: $2.1 trillion G.D.P.: $4.6 trillion
Podium Index: 2.4 Podium Index: 1.9 Podium Index: 1.4 Podium Index: 0.8
norway italy Canada

Medals: 6 Medals: 32 Medals: 12
G.D.P.: $250 billion G.D.P.: $1.7 trillion G.D.P.: $980 billion
Podium Index: 2.4 Podium Index: 1.9 Podium Index: 1.2
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Index
B
3D animation, 187, 257, 259 background boxes, 118
3D design tool, 207 background-foreground differentiation, 111–112,
3D effects, 79 130, 131
3D figures, 241, 242 banks infographics, 39–42, 44
3D software, 236 Baptista, Fernando, 231–249
3D video games, 204 “Barcelona’s Natural Wonder” infographic, 245
3D vision, 128 bar charts
“2012 Money Race” infographic, 252 boxing bars in, 117
and data-ink ratio, 64, 65, 66
A distorting proportions in, 79
ABC News, 293, 294 introduction of, 54
Abril Group, 86 for rankings/comparisons, 40, 43, 126
absolute variables, 30 traditional vs. minimalist, 64, 65, 66
abstraction using 3-D effects in, 79
functionality and, 81–84 using relative vs. absolute variables in, 30
object recognition and, 145–146 vs. other chart types, 40, 43
Abstraction-Figuration axis, visualization Barreira Júnior, Eliseu, 155
wheel, 52–53 “Basilica of the Holy Family” project, 244–249
academia Bauhaus school of design, 287
boring presentations in, 311 Beautiful Evidence (Tufte), 61
plagiarism in, 335–341 beauty, 68, 73, 79–80, 87–92, 315
visualization in, 293–305, 329 Beckman, Rich, 108, 109
Adobe Bell Labs, 118
Director, 186 Berke, Rick, 255
Flash, 186, 319, 327 “Berlin Wall” project, 281–286
Illustrator (See Illustrator) bibliography, 351–354
Photoshop, 237, 244, 310 bicycle infographic, 282–283
aesthetics, 61, 314 bidirectional relationships, 35–36
affordances, perceived, 189 “Biggest Igloo” infographic, 148–149
agnosia, 109 Biles, Leavett, 185
aircraft safety cards, 134–135 Bill Lane Center for American West, 299, 302
Aisch, Gregor, 326–341 “Bin Laden Compound” infographic, 191
Alameda, David, 204 bits, 14
algorithmic data visualization, 304 blindsight, 109
“Altered Landscape” infographic, 197 blind spot, 108
American West, Bill Lane Center for, 299, 302 Blow, Charles, 253
analogies, 311–312 “Body Mass Index” infographic, 187
analytical design, 38 Böhr, Niels, 71
“Ancient Way” infographic, 201 book cover design, 342
Andrews, Wilson, 265, 271 “boom” effect, 86–92
animated infographics, 104–105, 106, 195–199 boredom, 69
annotation layer, 218 bottom-up processing, 137–138
Apple, 287 boundaries, object, 111–112
Arntz, Gerd, 71, 329, 334 brain
Arthur, Brian W., 22 as cartographer, 97, 98
AT&T Bell Labs, 118 detection of object boundaries by, 111–112
audience distinctive feature of, 97
adapting graphics for, 59–61, 68 efficiency of, 108–110
communicating with, 73 and Gestalt theory, 114
expressing distrust for, 76 how light is processed by, 98–99, 110
respecting intelligence of, 61, 76, 84 how objects are recognized by, 142–144
stimulating emotions of, 87 and moving vs. static objects, 105
Autodesk Maya, 190, 207 and pattern recognition, 114–118
awards, infographics, 50, 212–213, 257, 314 preattentive features of, 111, 128–132
tricks/shortcuts used by, 111
and visual illusions, 105–109, 130
index 355
Brainpickings.org, 343 cognitive science, 314, 317

Branch, John, 205 colors, 105, 113, 175
Brazil communication, graphics as form of, 14
“Defense in South America” infographic, 26–31 communicators, characteristics of good, 5–6
“Demographic Opportunity” infographic, 166 comparing brain, 139–140
“Fertility Rate” infographic, 161, 165 comparisons
“Income Inequality” infographic, 171 designing graphics to facilitate, 29, 38, 119, 121
“Population” infographic, 164–165 as major task of infographics, 28
“Prison Population” infographic, 48–49, 58 using bar charts for, 83, 119–121, 126
“Rodeos” infographic, 88–89 using bubble charts for, 40–41
“Telephone Expenses” infographic, 82 competitive advantages, 35
Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics, complexity, 52, 59
160 component-based object recognition, 144
“Brazilian Saints” project, 154–159 comprehension, 68
Brody, Howard, 207 computational visualistics, 327
bubble charts, 39–41, 218, 307 computer-generated graphics, 304
“Building Göbekli Tepe” infographic, 234–235, concave objects, 130
237, 238 Condé Nast Traveler magazine, 212
button design, 189, 190 cones, 101, 102
“Buy or Rent” infographic, 202 configuration-based object recognition, 144
bytes, 14 connectedness principle, 116
consistency, 193–195
C constraints, 192
camouflage, 112 Constructivism, Russian, 287
Cardoso, Fernando Henrique, 169 content vs. style, 74–75
Carter, Shan, 205, 254 continuity principle, 116–117
cartograms, 54 contrast, 112, 241
Cassini-Huygens Mission infographic, 53 conventional relationships, 52
CGI artists, 255–256 conversation interactions, 200
change, representing, 42, 43 convex objects, 130
chartjunk, 62, 64, 72 cornea, 101
chartoons, 64 correlation coefficient, 123–125
charts. See also information graphics correlations, 13, 28, 29, 30, 43, 83
bar (See bar charts) Costa, Joan, 18, 51
bubble, 39–41 Cox, Amanda, 253
critiquing, 47–50 “Create Your Better Life Index” infographic, 316
dot, 126, 127 Cuadra, Alberto, 267, 271
examples of common, 44 curiosity, 5–6, 278
line, 54 curves, 117
pie, 54
representing change in, 42 D
statistical, 68, 83 d3 framework, 319
time-series, 43, 66 Damasio, Antonio, 97, 98, 147
Chesterton, G.K., 348 Dangerous Germany maps, 76–78
Chicago Tribune, 186, 254 Darwin, Charles, 34, 348–350
choropleth maps, 54, 126 da Silva, Luiz Inácio, 169
Christie, Bryan, 241 data
Circle of Vienna, 71 adding visual hierarchy to, 10–11
circles, 41. See also bubble charts aggregating, 7–8
Clark, Patterson, 267 choosing best way to present, 118–123
clay models, 236 deciding on shape of, 28–31
Cleveland, William S., 118–119 dumbing down, 61, 84
Cleveland-McGill scale, 123–128 encoding, 16, 31
Clifford, Stephanie, 257 filtering, 310
closure principle, 116–118 getting readers to trust, 13
clothing size infographic, 257–262 giving context to, 167
cognition, 17, 109, 133 helping readers make sense of, 47
Internet as source of free, 14 digital information, 14–15. See also data

knowing what questions to ask about, 308 DIKW Hierarchies, 16
learning to work directly with, 325 “Discovery’s Last Trek” infographic, 267, 268–270
presenting too much, 10, 14–15 Dondis, Donis A., 69
as records of observations, 16 Doom, 204
visualizing, 73, 195, 217, 238–239, 314, 319. dot charts, 126, 127
See also data visualization DPA, 314
data-ink ratio, 64, 65, 66 driven-by-data.net, 326
data visualization “Driving Is Why You’re Fat” infographic, 84
in academia, 293, 301 “Driving Shifts Into Reverse” scatter-plot,
beauty in, 73, 79–80 167–168
of large-scale human activity, 314 “Dubrovka Theatre Hostage Crisis” infographic,
National Geographic quality standards for, 288, 289–290
238–239 Duenes, Steve, 186, 205, 250–263
at New York Times graphics department,
255–257 E
presenting stories with, 217–218 Economist, 14
two major categories of, 304 efficiency principle, 63–64, 65
vs. traditional information graphics, 255–257, Einstein, Albert, 141
325 election maps, 41, 43, 56, 76–78
da Vinci, Leonardo, 232 “Electoral Compass” infographic, 85–86
“Deadly Rampage at Virginia Tech” infographic, electromagnetic spectrum, 99–100
256 Elements of Graphing Data (Cleveland), 123
decoration, design as, 317 Elements of Style (White), 61
Decoration-Functionality axis, visualization El Mundo, 186–187, 203
wheel, 53–54, 81–83 Emotional Design (Norman), 68, 87
decorative ideology, 62–63 emotions, stimulating viewer’s, 87
“Deep Impact Mission” infographic, 188 encoding data, 16, 31
“Defense in South America” infographic, 26–31 “Energy Mix in Germany” infographic, 330–331
Dennet, Daniel, 141 engineers vs. designers, 61–62, 76
Density-Lightness axis, visualization wheel, 54, “(En)tangled Word Bank” infographic, 348–350
80–81 Envisioning Information (Tufte), 61, 62
depth, 52, 54, 76–78, 128–132 Época magazine, 45, 85, 154
depth perception, 128–132 Ericson, Eric, 134
derived variables, 30 Ericson, Matt, 251, 253
design Esquemática, La (Costa), 51
analytical, 38 Estado de São Paolo, 46
Bauhaus school of, 287 Estatcart, 162–163
book cover, 342 evolution, 34, 111–112, 133, 348
button, 189, 190 “Evolution of the Bicycle” infographic, 282–283
characteristics of good, 317 exabytes, 14, 15
graphics, 61 exaptations, 35
information, 18, 38, 61 Excel, 124, 162, 169–170, 299, 318, 332
interaction, 188–195, 327 exploration interactions, 204
interface, 190–195, 314 eye candy, 74, 75, 81–83
tools, 155, 190, 207 eyes. See also vision
Designer’s Guide to Creating Charts and Diagrams and depth perception, 128–132
(Holmes), 68, 70 detection of object boundaries by, 111–112
“Designer Side, User Side” infographic, 60 how they work, 98–99, 108, 110
designers vs. engineers, 61–62, 76 mapping of environment by, 103
Design for Impact (Ericson/Phil), 134 and moving objects, 105
Design of Everyday Things (Norman), 87, 188–189 structure of, 100–101
developing countries, 310–311 and vanishing-circle illusion, 107–108
DeVigal, Andrew, 186 and visual acuity illusion, 102–103
“Diagram” project, 45–46 eye-tracking devices, 66
diamond prices infographic, 63, 67
index 357
F Gestalt theory, 114

fabric production infographic, 72 “Ghost Counties” infographics, 335–337
“Face of Seven Billion” project, 240–243 “Giant Waves” infographic, 178–179, 182–183
faces, 103, 136 gigabytes, 14
facial recognition, 143 Gini, Corrado, 169
Fairfield, Hannah, 167–168, 251, 255, 264–278 giraffe story, 34–35
Familiarity-Originality axis, visualization GIS tools, 162
wheel, 54–57 “Global look at cardiac risk factors” infographic,
Fathom, 304 277
“Federer’s Footwork” infographic, 258 “Göbekli Tepe” infographic, 234–235, 237, 238
feedback, 190 Gödel, Kurt, 71
fertility rates, 6–13, 161, 165, 310 Golden Section Graphics, 76, 279, 281
Few, Stephen, 68, 73, 79 González Viera, Xaquín, 204, 250–263
FIFA, 314 Good magazine, 83
Figuration-Abstraction axis, visualization Gould, Stephen Jay, 35
wheel, 52–53 Grady, John, 64
figurative information graphics, 19, 52 “Grand Central Terminal” infographic, 220–221
Firth, Christ, 111 graphical excellence, 63–64
fixations, 103, 104 graphical perception, 118–119. See also vision
Flash, 186, 319, 327 graphic artists, 255
Folha de São Paulo, 26 graphics. See also information graphics
fonts, 53, 167, 175 building narrative structure for, 46–50, 174
foreground-background differentiation, 111–112, complexity of, 52
130, 131 depth of, 52, 54, 76–78
“form follows function” maxim, 25, 32–36 as form of communication, 14
fovea, 101, 102 goals of good, 9–10, 73
foveal vision, 102, 104 guidelines for choosing best form for, 118–123
freelancing, 262, 315, 326, 327, 329, 342 identifying audience for, 59–61
frequency, light wave, 99, 100 interactive, 76, 185–209. See also interactive
Freud, Sigmund, 109 graphics
From Hieroglyphics to Isotype (Neurath), 71 as means to simplify information, 78–80
Fry, Ben, 304 print vs. Web, 294
Fuller, Buckminster, 315 graphics design, 61
functional art, 23 “Graphics in the Newsroom” course, 265
functionality graphs, 25, 123. See also charts
and abstraction, 81–84 “Great Whales of the Atlantic” infographic, 193
beauty and, 87–92 gridlines, 64, 66
and fun, 68–70, 85–86 Grimwade, John, 212–229, 319
Functionality-Decoration axis, visualization Gröndahl, Mika, 251
wheel, 53–54, 81–83 groups, 114–115, 116
function(s) “Growth of Newspapers Across U.S.” infographic,
constraining of forms by, 25–26, 36–39 302–303, 305
form following, 25, 32–36 Gurovitz, Helio, 162
in nature, 33–36
relationship between form and, 38
H
Hadamard, Jacques, 141
G headlines, 79, 81
Galton, Sir Francis, 141 Heer, Jeffrey, 301, 304
Games&Toys Company, 74 highlighting, 10–12, 113
Gapminder Foundation, 306–313 “HIV rate of infection” chart, 312
genetic mutations, 34–35 Höhr, Rafael, 187
Genome (Ridley), 6 Holmes, Nigel
Geographic Information System, 162 Designer’s Guide to Creating Charts and
“German Energy Landscape” infographic, Diagrams, 68, 70
330–331 diamonds infographic, 62–63, 64, 66–67
“German Modernism” infographic, 287, 288–289 evolving style of, 70
German Press Agency, 314 “Medical Care Expenditures” infographic, 69
T-shirt infographic, 70 as form of information design, 18

use of humor by, 68–70 goals of good, 9–10, 73
vs. Tufte’s approach, 72 highlighting relevant information in, 10–12
Wordless Diagrams, 70 humanizing, 68
“Holy Family” project, 244–249 identifying audience for, 59–61
Horn, Robert E., 18 interactivity in (See interactive graphics)
“How Mariano Rivera Dominates Hitters” knowledge/skills required for, 5–6, 222,
infographic, 260 255–256, 287, 325
“How Much Water Do We Consume” infographic, learning to create, 8
284 limiting colors/fonts in, 175
HTML 5, 319 linear vs. non-linear, 195–197
human eyes. See eyes as means to simplify information, 78–80
human visual perception, 98–99 methodology for creating, 154, 173
humor, 68, 69–70 multimedia, 185–187
overuse of bubble charts in, 39–41
I purpose of, 23
IBGE, 160 role of curiosity in, 5–6
“Ice Hotels” infographic, 146, 148–149 scientific vs. aesthetic approach to, 61–63
iconic memory, 137–138, 139 structuring, 195–199
icons, 335 tasks to be accomplished by, 26–28
illusions, 102, 105–109, 130 techniques for navigating/browsing, 195–199
Illustrator as a tool, 26–28
creating storyboards in, 207 “ugliness” of, 50
designing layouts in, 155 using templates for, 36–37
highlighting important data in, 10 vs. fine art, 25
making literary visualization graphics in, 343 vs. visualization, 18
making weather maps in, 310 IN GRAPHICS magazine, 279
refining Excel charts in, 170 inheritance of acquired characteristics, 34
sketching ideas prior to using, 219 instruction interactions, 200
imagery theorists, 142 interaction design, 188–195, 327
income inequality infographics, 75, 171 interaction styles, 200–204
inequality index, 169 interactive graphics, 185–209
Infografia 2.0 (Cairo), 51 consistency in, 192–195
infographics. See information graphics designing, 188–195
information imposing constraints in, 192
imposing organization on, 17 planning for, 204–209
simplifying, 78–80 providing feedback in, 190–192
structured vs. unstructured, 16 seeking depth in, 76
information aesthetics, 314 structuring, 195–199
information anxiety, 15–16 styles of interaction in, 200–204
information architects, 15, 17 and visibility principle, 189–190
information architecture, 15, 18 interface design, 190–195, 314
information design, 18, 38, 61 International Data Corp, 14
information explosion, 15 International Federation of Soccer, 314
information graphics International Infographics Summit, 212–213
applying object recognition to, 144–146 International System of Typographic Picture
awards, 50, 212–213, 257 Education, 71
and brain’s preattentive features, 111, 128–132 Internet
critiquing, 47–50 as exaptation, 35
defining goals for, 173 news websites, 187
designers (See profiles) as source of free data, 14
developing narrative for, 46–50, 162, 174 interposition, 130
as emerging discipline, 23 Iria, Luiz, 86–87
emotional power of good, 86–87 iris, 101
figurative vs. abstract, 52, 146 Irwin, Neil, 274
and “form follows function” maxim, 25–26, “Is It Better to Buy or Rent?” infographic, 202
32–33
index 359
Isotype infographics, 71, 334 Malofiej

itsbeenreal.co.uk, 342 infographics competition, 50, 212–213, 257
Ive, Jonathan, 287 infographics summit, 213, 280
“Manhattan Project” infographic, 228–230
J manipulation interactions, 203–204
Java, 319 Man Who Was Thursday (Chesterton), 348
journalism, 46, 61, 76, 92, 255, 265 “Mapping America” infographic, 254
Journalism in the Age of Data documentary, 293, maps
301–304 ability of brain to create, 97, 147
Joy of Stats documentary, 307–308 choropleth, 54, 126
election, 41, 43, 56, 76–78
K proportional symbol, 41, 43, 85, 125–126
Karolinska Institute, 306
questioning necessity of, 28, 38
Keating, Dan, 267
using pictograms in, 113
Kelly, Kevin, 17
“Mariano Rivera” infographic, 260
Kerouac, Jack, 343
“Market Capitalization” infographics, 39–42, 44
kilobytes, 14
Marr, Bill, 239
Kleon, Austin, 167
Martinez, Ricardo, 144
knowledge
mass media, 333
and DIKW Hierarchies, 16, 17
“Master of Clay” infographic, 206
humanization of, 71
Max Planck
Kosara, Robert, 295
Research Networks, 320–321
Kosslyn, Stephen M., 25, 141, 143
Research Society, 314
L Science Gallery, 321
Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste, 33–34 Maya, 190, 207
Lamarckian Fallacy, 33–34 McCandless, David, 335
language, visual representation of, 342–343 McClain, Dylan, 257
Larsen, Reif, 153 McGhee, Geoff, 293–305
Le Monde, 299 McGill, Robert, 118–119
lenses, 101 McInerny, Greg, 348
Leonardo da Vinci, 232 McLuhan, Marshall, 22
“Life Expectancy and GDP” scatter-plot, 309 McManus, Jim, 265
light, 99–101, 110 “Medal Exchange” infographic, 223, 226–227
Lightness-Density axis, visualization wheel, 54, media organizations, 301, 333, 334
80–81 “Medical Care Expenditures” infographic, 69
Lima, Francine, 167 medical visualization, 327
Lindeman, Todd, 267, 274 megabytes, 14
linear infographics, 195, 197 “Megaramp: Skate Boarding Competition”
line art, 145–146, 249 infographic, 55
line charts, 54 Mellnik, Ted, 267
lines, 116, 117, 130–131 memorability, 68
“Literary Organism” infographic, 344 memory, 110, 134, 137–139
literature, visualizing, 342–350 mental imagery debate, 141–142
long-term memory, 138–139, 140 metaphors, 311, 334
low-level visual perception, 131 “Metrics” column, New York Times, 264
Miller, George A., 138
M mimetic relationships, 52
“Macaque Hunts Termites” infographic, 55 minimalism
Macromedia Flash, 186. See also Flash as aesthetic choice, 65
Maeda, John, 346 efficiency and, 63–64
Maeda Media (Maeda), 346 radical, 73, 76
Maia, Humberto, 46 research on, 66–67
“Making of a Video Game” infographic, 292 mobile devices, 278, 287
“Maligned Explorer and Artist” infographic, Modernism, German, 287, 288–289
296–298 “Money Race” infographic, 252
Mora, Gerson, 172
“More Than a Wall” infographic, 285 non-linear infographics, 195, 197

Morozov, Evgeny, 92 Norman, Donald A., 68, 87, 185, 188, 189
motion graphics, 185–187 Notabilia.net, 322, 323
moving objects, 105, 106 Novelty-Redundancy axis, visualization wheel,
Multidimensionality-Unidimensionality axis, 57, 85
visualization wheel, 54, 80–81
multimedia information graphics, 185–187 O
mutations, genetic, 34–35 object boundaries, 111–112
object recognition theory, 143–146
N OECD, 314, 317
Nadal project, 205–209 On the Origin of Species (Darwin), 34, 348–350
narrative structure, 46–50, 162, 174 On The Road (Kerouac), 343–347
NASA open and close technique, 198–199
“Cassini-Huygens Mission” infographic, 53 OpenOffice, 9, 10
“Deep Impact Mission” infographic, 188 optic nerve, 101, 108
National Geographic magazine organizational principle, rectangles as, 171,
“Barcelona’s Natural Wonder” infographic, 245 176–177
profile of art director/graphics editor, 231–249 Organization for Economic Cooperation and
quality standards, 238–239 Development, 314, 317
time spent on infographics at, 232–233 Originality-Familiarity axis, visualization
world population series, 239–243 wheel, 54–57
natural mappings, 189 “Ozone Hole” infographic, 194
natural selection, 34
Nature of Technology (Arthur), 22 P
“Network of Media Corporations” infographic, parafoveal vision, 102
334 “Party Donations in Germany” infographic, 328
Neurath, Marie, 334 pattern recognition, 114–118
Neurath, Otto, 70–72, 329, 334 Pearson product-moment correlation
neuropsychiatric disorders infographic, 60 coefficient, 123–125
News Design, Society for, 213 pencil illustrations, 248, 319. See also sketching
news graphics desks, 257, 262 ideas
news websites, 187 perceived affordances, 189
New York Times perception, 98–99, 109, 110, 118–119, 133. See also
“2012 Money Race” infographic, 252 vision
“Buy or Rent” infographic, 202 perceptual organization, principles of, 114–118
“Deadly Rampage at Virginia Tech” infographic, peripheral vision, 102, 104
256 perspective, 130–131, 247
election maps, 56, 76–78 petabytes, 14
“Federer’s Footwork” infographic, 258 Phil, Johan, 134
getting graphics desk job at, 262 photoreceptors, 100–101
“How Mariano Rivera Dominates Hitters” Photoshop, 237, 244, 310
infographic, 260 Pickett, Kate, 75, 169
interactive graphics, 218 pictograms, 30, 62, 71, 83, 113, 335
“Mapping America” infographic, 254 pie charts, 54
“Metrics” column, 264 Pinker, Steven, 279
online news graphics, 186, 294 plagiarism, 167
popularity of infographics created by, 265 “Plagiarism in PhD Thesis” infographic, 335, 340,
print graphics desk, 294 341
profile of graphics director/editor, 250–263 “Plane Crash” infographic, 19, 20–21
“Rafael Nadal” project, 204–209 plane tracking infographic, 280
Research & Development Lab, 295 Playfair, William, 54
“Whose Size 8 Are You Wearing” infographic, PlosOne magazine, 60
261 Popova, Maria, 343
“World Cup Live” infographic, 263 Popper, Karl, 71
Nguyen, Vu, 204 population data, 6–13, 160–167, 239–243
nonaccidental properties, 143 Posavec, Stefanie, 342–350
non-figurative displays, 19 Powell-Smith, Anna, 262
index 361
preattentive features, brain’s, 111, 114, 128–132 Ridley, Matt

Preece, Jennifer, 200 analysis of fertility rates, 6–13
Primer of Visual Literacy (Dondis), 69 Genome, 6
prison population infographic, 48–49, 58 Rational Optimist, 6, 7, 8, 11, 160
Processing visualization programming Roberts, Graham, 205
language, 304, 319, 343 rodeos infographic, 88–89
professional information architects, 15, 17 rods, 101, 102
profiles Rogers, Yvonne, 200
Aisch, Gregor, 326–341 rollover buttons, 190
Baptista, Fernando, 231–249 Rönnlund, Anna Rosling, 310
Duenes, Steve, 250–263 Rosling, Hans, 218, 306–313
Fairfield, Hannah, 264–278 Rosling, Ola, 310
González Viera, Xaquín, 250–263 Rural West Initiative, 299–301
Grimwade, John, 212–229 Russian Constructivism, 287
McGhee, Geoff, 293–305 Ryan, T.A., 144
Posavec, Stefanie, 342–350
Rosling, Hans, 306–313 S
Schwochow, Jan, 279–292 saccades, 103, 104, 128
Stefaner, Moritz, 314–325 Sacks, Oliver, 132
Tulp, Jan Willem, 326–341 safety cards, aircraft, 134–135
Velasco, Juan, 231–249 “Saturn Mission” infographic, 53
project workflow, 317–318 scatter-plots
proportional symbol maps, 41, 43, 85, 125–126 correlating
prototyping, 329 education and obesity, 128
proximity principle, 114–115 fertility rate and income, 13
Público, 19 fertility rate and schooling, 13
pupils, 101 inequality and socioeconomic indicators, 75
Pylyshyn, Zenon W., 141 life expectancy and GDP, 309
miles driven and gasoline prices, 167–168
Q-R uncommon example of, 167–168
Quake, 204 using absolute variables, 30
racism, 311 vs. other chart types, 43, 83
radar charts, 86 Schmidt, Erich, 15
radial convergence interactive graphic, 328 Schwartz, C.B., 144
“Rafael Nadal” project, 205–209 Schwochow, Jan, 279–292
Ramachandran, V.S., 109, 133, 146 scientific publications, 61
RAM memory, 139 scientific visualization, 61–63, 327
Rams, Dieter, 287 sclera, 101
rankings, 126. See also comparisons scroll and pan technique, 197–198
Raphaël framework, 319 scroll bars, 192
Rational Optimist (Ridley), 6, 7, 8, 11, 160 search technique, 198
readability, 52 Segel, Edward, 304
real estate data, 308 sentence diagrams, 348
realistic illustrations, 52, 58, 135, 146 “Sentence Drawings” infographic, 345
“Rebuilding Ground Zero” infographic, 228–229 “Seven Ages of 747” infographic, 222, 224–225
“Recession and Rebound” infographic, 199 “Sex Change Surgeries” infographic, 90–91
rectangles, as organizing principle, 171, 176–177 shade variations, 113
reductionism, 153 “Shape of Song” project, 346–347
Redundancy-Novelty axis, visualization wheel, shapes, 113, 114, 116
57, 85 Sharp, Helen, 200
regression lines, 13 Shneiderman, Ben, 195
Reidemeister, Marie, 71 “Short Guys Can Dunk” infographic, 272–273
replacement rate, population, 6 sight, 109. See also eyes
Research & Development Lab, New York Times, similarity principle, 115–116
295 simplifying data, 61
retina, 101, 108, 109 “Skate Boarding Competition” infographic, 55
sketching ideas, 173–174, 219–222, 268–269, 318, time-series charts, 43, 66

325, 329 Tomanio, John, 239, 242
Skype, 314 top-down processing, 137–138
slopegraphs, 85, 126, 129 “Trade Balance” infographic, 122
Society for News Design, 213 “Transatlantic Superhighway” infographic, 213,
software engineers, 17, 76 214–217
Sorg, Leticia, 169 trend lines, 13
sort and arrange technique, 198 trust, 271
South Florida Sun-Sentinel, 185–186 truth and beauty operator, 315
special effects, 74, 75. See also eye candy Tse, Archie, 255
specialization, 271, 293 T-shirt infographic, 70
Spence, Robert, 147 Tufte, Edward R.
Spirit Level (Wilkinson/Picket), 75, 169 Beautiful Evidence, 61
spreadsheet program, 9, 13, 123. See also Excel and chartjunk, 62–63, 72
Stanford University, 293, 299 criticisms of, 64–67, 68, 72, 347
Stanton, Laura, 267 and data-ink ratio, 64
statistical charts, 68, 83 and efficiency principle, 63–64, 65
statistics. See also data Envisioning Information, 61, 62
documentary about, 307–308 and form vs. function, 38, 41
and efficiency principle, 63 on good content reasoners/presenters, 153
how charts should display, 68 on priorities of visual communicators, 92
popularizing, 307 Visual Display of Quantitative Information, 61,
Steal Like an Artist (Kleon), 167 68
Stefaner, Moritz, 314–325, 326–327, 335 Visual Explanations, 61
stereoscopic depth perception, 128 and war between engineers vs. designers,
“Stomach-Reduction Surgery” infographic, 187 61–62, 72
storyboards, 207–209 Tulp, Jan Willem, 326–341
storytelling tools/techniques, 274, 304, 319–325 TULP interactive, 326
stream graphs, 57 Twitter, 324
structured information, 16
style vs. content, 74–75 U
Sullivan, Louis, 32–33, 35, 36 unemployment rates, 19, 37, 38
Sun-Sentinel, 185–186 Unidimensionality-Multidimensionality axis,
visualization wheel, 54, 80–81
T United Nations population data, 8–9
Tableau, 318, 319, 332 unstructured information, 16
tables, 9, 28, 68, 113, 125, 198 user interface design, 314. See also interface
“Tall Office Building Artistically Considered” design
(Sullivan), 32 “User Side, Designer Side” infographic, 60
Tascón, Mario, 187
teamwork, 271 V
Technical Communication Quarterly, 38 vanishing-circle illusion, 107–108
technology vanishing point, 131
different meanings of, 22–23 variables, 30, 125
visualization as a, 19–23, 25 variation, 34, 113
TED conference, 306 Velasco, Juan, 231–249, 251
telephone expenses infographic, 82 Vergotti, Marco, 167
telescopes infographic, 180–183 “Veterans of Iraq and Afghanistan” infographic,
Tell-Tale Brain (Ramachandran), 109, 146 198
templates, information graphic, 36–37 video games, 75, 204, 292
tension wheel, 51 Vienna, Circle of, 71
terabytes, 14 “Virginia Tech Rampage” infographic, 256
theme rivers, 57 visibility principle, 189–190
Thorp, Jer, 335 vision. See also eyes
three-D effects. See 3D as active process, 147
Tidwell, Jenifer, 195 peripheral, 102–105
Time magazine, 62–63 three-dimensional, 128
Times. See New York Times visual brain, 98, 114. See also brain
index 363
visual communicators, 5–6 W

visual cues, 190 Wall Street Journal, 197, 198, 199
Visual Display of Quantitative Information (Tufte), Ward, Joe, 205
61, 68 Warnow, Christopher, 329
Visual Explanations (Tufte), 61 Washington Post
visual hierarchy, 10–11 getting graphics job with, 278
visual illusions, 102, 105–109, 130 “Global look at cardiac risk factors”
Visual Information-Seeking Mantra, 195 infographic, 277
visualistics, computational, 327 organization of graphics department for,
visualization 265–267
in academia, 293–305, 329 profile of graphics director for, 264–278
and brain’s preattentive features, 111 “Short Guys Can Dunk” infographic, 272–273
data (See data visualization) specialization vs. teamwork at, 271–274
as emerging discipline, 23 “Why job hunt is so hard” infographic, 274–276
exploration component of, 76 water consumption infographic, 284
and “form follows function” maxim, 25–26, Wattenberg, Martin, 346–347
32–33 wavelength, 99, 100
freelancing, 262, 315, 326, 327, 329, 342 wayfinding designers, 17
interactive, 185–187 (See also interactive weather forecasts, 310
graphics) Web developers, 17
of large-scale human activity, 314 Web graphics, translating print graphics to, 294
literary, 342–350 Wei, Sisi, 265
low-tech, 8–13 whales infographic, 193
main goal of, 9–10 What Technology Wants (Kelly), 17
as means to simplify information, 78–80 “What You Can Do in 25 Square Meters”
most influential theoretician in, 38, 61 infographic, 203–204
personality traits required for career in, 5–6 wheel, visualization. See visualization wheel
planning, 51 (See also visualization wheel) White, E. B., 45, 61
role of curiosity in, 5–6 “White City Stories” project, 204, 205
scientific vs. aesthetic approach to, 61–63 “Whose Size 8 Are You Wearing” infographic, 261
as a technology, 19–23, 25 “Why job hunt is so hard” infographic, 274–276
as a tool, 23 “Why We Get Old” infographic, 175
vs. information graphics, 18 Wikipedia, 322, 323
“Visualization of Tax-Free Sales” infographic, Wilkinson, Richard, 75, 169
332–333 wisdom, 16, 17
visualization wheel, 50–59 Wittekind, Don, 185–187
applying to prisons infographic, 58–59 Wolfenstein 3D, 204
axes Wordless Diagrams (Holmes), 70
Abstraction-Figuration, 52–53 workflow, project, 317–318
Density-Lightness, 54, 80–81 working memory, 139, 140
Functionality-Decoration, 53–54, 81–83 “World Cup Live” infographic, 263
Multidimensionality-Unidimensionality, 54, World Economic Forum, 314
80–81 world population data, 6–13
Novelty-Redundancy, 57, 85 World Trade Center plane tracking infographic,
Originality-Familiarity, 54–57 280
how it works, 52 “Writing Without Words” graphics, 343, 344–345
illustrated, 51 Wurman, Richard Saul, 5, 15–16
inspiration for, 51
purpose of, 50–52 Y-Z
for scientists vs. artists, 61–62 Yarbus, Alfred L., 103
Visualizing.org, 327, 335 Yarnall, Kaitlin, 244
“Visualizing Plagiarism” infographic, 340, 341 yottabytes, 14–15
visual metaphors, 311, 334 zanfona infographic, 201, 202
visual object recognition theory, 143–146 zettabytes, 14
visual perception, 98–99, 131. See also eyes; zoom technique, 198
vision
visual reductionism, 153

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What are some of the praise and endorsements for the book?

What are some of the praise and endorsements for the book?

What are some of the topics covered in the book?

What are some of the topics covered in the book?

Praise for The Functional Art

States with a larger

Is All “Chartjunk” Junk? 64

part iII practice

6 Visualization in Academia 293

The partnership of presentation

In the following pages, I take an unorthodox approach. Infographics and visu-

An excellent example: The beauty of Stefanie Posavec’s Literary Organism is based

A chart of mine in Figure 3 also illustrates the complementarity between present-

When the Brazilian Economy Improves, Inequality Doesn’t Drop

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT, BILLIONS OF DOLLARS

FIGUEIREDO 1992 2004

4 Rudolf Arnheim, Visual Thinking (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969).

Percentage increase in world population

Low-Tech Visualization to the Rescue

Figure 1.2 UN data table.

I downloaded the table and decided to try a low-tech visualization exercise to

Figure 1.3 My UN data table after tweaking.

A Comparison of Spain’s and Sweden’s Fertility Rates

1950-55 1960-65 1970-75 1980-85 1990-95 2005-2010

Figure 1.4 So much for Spanish pride.

1950-1955 1960-1965 1970-1975 1980-1985 1990-1995 2005-2010

Figure 1.5 Too many lines obscure the message.

of children per couple is inversely proportional to the average amount of hours

Per capita income Percentage of middle school students

Horizontal axis: Horizontal axis:

Drowning in Data? Only If You Don’t Know How to Swim

From Information to Wisdom

5 Google Atmosphere 2010 conference.

ever-widening gap between what we understand and what we think we

Outer world Audience

Second level In-depth understanding

Unstructured Data Structured Knowledge Wisdom

Figure 1.8 From reality to people’s brains.

Making Reality Visible

A significant part of information design is information graphics and visualization.

8 Robert Jacobson, ed. Information Design, (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2000).

1. They are extensions of ourselves. Canadian media thinker Marshall

Technology-general Technologies-plural Technologies-singular

paragraphs that help me communicate with you are also technologies-singular.

The Infographics Gentleman

QQ What are those core principles?

The Transatlantic Superhighway

Some flight levels are

3 POSITION CHECK Aircraft crossing the main

EAST INTO THE NIGHT

As a result of passenger demand, time

V North America in the evening, and

westbound, leaving Europe in the

system is prepared, to allow as many

aircraft as possible to follow the most

economical flight paths. Because of

NEWFOUNDLAND changing weather conditions, the track

positions are rarely identical.

Maybe I am old-school, but I don’t believe I am alone in that concern. Think of

QQ Is it possible to find a synthesis between what information graphics

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